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    Church, The Influence of The Enlightenment On The French Revolution

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    PROBLEMS IN EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION Under the editorial direction of Jobe atts The Influence i of the Enlightenment on the French Revolution Second Edition Edited and with an Introduction by William F. Church Brown University D.C. HEATH AND COMPANY Langton, Mssescheets Toromo. London Copyright © 1974 by D.C. Heath and Company. ‘Aloo conyright 1964 by D.C. Heath and Company. [Al rights rsorved, No par ofthis pubiation may be reproduced or ‘faranitiad in any form or by any ears, electron or mechanics Including photocopy, oesrding or any formation storage revival im, witout petsson in wring fom the publisher Published slmutanoouty in Canada Printed in tho Unite Sttes of America. International Standord Bock Number 0-685-620065, Lunrary of Congress Catalog Card Number: T8166 CONTENTS EIGHTE=4TH CENTURY FRENCH NAVES MENTIONED IN THE SELECTIONS mt THE MOST FAMOUS DEBATE ON THE INFLUENCE OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT REFLECTIONS ON THE REVOLUTION I FRANCE a THE FUNDAMENTAL CRITICISMS. OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT AND ITS INFLUENCE ‘THE LIMITATIONS OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT » THE SPaiT AND DOGTAINE OF THE EMUGITENMENT 46 20 consernavona, ANS "on “ Contents ML THE ENLIGHTENMENT AS THE SOURCE OF LIBERALISM AND PROGRESS dle Mbt THE ENLIGHTENMENT AB THE FOUNTAIN OF SOCIAL phere ars THE SOURGES OF THE DEMOCRATIC AND REPUBLICAN IDEALS OF THE REVOLUTION Tosence OF tence ta IV A SPECIAL STRAIN: ROUSSEAUS. INFLUENCE ON THE FRENCH REVOLUTION FOUISEATS GENERAL WILL ARO REVOLUTIONARY Bicone 1 V_ RECENT COMPREHENSIVE TREATMENTS OF THE PROBLEM ent Pate Norman Hosen SME REVOLUTIONARY cuBMCrERIG 106 UeQESTIONG FOR ADDITONAL READING 8 INTRODUCTION ‘Altbough the intellectual movement that ls known a the Enlighten mont occupies an important position in the growth of Westrn clli= Zan, its feta effect has been the subject of debate from is own time othe present During the course a he eighteenth century, Vol tal, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Diderot and a host of lesser wire brought about a revolution in ways of thought ad increasingly ques tioned the rational legal, moral, ar religious foundations of French society and govornmont. Tho immeciato import of the phiosophee" dos was thrafore destructive, but it should be remembered that thelr ulimate object was extensive reconstucion of French 80- ‘ety and instutions along Improve lines. This they believed to be feasibiobecauso thy had great condones in man's ability to change ‘and conrl the word In which he lives. Especial uring tho last {generation before the French Revolution rieism ofthe established ‘order became more and mote virulent an uslitarian in nature, inc rad desire for practical, extoneivo, and thorough 30irg Teforms. Theso ideas and attudes were adopted by lage sections of the French mid classus who were tertore throughly conversant with a genuine revolutionary ideotogy. With the outbreak of the Frenah Revolution in 1789, Europe wit nostod the spectacle of tho normaly respenibie elemoats of French Sool, the midland professions classes, resorting to force In ‘order to schieve th changes that they sought In French society and Instiutions. The first yoars of the Rovelution are usualy called the Constructive year, since it was then thatthe revolutionaries ga, in tact, accomplish many of thelr objectives The French governments ‘yslem was racicaly altered on the national and focal levels by the festeblshment of constutonal monarchy and decentralization of “ vi Introduction radon poston of he Roman Catoicchuch was rang Ine Cory watesuppoted and essing 1o- Gesroved by mathe French social stucure was crasialy reor eivion of equally before tho law, extorsvo crized by tho I i ership, the abotion of he gull and other cot ‘hangs in tan overs changes an inte ainittion of sie. Such mains (a and measure, and healed also care un- 5 education, weis™ ss education wg ng revlstonaio. Ll, dng the Teor and atte sri tors, thre octured a sering povesion of fe Maelo ef te Revanon yok ary ote ear accom re oi elk cosalated and mado permanent lets of French ie Fronch ie ime to desorbo the stan fetues ofthe nba Fase a meters ores in 1769 is one mattr, whereas their cor author. The eatoyod by a ts cd ast Pinson uch facto 08 the presence of inportat thinkers (eg. Condoroet) fmong the revolutionaries and their praise of earlier wrtors (eg. Fouseeau) Inicat contin inalectual rtuances upon the course ofthe Revolution? Als, what was tho fundamental nature ofthe rev- ‘luionary ideology? Wiae it every tlionaize, naively optimistic, x Introduction Immoral response, and docttuetve of governmental autor, oF was It consttucthe, pragmatic, maturod by generations ot debate based upon fundamental concepts of ight end justice in human of fair andthe wave of the fluro”? Wet was the relative importance of this ideology inthe matrix of factors that led to the Revohion? Were Weas as inurl 28 Fronen parcpaton inthe American Revolon the cise n French frances, and the continued mistakes and lnepudes of Louie XVI? 1s It possible to weigh the various Causes" ofthe Pench Revoliton one against another? These and many ether intereated question wil bo analyzed in the selections inthis volume. In sito ofthe evident complexities of our problem, Is overriding ants may be reduced t tw, Fit, was there in fact any posite Inivence of tha Enightenment onthe French Revolution? And socond i bis influence is acted, was It for good or for bad? These Issues| fare iferclted a yet cstint. The fists essentially a problem of investigating the evidence and arving sta roasonabe conclusion. “Th fences of opinion ints roa ae extonsve, but they meray relat onestcsgreoment among experts and give It eause for {routed feolnge. The cond, however, sore fundamental and goes to the hear ofthe tritions between schools of interpretation, eine it Is not a mater of objective historia analyse but of personal ccnle- tons end belie ‘Tha entry ofthe moral sue at onco changes the nature of the bata and goes la 1 explain the intransigence that has Beon ox- hibited by both sides. Thro is fundemental diference between the taditonaat mentally, 20 wall represanod by Burke, and the ‘morc, ibetarian cast of mind of Paine: and the song felis {ofboth can be explained only by fecaling that both bolevod thelr postions to be morally superior. Even mero important is tho role that religion hee payed in the controversy. The phiosophes were 2s ‘uch concerned with religious problems as with social and pail, fd the Revolton quicky oxibted a strong anirligious (le. ant- Cathote) charactor, nficing ypon the Reman church one blow ft another and pamanenly encing Ws favored postion In French so tly, The rout wae that Uo Revolution spit French opision slong political and rolisioe lines, and th dvsion has eurived to this day Fortis reason thas boon extremly dil for French scholars to view the Enlightenment and the Revlution objectively. The sict Introduction A and more conservative Cathie seholars usually tect the principles of tho Enlightenment and wew its lauence a detrimental if not satus. On the ater hand, the erak-minded historians genealy| ‘accept tho principles of the Entightonment and regard ts inlvence ‘uring the Revolution and ater as beneficial. A few scholars, such 25 Monet, seem to have succeeded in maintaining their objectivity, ‘ut the large majority vew the probiom from the ibaa or conserv tho standpalat in oth rligion and poties ‘The existence of schools of thought concerning the influence of the Enlightenment on the French Revoltin le at once. apparent ‘tom a glance st our saies of selections. Iferestinaly enough, the two most powecul were who are repracnted in this book, Buke land Taio, sre thoso whe best arievatd tho conservative, ant Enlightenment poston. Their works conain massive ers of ho ‘movemont wich both regarded as extraely infuenta! and deci ‘dy calamitous. Representative of tho opposing, Herel school at such mon a9 Michell, Alara and Lelabire who accepted the core Ubuions ofthe Enlightenment to French Me as good. Thor a, ‘moreover, further dinction beeen these school in tho degree influence tht they ascribe tothe Enlightenment. The conservative writers generally view the phifesophes Ideas as tho primary cause of the Revolution and the explanation of Hs excesses, whereas the bora scholars, while recognizing the importance of Ideas, tond to vow thom mezely at one element among many, with relatively lees Inuenee tan tho consorvatve witers would eeign them. This may be surprising in vow of tho fact thatthe Enlightenment fs tha foure tainead of the borat scholars! polileal hotage may alo inde ‘ale that tho conservative writes tend 10 angie more exclusively ftom price, Although there are certain clear patterns in the debate on our problem, cvory author who le excerpted in this book prosentod his ‘nm pereana interpretation. Remarkably early Inthe course of the Fevoltion, Eamuna Burke and Thomas Paine engaged in tel f- Imovsltrery debate conceming the merits and gelecs of tho move- ment. Burk, whose attack on tho Revolution was one of tho most famous end’ inventia! ever penned, svongly presented the view ‘hat society grows and evelves onl through accumulted experence and the working of time-tested taion, Using the unuriten Bish Constitution as his model, ho argued that tne present generation Imtrosuetion ih eer, ta Hay lh a en fre recognize thal tuo toe eons of enjoying e's hts Sint tamewoo of eden sndintitor. Bao Red Sati charlene the cause othe Amrzan colo precy Bocacse tk el lis be jstitea by Etih vaton. Now, Rewer, toconconned tho Enhtnment A avadiona, de> rae specie ard conuneed te French revo e9 orca enter who ere rskessy dxtoying tng Ite {ilo and whose new, ten alo eceved contin fr France woul rover survive een preted acca The fis Gf al arn rac trom tauty Weoley wich provided le tundamentl maaon and Mui ty ng Face nn newer, ain args that the Imari of he pocot generation shoud tale preseence ore yt tol ht be ere fom Te i erptualy sovereign and may nto bound by 2 goneraton tat {ond and go, Ary tw conssiton hes, shoul be Bul tom ard poet man's tral igs ae wala Nec hs that Sng tom ting tn organized society” Tose ge ha eon itn let nai whose cnuiton was based on cow Guest cones he Amecan, snd French conatutons eh Sond recvry ot those nigh trawgh fetid rebelion. Paine Bele tes ote phiosepo tb the ge! source of those Concept nrcet tines ante lod the ea of olson that Sar jt bcinng athe tment ft precept Tour cies othe Enlightenment nd Re ftwenco—da set, de Toonnie, Tate, andGarote™y be oud oper set thes pes afaagh tho fondant postone were vor el {overt bo Halse was cerally the most uncompromising ele of {Vo trighment obo reeveied nie bose Agting a sty {teva poston olf tht a human wocte ae van aess Goucontra. The Enhtennert end the Revolution wre Souly fleas In fat they not on desoyed atom, Inladng {tigen but opresontedsurono conser In mes suonomoue ‘taco atu you dines. Fo tmpsct of hw porous Ides het been bcremsy exter, Bt tai us wou como fo ftuaht and bo prod th colsan of mancacare, ration CSreoved nesone rt enlyn anc tals in he row Une Introduction ea States of Ameria. He also want so fe a to assert thatthe violence fof the Revolution was directly and personally inapred by the hilosophes. For de Mle, the mater was sinpo, The influence of the En- Nightenment onthe Revolution was extremely powerul and entity bad. De Tocqueville, on the other hand, hae rightly boon clcsied ‘858 proponent of rinelaonthcentury eratsm. His etude toward the Enlightenment and its inuenes, however, was mixed In certain Ways Very erie In our soletion, he repeats the charge bet the Dhilosophes’ideas wore rctioss and doctrine, and tha th men who hold thom lackod experience andthe responsi of otes, with sastous consequonces for the Revoltion. Hi stelemen’s show that acceptance of lidealsm ais not necessary preclude an aware oss of serous Haws in the Enlightenment In savorl ways, de Tooquovile echoed Burk, yet the two mon held to fundamentally iterent postions. Burk tally rjectod the Enightonnent and ihe Revolution es destructive, wheress ce Tocqu vile cricize only certain elements in bath rovorents. Burke found the chet cause of tho Ravolston inthe powerful infvonce of the Enlightenment, while de Tocquevile dthoty subordinated do to socal and potest Tactor when explaining the uheava In commenting on Burke's lows, de Tooquevila sid that Burke was ‘an oxcallentjuigo of specie developments during the Revolution ‘2nd the philosophical weaknossos that hod produced them, Bul he ‘nel miesed tho Revolutions genera character, its unveal sige nifcanes, and ts meaning for al mankind in aum, do Tocquevido was cricel ofthe intoloctual origins ofthe Revlon but vegace We ultimately beneficial. ‘Our tits eric ofthe Enighenment, Mppolyte Tain, wae one of the most Infventialant-repubian historians of tha nineteonth century. Writing after the French debacle Inthe Franco Pristian Wir, Taine sought to elscover where France had gone wrong in et storia developmont. Ho concluded tat she had done 80 dung the eigteennconturyTargely Bacause of the evil nature of the Ene lghtenmant His resulting work eth classe statoment ofthe weak nesses of the movorent. Using « metaphor that was to become famous, he wrote thatthe pilosopy ofthe Enightonnent contained 12 eet ce sans 4 Pe ay, Vo 22 Pa. 185, a Introduction jonas andthe 1 poison which was a compound cf scletie 1 Classe spit. These combined to discredit actions, laws, instie tions, morality and relisen and to promote ashaliow vew of human ature anda Talo coridence in reason. Tho aul was an vnleash- ing of brutal end dangorov frees that lod inoviably fo destruction land 1o-a despotism whieh was much rare tyrannical than that of ‘any monarch, "Tina's viows, which sftrbuted great wsight to the force of idess, were ropesled by many lotr orcs of the Enlightenment. Pierre Gaxette, a proiie twerttioontury conservatve historian, has summarized tho major criss that have been loved at the Enlightenment ines the fimo of Bure. Gaxoto even reinforced his postion by inducing sien questionable elemants os tho role Gt the Freemasons and the Idea that the Enllghienmont stormed ftom foreign sources end was fol ty French. His summary ofthe ftoument fom the conserva standpoint fs a fiting conclusion of this socton of th reacings During the period between 1815 end 1914, the liberal historians In France expressod thle apprval of tho Eniighienment and its innuonce hn many divested writngs, only two of which ere ox Cempod here, One of their fvotia themes was expressed by Micholet In hi eolorul Westmont ofthe background of the Revo- lion, Michelet wa tha ablest representative ofthe ler, romantic "school of French historians. He loved the French people, nad a ‘trong senee of isice and equly In human airs, and was expable of recsplutig the emotional qualiios of the movements that he ‘described. The old regime he regarded as a period when everthing ‘wes rten and justice wa the any remaining hops. The phiosophes trove among th fat Yo reasertfundamontal concopte of justi, find they became the lesdere of @ great eusado for Is recta lahment in French sociely. Thus the Enlghtenrent was the tue Inspiration of tho Revluton, and one of its most important accom Plahments wes to put the philovophee’ ideas Ino etoc. ‘Consderably lator in the eonury, Alphonso Aulard began his very exonsive foxaminaion of the Revolution an became the fst French historian to epply madera methode of snaiysa to ite docu- imentaryeources. When examining th background ofthe Revelation, ‘lard addressed hielo ono of tho thornest problems relative to the rote of Ideas What was the source of the poicl racials tetroduction = {hat was 9 apparent inthe inal phases ofthe Revolution, and why id the Revolaton rapidly assume an even more redeal character? Republican and democratic laeas woce almost totaly lacking inthe writings of the philosophes belore 1729, Aulard found, but he ine ‘sted that th fal impect of tho Enlightenment had the let of Seveloping a republican state of mind. This “republican split" was widely acespted whon tho Revoltion bagen and aocourts for ite Fapid evolution toward democracy. Thus Aulard attempted to 90 beyond the specie evldoncan of intellectual hislory and to eaves the impact ofthe Enlightenment as a whole. ts inluence he found to be crucial In guiding the cours ofthe Revolution, The fact that stoveal scholarahip has atainad new heights of perfection in the tworith contuy Is wel lusvated by the work ‘of Danie! Momet. Although bo was primary © student of Merary Fistry, Mornat sat Himeat the tack of deleting the exact role of ideas loading to the Revolution. His retearch was inballavaby fxtanlve sd covered not only the usual evidences of opinion but Also such lessor sources 86 Tho rocorcs of provincal academies and seusion groupe, proces! IReratue, newspapers, pamphlets the contents of irae, editions of ky works, educational reforms, et. Se thorough was hie ressareh that it remains fundamental in pit ofthe appearance of many later east! stag. In weighing the Infuanee of Ideas againet othr causae of the Revolution, Moret concluded thet while such practice! mattors a8 nomic famine were of gretor moment. ioae payed & vey In portant role wich he delineated in earful chceon terms. The con- Slant and growing etiam of French soclety and Inston lea ten incresingly to associate thought with tha cause of relorm. The ‘widespread citision of these ideas accounts for thar strength and caused France fo be mere iecinod toward dete upheaval than any eter European state. The broad currents of opinion were mora ‘oncorned with practical reloms than prilosophical epecdiaton, yettho oreatot thinkers dominated the intllecual ie ofthe contury ‘and channeled is currents, thereby erysalizing opinion ntligence ted tho movement of reform and was therefore the kay lament that was nosed to epark a revelation. ‘Considerably broader wore tho research Inerasie of Georges Lefebwro, the ablest historian of the French Revolton inthis ean: tury, Lefebvie's wings touched upon almost every phase of eigh= a Introduction teertncentury Metrcal experianca, and e was a Testing expert Inmany. He approsen to tha Revolston stressed the multiply of factors that wert ino ite making, and of these, ideas wore not the moat important. Certain statements in Lefebvre’ wrings, how fre, indoate that he went far fowetd recognizing the importance Of ideas in shaping ever. The Eneyeopédle, ho sald, ot only Sharpened contenporaie’ views and broadened thelr Insights nto Curent problapshslso se fori many ofthe late revolutionaries principles such eo man's ality to contol nature and soci, and Freven foreshadowed many sclual achievements of the Revolution in such areas a8 Troosom of thought and the Brass end raigious {Oloation’ Lofobwe's fundamental poston seams to be that who 2 great many diferent factors wert Into the making ofthe Revol tion its guling principle wore provided by the Enigtenment The Decloreton of the Rights of Men and the lion he viewed as bath the essence of te pilesophas thought and the “incarnation” ofthe Revokiton. The daoument doronsestd tho contnaly betwoen the Enlightanmadt and te Revolution, and epitomized much of the t= tors work by marking the end of the ld regime. To this extont Leteove recognised the infveco of the Enlghtnmant during tho Fevoktton and reparded the iological factor asa significant el ‘mont in the pattern of easton. “Te problem of JecmJoeques Rousseau's Influence during the French Revolution presents special dificutlos both Because he food apart from the main seam cf tho Enightenmont and becau Othe vory unusul nature offs appeal to the elghteotivcomtury mentality. Analysis of his place in provevolutionary thought has demonstrated that his politcal ideas found enly limited respon before 1789, AL that tine his wide popularity semmed not tom his Contat social ut from such works es hie Ena and La Novvelle “Hioleo, that i, hie Backo-nture romanticism. Ths ho offctvely Combined with idesization ofthe common man ond insistence upon human pertectabiity, With the Revolution his polite! wings end esis wore rediscovered, 3b much evidence proves, but his in- fence upon the cours of events has Boon variously itoprted fs both Travan and authortaian. Our two aolstons present these viewpoints. Afler examining the evidence thet Rousseau was ‘Swe aah a aso eT Introduction a Widely owe and dead dung the Reolton, Joan MeDonald {ortides tat he cult of ouseut—earting more en the nar fur of is polis! eeo—vwasintustalna oon way Laster rocker, onthe ster hand rues tat Rowse concepts ofthe ‘eral wil and forcing «onto be tro had ttle inp. {ns thet could be reatzod only in despa, erative elitons {e's prbiom of Interpretation may be teachad only by care ‘examination of the evidence, ” es The fact thatthe relationships between the Enlightenment and tne Frnah Revoliton ronan unecoved and a Ivey subject ot dato thsatod by ou fast group of ssacon,n whieh roe outstanding euorien poser compretershe ests the probiom. Hen Poye, whose eminence in ferry sues woll ‘own, sve an exeslont survey f the conovrsy tgethar wih His own viws of tw mater terestngy. ho tins reeons for Ascrbng ‘restr influence to Wess dutng the eolton than Imey ntriana ae wig to ami. Potesor Poy preoccupe. {ion wth inocu! mato: may explain i viwpomt bt he statement cary tho weight of very considerable authory. The ito fed Cobb, onthe ee hand, exaines the poblm more ‘tm te standpomt of pail estoy in Telaton fo te. saree phases ofthe Rovlufon. He sonciges tat the patent Ghegence fF th course of event rom th values and ebjovos of te po sophos Indicates that currents of thought were of minor practical import in determining Bo te nar ofthe upheva nd the ha actos and polis of the varios French regimes. Fn Noman Hampson eure to te branes rt of ses nto revle ‘tonaes’ matvaton By rocaling thatthe leds othe oolton ising ts cary years were aroughy moued wh tbe posopes Drecepl he nds signfeantlstoglea intunces In sheng vent, These inal leas, howevr, wae lorenorglysbandoned {France ombaried upon war and Inge venturea ‘Tho contoveray concern th infuanee ef the Enghanmet an the French Revolution fs utimatelyinastie In bec ms Became iis «problem of histo! inerpretaon. As sve Mil says bo tested fare by nial imestigstor: Ones eat wil dopend on one's examination ofthe erence, peronal Wow fein nd valu, and above al th gnicnce at or escoee 1 ideas an an lemon! of human engeanca The only cetaty the picture fs that hnowldge of the fsu0s hes ne fate now mere thoroughly understood. Boyond this, the debate re inane vay much ave. As @ subject fr investigation the inuence the Enlghtenment on tho Froneh Revolution retains considrable ‘ale because of iis exteraive ramifeatons in eightoentt-centy hislory and its importance for understanding the development of imodern cvlization We one of the best test cases to examine ‘thon grappling withthe question: Do Idoas have consequences? rT Conflict of Opinion ind plana a ae Sa ec ns rb ee ire Carr oly mate et nc Saya Lathe nea LEI maces ‘oe ony cone whieh appar of th eit of Hoey during tose Barats reo ba oon ato wins of th Penh see feet mane yest esset foreet Mntsmies by Ristorante tls Vola 9 wit Rousreau an Ayr by aero Sein an Trg Bt ol monn and yen lnc, ove ty AL Botim, the oy of hesing essed te Aevoluon taenge et tears Whe oe undermined pots by courting ray te tot opi moral funding pollen. Afar, et Ro ‘0 Ilo rapture over We Inter’ ot Voir ad hii et roa o tbe powcr whch tay wished ove St Cony. Yes te ‘ore power he plan en a " omar she wrt, te iro of Rah Vo wats and tuto anther by bu ot se alo Pouce Gan, Whon once ha oetered man om te fase seseoe ef the {ine and tr a ro les abe tase, yu boos! ns wisn be teen a rviton + bas Knows wy bu ten ah lenny Drain to boar lt ehe wovle raver oka hava Come ae Ccontict of Opinion ‘he phtoscoy of te eaten cory arsved a pen, sd of {isttae te ia nerd ane 9 eer oe {ie rouary tht seas y 0 sary td coninseon Sey forma worsen Comps faeces No ne on thee of he Revlon Red ever deamed of he eatab- SEDUET Shane eon sao ia soues of uieomen = Msn sno Speen may sate Hohe, IST mg co of cot or ssp pany ry fn den had Ean tren ony by Hes wos teria med gts th aon mo care. poten met en grey nas ha overt a th Eos tng he roof das ae Raven came “Te Dalston o th gts Man end the Gin tnd a the Ie ‘raion ote Rerotin ss a wnt... The whoe people fremont In Erato ne loth eer poled Yo wc ena ntcemic, Vota and Roveoay had tabs taking s' decn af munson etre rats of ho cane 2 inca ofpurpam, whic oto ay etal sp, paretin a the Dropar sean offs wor, rapt fr the ihe of er, oar frvoten to th national communty, ito" ihe Language of Mone fergie, Rounoe ant Robe Te Rtn stad tom tiem path of elaine No tol. eprocoaive ard cotutonl garermant inte le tan ‘erfarin tm om to teopee ale pace ao a ‘detnocp and wer The lft of to Engst canst Conte of Opinion a aren it not st Mat eats bye gh Inthe Bogie. not gee seer tsp ste te hen oe Epos Uefa pase of he Ratton om 17880184, wasnt recy asst ye, Eine i eprtewsponsonce Eniononmont teed from out frelathors as a body of dogs and useful prelu- {oes tat have been accepted by tho national mentay. Bul We Ove othing of thst the individual reason of eny man. On the eontary, Inhonover this ype of resson entre the picture, i perverts moral. in pals, we know that wo must rospact tho powers that have been established from timo Immemeril. When ime brings buses that may alle the prloaples of government. we know thet these thuses must be eliminated without touching fundamen} principles Sis requires gteat doxeiy. We aro capabla of bringing. sbout salutary votorma without reeching the poit whore the pitipie of Fe is wilted and tha death of the body polite bocomes, nev table ‘Let ro one be mistaken. The successes ofthe philsopbee may ‘dazzle Inattentive ayes, and mus therefore bo evaluated. you ask ‘ose man what they have accomplished, they wil tll you of thei Inuence over opiions. Tey wit any that they have. destroyed prelude and especialy fanatics, for that is thelr Key words they ‘il extol in glowing fems tho type of Yeacership that Vote exer= ‘eed over his contry dung his long earoor. But these words prejudice snd fanatic, signty Inthe lost snsisia the balista of tmany nations. Voltaire eliminated these beliefs tom many minds; {hatte ba destroyed, and this is preisly what tam saying. Philos ‘phy functions in such a way thal @ man who follows hs individual ‘eason i dangerous In the moral end poltical order exactly In Proportion to Fis ably, The more spi, ety and perseverance ho has, the more diestrus fs is inivence. He merely augments & destructive power and stves In nothingness. Whenever a witor who beftends religion ertelzes philosophy, he booomes suspect to great many readers who obeinataly find fanaicism wherever thoy do not find ioredully oF lndiferensm, "iay therefore not be inappropriate to Bartow tho exact words with thi the public prosecutor reprosched tho phosonhee: "And you. mad pilosophes who in your presumpluous wisdom claim to guide the universe; apesee of tolerance and humanly you wio prepared our GLORIOUS rovolution and excl he progress OF inteligonce ana reason "Leave your tombs, Walk among these many corpses and explsin to us how, In this celebrated contury, hry tyrants who decreed motder could tind toe hundred thousand exeetioners to cerry out ‘heir wit. Your writings arn the pockets of the tras; your mass ‘10 on thelr lips; your pages shine forth inthe testimony In court. In the name of vituo tha most hori thivary le coraitd; in tho ‘ame of humanity two miller men pereh n the name of Hbery & ‘housand bestiles aro bull. There Is rot one of your works that le not on the desks of our forty thousand revluionary conmitec. ‘They lot you only a moment, Diderot to sign the order or mass romrings! The enyfrult of your Isbore has Boon to gloss over Grimes with fine language so as to port mare tong Blows. tn Justico tnd vitenes are elied strony measure: ods of spilled bod ar called purging the body polio...» Od you belive, O Potended sages, thatthe soed ot philosophy might germinate in borren soll without cuivation? And in your wild paradoxes and metaphyical abstractions, id you count human passions 26 noth ing? “There Is a book eniled De doanvacques Rousseay considérs comme auteur de la Révoluton. This hook ana to bronze sate that the National Convention dediested to Rousseau are perhaps the ‘restest shame ever to alshonar the merry of eny writer However, Vollsire vies with Rousseau forthe rghtul honor of having caused the French Revolution and has weighty authorities on his sic. To im Frederick the Great wrota, "Te fabric of eupest- tion is tottering on its foundations and ie about to collapee. The ‘atone wil writen thee Pistris that Verare was the promoter of the revolution that took place in men's minds curing the eightonth ontury.« ‘At botiom, the glory of having caused the Revolution Belongs ex: oo Laas sively to nother Voltaire nor Rousseau. The ane philosophical sect cline its par, but thoze two man should be regarded ols leaders. While one undermined polis by comupting moral, the oer coruptod moras by undermining polis. For sty years, Vol {aires destuctve works sapped the foundtions o the super elifea hose fall has caused Europe to trmble. Rousseau’ seductive clo- ‘quence deluded tho mob, which is contelled more by Imagination than oason. Everywhere he cissominatd diatust of authority and tho spit of ravoit It was he who syelomatized Ideas of anarchy, and, while mouthing store and isolatad truths that are known to al proctaimed the disastrous principles whizh gave reo lo tho horrors that we have seen. Tho bodies of both men have bean intarved in the Panthoon sccording oa descee of the National Convention, thus condemning their memory to a fina clograc, ‘Aller thie Tl no one go Into raptures over the Influence of Volsire and his et no ano speak ofthe power which thay wielded over thal century. Yes, they wore power, tke polon and tk, Wherever Icidual reason predominates, noting great can ex for everything that a great ross on bai, and the shock of ferespon: sible personal apiions merely produces a akeptcam that destroys a OF generl and personal moval, religion, laws, respected cus: toms and ust prejudices, nthng sures and al collapses before this skeplclam. Ie ¢ univorsal destruction. Let us alvaye rturn to at prneples. Any inition whatsoever {is merely a pubic structure. In physi and morality the laws are ‘ho same; yOu canret build @ great ediica on a weak foundation nor a permenent one on 2 mowing and temporary basa. In pals, you wish fo bul in grand syle and for the ages, you must Bula upon an opinion, © great and profound bal Hf opinion fs not a= opted by the majority ang i nat deeply rooted, wil provide ony ‘2 weak and tomporary base, When ove lke for the grt and permanant foundations of a Institutions, large end smal, one always finds religion and patriot: lam. And if one looks more closely, one wil tnd that theeo are Uunteg, for there is no tue patriotem without religion, Ptr flourishes only In an age of belo and decines and cles with I Ae ‘000 86 man dioreas himsalt from Cod, he corrupts himself ond that he touches. His acis are false and he merely destioys. As this bond fe weakened in a state, consorative vitwes proportionally Py Joseph de Maistre oc; ll characteris degraded and even good works ere unavait Ing Murderous eqotiom ceselasly motivate th public spit against ail eee, ke an enoimaus Alpine glacier that impercopuny covers {rut areas ofa and vegetation However, as 9000 9 tho concopt ofthe Divinity Is the principle ot human scion, sich action becomes fre, creatne, Innate ‘an urinown power f felt everyuhere it animates, eames and tives alt Rogordoes of the erors and crimes with whieh human Tanorence and corruption may stain tis august concep, it nether lee preserves is incancewable uence. Inthe midst of massacres, fren muliply and ations dapay astounding Wgor. “Greece,” says Rousseau, "ourehed inthe mist of tio orelst wars Blood was ‘ted in frrents and yot the whole land wes ited with inabitants, No dour, but that was an age of prodigies and oracles, an age of faith after tho mannor of the tine, thst, exalted patriot. When fone says of the Supreme Being that Ho exits, one eaye nating: ‘one must eay that He ls Exitonc. “I is ling Boing which in a ‘ingle instant ull tory.” A drop ofthis ameesurabla ocean of ‘rictore soars to fall en men who speak and act Inthe namo of ‘God is elect atound and give anita of eration, Contre pas, butts work remain. Everything tet Is grea, 994, dosabl, true fnd pemanent among men source of al extences; outdo hing. {should forestall an objection nesicizing human philosophy for ‘tho ls that I haa brought us, do we not risk Bolng unfair and ‘lng to far toward the opposte extreme? Itls doubtless necessary to avoid excess, but in this egard there 7s 19 be en inalile rule for judging pilosophy. Wis useful thon it do not transcend its ight sphere, the natural sconces. Inthe ara, al efforts are useul and deserve our gratitude. Out a8 aon as philosophy enters the word of moray, 1 eutslée ts domain. In morality, genera reason holds sway, wile philosophy oF inavcual reason becomes destructive and torcore gui iit daros to question or contract sacred Ins and national Dells We duty inthis sphere io follow teso boo, This alstinction sutices to Judge our century and the preceding ne. All th grat men of the soverteanth century were characterized by ther respect for, and submission fo, the civil and religious lous ‘The Necessiy of the Thooerate State a of thelr county, In their writings you wil find nothing rack paradoxical or contrary tothe national dogmas which for them wre Gotatve, aerea martes that wore not ta be questioned They wore distngulsed by an excollnt good sonee whose great merit may be approciaod only by tho who have boen spared the influence of tales modern laste. Since they aluaye adstess thom solves fo the readers conscience wich fe inal, it some ao though thy echo our though. Sophlstcal men compisn thet they find nothing nen inter works, whore thelr special mert wae tO pein In brian colors the universal tithe upon which the welfare of omoiaa, tamies nd insvcunls fe founded ‘That which Is now ealed new ideas, bod thought, great concepts tho waters of the past century would have called criminal daring, IWonay of utrage. The faets show on which side reason t found {iknow that philosophy, ssharned of te fightul succes, hes et tompted to sown the Wolence that wo hiv sen, But ti Is act tne way to escape condemnation bythe wise. Fortunato for himan- ity, destructive thecries eo realy found among men who poeanes the power to put thom into ffct, But what doea It matter that ‘Spinoza lived pescetly In @ Dutch village oF that timid feeble FRousecas had nalter tho will nor the powar to excha eedton? Wat doos i mattor that Vltae dotended Calas in order to gain publicly? What does it matter tht ring the event dean rang over France the pilosophesToored fr thir hoads and prudent id tamselves? From the momant they st forth mam expabla of pro-

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