CHAPTER I

Introduction

The agricultural industry is always concerned with safeguarding crop production

against pests, and one of the largest risks to onion agriculture globally is the onion
armyworm (Spodoptera exigua). This insect is a voracious feeder that seriously
damages onion harvests, costing growers a significant amount of money. The
environmental impact and long-term sustainability of conventional pest management
approaches are called into doubt by the usage of chemicals.

In response to these problems, an increasing number of people are looking into

environmentally acceptable alternatives for controlling agricultural pests. One strategy
for biological management that seems promising is the use of parasitoids, which are
natural enemies that prey on insect pests. Some studies show how parasitoids could
help to decrease the population of onion armyworms.

The study examines how well parasitoids inhibit the onion army worm in a laboratory
environment. Through closely supervised trials conducted in a laboratory setting, our
goal is to determine whether using parasitoids can be a practical and long-term solution
to mitigate the pest's negative impact on onion crops. The development of effective,
environmentally safe pest control methods depends on an understanding of the
complexity of the connection between parasitoids and onion army worms.

Statement of objectives
The objectives of this study are:
- To evaluate the parasitoid's ability to parasitize onion armyworm larvae.
- To assess the impact of parasitoid infestation on onion armyworm population
dynamics.
- To analyze the potential of parasitoids as a sustainable solution for onion armyworm
control.

Hypotheses

Null:
There is no significant difference in the efficiency of parasitoids in controlling the onion
army worm compared to the control group without parasitoid intervention.

Alternative:
The efficiency of parasitoids in controlling the onion army worm is significantly higher
than the control group without parasitoid intervention.

Significance of the study

The result may be advantageous to:

Farmers: The findings of this study may provide farmers with a sustainable and
environmentally friendly alternative for managing onion armyworm infestations. By
reducing reliance on chemical pesticides, farmers can contribute to healthier
ecosystems and potentially lower production costs.

Consumers: Reduced reliance on chemical pesticides may lead to lower pesticide

residues in harvested onions, contributing to safer and healthier produce for consumers.
Individuals: They can gain knowledge about alternative pest control strategies,
empowering them to make informed decisions.

Scope and limitation

This study focuses on assessing the efficiency of specific parasitoid species in

laboratory conditions against the onion army worm. This study aims to find out the
effectiveness of parasitoid to onion army worms.

Definition of terms:

Parasitoids: placed in the container with onion armyworm and inhibits it to try to control
onion armyworm.

Onion armyworm: placed in a container with corn leaves as its habitat.

 CHAPTER II

This chapter dwells on the related literature which have considerable similarity to this
study in terms of content and context.

Onion armyworm(Spodoptera exigua)

According to Greenburg et al. (2001), there are three key statistic were used to
assess performance of S. exigua on the different host plants: 1) feeding index, 2)
intrinsic rate of increase, and 3) growth index (percentage immature survival divided by
immature development time). The average total leaf weight ingested by larvae was
highest in cabbage (2.7 g) and lowest in pigweed (1.6 g). The feeding index was highest
for pigweed, followed by cotton, pepper, sunflower, and cabbage. On all host plants,
there was a substantial link between the amount of leaf tissue consumed and the pupal
weight. Similarly, all host plants showed substantial associations between pupal weight
and future adult fertility. Spodoptera exigua raised on pigweed produced the most
female progeny (62.2%), while cabbage larvae produced the fewest (43.6%). The larval
stage lasted 12.4 days on pigweed and 18.0 days on pepper. Pigweed had the highest
larval survival rate (94.4%), whereas cabbage had the lowest (67.1%).

According to Xia-lin et al. (2011), Since 1972, the spread of Spodoptera exigua has
expanded to 34 countries. Spodoptera exigua population dynamics differed during the
winter, however overwintering locations and migratory paths remain unclear. The
migratory phenomenon, which demonstrated moths' strong flying capacity, was
observed in the United States, the United Kingdom, Fennoscandia, and Japan
throughout the spring and early summer. In the fall, we'll return to the United Kingdom
and China. Based on monsoon, geographic distribution, and winter population
dynamics, we hypothesized that Spodoptera exigua migrate northward in spring and
early summer in China, and southward in fall in the United States and Japan.
 According to Azidah and Azirun (2006), adult longevity was unaffected by the host
plant, however female and male longevity differed across the host plants. The host plant
has an impact on Spodoptera exigua survival during its larval stage. The number of
larval instars ranged from 5 to 8 within and between host plants. Long bean was shown
to be the greatest host plant for Spodoptera exigua, providing faster development, fewer
larval instars, and a greater survival rate than the other host plants.

According to Saeed et al. (2010), the average number of eggs laid by females raised
on cauliflower was much higher than on peas or wheat. Similarly, cauliflower had much
higher egg viability, intrinsic rate of population increase, adult eclosion, and adult
longevity compared to peas and wheat. The low survival rates on peas and wheat
indicate that these host plants are unsuitable for Spodoptera exigua, whereas the
increased pupal weight on cauliflower indicates that it provides superior food quality
than peas and wheat. On peas and wheat, fitness decreased with each generation,
implying that the average fitness of individuals may diminish as a result of the
eradication of insects with greater fitness. Our findings imply that cauliflower was the
most nutrient-dense and favored host plant. Such findings could be beneficial in
developing cultural management measures, like trap cropping.

Zheng et al. (2011), states that we evaluated Spodoptera exigua larvae pupation
behavior in the laboratory and investigated pupation sites and depths in the field as
parameters for winter field experiments. Pupal survival in a natural pupal chamber at
4°C suggested that Spodoptera exigua has a protective mechanism against chilling
harm. The pupal chambers were mostly detected at depths of 1.1-2.0 cm in the field. A
field investigation revealed that the pupation sites were directly beneath plant canopies,
and that soil structure influenced larval pupation selection.

According to Che et al. (2013), there is no cross-resistance between chlorfenapyr and

the other insecticides in use today. Four years of resistance screening at two locations
revealed distinct resistance patterns between populations in Luhe (Jiangsu Province)
and Fengxian (Shanghai), located around 300 kilometers apart. Resistance to
chlorpyrifos was substantially higher in Luhe populations (877- to 3,080-fold) than in
Fengxian (8- to 110-fold). Fengxian populations showed moderate resistance to
tebufenozide (13- to 87-fold), whereas Luhe populations developed no resistance (2- to
6-fold). However, Luhe populations exhibited moderate resistance to chlorfluazuron (21-
to 31-fold), whereas Fengxian populations showed no resistance (3- to 5-fold). Despite
the fact that Spodoptera exigua has long-distance migratory capacity, local pesticide
selection is thought to have influenced resistance patterns.Adaptive resistance
management methods (such as rotations) should be developed and executed based on
the resistance patterns of Spodoptera exigua in each geographic region.

Stated by Wang et al. (2006), after five generations of selection, the resistance of S.
exigua to spinosad increased 345.4 times compared with the susceptible strain. The
results showed that PBO (Piperonyl Butoxide) had a strong synergistic effect on the
resistant strain. In vitro, microsomal-O-demethylase and glutathione S-transferase
activity in the resistant strain was 5.2- and 1.0-fold higher than in the susceptible strain.
The findings suggested that microsomal-O-demethylase may be significant in giving
spinosad resistance in the Spodoptera exigua population.

According to Huang et al. (2014), PO (pogestone) has potent insecticidal properties,

including antifeedant, larvicidal, growth inhibitory, and pupicidal activity against
Spodoptera litura and Spodoptera exigua. Additionally, PO administration greatly
extended the larval and pupal development periods. Furthermore, PO demonstrated
modest ovicidal activity, influencing the moth's emergence and deformities. However,
PO did not have a significant effect on adult development. These measured parameters
were shown to be dosage dependent for both insect species.

Ahmad and Arif (2010), stated that the resistance to chlorpyrifos and pyrethroids
remained low from 1998 to 2002-2003, but increased to moderate to high levels
between 2003-2004 and 2006-2007. Deltamethrin resistance was extremely high from
2004 to 2007. Quinalphos resistance remained low from 1998 to 2006.These results
suggest that the conventional chemistries should be replaced with new chemistries for
the successful management of Spodoptera exigua.

Lai and Su (2011), stated that to assess the potential for resistance evolution, a field-
collected population of Spodoptera exigua was exposed to chlorantraniliprole
repeatedly. After 22 generations of selection, LC50 increased by 12.0‐fold. The realized
heritability (h2) of resistance was calculated to be 0.1082 utilizing threshold trait
analysis. According to the estimated rate of resistance development, if h2 = 0.1082 and
70% of the population was killed in each generation, chlorantraniliprole's LC50 would
grow tenfold in 21.7 generations. These results show that the risk of resistance
development to chlorantraniliprole exists in Spodoptera exigua after continuous
application.

According to Zhou et al (2011), spodoptera exigua resistance ratios to newer

pesticides such as emamectin benzoate, chlorfenapyr, and indoxacarb were all less
than 20-fold, and there was no discernible change over the three years. Spodoptera
exigua is moderately resistant to spinosyn, with resistance ratios increasing from 1.98-
5.31-fold in 2008 to 14.31-64.20-fold in 2010 across three locations when compared to
WHLC. Spodoptera exigua exhibited moderate to high resistance to insect growth
regulators such as tebufenozide, methoxyfenozide, and chlorfluazuron in 2008, 2009,
and 2010, with resistance to chlorfluazuron rapidly increasing from 31.49-88.19-fold in
2008 to 1184.39-2789.67-fold in 2010. There are several reasons accounting for varying
degrees of resistance, including selection pressure, cropping structure and migration, in
which the migration of Spodopter. exigua may play an important role.

According to Ishtiaq et al. (2012), most of the Spodoptera exigua populations had
high to extremely high levels of resistance to organophosphates, indicating that they
should be avoided as a pest treatment. Pyrethroids could be used selectively in
locations with low resistance, such as Multan and Khanewal. The novel chemical
insecticides lufenuron, methoxyfenozide, indoxacarb, and emamectin showed no, very
low, low, and moderate resistance levels in the majority of the studied populations,
respectively. These are also thought to be environmentally friendly and safer for natural
enemies. Because of these qualities, they could be utilized in IPM programs in
conjunction with bio-control agents such as Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (NPV) and
natural enemies including parasitoids and predators. Rotating insecticides with different
modes of action in populations with no, extremely low, or low levels of resistance may
also aid in the management of pesticide resistance in Spodoptera exigua.

Parasitoid

According to Hochberg et al. (2000)

The most often utilized agents in the biological management of insect pests, insect
parasitoids are remarkable in the diversity of their lives and have grown to be essential
study organisms in the field of population biology. This book brings together the
thoughts of seventeen global experts, giving the reader not just a summary but also
spirited debates on the most pressing issues facing the subject right now and
suggestions for future research directions.

According to Heraty et al. (2017)

To effectively control insect pests, one must have a thorough grasp of the species
richness, geographic distribution, and interactions of parasitoids. The seven orders of
Holometabola (Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, Neuroptera, Strepsiptera, Trichoptera,
and Hymenoptera) contain parasitoids, with Hymenoptera having by far the most
species variety and numerical abundance. Particular consideration should be given to
the Hymenoptera, Phoridae, and Tachinidae due to their collective contribution to the
biodiversity of parasitoids. When it comes to controlling pests in agroecosystems, the
Tachinidae and Hymenoptera are by far the most significant taxa. Although few of these
have been employed for biological control, other parasitoid groups are significant in the
management of their insect hosts.
 According to Guinti et al. (2015)
A large number of hymenopterous parasitoids are biological control agents that cause
economically significant arthropod pests of forestry, agriculture, and natural ecosystems
to die significantly. These vitally essential species rely on a range of inputs, including as
visual, olfactory, tactile, and vibrational cues, as they search for food, mating, and hosts
in complex settings. To maximize fitness in these situations, learning is frequently
essential. Here, we summarize what is currently known about the associative learning
capacities of both immature and adult parasitoids, with a focus on learning linked to
various stimuli: (i) reward-associated visual cues, like colors, shapes, and damage
patterns; (ii) reward-associated chemical cues, like non-host-related exogenous odors
and both long- and short-range olfactory cues originating from the plant-host complex;
and (iii) danger-associated chemical cues that can elicit avoidance behavior.

According to Moraes et al. (2000)

Over the past ten years, there has been a lot of interest in the demonstration that
parasitoids are drawn to volatile substances emitted by plants in response to herbivore
eating. Not only do plants release volatile signals in reaction to tissue damage, but
exposure to the salivary secretions of herbivores particularly triggers this process. While
certain volatile chemicals are retained in plant tissues and released instantly upon
damage, others are triggered by herbivore eating and released from both damaged and
undamaged leaves. As a result, damage limited to a few leaves triggers a reaction
across the plant, releasing volatiles. According to recent data, herbivore-induced plant
volatiles may not only be highly detectable and trustworthy markers of herbivore
presence, but they may also carry herbivore-specific information that enables
parasitoids to distinguish across long distances between even closely related herbivore
species. Here, we provide a summary of the most current advancements in the study of
interactions between parasitoids and plants.

According to Vet et al. (2001)

The dynamics of parasitoid-host populations, the evolution of parasitoid and host
behavior, and the use of parasitoids as natural enemies of insect pests in biological
control all depend on the efficacy of parasitoid searching. While population dynamicists
are more interested in variation in the outcome of parasitism and how this influences the
spatial distribution of host mortality and population stability, students of parasitoid
behavior try to explain variability in parasitoid searching behavior. Regretfully, there
hasn't been much clear evidence connecting population processes with behavior. Since
parasitoid seeking efficiency influences the temporal and spatial variety of host attacks,
it may be possible to link behavior to population processes. However, which actions
dictate how effective a search is? I try to pinpoint a few of these crucial behaviors in the
current work. They involve reactions to cues that aid parasitoids in determining key
elements of their hosts' spatial distribution, such as the food plants that the hosts are
eating on, the pattern of host distribution on those food plants, and the density and
quality of the hosts' patches. In many of these procedures, plant knowledge is crucial. In
this study, I will address the behavioral factors at play as well as any possible
implications for population processes.

According to Wang et al. (2019)

Biological control is a sustainable and safe method of managing pests in
agroecosystems by utilizing natural enemies including parasitic insects, predators, and
viruses. In agricultural and forest settings, parasitoid wasps—a very broad evolutionary
group of hymenopteran insects—are well-known biological control agents for arthropod
pests. Here, we provide an overview of the last five years' worth of developments in
China's use of parasitoid wasps for biocontrol. Some of these include the variety of
parasitoid wasp species, the identification of dominating wasp species linked to insect
pests, and the use of biocontrol techniques (classical, augmentative, and conservation
biological control) in a number of Chinese agroecosystems. Next, several mass-rearing
and release techniques are discussed, along with the commercialization of multiple
parasitoid wasp species. We also provide an overview of additional research that could
be useful in biocontrol, such as the impact of plant volatiles on parasitoids and the most
recent developments in the molecular pathways that parasitoid wasps utilize to regulate
their hosts. The paper also discusses future study areas and applied perspectives,
pointing out that global research is informed by developments in biocontrol technology
in Chinese agriculture.

According to Santos et al. (2011)

As controllers of host densities, parasitoids, which primarily comprise taxa within the
Hymenoptera, are crucial to the upkeep of other arthropod populations. Nevertheless,
the large-scale patterns of these insects and the determinants of those patterns remain
poorly understood. This review centers on several facets of parasitoid biology and
macroecological patterns that have been previously studied, encompassing recent
research on parasitoid faunas on islands. Numerous studies have examined parasitoid
latitudinal gradients, and the majority of them seem to indicate an unusual pattern of
species richness declining toward the tropics, especially among the Ichneumonidae. It
has been suggested that the parasitoid attack strategy and host feeding niche are
related to this trend. These latitudinal gradients could, however, be the result of biases
in the description or sample. Latitudinal variations in species richness are also seen in
island parasitoid faunas, where the percentage of generalist species rises towards the
tropics. Because of the presence of rainforests and the communities of nearby areas,
island communities are really skewed towards generalist species. Finally, we make
some brief recommendations for future research directions and addressed the necessity
of doing further studies on parasitoid large-scale diversity patterns.

According to Heimpel et al. (2003)

We study how the dynamics of two-host, one-parasited systems are affected by fecundity-limited
assault rates and host resistance to parasitism. Our main focus is on the scenario in which two
host species that are not equally suitable for parasitism are attacked by the same parasitoid
species. Some of the eggs given to marginal hosts do not develop, even when all of the eggs
given to eligible hosts mature into adult parasitoids. As a result, parasitoid eggs may find a sink
in marginal hosts. Low levels of parasitoid fecundity and limited host suitability are conducive to
three-species cohabitation. Additionally, our model generates an indirect (+, −) interaction where
the marginal host is negatively impacted by the presence of the suitable host, but the suitable
host can profit from the marginal host's existence. The mechanism behind the indirect (+, −)
interaction is the restriction on parasitoids' egg production caused by giving eggs to hosts that are
considered marginal.

According to Romo et al. (2013)

The range, activity, and number of natural enemies—which are crucial for controlling
crop pests that consume herbivores—are impacted by climate change. Furthermore, it
is anticipated that rising mean temperatures and a rise in the frequency of climatic
extremes may cause various reactions in different trophic levels, thereby upsetting
predator-prey relationships. We investigated the reaction of an aphid host-parasitoid
system to temperature fluctuation using field data. Temperature was positively
correlated with parasitoid attack rates as well as a non-significant tendency of greater
attack rates by hyperparasitoids. Increased hyperparasitism would imply that greater
trophic levels could interfere with forecasts of predator-prey interactions and partially
counteract any benefits of climate change to parasitoids.

References

Google Scholar. (n.d.-c). Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com/scholar?

start=20&q=+Spodoptera+exigua&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5#d=gs_qabs&t=1709425820025&u=%23p
%3DxSo7DYdbc4QJ

Google Scholar. (n.d.-b). Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com/scholar?

start=10&q=+Spodoptera+exigua&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5#d=gs_qabs&t=1709424626878&u=%23p
%3DNQVL08OmOd4J
Google Scholar. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com/scholar?
start=10&q=+Spodoptera+exigua&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5#d=gs_qabs&t=1709424094928&u=%23p
%3DCHvLpytTUwwJ

Google Scholar. (n.d.-f). Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com/scholar?

hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=+Spodoptera+exigua&btnG=#d=gs_qabs&t=1709423237553&u=
%23p%3DCQ5aArfJSzEJ

Google Scholar. (n.d.-e). Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com/scholar?

hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=+Spodoptera+exigua&btnG=#d=gs_qabs&t=1709422761848&u=
%23p%3DuLk7pqpzMgMJ

Google Scholar. (n.d.-d). Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com/scholar?

hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=+Spodoptera+exigua&btnG=#d=gs_qabs&t=1709422326919&u=
%23p%3DSLTqTDEXAmEJ

Google Scholar. (n.d.-c). Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com/scholar?

hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=+Spodoptera+exigua&btnG=#d=gs_qabs&t=1709421936904&u=
%23p%3D2YVxdt0QNNMJ

Google Scholar. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com/scholar?

hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=+Spodoptera+exigua&btnG=#d=gs_qabs&t=1709415342842&u=
%23p%3DSwV-uMEeWPYJ

Google Scholar. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com/scholar?

hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=+Spodoptera+exigua&btnG=#d=gs_qabs&t=1709415091932&u=
%23p%3Dme-qAvm4YiYJ

Google Scholar. (n.d.-b). Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com/scholar?

hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=+Spodoptera+exigua&btnG=#d=gs_qabs&t=1709391103830&u=
%23p%3DOQtfAadercYJ
Google Scholar. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com/scholar?
hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=+Spodoptera+exigua&btnG=#d=gs_qabs&t=1709379698445&u=
%23p%3Dxktgd_smA2oJ

Google Scholar. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com/scholar?

start=20&q=+Spodoptera+exigua&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5#d=gs_qabs&t=1709461436598&u=%23p
%3D3-8v0kECmE8J

Google Scholar. Retrieved from

https://scholar.google.com/scholar?
hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=parasitoid&oq=#d=gs_qabs&t=1709471451023&u=%23p
%3DEyOGP7ZpIrsJ

Google Scholar. Retrieved from

https://scholar.google.com/scholar?
start=0&q=parasitoid&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5#d=gs_qabs&t=1709394107011&u=%23p
%3DGmRxCkOmSHUJ

Google Scholar. Retrieved from

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1049964415001395

Google Scholar. Retrieved from

https://scholar.google.com/scholar?
start=70&q=parasitoid&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5#d=gs_qabs&t=1709395336394&u=%23p
%3D8yBpjeE3m0cJ

Google Scholar. Retrieved from

https://scholar.google.com/scholar?
start=90&q=parasitoid&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5#d=gs_qabs&t=1709396010514&u=%23p
%3DP_WtvQfvpREJ

Google Scholar. Retrieved from

https://scholar.google.com/scholar?
start=100&q=parasitoid&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5#d=gs_qabs&t=1709396536906&u=%23p
%3DJW087fbZKCQJ

Google Scholar. Retrieved from

https://scholar.google.com/scholar?
start=100&q=parasitoid&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5#d=gs_qabs&t=1709397733479&u=%23p%3D7-
pBT54k2JgJ

Google Scholar. Retrieved from

https://scholar.google.com/scholar?
start=120&q=parasitoid&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5#d=gs_qabs&t=1709398150578&u=%23p
%3DXeWyn7Bvfv4J

Google Scholar. Retrieved from

https://scholar.google.com/scholar?
start=130&q=parasitoid&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5#d=gs_qabs&t=1709472477509&u=%23p
%3D5icD58m_TDUJ
 CHAPTER III

This chapter covers the explanation of methods, research design,and research

settings that the researchers did all throughout the experimentation.

Research Design
According to Team leverage edu , (2023) experimental research is a type of research
design that uses a scientific approach and two sets of variables to measure variations in
the second set. It is used in quantitative research and must be verified to identify a
cause and effect.

Research Settings
The researchers conducted the experiment at the University of the Philippines Los
Baños. To know the effect of parasitoids against onion armyworm (Spodoptera exigua).

Flow Chart

Gathering of Material
 Preparation of experiment set-up

Inhibiting of parasitoids in onion armyworm

Data gathering

Data analysis

Gathering of materials

90 parasitoids and 120 onion armyworms were provided by UPLB crop protection
laboratory. 12 clean containers were bought by the researchers.

Preparation of experiment set-up

The experiment will have 12 trials. 3 For the control, 3 for only 24 hours, 3 for only
48 hours and 3 for 72 hours. Each trial consists of 10 armyworms each. Corn leaves are
placed in the container as an onion armyworm's natural habitat to make sure the
armyworm doesn't die out of its habitable place.

Inhibiting of parasitoids in onion armyworm

All the gathered parasitoids were put inside the container with the armyworm inside
it.

Data gathering
 All of the affected armyworms are counted manually and recorded in a table.

Data analysis

MANOVA was used in this study. it is used when there are two or more dependent
variables, and is often followed by significance tests involving individual dependent
variables separately.