CHAPTER 5:

CELLULAR RESPIRATION &

FERMENTATION
 5.1 AEROBIC RESPIRATION

OBJECTIVES:
(a) State the needs for energy and the role of respiration
in living organisms
(b) Illustrate the outline of complete oxidation of glucose
which involves glycolysis, Krebs cycle and oxidative
phosphorylation.
WHY WE NEED ENERGY?
Daily activities such as:
⚫ Active transport

⚫ Movement (muscle contraction)

⚫ Reproduction and growth

⚫ Excretion
 ROLES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION
• To produce energy required by living organism
• Energy is in the form of :
- ATP
→ It transports the energy necessary for all cellular metabolic activities
→ To be used in performing work
→ Instant source of energy for living organisms
SOURCE OF ENERGY : SUNLIGHT

❖Energy flows into ecosystem as sunlight

and leaves as heat
❖ Photosynthesis convert light energy into
chemical energy and stored in organic
molecule (glucose)
❖ Photosynthesis produce O2 and organic
molecules, which are used in cellular
respiration
❖ Cells use chemical energy stored in
organic molecules to regenerate ATP,
which powers work.
 CELLULAR RESPIRATION
DEFINITION:
A process occur in cells that oxidize glucose to produce energy (ATP)
involving redox reaction.

2 types:
Complete oxidation
of glucose
Aerobic
respiration Requires oxygen

Partially oxidation of
Anaerobic glucose
respiration Doesn't require
oxygen
ATP (ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE) STRUCTURE
➢ Nucleotide with unstable phosphate bond
➢ Consists of : (i) Ribose sugar
(ii) Nitrogenous base, Adenine
(iii)Three phosphate groups

Each phosphate bond:

➢Contain high energy
➢Especially the 3rd group
ATP STRUCTURE
 ATP AS AN ENERGY
➢ When energy is needed, ATP will be hydrolyzed
- Hydrolysis of unstable bond between phosphate
releases energy.

ATP + H2O ADP + Pi + energy

➢ Energy will be transferred to cell that required energy

➢ ATP can be resynthesized from an ADP using energy released from

cellular respiration
- By reattach a phosphate group through phosphorylation process

ADP + Pi + energy ATP + H2O

 Overview of cellular respiration within cell
In cytoplasm Glycolysis
Glucose

Pyruvate

With O2 Without/less O2

Mitochondria
Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration /
Fermentation
Link reaction
Mitochondrion
matrix Krebs Cycle Alcohol
Lactate
Fermentation
Fermentation
In plant cell &
In muscle cell
Oxidative yeast
Mitochondrion
Cristae Phosphorylation:
(inner membrane) Electron Transport
Chain &
Chemiosmosis
 AEROBIC RESPIRATION
Definition:
A process by which glucose is completely oxidize into carbon dioxide, water
and energy (ATP) in the presence of oxygen

Oxidation

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ENERGY (ATP)

Reduction

Oxidation of glucose to CO2

Reduction of oxygen to H2O
Oxidation
• Additional of oxygen @
• Removal of hydrogen @
• Loss of electron
Reduction
• Removal of oxygen @
• Additional of hydrogen @
• Gain of electron
 AEROBIC RESPIRATION
• Involve three metabolic stages:
i) Glycolysis (occur in cytosol/cytoplasm)
**Link reaction (occur in matrix of mitochondria)
ii) Krebs cycle (occur in matrix of mitochondrial)
iii) Oxidative phosphorylation
(Electron Transport Chain & Chemiosmosis)
- occur in inner membrane of mitochondria / cristae
 TYPE OF ATP PRODUCTION
IN AEROBIC RESPIRATION

(1) Substrate level phosphorylation (2) Oxidative phosphorylation

Formation of ATP by which an enzyme
transfer a phosphate from an
intermediate substrate to ADP
Production of ATP occur in:
- Glycolysis
- Krebs cycle
Formation of ATP by using energy derived
from the redox reactions of Electron
Transport Chain (ETC) and chemiosmosis.
Production of ATP occur in:
- Electron Transport Chain (ETC) &
Chemiosmosis
Terms: reduction, oxidation, decarboxylation.
• Oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction
– Reactions that result in the transfer of one or more
electrons from one reactant to another.
• Oxidation
– The loss of electrons.
• Reduction
– The addition of electrons.
• Decarboxylation
– A chemical reaction that releases carbon dioxide
(CO2).
– removing a carbon atom from a carbon chain
STAGES OF AEROBIC RESPIRATION

GLYCOLYSIS Link reaction KREBS CYCLE OXIDATIVE

PHOSPHORYLATION
(in mitochondrial
matrix)

2 ATP 2 ATP 34 ATP

38ATP
 5.1.1 GLYCOLYSIS
OBJECTIVE :

(a) Illustrate to explain glycolysis pathway:

from glucose to pyruvate

(b) Describe link reaction: conversion of

pyruvate to acetyl coenzyme A
 GLYCOLYSIS
Definition:
Breakdown of one molecule of glucose (6C) into two molecules of
pyruvate (3C) through a series of enzymatic reactions

⚫ First stage in cellular respiration Glycolysis pathway:

⚫ Occur in presence or absence of
oxygen
⚫ Location: cytosol
⚫ Net yield are:
- 2 molecules of pyruvate
- 2 molecules of ATP
- 2 molecules of NADH+H+
⚫ Consists of ten steps
⚫ Each step catalyzed by a specific enzyme
⚫ Can divide these ten steps into two phases:
(i) Energy Investment Phase (step 1-5)
• 2 ATP is used during this phase
(ii) Energy Payoff Phase (step 6-10)
• 4 ATP is formed during this phase
• 2 ATP used to payoff the ATP invested
in energy investment phase.
• 2 net ATP yield.

ENERGY INVESTMENT PHASE
(step 1 -5)
Glucose
Hexokinase
Glucose-6-phosphate
Fructose-6-phosphate
Phosphofructokinase
Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate
Glyceraldehyde-3-
Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (G3P)
phosphate (DHAP)
Describe glycolysis pathway: (from glucose to pyruvate)
1. Glucose is phosphorylated into glucose-6-phosphate.
- 1 ATP is hydrolyzed into ADP and phosphate group.
- Glucose is phosphorylated (phosphate group from ATP is
added at 6th carbon) catalyzed by enzyme hexokinase
- Produce Glucose-6-phosphate (reactive molecule)
2. Glucose-6-phosphate is rearranged to its isomer fructose-6-
phosphate
3. Fructose-6-phosphate is phosphorylated into fructose-1,6-
bisphosphate.
- 1 ATP is hydrolyzed into ADP and phosphate group.
- Fructose-6-phosphate is phosphorylated (phosphate group
from ATP is added at 1st carbon) catalyzed by
enzyme phosphofructokinase.
- Produce Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate.
4. Fructose split into 2 isomer sugar molecule, each molecule
has 3 carbons:
- Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) &
- Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P)
5. DHAP is converted to G3P
- End of step 5, 2 molecules of G3P are formed
**G3P can be oxidized by the rest of reaction in glycolysis
ENERGY PAYOFF PHASE 6. a) G3P is oxidized into 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate.
(step 6 - 10) - NAD+ accept the electron, and reduced to NADH + H+.
b) G3P phosphorylation
- free phosphate group from the cytosol, bind to 1st carbon
of G3P forming 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate

1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate 7. 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate is dephosphorylated into
3-phosphoglycerate.
- Phosphate group at 1st carbon of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate is
transferred to ADP. ATP is formed by substrate level
phosphorylation.
3-phosphoglycerate

8. 3-phosphoglycerate is isomerized into 2 phospholycerate.

- The left phosphate group is relocated to 2nd carbon.

2-phosphoglycerate
9. 2-phosphoglycerate is dehydrated and converted into
phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP).
- loss 1 H2O

Phosphoenolpyruvate 10. PEP is dephosphorylated into pyruvate.

(PEP) - Phosphate group from PEP is transferred to ADP
- ATP is formed by substrate-level phosphorylation.

Summary : 1 glucose = 2 pyruvate

Pyruvate = 2 net ATP
= 2 NADH + 2H+
 NET PRODUCTION IN GLYCOLYSIS
Substrate Net Products
1 glucose 2 net ATP
2 NADH + 2H+
2 pyruvate

• 2 NADH + 2H+ - an electron carrier & act as reducing agent in Oxidative Phosphorylation

• 2 pyruvate - oxidized in Link reaction

 LINK REACTION
(Conversion of Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA)

Oxidative
phosphorylation
Link
Krebs (ETC &
cycle Chemiosmosis)
reaction

By Substrate level By Substrate level By Oxidative

phosphorylation phosphorylation phosphorylation
 LINK REACTION
(Conversion of Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA)
• Link glycolysis and Krebs Cycle
• In link reaction, pyruvate (3C) is broken down into CO2 (1C) and acetyl CoA
(2C) through oxidative decarboxylation
• Acetyl CoA will be used in Krebs cycle
THREE STEPS:
1. Decarboxylation of pyruvate:
- 1C from 3C pyruvate is removed as CO2 forming
2C fragment
2. Oxidation:
⚫ 2C fragment is oxidized forming 2C acetate Oxidative
⚫ By transfer electron and H+ to NAD+ phosphorylation
(ETC &
 NAD+ reduced into NADH + H+ Chemiosmosis)

3. Addition of Coenzyme A (CoA):

 addition of CoA to 2C acetate
 forming acetyl CoA which then enters into the
Krebs cycle By Oxidative
phosphorylation
 PRODUCTS OF LINK REACTION
Substrate Net Products
1 pyruvate 1 NADH + 1H+
1 Acetyl CoA
1 CO2
1 glucose @ 2 NADH + 2H+
2 pyruvate 2 Acetyl CoA
2 CO2

• NADH + H+ - an electron carries & act as reducing agent in Oxidative Phosphorylation

• Acetyl CoA - oxidized in Krebs Cycle

• CO2 - a byproduct (release to atmosphere)

 Question
Step X, Y & Z occur in Link Reaction through oxidative decarboxylation.

X Z

a) At which step oxidation of pyruvate occur in the diagram? [1m] Y

b) At which step decarboxylation of pyruvate occur in the diagram? [1m] X
c) State the function of Coenzyme A? [1m]
Carry acetyl group and combine it with oxaloacetate in Krebs Cycle
d) State the product of link reaction from 1 glucose? [1m]
2 CO2 , 2NADH + 2H+ and 2 Acetyl CoA
 5.1.2 KREBS CYCLE

OBJECTIVES:

• Illustrate to explain Krebs cycle :

( oxaloacetate  citrate  isocitrate 
 - ketoglutarate  succinyl CoA 
succinate  fumarate  malate)
 KREBS CYCLE
Definition:
A cycle that completely oxidize acetyl coenzyme A to produce ATP,
carbon dioxide and water through series of enzymatic reaction.

• Also known as tricarboxylic acid cycle

or citric acid cycle
• Krebs cycle is the second step in
aerobic respiration (after glycolysis
and link reaction)
• Occur in the matrix of mitochondria
• Has eight steps, each catalyzed by a
specific enzyme
- 8 steps
-
-
8 intermediate substrates
1 acetyl CoA = 1 Krebs cycle KREBS CYCLE
- Produce NADH, FADH2, ATP, CO2
 8 steps in Krebs Cycle:
1. Acetyl-CoA (2C) enter Krebs Cycle and combine with Oxaloacetate (OAA) (4C)
forming citrate (6C).
Pyruvate - Unstable bond attaching acetyl group to CoA breaks.
Link - CoA detach while acetyl group (2C) attach to OAA (4C) forming citrate (6C).
reaction - Free CoA will combine with another acetyl group.

Acetyl-CoA 2. Citrate(6C) is isomerized into isocitrate (6C).

- by removal of 1 H2O and additional of 1 H2O.
3. Isocitrate (6C) undergoes oxidative decarboxylation and converted into
α-ketoglutarate (5C).
- NAD+ is reduced to NADH + H+
Oxaloacetate (OAA) Citrate
- carbon is removed as CO2.
4. α-ketoglutarate (5C) undergoes oxidative decarboxylation and converted into
Succinyl CoA (4C).
Malate Isocitrate - NAD+ is reduced to NADH + H+
- carbon is removed as CO2.
- Succinyl group bind to CoA to form succinyl-CoA (4C).
5. Succinyl-CoA (4C) is converted to succinate (4C).
- CoA is displaced by phosphate group, the phosphate group then transferred
Fumarate α-Ketoglutarate - to GDP, forming GTP.
- GTP is dephosphorylated to GDP. Phosphate group released is added to
ADP, to form ATP. This is substrate level phosphorylation.
6. Succinate (4C) is oxidized into fumarate (4C).
- 2 H+ is transferred to FAD & FAD is reduced to FADH2.
Succinate Succinyl-CoA
7. Fumarate (4C) is hydrated into Malate (4C) by additional of 1 H2O.
8. Malate (4C) is oxidized into OAA (4C).
- NAD+ is reduced to NADH. OAA (4C) is regenerated.
 PRODUCTS OF KREBS CYCLE
Substrate Net Products Cycle
1 Acetyl CoA 3 NADH + 3H+
1 ATP 1 cycle
1 FADH2
2 CO2

1 glucose @ 2 6 NADH + 6H+

Acetyl CoA 2 ATP 2 cycles
2 FADH2
4 CO2

• NADH + H+ & FADH2 - an electron carrier & act as reducing agent in Oxidative Phosphorylation

• CO2 - a byproduct (release to atmosphere)

 5.1.3 OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
OBJECTIVES:

(a) Illustrate to explain electron transport chain :

The pathway of electron transport is NADH dehydrogenase,
Succinate dehydrogenase, Ubiquinone/ CoQ,
cyt c reductase , cyt c, cyt c oxidase.
(b) Explain chemiosmosis : proton motive force
(c) Explain complete oxidation of one molecule of glucose in
active cells to produce 38 ATP.
 OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
Definition:
The production of ATPU using energy derived from the redox
reactions of an electron transport chain
• Consist of:
(i) Electron transport chain (ETC)
(ii) Chemiosmosis
 ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN (ETC)
Definition:
Series of electron carrier molecules, embedded in inner membrane of
mitochondria that carry electron from NADH and FADH2 during redox
reaction to synthesis ATP

Thousands of electron transport chain

(ETC) located in:
(i) Inner membrane of mitochondria
including cristae
(ii) Thylakoid membrane of chloroplast
 ETC: COMPONENTS
4 Protein complex: 2 mobile carrier:
(i) NADH dehydrogenase complex (Complex I) (i) Ubiquinone / Coenzyme Q (CoQ)
(ii) Succinate dehydrogenase complex (Complex II) (ii) Cytochrome c (cyt. c)
(iii) Cytochrome c reductase complex (Complex III)
(iv) Cytochrome c oxidase complex (Complex IV)
ETC: REDOX REACTION
• A component of the chain is reduced
- When it accepts electron from its
‘uphill’ neighbour

• A component of the chain is oxidized

- When it passes electron to its
‘downhill’ neighbour
ETC: FUNCTION
⚫ ETC makes no ATP directly.

⚫ Its function is to ease the fall of electrons from

food (glucose) to oxygen, breaking a large free
energy drop into a series of smaller steps that
release energy in manageable amounts.

⚫ ATP synthesis is complete, through a mechanism

called chemiosmosis.
 ETC:
ELECTRON CARRIER @ REDUCING AGENT
• NADH + H+ & FADH2 from glycolysis, link reaction & Krebs cycle will
act as reducing agent to reduce components of ETC.

• Hydrogen atom from NADH + H+ & FADH2 undergoes oxidation and

dissociates into proton and electron (occur in mitochondrial matrix).
- Proton / hydrogen ion (H+) released in the mitochondrial matrix
- Electron (e-) enters ETC (and reduce components of ETC)
 ETC: BASIC CONCEPT
 Electron is passed from one carrier to another
 Electron transfer involve redox reaction
 Carrier molecule that receive electron is
reduced
 Carrier molecule that lost electron is oxidized
 The carrier within each complex become
alternately reduced and oxidized as they
accept and donate electrons
 ETC: BASIC CONCEPT -
FLOW OF ELECTRON
Pathway of electron carried by NADH:
NADH+ + H+
2H+
NADH Cytochrome c
2e- Cyt Cytochrome c H2O
dehydrogenase CoQ reductase ½ O2
c oxidase complex
NAD+ complex complex

Flow of electron

Pathway of electron carried by FADH2:

FADH2 2H+
2e- Succinate Cytochrome c
Cyt Cytochrome c H2O
dehydrogenase CoQ reductase ½ O2
c oxidase complex
FAD+ complex complex

Flow of electron

The carrier within each complex become alternately reduced and oxidized as they
accept and donate electrons
 ETC: Flow of electron from NADH
1. NADH+ H+ transfer electron to NADH dehydrogenase,
2. NADH is oxidized, NADH dehydrogenase is reduced, H+
(proton) pumped from matrix into intermembrane space
of mitochondria
3. NADH dehydrogenase transfer electron to Coenzyme Q
NADH dehydrogenase is oxidized, CoQ is reduced
4. CoQ transfer electron to Cytochrome c reductase
5. CoQ is oxidized, Cytochrome c reductase is reduced, H+
(proton) pumped from matrix into intermembrane space
6. Cytochrome c reductase transfer electron to Cyt c,
7. Cytochrome c reductase is oxidized, Cyt c is reduced
8. Cyt c transfer electron to Cytochrome c oxidase,
9. Cyt c is oxidized, Cytochrome c oxidase is reduced, H+
(proton) pumped from matrix into intermembrane space
10. Cytochrome c oxidase transfer the electron to oxygen
(final electron acceptor),
12. Cytochrome c oxidase is oxidized, Oxygen is reduced and
combine with H+ to form water: ½ O2 + 2H+ → H2O
13. As electron flow along the ETC start from NADH dehydrogenase, Coenzyme Q, Cytochrome C reductase, Cyt c and
Cytochrome c oxidase,
14. redox reaction occur to the components of ETC.
15. Hydrogen ion (proton) pumped from matrix into intermembrane space of mitochondria by NADH dehydrogenase,
Cytochrome c reductase & Cytochrome c oxidase.
 ETC: Flow of electron from FADH2
1. FADH2 transfer electron to succinate dehydrogenase,
2. FADH2 is oxidized, succinate dehydrogenase is reduced,
3. Succinate dehydrogenase transfer electron to CoQ,
4. Succinate dehydrogenase is oxidized, CoQ is reduced
5. CoQ transfer electron to Cytochrome c reductase
6. CoQ is oxidized, Cytochrome c reductase is reduced, H+
(proton) pumped from matrix into intermembrane space
7. Cytochrome c reductase transfer electron to Cyt c,
8. Cytochrome c reductase is oxidized, Cyt c is reduced
9. Cty c transfer electron to Cytochrome c oxidase,
10. Cyt c is oxidized, Cytochrome c oxidase is reduced, H+
(proton) pumped from matrix into intermembrane space
11. Cytochrome c oxidase transfer the electron to oxygen
(final electron acceptor),
12. Cytochrome c oxidase is oxidized, Oxygen is reduced and
combine with H+ to form water: 2H+ + ½ O2 → H2O
13. As electron flow along the ETC start from Succinate dehydrogenase, Coenzyme Q, Cytochrome C reductase, Cyt c and
Cytochrome c oxidase,
14. redox reaction occur to the components of ETC.
15. Hydrogen ion (proton) pumped from matrix into intermembrane space of mitochondria by Cytochrome c reductase &
Cytochrome c oxidase.
What happen to the hydrogen ion (proton) that are pumped into the
mitochondrial intermembrane space from mitochondrial matrix?

Proton pump occur at 3 large protein complex:

NADH dehydrogenase (Complex I)
Cytochrome c reductase (Complex III)
Cytochrome c oxidase (Complex IV)

• Proton pumped from mitochondrial matrix to mitochondrial

intermembrane space.
• Causes accumulation of high concentration of proton in the
mitochondrial intermembrane space.
• Lead to chemiosmosis process.
 ETC & CHEMIOSMOSIS
 Energy is released during the transfer of electron
 The energy released is used in chemiosmosis for
synthesizing ATP by oxidative phosphorylation

▪ NADH + H+ ETC & Chemiosmosis 3 ATP

▪ FADH2 ETC & Chemiosmosis 2 ATP

 CHEMIOSMOSIS
Definition:
The movement of hydrogen ion (H+ ) from high [H+ ] to low [H+ ]
through ATP synthase to catalyze the synthesis of ATP from ADP and
inorganic phosphate
 CHEMIOSMOSIS
• In ETC, protein complexes pumped out proton (H+) from
mitochondrial matrix to mitochondrial intermembrane space.
• Causes accumulation of high concentration of proton (H+) in the
mitochondrial intermembrane space compare to concentration
of proton (H+) in matrix of mitochondria.
• This will resulting in proton (H+) gradient across the membrane or
proton motive force (H+ becomes energetic).
• H+ gradient causes H+ to diffuse back into mitochondrial matrix
down the concentration gradient through ATP synthase
• As H+ diffuse through the ATP synthase, H+ releases its energy
and will activate the ATP synthase
• Activated ATP synthase will catalyze the formation of ATP from
ADP + Pi
• ADP + Pi are from matrix of mitochondria
• From 1 NADH that reduce the ETC, 3 ATP is synthesized in
chemiosmosis.
• From 1 FADH2 that reduce the ETC, 2 ATP is synthesized in
chemiosmosis.
CHEMIOSMOSIS
• For each glucose molecule that
enters cellular respiration,
chemiosmosis produces up to 34
ATP molecules through oxidative
phosphorylation (in active cells).
ATP Synthase
TOTAL PRODUCTION OF ATP FROM 1 MOLECULE OF GLUCOSE
IN ACTIVE CELLS DURING:

Oxidative Phosphorylation

Glycolysis 2 NADH + 2 H+ × 3 ATP 6 ATP

Link reaction 2 NADH + 2 H+ × 3 ATP 6 ATP

Krebs cycle 6 NADH + 6H+ × 3 ATP 18 ATP

2 FADH2 × 2 ATP 4 ATP

Total number of ATP 34 ATP

 OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
1. NADH + H+ (produced in glycolysis, link reaction and Krebs cycle) is oxidized and transfer its electron to NADH
dehydrogenase.
2. While FADH2 (produced in Krebs cycle) is oxidized and transfer its electron to succinate dehydrogenase.
3. The electrons from NADH dehydrogenase and succinate dehydrogenase are transferred to ubiquinone/CoQ.
4. From CoQ, electrons are transferred to a series of cytochrome; cytochrome c reductase, cytochrome c
and cytochrome c oxidase complex.
5. From cytochrome c oxidase complex, electrons is transferred to oxygen molecule which is the final electron acceptor.
6. ½ O2 combine with hydrogen ion or proton (H+) from the mitochondrial matrix and electrons from
cytochrome c oxidase complex to form water molecules (H2O)
7. Energy is released during the transfer of electrons or redox reaction
8. The energy is used by NADH dehydrogenase, cytochrome c reductase and cytochrome c oxidase complex to pump
out hydrogen ion / proton (H+) from the mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space of mitochondria.
9. Causing the accumulation of high concentration of proton ( H+) in the intermembrane space of mitochondria.
10. Resulting in proton (H+) gradient across the membrane or proton motive force.
11. H+ gradient caused H+ to diffuse back into mitochondrial matrix down the concentration gradient
through ATP synthase. This process known as chemiosmosis.
12. ATP synthase is activated to catalyze the formation of ATP from ADP + Pi
13. 1 NADH can synthesis 3 ATP.
14. 1 FADH2 can synthesis 2 ATP.
15. From 1 glucose molecule,
16. 34 ATP are synthesized in oxidative phosphorylation.
17. 2 NADH from glycolysis synthesis 6 ATP,
18. 2 NADH from link reaction synthesis 6 ATP,
19. 6 NADH from Krebs Cycle synthesis 18 ATP,
20. 2 FADH2 from Krebs Cycle synthesis 4 ATP.
 TOTAL PRODUCTION OF ATP IN ACTIVE CELLS
DURING AEROBIC RESPIRATION (per glucose)
1) Substrate Level Phosphorylation
Glycolysis 2 ATP
Krebs cycle 2 ATP

2) Oxidative Phosphorylation
Glycolysis 2 NADH + 2 H+ × 3 ATP 6 ATP
Link reaction 2 NADH + 2 H+ × 3 ATP 6 ATP
Krebs cycle 6 NADH + 6H+ × 3 ATP 18 ATP

2 FADH2 × 2 ATP 4 ATP

Total number of ATP 38 ATP

 2 Pyruvate
2 Acetyl CoA

2 NADH
2 ATP 2 NADH
6 NADH 2 FADH2 2 ATP

2 6 6 18 4 2

38
 ATP PRODUCTION IN ACTIVE CELL BY AEROBIC RESPIRATION
• In glycolysis
• 2 ATPs are used
• For the conversion of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate
• And conversion of fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate
• 4 ATPs are formed from substrate level phosphorylation
• 2 ATPs from (2x) conversion 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to 3-phosphoglycerate - And 2 ATPs from (2x) conversion
of PEP / phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate - Net production 2 ATP from glycolysis

• Link reaction
• Conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA produce 2 NADH

• In Krebs cycle / citric cycle (from 2 pyruvate)

• 2 ATPs are produced from substrate level phosphorylation
• During (2x) conversion succinyl CoA to succinate

• In oxidative phosphorylation (Electron Transport Chain and Chemiosmosis)

• 3 ATPs are generated from each NADH
• 2 ATPs are generated from each FADH2
• 2 NADH from glycolysis are transported from cytoplasm to mitochondria via FAD to generate 4 ATP
• 2 NADH produced from the conversion pyruvate to acetyl CoA generate 6 ATP - 6 NADH from 2x Krebs cycle
generate 18 ATP
• 2 FADH2 from 2x Krebs cycle generate 4 ATP
16.3 ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
FERMENTATION AND
ITS APPLICATION
OBJECTIVE:
(a) Explain what is meant by fermentation

(b) State importance of fermentation in industry

i. Bakery
ii. Wine, beverage and alcohol production
iii. Dairy industry – cheese and yogurt
iv. Local examples
 ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
A type of cellular respiration where organic molecules (e.g. glucose,
carbohydrate) are partially oxidized in the absence of oxygen

• Since substrate is partially oxidized,

➢ Production of small amount of energy
➢ From 1 glucose, only 2 ATP is produced (in glycolysis)

FERMENTATION
A catabolic process that makes a limited amount of ATP from glucose (or other organic
molecules) without an electron transport chain and that produces ethanol in plant and yeast
cell, or lactic acid (lactate) in muscle cell.

➢Involve glycolysis
➢Generate ATP by substrate level phosphorylation
➢Involve regeneration of NAD+ (as electron acceptor)
 TYPES OF FERMENTATION
ALCOHOL FERMENTATION
- Occur in plants, yeast, bacteria
- Conversion of pyruvate (formed from glycolysis)
to ethanol (ethyl alcohol) and CO2
- Total ATP produced : 2 ATP per glucose (less
than aerobic respiration)
LACTATE FERMENTATION
- Occurs when oxygen is not available.
- For example, in muscle tissues during
rapid and vigorous exercise, muscle cells
may be depleted of oxygen.
- They then switch from respiration to
fermentation.
- Lactate (Lactic acid) that builds up in the
tissue causes fatigue, cramp and lower
blood pH (in muscle tissue)
 ALCOHOL FERMENTATION
• 1 glucose undergoes glycolysis producing 2 ATP, 2 (NADH+H+) and 2 pyruvate.
• In absence of oxygen, two steps involved during alcoholic fermentation:

i) DECARBOXYLATION OF PYRUVATE
→ Removal of carboxyl group in form of CO2,
→ Conversion of pyruvate to two-carbon compound acetaldehyde / ethanal.

ii) REDUCTION OF ACETALDEHYDE/ETHANAL

→ Acetaldehyde/ethanal is reduced by NADH+H+ to ethanol.
→ This regenerates the supply of NAD+ needed for continuation of glycolysis.
 LACTATE FERMENTATION
• 1 glucose undergoes glycolysis producing 2 ATP, 2 (NADH+H+) and 2 pyruvate.

In absence of oxygen, lactate fermentation occur:

• Pyruvate is reduced directly by NADH+H+ to form lactate / lactic acid.
→ Catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase
→ Without release of CO2
• Total ATP produced : 2 ATP per glucose (less than aerobic respiration)
→ Provide energy for a brief period, before O2 supply back to normal

• NAD+ is reused for glycolysis.

 Anaerobic Respiration:
Summary
Both alcohol and lactate fermentation are
highly inefficient because only 2 ATP are
produced (per glucose)
Alcohol fermentation (plants, yeast bacteria):
Glucose 2 ethanol + 2 CO2 + 2 ATP

Lactate fermentation (muscle cells):

Glucose 2 lactate + 2 ATP
 Comparison Between Alcoholic
Fermentation and Lactate Fermentation
Similarities:
✓ Both produces 2 ATP
✓ Both used pyruvate in subsequent reactions
✓ Both undergoes glycolysis
✓ Both process occurs in cytosol

Differences:
ALCOHOL FERMENTATION LACTATE FERMENTATION
Produce carbon dioxide Produce lactic acid/lactate
and ethanol
Carbon dioxide is removed No carbon dioxide is removed
// decarboxylation occur // No decarboxylation occur
Occur in plant cell, yeast Occur in muscle cell of animal
and bacteria
IMPORTANCE OF FERMENTATION IN
INDUSTRY
1 3

Dairy industry
Bakery (making bread) (cheese & yoghurt)

2
4

Vinegar, beverage and Local examples

alcohol production (Tempe, Thosai, Tapai)
IMPORTANCE OF FERMENTATION IN
INDUSTRY
1 BAKERY

➢Addition of yeast to dough

➢Yeast undergo alcohol fermentation
➢CO2 is released; dough rise and soften in
texture
 IMPORTANCE OF FERMENTATION IN
INDUSTRY
2 BREWING INDUSTRY (e.g: wine, beverage &
alcohol production)

➢ Wine: alcohol fermentation of yeast grapes

➢ Beer: alcohol fermentation of yeast on
maltose (from germinating barley seeds)
 IMPORTANCE OF FERMENTATION IN
INDUSTRY
3 Making of DAIRY PRODUCTS (e.g: cheese &
yoghurt)

➢ Lactate fermentation by bacteria Lactobacillus sp.

➢Convert lactose to lactate (lactic acid)
➢Presence of lactate:
- Lower pH of milk
- Causing coagulation of protein, forming
yoghurt
IMPORTANCE OF FERMENTATION IN
INDUSTRY
4 LOCAL EXAMPLES
Tempe Dadih

Tapai
Budu

Cincalok
Soy sauce
IMPORTANCE OF FERMENTATION IN
INDUSTRY
4 LOCAL EXAMPLES

➢E.g: ‘tempe’
- Fermentation of soy beans by fungus
Rhizopus oligosporus

➢ E.g: Soy sauce

- Fermentation of soy beans by fungus
Aspergillus sojae
 Similarities Between Aerobic Respiration
and Anaerobic Respiration

Similarities:
✓ Both produce ATP through substrate level phosphorylation
✓ Both undergoes glycolysis // Both use products of glycolysis in
subsequent reactions → Pyruvate , NADH + H+
✓ Both use NAD+ as oxidizing agent
 Differences:
AEROBIC RESPIRATION ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
Require oxygen Doesn’t require oxygen
Occurs in cytoplasm/cytosol and Occurs in cytoplasm/cytosol only
mitochondria
Involve glycolysis, Krebs cycle & ETC Involve glycolysis only
Complete oxidation of glucose Incomplete oxidation of glucose
More efficient : produce 38 or 36 ATP Less efficient: Produce 2 ATP
Product are ATP, CO2 and water Product are ATP, CO2 and ethanol (in
plant cells) or lactate (in muscle cells)
NAD+ and FAD as electron acceptor NAD+ as electron acceptor
Final electron acceptor is oxygen. Final electron acceptor is ethanal (in
plant cell) or pyruvate (in muscle cell)