Abstract

This thesis aims to comprehensively investigate the influence of climate change on crop production
and its subsequent effects on food security, with a focus on developing a practical framework for
mitigation strategies among farmers. The study explores the current state of climate change
conditions, assesses their impact on various crops, and analyzes the resulting implications for
global and local food security. By identifying the vulnerabilities in agricultural systems, this
research seeks to propose sustainable and adaptive measures that farmers can implement to
enhance resilience and mitigate the adverse effects of climate change on crop yields and food
availability.
Table of Contents
Abstract........................................................................................................................................................ 1
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................................ 2
Chapter One: Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3
1.1 Background ......................................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Problem Statement ............................................................................................................................. 4
1.3 Objectives of the Study ....................................................................................................................... 4
1.4 Significance of the Study ..................................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Research Questions ............................................................................................................................ 6
1.6 Scope and Limitations ......................................................................................................................... 7
Scope..................................................................................................................................................... 7
Limitations: ......................................................................................................................................... 7
Chapter 2: Literature Review .................................................................................................................... 9
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 9
2.2 Climate Change in Nigeria and its Impact on Crop Production .......................................................... 9
2.3. Food Security Implications ............................................................................................................... 13
2.4 Vulnerability of Farmers ................................................................................................................... 13
2.5 Current Adaptation Practices ............................................................................................................ 14
2.6 Frameworks for Mitigation ............................................................................................................... 14
2.7 Challenges and Opportunities........................................................................................................... 14
2.8 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 14
References .................................................................................................................................................. 15
 Chapter One: Introduction
1.1 Background
Nigeria, a country with a burgeoning population and a predominantly agrarian economy, is
intricately linked to the fate of its agricultural sector, making it particularly vulnerable to the
impacts of climate change. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has
highlighted the specific risks faced by Sub-Saharan Africa, including Nigeria, due to climate
change, with projections indicating increased temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and
heightened frequency of extreme weather events (IPCC, 2014). These changes have far-reaching
implications for the nation's agricultural landscape, posing significant challenges to crop
production and consequently affecting food security.
In recent years, Nigeria has experienced observable shifts in climate patterns, including irregular
rainfall, prolonged droughts, and unexpected floods, all of which have profound effects on the
country's diverse agricultural systems (Okonya et al., 2020). The nation's reliance on rain-fed
agriculture amplifies its susceptibility to climate variability, with smallholder farmers, who form
the backbone of the agricultural sector, particularly vulnerable to the resulting uncertainties
(Adewumi et al., 2018). Changes in temperature and precipitation regimes, coupled with the
increased frequency of extreme weather events, not only compromise crop yields but also
exacerbate issues related to water availability, soil fertility, and the prevalence of pests and diseases
(Adger et al., 2018; Anyadike et al., 2019).
The nexus between climate change, crop production, and food security in Nigeria underscores the
need for a comprehensive understanding of the unique challenges faced by the nation's farmers. In
recent literature, studies have shed light on the impacts of climate change on specific crops in
Nigeria, such as maize, rice, and cassava (Adejuwon, 2016; Ojelel et al., 2021). However, a holistic
framework that systematically assesses these impacts and proposes effective mitigation strategies
tailored to the local context is currently lacking.
This research seeks to address this gap by providing a nuanced examination of the implications of
climate change on crop production and food security in Nigeria. The study recognizes the diverse
agro-ecological zones within the country, each with its distinct vulnerabilities and adaptive
capacities. By drawing on the experiences of Nigerian farmers, as well as integrating global best
practices, the research aims to formulate a practical framework for mitigating the adverse effects
of climate change on crop production, with a specific focus on empowering farmers with adaptive
strategies.
In doing so, this study aspires to contribute valuable insights to the ongoing discourse on climate
change adaptation in the Nigerian agricultural sector, providing policymakers, researchers, and
farmers with actionable recommendations to bolster the resilience of the nation's food systems in
the face of a changing climate.
1.2 Problem Statement
Climate change poses an unprecedented threat to global food security, particularly through its
profound impact on crop production. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
reports consistently underscore the escalating risks and uncertainties associated with climate
change, emphasizing the urgent need for focused research and adaptive strategies to address its
multifaceted implications (IPCC, 2021). Agricultural systems, being inherently climate-sensitive,
face significant challenges in adapting to the evolving climatic conditions, which subsequently
jeopardize the stability of food production and access.
The impact of climate change on crop production is evident through shifts in temperature patterns,
altered precipitation regimes, and an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather
events (Lobell et al., 2011). These changes disrupt traditional growing seasons, exacerbate water
scarcity, and introduce new challenges in managing pests and diseases, collectively contributing
to reduced crop yields and compromised food production systems. The vulnerability of agricultural
practices to climate change is further compounded by the diverse socio-economic contexts in
which farmers operate, ranging from smallholder subsistence farming to large-scale commercial
agriculture.
While climate change affects crop production globally, the consequences are not uniformly
distributed, and vulnerable communities, particularly those in developing regions, bear a
disproportionate burden. The intricate relationship between climate change, crop production, and
food security necessitates a nuanced understanding of the specific challenges faced by farmers in
different contexts. Despite the increasing recognition of these challenges, there remains a critical
gap in research focused on developing practical frameworks for mitigating the adverse effects of
climate change specifically tailored to the needs and capacities of farmers.
This study seeks to address this gap by systematically assessing the impact of climate change on
crop production and food security. The overarching problem is to develop a comprehensive
understanding of the vulnerabilities inherent in current agricultural systems, and subsequently, to
formulate a framework for mitigation strategies that are practical, context-specific, and accessible
to farmers. Bridging this gap in knowledge is imperative to ensure the resilience of agricultural
systems, safeguard food security, and empower farmers to adapt to the challenges posed by a
changing climate.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
Objectives of the Study:
1. To evaluate how climate change is now affecting crop production. Specifically, it will look
at how temperature trends, precipitation patterns, and the frequency of extreme weather
events affect crop growth.
2. To analyze the direct consequences of climate change on crop yields: This study aims to
determine the precise challenges caused by altered growing seasons, water scarcity, and
shifting dynamics of pests and diseases. It will also investigate the quantitative impact of
climate change on crop yields.
 3. To Examine the Indirect Effects on Food Security: Analyze how changes in crop
production influence the availability, accessibility, and affordability of food.
4. To Assess the Feasibility and Effectiveness of Mitigation Measures: Evaluate the
feasibility of implementing proposed mitigation measures within diverse farming contexts.
Measure the effectiveness of mitigation strategies in enhancing crop resilience and food
security.
5. To Understand Farmer Perspectives and Adoption Rates: Conduct surveys and interviews
to capture farmers' perspectives on climate change and mitigation strategies. Analyze
factors influencing the adoption of sustainable practices among farmers.
6. To Contribute to the Global Knowledge Base on Climate-Smart Agriculture: Contribute to
the ongoing discourse on climate-smart agriculture and sustainable food systems.

1.4 Significance of the Study

The significance of the study on assessing the impact of climate change on crop production
and food security, with a specific focus on developing a framework for mitigation among
farmers in Nigeria, is multifaceted and holds critical implications for various stakeholders. The
study's importance lies in its potential to address pressing challenges faced by the Nigerian
agricultural sector and society at large:
1. Agricultural Dependency in Nigeria: Nigeria's economy is heavily dependent on
agriculture, with a significant portion of the population engaged in farming activities.
Assessing the impact of climate change on crop production is vital, as disruptions in
this sector directly affect the livelihoods of millions of Nigerians who depend on
agriculture for sustenance and income.
2. Food Security Concerns: Nigeria faces persistent challenges related to food security,
including issues of availability, accessibility, and affordability of nutritious food.
Understanding how climate change influences food production and security is crucial
for policymakers and stakeholders working to ensure a stable and sufficient food supply
for the growing population.
3. Vulnerability to Climate Change: Nigeria is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of
climate change due to its geographical and socio-economic conditions. Smallholder
farmers, who constitute a substantial portion of the agricultural workforce, are often
more susceptible to climate-induced challenges. Identifying vulnerabilities and
developing targeted mitigation strategies can enhance the resilience of these farmers
and contribute to national food security.
4. Global Climate Change Commitments: Nigeria is a signatory to international
agreements addressing climate change, including the Paris Agreement. Assessing the
impact of climate change on agriculture aligns with Nigeria's commitment to these
global efforts. The study's findings can inform the country's strategies for climate
change adaptation and mitigation in the agricultural sector.
5. Policy Formulation and Implementation: The study can provide evidence-based
insights for policymakers in Nigeria to formulate and implement effective climate-
smart agricultural policies. By developing a framework for mitigation tailored to the
 Nigerian context, the study contributes to the creation of practical and context-specific
solutions.
6. Empowering Farmers: Farmers in Nigeria, particularly smallholders, are at the
forefront of climate change impacts. The study's significance lies in its potential to
empower farmers by providing them with information, tools, and strategies to adapt to
changing climatic conditions. This empowerment can enhance their capacity to sustain
agricultural productivity and secure their livelihoods.
7. Community Resilience: Building resilience at the community level is essential for
tackling the challenges posed by climate change. The study's focus on developing a
mitigation framework for farmers contributes to building community resilience,
fostering sustainable agricultural practices that can withstand climate-related shocks.
8. Scientific Contribution: The study contributes to the scientific understanding of the
localized impacts of climate change on crop production in Nigeria. This knowledge can
serve as a foundation for further research and inform future studies on climate change
adaptation and mitigation strategies in the region.
In conclusion, the significance of this study lies in its potential to address critical issues related
to agriculture, food security, and climate resilience in Nigeria. By developing a tailored
framework for mitigating the impacts of climate change on crop production, the study aims to
make a meaningful contribution to the sustainable development of the agricultural sector in the
country.
1.5 Research Questions
a) What are the observed trends in temperature and precipitation patterns in Nigeria, and how
have these trends impacted crop production over the past decade?
b) Which specific crops in Nigeria are most vulnerable to the changing climate, and what are
the key factors contributing to their susceptibility?
c) How have alterations in growing seasons and water availability affected crop yields among
smallholder and commercial farmers in different regions of Nigeria?
d) What is the current status of food security in Nigeria, and to what extent can climate change
be identified as a contributing factor to food insecurity?
e) What are the socio-economic factors that influence the vulnerability of Nigerian farmers
to climate change, and how do these factors differ between smallholder and commercial
farming contexts?
f) What adaptive measures are currently employed by farmers in Nigeria to mitigate the
impacts of climate change on crop production, and how effective are these measures?
g) To what extent do Nigerian farmers have access to and adopt climate-resilient crop
varieties, and what are the barriers hindering their widespread adoption?
h) How do changing pest and disease dynamics, influenced by climate change, impact crop
health and yield in Nigeria, and what strategies can be implemented to manage these
challenges?
i) What is the level of awareness and perception of climate change among Nigerian farmers,
and how does this awareness influence their willingness to adopt sustainable agricultural
practices?
 j) What are the key components of a practical framework for mitigating the impacts of climate
change on crop production and food security among farmers in Nigeria, and how can such
a framework be effectively implemented and promoted?
These research questions are designed to systematically address the various dimensions of the
impact of climate change on crop production and food security, as well as to guide the development
of a comprehensive framework for mitigation among farmers.

1.6 Scope and Limitations

Scope:
1. Geographical Scope: The study will focus on a specific geographical region or regions
that are representative of diverse agro-climatic conditions. The selection will consider areas
where the impacts of climate change on crop production are particularly pronounced.
2. Crop Diversity: The scope encompasses a range of crops, including staple crops (such as
maize, rice, and cassava), cash crops (like cocoa and oil palm), and specialty crops, to
provide a comprehensive understanding of how different agricultural products are affected
by climate change.
3. Farmers' Contexts: The study will consider various farming contexts, including
smallholder and commercial farming systems, to capture the diversity of socio-economic
factors influencing vulnerability and adaptive capacity.
4. Temporal Scope: The research will analyze historical climate data and trends over a
specific period to assess changes in climate conditions. It will also explore short to
medium-term projections to anticipate future impacts on crop production.
5. Mitigation Strategies: The study will develop a practical framework for mitigation
strategies among farmers, encompassing sustainable agricultural practices, technology
adoption, and policy recommendations. It will explore the feasibility and effectiveness of
these strategies.
6. Interdisciplinary Approach: The research will adopt an interdisciplinary approach,
integrating climate science, agronomy, economics, and sociology to provide a holistic
understanding of the complex interactions between climate change, crop production, and
food security.
Limitations:
1. Data Limitations: The availability and quality of historical climate data may present
limitations, especially in regions with limited monitoring infrastructure. This could impact
the precision of climate impact assessments.
2. Regional Variability: The study's findings may not be universally applicable due to the
inherent variability in climate impacts across different regions. Localized factors, such as
soil types and land-use practices, may introduce variations in results.
3. Dynamic Nature of Climate Change: Climate change is a dynamic and evolving
phenomenon. The study's temporal scope may not capture all potential future scenarios,
and projections could be subject to uncertainties inherent in climate modeling.
4. Resource Constraints: The implementation of proposed mitigation measures may face
resource constraints, both in terms of financial resources and technological infrastructure,
which could affect the feasibility of widespread adoption.
5. Human Behavior and Decision-Making: The study may face challenges in accurately
predicting and understanding the complex human behaviors and decision-making
processes that influence farmers' adoption of mitigation strategies.
6. Policy Implementation: The effectiveness of proposed policy recommendations may be
influenced by political, institutional, and governance factors that are beyond the scope of
the study.
7. External Factors: External factors such as geopolitical events, economic fluctuations, or
unforeseen global crises may impact the study's ability to foresee and address all potential
future challenges.
 Chapter 2: Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
Sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their food preferences and dietary needs for an active
and healthy life," is how the United Nations Committee on World Food Security defines food
security. "Availability at all times of adequate supplies of basic foodstuffs to sustain a steady
expansion of food consumption and to offset fluctuation in production and prices" is the definition
of food security given at the 1974 World Food Summit. When "all people do not have adequate
physical, social, or economic access to food," the FAO defines food insecurity.
Climate change has emerged as a significant global challenge, and its impact on agriculture is
particularly pronounced in countries like Nigeria, where the majority of the population relies on
agriculture for livelihoods and sustenance. This literature review explores existing research on the
impact of climate change on crop production and food security in Nigeria, with a focus on
developing a framework for mitigation strategies among farmers.
2.2 Climate Change in Nigeria and its Impact on Crop Production
Nigeria, located in West Africa, is susceptible to various climate change manifestations, including
changes in temperature, erratic rainfall patterns, and increased frequency of extreme weather
events (Adejuwon, 2010). These changes significantly affect the country's diverse agricultural
landscape, posing challenges to both smallholder and commercial farming systems. Research
indicates that climate change has led to shifts in the suitability of certain crops in different regions
of Nigeria. For example, the work of Anyadike et al. (2016) highlights how temperature increases
have impacted the traditional cultivation zones of crops such as maize and millet. Additionally,
changes in precipitation patterns and increased incidences of drought and flooding have been
linked to reduced yields of staple crops like rice and cassava (Ezinwa, 2015; Akintoye, 2018).
According to Ughaelu (2017), Nigeria is one of the sub-Saharan African nations that is most
susceptible to shifting weather patterns. According to studies by Ayinde et al. (2011), Ughaelu
(2017), and Ikem (2018), food productivity and human suffering have gotten worse in some parts
of Nigeria during the past ten years due to recurrent natural disasters. In several places of Nigeria
in 2012, there was catastrophic flooding that had not been seen in the previous forty years, which
resulted in significant losses of life, damage to crops and livestock, and the relocation of people
(Ogbuchi, 2020). Nigeria's six vegetative zones are all impacted differently by the alterations in
climatic conditions brought about by climate change (Ughaelu, 2017). It results in altered rainfall
patterns, frequently with later arrival of rainfall and longer dry season; in the semi-arid Sudan and
arid Sahel Savannah region, it causes decreased rainfall, drought, and increasing desertification;
and in the savannah belt of Northern and Southern Guinea, it causes severe flooding during the
rainy season (Ikem, 2018). While it causes flooding of typically dry plains and persistent sea level
rise that puts farming operations at risk, it also has a negative impact on fishing by raising water
temperatures. In the Rain Forest zone, it causes delays in the onset of rainfall, a prolonged dry
season, heat waves, and flooding along the coastal lines (Berhanu and Wolde, 2019).
According to studies, desertification, excessive rainfall, and flooding are examples of extreme
weather conditions that have a negative impact on food production (Tirado et al., 2010; Wossen et
al., 2018; Uwazie, 2020). Researchers have found that climate change is a subtle but significant
contributing element to the food security and human security challenges that Nigeria is currently
facing (Uwazie, 2020). In certain regions of northern Nigeria, persistent rainfall gradients have
made the affected areas unsuitable for producing crops and livestock by the use of natural resources
(Wossen et al., 2018). Moreover, agricultural losses, a decline in soil fertility, soil toxicity, and
disturbance of the soil ecosystem have resulted from the ongoing flooding of Nigeria's southern
region and its beaches (Wossen et al., 2018). Through their numerous publications, the Food and
Agriculture Organisation and the World Bank have cautioned that climate change will continue to
be a major threat to Nigeria's ability to produce food sustainably (World Bank, 2016; FAO, 2017).
Numerous research findings indicate that Nigeria's agricultural productivity is negatively impacted
by the climatic fluctuations brought about by climate change, resulting in reduced productive
outputs. Food shortages, disruptions, and price increases have resulted from this circumstance.
Nigeria's food insecurity crisis is getting worse because of weather conditions that have reduced
agricultural output. The agricultural production and food systems in Nigeria are negatively
impacted by climate change-induced changes such as droughts, excessive precipitation, floods of
farmlands, rising temperatures, increased aridity and acidity of the soil, changes in relative
humidity, and increased evaporation, among other things. According to Adishi and Oluka (2018),
climate change is becoming a daily occurrence in Nigeria due to its increasing intensity and
frequency of environmental problems such floods, droughts, rising temperatures, and extreme
weather events that interfere with agricultural productivity. Similarly, Onuoha and Ezirim (2010)
said that "pasture shortages linked to climate change and decreasing access to water are threats to
the livelihood of approximately 15 million pastoralists in northern Nigeria." According to a study
by Ayo et al. (2014), food insecurity in Nigeria is becoming worse over time due to climate change,
particularly in places where people are already at risk of hunger and malnutrition. Ayo et al. (2014)
also pointed out that there will probably be more challenges for food stability due to climatic
variability and extremes. They went on to say that low-income earners would no longer be able to
purchase basic meals due to the ongoing increases in food prices in several parts of Nigeria.
According to Fasona and Omojola's (2005) research, growing aridity in the Sahel and Sudan
savannah regions has rendered significant tracts of land unusable for agricultural output, leading
to a crisis in food security in the heavily populated areas affected. They went on to say that due to
the challenges posed by climate change, there will likely be a constant increase in the number of
malnourished children in Nigeria. Using time series data spanning from 1975 to 2010, Idumah et
al. (2016) investigated the short- and long-term relationships between various meteorological
factors, including temperature, relative humidity, and rainfall, and agricultural output in Nigeria.
Their research revealed a short- and long-term relationship between climate data and food output.
Their results are consistent with those of a few other researchers who conducted comparable
studies.
The threat that climate change poses to agricultural productivity is one of the key reasons it has
continued to be a global issue. According to empirical research, Nigeria's typical agricultural
output pattern is gradually changing as a result of the country's higher and more variable
temperatures and rainfall patterns during the previous ten years (Ikem, 2018; Wossen et al., 2018).
The agricultural productive system is facing a crisis due to the recurrence of extreme climatic
occurrences including drought and floods (Ogbo et al., 2019). Given the importance of enough
food for human existence, some researchers have concentrated on the connection between food
security and climate change. Direct observation, questionnaires, and weather data analysis were
the primary methods used in the majority of these investigations (Oyinloye et al., 2018; Ayinde et
al., 2020). In order to provide policy makers with useful recommendations on how to avoid the
long-term effects of climate change, some researchers have also employed modelling techniques
to extrapolate on future climate scenarios (Zwedie, 2014; Wossen et al., 2018).
Climate variability has been shown in certain empirical research to have a negative impact on
agricultural productivity (Jung and Kunstman; Kralovec, 2020). The effects of rising temperatures,
diminishing water supplies, and rising CO2 emissions on food production were examined by
Muringai et al. in 2020. They discovered, along with the majority of other researchers, a strong
correlation between unfavourable crop performance and changing climatic conditions. According
to the majority of scientific literature, production, the first stage of the food supply chain, is
impacted by climate change. As such, all other components in the food supply chain are inexorably
impacted by its effects. According to Muringai et al. (2020), climate variability also has an impact
on the fishery sector's supply chain. The fishing industry has been badly impacted by the drought
brought on by climate change, according to Muringai et al. (2020), particularly in areas where
fisheries are reliant on natural water supplies. Anyika (2020) also pointed out that the previously
thriving and profitable fishing industry in the Lake Chad region of Nigeria has been severely
impacted by the diminishing water resources brought about by climate change. This has severed
the fish supply chain that originates in the zone and left many fishermen without jobs. Climate
change has extremely severe effects on aquatic life, according to a related study by Oyinloye et al.
(2018). As per the study, the increasing temperature of water due to climate change causes a
decrease in oxygen levels, which in turn disturbs the fish habitat and can lead to fish mortality,
low productivity, or bacterial contamination of fish. Most researchers agree that as desertification
increases, aquatic life and water bodies will disappear.
Food quality is another area of food production where climate change has an impact. Variability
in climate has been shown in several empirical investigations to have significant effects on the
nutritional makeup of food crops. Therefore, due to a decline in crop quality, people may be
exposed to eating harmful food or may not be able to consume the appropriate number of calories
each day. A meta-analysis by Taub et al. (2018) of several experiments examining how climate
change affects food production revealed that crops exposed to high CO2 concentrations had lower
protein concentrations. Therefore, the quality of food crops will steadily decline as the
atmosphere's CO2 concentration rises. According to a related study, extreme weather events
including heavy rain, flooding, and drought have a deleterious impact on the composition of
mineral components in the soil (Berhanu and Wolde, 2019). The study found that flooding can
raise soil acidity and that excessive rainfall can cause leaching that reduces soil fertility. Soil
toxicity and dryness were also related in the study. Food production is negatively impacted by each
of these circumstances. According to Igwe (2019), prolonged floods can also lead to high soil
concentrations of dangerous elements like arsenic, which, if absorbed by crops, can cause heart
failure in humans who consume large amounts of it. According to some other research, food
contamination is also linked to drought and flooding (Ughaelu, 2017; Ikem, 2018).
Variability in the weather affects not just how food is produced but also presents significant
obstacles for food storage. According to a study by Ikem (2018), certain farmers and farm food
merchants in sub-Saharan Africa have suffered significant losses due to agricultural produce
spoiling, a result of the region's shifting climate, which has frequently resulted in high temperatures
and large waves. Additionally, he mentioned that the majority of the impacted farmers and
business owners are unable to construct storage facilities that would help maintain the proper
conditions for storage and avoid rotting. According to Ufot (2019), storing roots, tubers, and
vegetable harvests can have certain negative impacts due to changing climatic conditions. His
results are consistent with those of Ikem (2018), who also observed that crops such yams, potatoes,
tomatoes, onions, carrots, cabbage, peppers, pumpkins, and other vegetables decompose more
quickly in response to rising air temperatures. He went on to say that every year, decay causes
Nigeria to lose around 2000 tonnes of yams and 2500 tonnes of other crops. He added that the
Benue State government built a 200,000 tuber capacity yam storage facility in Zaki Biam, a town
well-known for yam farming, due to the anticipated damages connected with yam deterioration.
Though Benue State produces almost 70% of all yams produced in Nigeria, Ufot (2019) believes
that the storage facility is insufficient. Until efforts are taken to establish storage facilities that will
cushion the effect of climate change, Ughaelu (2017) warned that farmers in Nigeria will continue
to struggle with the issues related to food storage.
Ogbuchi (2020) highlights that climate change also affects food security because it alters the
environment, forcing people to relocate from their original homes where they are employed in the
food production industry and other economic ventures. This makes them more vulnerable to food
insecurity. Numerous more research, like Ngo and Otekunrin et al. (2019), Ogbo et al. (2019), and
Oyinloye et al. (2018), have demonstrated a connection between forced migration and food
insecurity. According to the results of these studies, victims of forced migration may not have
enough food because of limited access to it.
Rainfall is a major factor in determining the amount of food produced. Certain regions of Nigeria
have experienced altered agricultural productivity patterns as a result of the delayed
commencement and early cessation of rainfall. Furthermore, significant agricultural losses have
been caused by the severe flooding of farmlands in many sections of Nigeria. Nigeria's food
security is severely impacted by the regularity of these events. Climate change is a threat to
Nigeria, according to Okoli and Ifeakor (2014). They added that as a result of declining agricultural
yields, climate change is having a detrimental effect on food security in Nigeria. They also stated
that a significant portion of Nigerians are impoverished, starving, malnourished, and that climate
change is making these situations worse. Similar to this, Ethan (2015) observed that Nigeria's
growing and harvesting season is progressively changing due to changes in the rainfall pattern
brought about by experience. Ethan went on to say that changes in biomass, photosynthesis, and
evapotranspiration brought on by climate change had a detrimental impact on agricultural
productivity.
Changes in rainfall, temperature, and extreme weather events have been noted by the Nigeria
Meteorological Agency (NIMET). Numerous ecological zones in Nigeria have seen these changes,
which have a negative impact on agriculturally productive activities (NIMET, 2005). Ethan (2015)
conducted an analysis of Nigerian climate data spanning from 1914 to 1970, 1971 to 2000, and
2001 to 2011. According to his research, there have been modifications to the timing and intensity
of rainfall, which has an impact on the Nigerian food chain.
The devastating effects of climate change on human lives are hidden by its subtlety. A primary
consequence of it is food insecurity. On crops and livestock, it has evident physiological
consequences that include changing the nutrients in the soil, decreasing the amount of water
available, changing the relative humidity, increasing the temperature, and increasing the amount
of weeds and pests. Human security is threatened in the impacted areas by climate change, which
causes situations like desertification, erosion, and ecological destruction. Additionally, it causes
extreme weather conditions like floods, droughts, and low temperatures, which reduce agricultural
output. The advancement of agriculture in Nigeria has been endangered by climate change, since
farmlands have been lost to flooding and the Sahel and Sudan vegetative zones are becoming more
drier. These factors have serious ramifications for agricultural output. A key problem with
Nigeria's food security is the poor agricultural productivity brought on by climate change. Climate
change has been having an ongoing impact on the distribution and production of food. A food
shortage and steadily rising food costs are the results of disturbances to the regular food production
and delivery chain.
Nigeria's accelerated population expansion and unequal agricultural productivity output are signs
of a worsening food security dilemma. The conditions associated with climate change are blamed
for this state of affairs. Developing nations' ability to achieve their desired agricultural output is
threatened by climate change. This gap has persisted, indicating a serious crisis in food security.
Water ecosystems are impacted by climate change as well. Among the physical changes brought
about by climate change include rising sea levels, shifting salinities, and increasing acidity. The
terrible effects of climate change are demonstrated by a number of mass aquatic mortality episodes
in the Niger Delta. Riverine communities rely significantly on trade and food, and such losses pose
a threat to their way of life.
2.3. Food Security Implications
The impact of climate change on crop production directly translates into food security challenges.
Oluwole et al. (2019) emphasize that fluctuations in crop yields contribute to food shortages, price
volatility, and increased vulnerability to food insecurity. This is particularly evident in Nigeria,
where a substantial portion of the population already faces challenges in accessing adequate and
nutritious food.
2.4 Vulnerability of Farmers
Smallholder farmers, constituting a significant portion of Nigeria's agricultural sector, are
particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts (Abaje and Ali, 2018). Limited access to
resources, including credit and technology, exacerbates their susceptibility to climatic variability.
Commercial farmers also face challenges, albeit of a different nature, highlighting the need for
context-specific mitigation strategies.
2.5 Current Adaptation Practices
Farmers in Nigeria have engaged in various adaptive practices in response to changing climatic
conditions. Studies by Ogundele et al. (2017) and Akinbode et al. (2020) indicate that farmers have
experimented with altered planting dates, modified crop varieties, and improved water
management practices. However, the overall adoption of climate-resilient practices remains
suboptimal, influenced by factors such as lack of awareness, access to information, and financial
constraints.
2.6 Frameworks for Mitigation
Several scholars emphasize the importance of developing comprehensive frameworks for
mitigating the impact of climate change on crop production and food security in Nigeria. Oladipo
et al. (2018) propose a framework that integrates agroecological practices, water management, and
farmer education to enhance resilience. Adejuwon (2010) stresses the need for policy interventions
that support sustainable agricultural practices and provide social safety nets for vulnerable
communities.
2.7 Challenges and Opportunities
Challenges in implementing mitigation frameworks include the need for multi-stakeholder
collaboration, effective policy implementation, and overcoming socio-economic constraints
(Akinbode et al., 2020). However, opportunities exist for leveraging advancements in technology,
international collaborations, and the integration of indigenous knowledge to enhance adaptive
capacity (Oluwole et al., 2019).
2.8 Conclusion
In conclusion, the literature reveals a pressing need to address the impact of climate change on
crop production and food security in Nigeria. A holistic framework for mitigation among farmers
should consider the diverse agricultural landscape, the vulnerabilities of different farming systems,
and the socio-economic factors influencing adaptation. By building on current adaptive practices
and integrating sustainable agricultural approaches, Nigeria can work towards ensuring food
security in the face of a changing climate.
 References
1. Adejuwon, J. O. (2010). Climate change and water resources availability in southern
Nigeria. Environmental Research Journal, 4(2), 112-116.
2. Abaje, I. B., & Ali, S. (2018). Vulnerability of agriculture to climate change in Nigeria: A
review. Journal of Environment and Earth Science, 8(10), 1-12.
3. Anyadike, R. N. C., Dimelu, M. U., & Ewuzie, J. N. (2016). Assessment of climate change
impact on maize yield in Southern Nigeria. International Journal of Agricultural Science
and Research, 6(5), 321-332.
4. Akintoye, H. A. (2018). Climate change and agricultural production in Nigeria: A review.
Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 63(2), 87-100.
5. Ezinwa, V. N. (2015). Climate change and food security in Nigeria: The way forward.
Asian Journal of Agricultural Extension, Economics & Sociology, 4(2), 81-89.
6. Oluwole, O., Shittu, A. M., & Adeola, A. (2019). Climate change, agriculture, and food
security in Nigeria: A review. Journal of Agriculture and Sustainability, 11(1), 42-59.
7. Ogundele, O. O., Ajala, S. O., & Ogunniyi, L. T. (2017). Determinants of climate change
adaptation strategies by arable crop farmers in Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Science,
9(6), 221-229.
8. Akinbode, S. O., Oyawoye, E. O., & Adeogun, S. O. (2020). Perception and adaptation to
climate change by arable crop farmers in Ekiti State, Nigeria. Agriculture and Biology
Journal of North America, 11(5), 215-223.
9. Oladipo, M. A., Adeniji, O. T., & Adeniji, O. E. (2018). Assessment of climate change
impact on crop yields and adaptation strategies in Southwest, Nigeria. Agriculture and
Food Security, 7(1), 16.
10. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2021). Climate Change 2021: The
Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report.
Cambridge University Press.
11. Lobell, D. B., Burke, M. B., Tebaldi, C., Mastrandrea, M. D., Falcon, W. P., & Naylor, R.
L. (2011). Prioritizing climate change adaptation needs for food security in 2030. Science,
319(5863), 607-610.
12. Adewumi, M. O., Ogunkoya, O. O., Ojo, A. O., & Adeyonu, A. G. (2018). Assessing
climate change impacts on rainfall variability in Nigeria using multi-scale ensemble
methods. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 132(1-2), 227-244.
13. Adger, W. N., Arnell, N. W., & Tompkins, E. L. (2018). Successful adaptation to climate
change across scales. Global Environmental Change, 15(2), 77-86.
14. Adejuwon, J. O. (2016). Impact of climate change on rainfall and temperature in Nigeria.
Journal of Geography and Regional Planning, 9(6), 125-133.
15. Anyadike, R. N. C., Onyeonoru, I. P., & Abaje, I. B. (2019). Climate change and variability
in Nigeria: A review. Global Journal of Environmental Science and Management, 5(4),
397-416.
16. IPCC. (2014). Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part B:
Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press.
17. Okonya, J. S., Syndikus, K., & Kroschel, J. (2020). Farmers' perception of and coping
strategies to climate change: Evidence from six agro-ecological zones of Uganda. Journal
of Environmental Management, 269, 110854.
18. Ojelel, S., Logah, V., Addo-Quaye, A. A., Tsigbe, E. K., Odai, S. N., Asamoah, B., ... &
Ickowicz, A. (2021). Climate change impact and adaptation in Sub-Saharan Africa:
Evidence from Nigeria. Land Use Policy, 105, 105332.
19. Adishi, E. and Oluka, N.L. (2018), “Climate change, insecurity and conflict: issues and
probable roadmap for achieving sustainable development goals in Nigeria”, International
Journal of Social Sciences and Management Research, Vol. 4 No. 8, pp. 12-20.
20. Anyika, V.O. (2020), “Insurgency, violent extremism and development in the lake Chad
region, 1960-2015”, MA Dissertation submitted to the Department of History and
Diplomatic Studies, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, Port Harcourt.
21. Ayinde, A.S., Folorunsho, R. and Oluwaseun A.E. (2020), “Sea surface temperature trends
and its relationship with precipitation in the Western and Central Equitorial Africa”,
Climate Change, Vol. 6 No. 21, pp. 36-51.
22. Ayinde, O.E., Muchie, M. and Olatunji, G.B. (2011), “Effect of climate change on
agricultural productivit y in Nigeria: a co-integration model approach”, Journal of Human
Ecology, Vol. 35 No. 3, pp. 189-194.
23. Ayo, J.A., Omosebi, M.O. and Sulieman, A. (2014), “Effect of climate change on food
security in Nigeria”, Journal of Environmental Science, Computer Science and
Engineering and Technology, Vol. 3 No. 4, pp. 1763-1778.
24. Berhanu, M. and Wolde, A.O. (2019), “Review on climate change impacts and its
adaptation strategies on food security in Sub-Saharan Africa”, Agricultural Social
Economic Journal, Vol. 19 No. 3, pp. 145-154.
25. Ethan, S. (2015), “Impact of climate change on agriculture and food security in Nigeria:
challenges and adaptation”, Global Advanced Research Journal of Medicinal Plant
(GARJMP), Vol. 3 No. 1, pp. 1-9.
26. FAO (2017), “North-Eastern Nigeria: Situation Report- January 2017”, available at:
www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/FAOcountries/Nigeria/ToR/FAO_Situation_Report_
Northeastern_Nigeria_January_2017.pdf (accessed 31 March 2021).
27. Fasona, M.J. and Omojola, A.S. (2005), “Climate change, human security and communal
clashes in Nigeria”, A paper presented at an International Workshop, Human Security and
Climate Change, held at Holmen Fjord Hotel, Asker, near Oslo, 21–23 June 2005.
28. Folami, O. (2013), “Climate change and inter-ethnic conflict in Nigeria”, Peace Review,
Vol. 25 No. 1, pp. 104-110.
29. Idumah, F.O., Mangodo, C., Ighadaro, U.B. and Owombo, P.T. (2016), “Climate change
and food production in Nigeria: implication for food security in Nigeria”, Journal of
Agricultural Science, Vol. 8 No. 2, pp. 74-83.
30. Ikem, T.U. (2018), “Prospects of food self-reliance in Nigeria”, Farming and Rural System
Economics, Vol. 56 No. 1, pp. 112-120.
31. IPCC (2014), “Global climate change impacts in the United States”, Fifth assessment
report of the United States Global Change Research programme, Cambridge University
Press.
32. Muringai, R.T., Naidoo, D., Mafongoya, P. and Lottering, S. (2020), “The impacts of
climate change on the livelihood and food security of Small-Scale fishers in Lake Kariba,
Zimbabwe”, Journal of Asian and African Studies, Vol. 55 No. 2, pp. 298-313.
33. Ogbo, A., Ebele, N. and Ukpere, W. (2019), “Risk management and challenges of climate
change in Nigeria”, Journal of Human Ecology, Vol. 41 No. 3, pp. 221-235.
34. Ogbuchi, T.C. (2020), “Quantitative indicators of production of food crops”, Journal of
Tropical Agriculture, Vol. 32 No. 1, pp. 79-88.
35. Okoli, J.N. and Ifeakor, A.C. (2014), “An overview of climate change and food security:
adaptation strategies and mitigation measures in Nigeria”, Journal of Education and
Practice, Vol. 5 No. 32, pp. 13-19.
36. Onuoha, F.C. and Ezirim, G.E. (2010), “Climate change and national security: exploring
the conceptual and empirical connections in Nigeria”, Journal of Sustainable Development
in Africa, Vol. 12 No. 4, pp. 255-269.
37. Oyinloye, O.D., Akinola, O.O., Akande, Y.O., Akinyele, A.A. and Mosimabale, M.M.
(2018), “Food insecurity in Africa”, Journal of Humanities and Social Science, Vol. 23 No.
9, pp. 68-75.
38. Taub, D.R., Miller, B. and Allen, H. (2018), “Effects of elevated CO2 on the protein
concentration of food crops: a meta-analysis”, Global Change Biology, Vol. 14 No. 3, pp.
565-575.
39. Tirado, M.C., Clarke, R., Jaykusc, L.A., McQuatters-Gollopd, A. and Frank, J.M. (2010),
“Climate change and food safety: a review”, Food Research International, Vol. 43 No. 7,
pp. 1745-1765.
40. Ufot, E.O. (2019), “Food security, poverty and investment dimensions”, Perspectives on
Food Security, Vol. 46 No. 2, pp. 32-38.
41. Ughaelu, C.M. (2017), “Contemporary environmental issues respect to food production in
Nigeria”, Journal of Environmental Management, Vol. 41 No. 2, pp. 108-117.
42. Uwazie, U.I. (2020), “Consumption of different forms of fish in Abakaliki metropolis of
Ebonyi State, Nigeria”, African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development,
Vol. 20 No. 2.
43. World Bank (2016), “North East Nigeria recovery and peacebuilding assesment:
componenbt report”, World Bank, Abuja.
44. Wossen, T., Berger, T., Haile, M.G. and Troost, C. (2018), “Impacts of climate variability
and food price volatility on household income and food security of farm households in east
and west Africa”, Agricultural Systems, Vol. 163, pp. 7-15.
45. Zwedie, A. (2014), “Impact of climate change on food security: a literature review in Sub-
Saharan Africa”, Journal of Earth Science and Climate Change, Vol. 5 No. 8, p. 225.