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Compare and contrast Stocking’s (1965) notions of presentism and historicism, and discuss the relative merits of each approach. What considerations are involved in deciding what to include in a history
of psychology? Define a Zeitgeist, and explain its relationship to historical accounts. Define both the great-person approach to history and the historical development approach. What approach did Henley
elect to use? Presentism, Stocking explains, is the practice of comprehending the past by examining the present, by examining how psychology has evolved. historicism involves studying the past independently of
its connection to the present. studying history is influenced by these concepts. Lovett suggests that despite the emphasis on historicism, presentism is unavoidable, and studying history without considering current
knowledge is unproductive. Understanding change over time is crucial to comprehend progress. Zeitgeist, or the spirit of the times, is considered crucial for understanding historical development. This can be created
by factors like technological advancements, socioeconomic conditions, and scientific developments. Alternatively, one could focus on the great-person approach, which highlights the contributions of notable
individuals like Plato, Descartes, Darwin, Aristotle, or Freud. In this approach, history is often tied to the biographies of these individuals.Another method is the historical development approach, which emphasizes
how events and individuals have shaped ideas over time, such as the changing perception of mental illness. According to Henley and others, psychology is not pre-paradigmatic as Kuhn suggests, but a unique science
with several coexisting paradigms.Define and describe the three reasons the author cites for studying the history of psychology: (a) deeper understanding, (b) recognition of fads and fashions, (c) a source of
valuable ideas. Why did Galileo and Kant claim that psychology could never be a science? What are the two major components of a science?Understanding history is vital to avoid repeating past mistakes,
offering insight into psychology's origins. Recognizing trends and popular views helps discern truth from mere fashion, as these often change with the zeitgeist. Studying history also uncovers valuable ideas that may
have been overlooked or rejected, offering potential for further study or implementation. Galileo and Kant argue that psychology can't be a science due to its focus on subjective rather than objective experience. The
textbook indicates that science comprises empirical observation and theory, a pattern visible throughout history, according to Hull. Men observe and seek explanations, forming the empirical and theoretical
components of science.3.Define empirical observation and scientific theory, including its two functions, and describe their relation to rationalism and empiricism. What is public observation and why is it
important? Describe the two types of scientific laws and give an original example of each. Describe the difficulties in identifying causes. Empirical observation involves directly observing nature, categorizing
and comparing these observations. These observations inform scientific theories, which organize these details and guide future observations. Theories propose testable ideas, and their validity strengthens the theory.
Rationalists argue that applying logic determines proposition validity, while empiricists believe sensory experience explains knowledge. Modern science uses both views, with rationalism providing a framework for
empirical observation.Public observation asserts that all scientific laws and relationships should be verifiable by the public. The challenge in identifying causes stems from the cost, time, and complexity of the
required experimental researchScientific laws fall into two categories: correlational and causal. Causal laws, which specify how variables are related, are more powerful. For instance, a correlational law might note a
relationship between height and weight, while a causal law would state that cold weather leads to people wearing more clothes.Describe Karl Popper’s (1902–1994) objections to the traditional view of scientific
activity. Define the principle of falsifiability and the concept of postdiction, describing their relevance to scientific theorizing. Describe Popper’s views on theories. Popper disagreed with the traditional view
that scientific activity starts with empirical observation. Popper believed that science begins with a problem, not an observation, and that the problem determines observations. A scientific theory is distinguished by
the principle of falsifiability, it can be refuted. For a theory to be scientific, it makes risky predictions, that is, predictions which may be proven false. Popper believed that another problem with theories is that they
explain phenomena after it occurred (postdiction). He says that scientific progress results from theories’ incorrect predictions, not correct ones. In Popper’s view, all scientific theories will eventually be found to be
false and will be replaced by more adequate theoriesDescribe Thomas Kuhn’s (1922–1996) conception of scientific activity and define his notions of normal science, puzzle solving, anomalies, and his three
stages of scientific development. According to Henley, at what stage is contemporary psychology? Describe Feyerabend’s analysis of the use of rules and methods in science. Kuhn argues that science is
subjective and centers around paradigms, or prevailing viewpoints. Once a paradigm is accepted, its implications are explored, a process Kuhn likens to puzzle-solving and calls "normal science." Paradigms change
slowly, typically following anomalies that the current paradigm can't explain, leading to the proposal and eventual acceptance of a new viewpoin.Kuhn outlines three stages of scientific development: the
preparadigmatic stage, where rival viewpoints compete; the paradigmatic stage, where one paradigm is explored in depth; and the revolutionary stage, where an existing paradigm is replaced.Henley disagrees with
the idea that psychology is in the preparadigmatic stage. He argues that psychology is unique, with multiple coexisting paradigms, a situation he views as productive. Feyerabend, on the other hand, claims that
scientists don't follow a distinct set of rules and that breaking any existing rules is necessary for scientific progress.Define and describe biological, environmental, and sociocultural determinism, as well as
physical and psychical determinism. What did Freud mean when he said that much behaviour is overdetermined? Define Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle and describe its relevance to psychological
research. Biological determinism highlights the role of physiological conditions or genetics in behavior, with evolutionary psychologists arguing that behavior reflects predispositions from our evolutionary past.
Environmental determinism emphasizes the impact of environmental stimuli on behavior, while sociocultural determinism, a subset of environmental determinism, highlights the role of societal rules, customs, and
beliefs.Freud suggested that behavior is overdetermined, arising from the interaction of many events, with some behavior causes being random. Physical determinism encompasses biological, environmental, and
sociocultural determinism, focusing on quantifiable and accessible information from genes, environment, and culture. Psychical determinism emphasizes cognitive and emotional experiences, arguing that key
behavior determinants are subjective and include beliefs, emotions, sensations, perceptions, ideas, values, and goals.Heisenberg's uncertainty principle states that while behavior is believed to be determined, the
causes cannot be accurately measured and are thus unknown. In psychology, this means that by trying to observe some behavior causes, we may change them.Define indeterminism, free will and nondeterminism.
Define William James’s notions of hard and soft determinism. What does Henley conclude regarding whether psychology is a science? The position that there are specific cause of behavior that cannot be
accurately known is called indeterminism. There are psychologists who completely reject science as a way of studying human behavior. They believe that the causes of human behavior are selfgenerates and that
behavior is freely chosen. This is the concept of free will. The belief in free will views psychologists as non scientific. This is the view of nondeterminism. For nondeterminisms, because action is freely chosen,
that person is alone responsibleHenley claimed that psychology is a discipline completely different from the sciences described by Kuhn. Henley believed that psychology has always had several coexisting
paradigms. This coexistence can be viewed as inevitable, healthy and productive.Cite and describe the essential features of the eight persistent questions in psychology. Define the terms used to describe the
various mind-body views (i.e., types of monism and dualism). Be sure that that following terms are reflected in your answer; nativism, empiricism, mechanism, vitalism, rationalism, naive realism,
reification, universalism, and relativism. 1.How are the mind and body related?There are materialists believe that everything can be explained in physical terms. There is only reality and that
everything, including cognitions, must be explained in terms of matter. These people are monists because everything is explained in terms of matter (one thing) In opposition there are idealists which say that even out
physical reality results from perceived ideas. These people are monists as well because they attempt to explain everything in terms of consciousnessThose who accept the existence of both physical and mental events
and assume that the two are governed by difference principles are called dualists. There are many forms of dualism. First, there is interactionism, which claims that the mind and body interact bidirectionally.
Another view of the mind-body relationship is through emergentism, which claims that mental states emerge from physical brain states. One form of emergentism is epiphenomenalism, which is that the brain causes
mental events, but mental events does not cause behavior. Mental events are by-products of brain processes but do not exert any influence. Psychophysical parallelism – environmental experience causes both
mental events and bodily responses simultaneously but the two are totally independent of each other Double aspectism – a person cannot be divided into a mind and a body but it is a unity that simultaneously
experiences events physiologically and mentallyPreestablished harmony – dualists who maintain that mental and physical events are different and separate but are coordinated by some external agent (ex.
God)Occasionalism – the person has a desire and God is aware of this desire and completes the action. There is a wish to do something and this becomes an occasion for God to act Mechanism – the behavior of all
organisms, including humans, can be explained in the same way that the behavior of any machine can be – in terms of its parts and the laws governing those parts Vitalism – life can never be completely reduced to
material things and mechanical laws. Living things contain a vital force that does not exist in inanimate objects What is the difference between objective and subjective reality?Objective reality is what is really
present physically and subjective reality is what we experience mentally.Naïve realism accepts that what we experience mentally is the same as what is physically present. Others say that at least something is lost or
gained in the translation from physical to phenomenal experience. The problem of reification is the tendency to believe that because something has a name it also has an independent existence. 3.Are the
determinants of human behaviour rational causes or irrational ones?Rationalistic explanation emphasizes the importance of logic, systematic and intelligent thought processes.Rationalists tend to search for
universal principles that govern events in the empirical world. Irrational determinants appreciate more than human reason and stress unconscious determinants of behavior To what extent are human features
inherited or due to experience? Nativists emphasize the role of inheritance (nature) in the explanation of human attributes. They consider some aspect of human behavior as instinctive The empiricist emphasized
emphasize the role of nurture and experiences. They claim that humans are the way they are due to experiences. What is the origin of human knowledge?The study of knowledge is called epistemology and asks
questions regarding what we can know, limits on knowledge and how knowledge is attained. Radical empiricists insist that knowledge is derived from sensory experiences stored in the brain while rationalists agree
that the mind actively transforms information before knowledge is attained. Rationalists postulate an active mind, which interacts with data from experience, while empiricists postulate a passive mind which records
experience as mental images and associations. What is the nature of the self?The question of what accounts for the unity and continuity of our experience has resulted in the postulation of the self. The self is
viewed as having a separate existence, organized experiences, and includes a feeling of intentionality and purpose in thoughts and behaviors. The self has the ability to selectively direct attention and has moments of
emotional and insightful experience How are humans related to non-human animals?The school of behaviorism has conducted animal research and maintains that the same principles govern the behavior of
humans and non humans. Humanists on the other extreme believe that people are qualitatively different from other animals and nothing can be learned about humans by studying nonhuman animals What is the
nature of universal versus relative truth?Universalists – seek and discover universal truths about the world in general about people in general. The goal of these universals is to describe the general laws,
principles, or essences that govern the world and out perception of it Relativists – claim that universal truths do not exist of cannot be known. They say that a persons perspective always influences when they
observe Chapter 2 9. Describe Plato’s (ca. 427–347 BC) theory of forms, his analogy of the divided line, his allegory of the cave, the reminiscence theory of knowledge, his beliefs regarding the
nature of the soul, and the nature of sleep and dreams. Describe the influence of Plato on the development of science.Plato described the theory of forms in which everything in the natural world is a
manifestation of a pure form (idea) that exists in the abstract. Plato’s ideas were based on the ideas of Pythagoreans who believed that numbers and numerical relationships were abstractions (you cannot back your
car over a number 3) but that they were real and could exert influence on the empirical world. (For example, the thousands of cats that one encounters are but inferior copies of an abstract idea or form of “catness”
that exists in pure form in the abstract.). What we experience through the senses results from the interaction of the pure form with matter, and because matter is constantly changing and is experienced through the
senses, the results of the interaction must be less than perfect than the pure idea before that idea interacts with matter Socrates accepted the fact that a thorough definition specified an object’s or a concept’s essence,
whereas for Plato an object’s or a concept’s essence was equated with its form. For Plato, essence (form) had an existence separate from its individual manifestations. Socrates and Plato did agree, however, that
knowledge could be attained only through reason.According to Plato, anyone who attempts to gain knowledge by examining the natural world via sensory experience is doomed to ignorance and opinion. The only
true knowledge involves grasping the forms themselves through rational thoughtAnalogy of divided line – imagining is the lowest form of understanding and is based on images. Next is the beliefs or opinions about
the images of imagination. Next is thinking, which is based on mathematical objects and relationships. The highest form of thinking is to embrace the forms themselves, and true intelligence or knowledge results
only from an understanding of the abstract forms Allegory of the cave – Plato describes prisoners in a cave who lived their entire lives there. They can only look forward but behind them is a path, and people pass
on the path carrying objects. A fire behind the path projects shadow onto the wall in front of the prisoners. To the prisoners, these shadows constitute realist (this is the lowest for of understanding in the divided line
analogy). Plato describes what happens when one of the prisoners escapes the cave. Turning toward the fire would hurt the prisoners eyes and he may return to the shadows. If not, he will see the individuals and
objects that which have previously been seen only as shadows. (this represents the understanding of empirical events in the divided line). Suppose the prisoner goes back to the cave to enlighten his fellow prisoners.
He would make mistakes in describing the shadows and in predicting which objects would follow which. This would be evidence enough for his fellow prisoners that no good could come from leaving the world of
shadows.“The bound prisoners represent humans who confuse the shadowy world of sense experience with reality. The prisoner who escapes represents the individual whose actions are governed by rea- son instead
of sensory impressions. The escaped prisoner sees the real objects (forms) responsible for the shadows and objects in the cave (sensory information) and thus embraces true knowledge. After such an enlightening
experience, an effort is often made to steer others away from ignorance and toward wisdom.”The reminiscence theory of knowledge – can be seen as anticipating the modern ideas of cognitive psychology with
respect to matters such as concepts and conceptual categories. Plato’s answer was based on Pythagoreans, who believed that the highest form of thought was reason, and that reason is a function of the immortal soul.
Plato expanded this by saying that before4 the soul was implanted in the body, it dwelled in pure and complete knowledge (it dwelled in the realm of the forms). Plato said that after the soul entered the body, sensory
information contaminated this knowledge. The only way to arrive at true knowledge is to ignore sensory experience and focus on the contents of the mind. Th reminiscence theory of knowledge states that all
knowledge is innate and can only be attained through introspection (reminiscence – remembering the experiences of the soul before it entered the body) The Nature of the Soul – Plato believed that the soul had a
rational and immortal component as well as two other components (the courageous and the appetitive which are part of the body and thus mortal). Humans are almost always in a state of conflict. The body has
appetites that must be met and play a large role in motivation. Humans also have varied emotions. To attain true knowledge, the person must suppress the needs of the body and concentrate on rational pursuits. This
requires considerable energy from the rational component of the soul to inhibit immediate gratification. Some people are not capable of this and their appetitive aspect of the soul dominatesSleep and dreams -
According to Plato, while awake some individuals are better able to rationally control their appetites than are others; during sleep, however, it’s another matter. Even with otherwise rational individuals, the baser
appetites manifest themselves as they sleep.Legacy - Plato advanced the ideas of the Pythagoreans—those of mathematics and of logical inquiry—that have shaped Western civilization’s continued focus on science.
the roots of cognitive psychology in Plato. Plato created a dualism that divided the human into a body, which was material and imperfect, and a mind (soul), which contained pure knowledge. early Christianity was
combined with such Platonic philosophy and assimilated into religious dogma. 10. Describe Aristotle’s (384–322 BC) philosophy in terms of the basic differences he had with Plato. Describe Aristotle’s views
regarding (a) causation and teleology; (b) the hierarchy of souls; (c) sensation; (d) common sense, passive reason, and active reason; (e) memory and recall; (f) imagination and dreaming; (g) and
motivation and emotions.Aristotle was the first philosopher to extensively treat many topics that were later to become part of psychology. Both Plato and Aristotle were interested in essences or truths that go beyond
things’ mere appearance, but their discovery methods varied. For Plato, essences corresponded to the forms which existed independent of nature. Plato also said that sensory experience must be ignored and one’s
thoughts must be turned inward. For Aristotle, essences were best known by studying nature. Aristotle said that if enough manifestations of a principle were investigated, eventually one could infer the essence that
they exemplified. Aristotle’s philosophy shows the difficulty that is often encountered when attempting to clearly separate the philosophies of rationalism and empiricism. Aristotle embraced both rationalism and
empiricism. For Aristotle, first principles could be attained by examining nature directly. For Plato, all knowledge exists independently of nature; but for Aristotle, nature and knowledge are inseparableCausation
and teleology – Aristotle said to know anything in nature, you must understand the four causes. Material cause is the matter which a thing is made. A formal cause is the form of a thing. Efficient cause is the force
that transforms the material thing into a certain form (a material cause to a formal cause). A final cause is the purpose for which a thing exists. Aristotle’s philosophy exemplifies teleology because everything n
nature is said to exist for a purpose (function). These functions of things are called entelechy, which keeps an object moving or developing into its direction until the full potential is achieved. Nature is characterized
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by the change and motion that occurs as objects are slowly transformed from their potentialities to their actualities Although Aristotle believed that the categories of things in nature remain fixed, thus denying
evolution, he spoke of a grand hierarchy among all things. The scala naturae refers to the idea that nature is arranged in a hierarchy ranging from neutral matter to the unmoved mover, which is pure actuality and is
the cause of everything in nature. the unmoved mover is what gives all natural objects their purposes. In his scala naturae, the closer to the unmoved mover something is, the more perfect it is.Hierarchy of Souls – a
soul gives life and therefore all living things possess a soul. Aristotle said there are three types of souls and a living things potential is determined by what type of a soul it possesses. A vegetative (or nutritive) soul
is possessed by plants and allows only growth, the assimilation of food and reproduction. A sensitive soul is possessed by animals but not plants. It has vegetative functions and also responds to the environment,
experiences pleasure and pain and has memory. A rational soul provides all functions of a vegetative and sensitive soul and also allows thinking and rational though.Sensation and reason – Aristotle said that senses
provide information about the environment but does not believe objects sent of tiny copies of themselves like other philosophers. Aristotle believed that perception was explained by the motion of objects that
stimulate one of the senses. movement of environmental objects creates movements through different media, and each of the senses is maximally sensitive to movements in a certain medium. Aristotle believed we
could generally trust our senses to yield an accurate representation of the environment.Common Sense - sensory experience is a necessary, but not a sufficient, element in the attainment of knowledge. Aristotle said
common sense is the mechanism that coordinated information from all the senses. Common sense was said to be located in the heart and Aristotle said the job of common sense was to integrate sensory experience
and make it more meaningful. sensory information, even after synthesized by common sense, could provide information only about particular instances of things. Aristotle said passive reason involves the utilization
of synthesized experience for getting along effectively in everyday life, but it does not result in understanding of essences or first principles. The abstraction of first principles from one’s many experiences can only
be accomplished by active reason, which Aristotle considers the highest form of thinking. Aristotle considered active reason the highest form of thinking Memory and recall – Aristotle explained memory and recall
as the results of sense perception. Aristotle explained remembering as a spontaneous recollection of something that had been previously experienced. Recall involves an actual mental search for a past experience.
Aristotle also postulated his laws of association. The law of contiguity is that when we think of something, we think of things that were experienced along with it. The law of similarity is that we think of things
similar to things we think of. The law of contrast states that when we think of something, we think of the opposite things. The law of frequency states that the more often experiences occur together, the stronger their
association will be . Imagination and dreaming – Aristotle’s philosophy had both rational and empirical components. His account of memory, recall, imagination and dreaming is very empirical. Aristotle said that
when sensations occur, images are created which outlast the stimulation which caused the image. The retention of these images is memory. Aristotle said that these images create important links between sensation
and rational thought because the images are pondered by the passive and active intellects. According to Aristotle, imagination is the lingering effects of the sensory experiences. The products of imagination were
questioned by Aristotle because he said that it is highly susceptible to error and unreliable. To explain dreaming, Aristotle said that images of the past experiences were stimulated while sleeping. He said that dreams
are often odd because these past images are not organized by reason and that during sleep the images are not coordinated by ongoing sensory stimulation, as is the case while awake. Aristotle was highly skeptical of
dreams predicting future events. He said these apparent prophecies by dreams were coincidences rather than predictions. Motivation and emotion – Aristotle believed happiness resulted in people doing what is
natural to fulfil their purpose. Humans purpose it to act rationally and that by acting rationally, we become happier. Aristotle also said that humans have biological needs and functions which are distinct from other
animals and that we do not share motives with these other animals. Aristotle describes that human’s motivation comes from appetite and that appetites drive out actions. These internal drives include hunger, sexual
arousal, thirst etc. Behavior is undertaken to eliminate the discomforts caused by these appetites. Aristotle describes that human behavior’s purpose is to bring pleasure and avoid pain and that our rational powers
allow for the inhibitions of appetites. Aristotle describes the golden mean while stating that human life is lived in moderation. This life of moderation requires rational control of appetites. Aristotle believes that
some people are merely controlled by the pleasure and pain resulting from appetites and that while appetite and reason are part of all people, the amount to which each dominates results in that persons character.
Aristotle describes emotion as a function to exemplify existing tendencies and as a motive for acting. Emotions influence peoples perceptions. 11. What were the Dark Ages and when did they begin? How did
the Crusades lead to the rediscovery of Aristotle’s work? Describe the expansion of Islam during the Dark Ages. Describe the philosophies and contributions of Avicenna (980–1037), Averroes (1126–1198),
and Maimonides (1135–1204). The middle ages are often referred to as the Dark ages which followed the collapse of the Roman Empire. Some disagree on when the Dark ages truly began, however, most estimates
are around 500 and ended somewhere around 1000. The Dark Ages contained little to no scientific, philosophical and literary progress. Attention was focused on defending territory from attack rather than scientific
advancements. During the Dark Ages, Christian churches became powerful and “the lands of Europe were generally dark”. ///From 1095-1291 the crusades against Muslims showed Christianity’s full power to
organize followers and stop the spread of Islamic influences. During these crusades Aristotle’s ideas were rediscovered and due to the spread of Greek influence, his ideas were preserved. During the Dark Ages,
while the Western World became dark, Islam became a powerful force. Muhammed, born in Mecca is 570, say he received a revelation from God to preach and with this cam his religion of Islam. Islam spread
fiercely in the 30 years after Muhammad’s death in 632 and many countries were conquered by the Muslims. The Islamic empire grew larger than the Roman Empire at its peak. Islamic philosophers translated,
studied and expanded Greek and Roman Philosophies because these ideas had practical value in medicine science and mathematics. Their efforts focused on making ancient wisdom compatible with Islam, mainly
through a focus on Aristotle. This Period saw many outstanding Muslim Scientists and philosophers including Avicenna and Averroes Avicenna was a child prodigy who became a physician before he was 20. He
wrote many books on topics such as medicine, math, logic, metaphysics, Islamic theology, Astronomy, politics and linguistics. His writing borrowed many ideas from Aristotle, however he made several
modifications. Avicenna analyzed human thinking by describing the five external senses – sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell. He said that there are seven “Interior senses” arranges in a hierarchy. Number 1 is
common sense, which synthesizes information provided by external senses. Number 2 is retentive imagination, which is the ability to remember the information synthesized by the common sense. Number 3 and 4
are compositive animal imagination and compositive human imagination. Compositive imagination allows humans and animals to learn what to approach and avoid in the environment through association. Unalike
to animal compositive imagination, human compositive imagination allows the creative combination of information from the common sense and from the retentive imagination. Humans can imagine objects which
have never been seen before, such as a unicorn. Number 5 is estimative power, which is the ability to make judgements about environmental objects. Number 6 is the ability to remember outcomes of all information
processing which occurred in all lower parts of the hierarchy. Number 7 is the ability to rationally use the information obtained from the hierarchy. Avicenna was an Aristotelian however his major departure was his
ideas of active intellect. Aristotle believed that the active intellect was used in understanding universal principles that cannot be gained by simply observing empirical events. Avicenna believed that the active
intellect took on theological qualities and that it was the aspect of humans that allowed them to understand the cosmic plan and to enter a relationship with God. Avicenna said that the highest level of intellectual
functioning was an understanding of God. Avicenna’s work had a great significance for subsequent philosophical developments in the west. “Had it not been for Avicenna, the philosophical achievements of the 12 th
and 13th century Europe are nearly unimaginable.”Averroes disagreed with Avicenna about the arrangement of human intelligences. He believed that all human experiences reflected Gods influences. His writings
comment heavily on Aristotle’s philosophy with emphasis on Aristotle’s work on the senses, memory, and sleep. Following Aristotle, Averroes said that only the active intellect aspect of the soul survives death, and
because the active intellect is the same for everyone, nothing personal survives death. Averroes’s interpretation of Aristotle on this point was called Averroism and was severely attacked by later Christian
philosophers. Averroes also made many scientific contributions. Maimonides was a Jewish physician who anticipated the modern concern with psychosomatic disorders by showing the relationship between ethical
living and mental health. He wrote a book for scholars who were confused by the conflict between religion and the scientific and philosophical thoughts of the dat. He sought a reconciliation between Judaism an
Aristotelian philosophy. He attempted to show that many passages from the Old Testament and the Talmud could be understood rationally and, therefore, need not be taken on faith alone. Other passages were to be
understood only as allegory and not taken as literally true. If something is demonstrably false, it should be rejected, even if it is states as true in the bible or the Talmud. Who invented the ontological argument for
the existence of God? Describe this argument. Describe the reconciliation of the use of reason and Christian faith as represented in the beliefs of St. Anselm (ca. 1033–1109) and Peter Lombard (ca. 1095–
1160).St. Anselm invented the ontological argument for the existence of God. He argued that perception and reason can and should supplement Christian faith. His acceptance of reason as a means of understanding
God was a major departure from Christian tradition. His ontological argument for the existence of God exemplified how reason could be used. He said that when we think of things, there must exist real things
corresponding to those thoughts (reification). He said that we conjured up the perfect being of God, and because we can think of him, he exists. St. Anselm was one of the first Christian theologians to attempt to use
logic to support religious belief. His ontological argument was highly influential and was later accepted by notable philosophers such as Descartes and Leibniz, but was also a target of heavy criticism. Peter
Lombard argues for the place of reason within Christianity very forcefully. He insisted that God could be known by studying his works. There is no need to escape the empirical world to understand God. We can
learn about God by studying the empirical world. For Lombard, there are 3 ways of learning about God. Through faith, reason, and the study of God’s works (the empirical world) What is Scholasticism? Briefly
describe the life, work, and philosophy of Peter Abelard (1079–1142). The Holy wars had brought the Western World into contact with the works of Aristotle and other Greeks. The reaction of the church to the
recovered works from antiquity occurred in three stages. First, the works were welcomed, but when inconsistencies with church dogma were realized, the world were often condemned as pagan. Finally efforts were
made to modify the works, especially those of Aristotle, and in modified form, they were incorporated into church Dogma. The act of scholars synthesizing Aristotle’s philosophy and Christian Theology and showing
implication of this synthesis is called Scholasticism. Peter Abelard translated Aristotle’s writings and introduced a method of study that was to characterize the scholastic period. Abelard elaborated on his dialectic
method by listing 158 theological questions which were answered in contradictory ways by scripture and Christian theologians. He believed that examining arguments and counterarguments was a way to clarify
issues and arriving at valid conclusions. His goals was to overcome inconsistencies in statements made by theologians. The Dialectic method was controversial because it seemed to question the validity of religious
assumptions. Abelard believed that God existed, and that all methods of inquiry would prove it. During Abelard’s time there was debate over the existence of universals. Realists said that essences do exist in pure
form and that individual members of such classes differ only by accident. Nominalists said that universals are nothing more than verbal labels allowing the grouping of similar objects and events. During this debate,
the Notre Dame cathedral school was famous, including a teacher known as William of Chapeaux. Abelard debated William on the matter of realism and nominalism. William was devout and informed realist, but
Abelard used logic to expose the fallacies of Williams position. The main thrust of Abelard’s argument was that we should not confuse words with things. He concluded that when logic is applied to words they do
not necessarily generalize to the physical world. Just because we use words to describe and understand universals, it does not follow that they actually exist. Abelard argued that logic and physics were two distinct
disciplines which were sharply separate. Abelard proposed conceptualism as a compromise between realism and nominalism. He argued that universal essences do not exist but similarities among categories of
experiences do. Concepts are formed based on commonalities and these concepts summarize individual experiences (nominalism), but once formed, concepts exist apart from the individual experiences upon which
they were formed (realism) Describe the philosophies of St. Albertus Magnus (ca. 1193–1280) and St. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274). Describe the philosophy of William of Occam (ca. 1290–1350). What is
Occam’s razor? Why is William of Occam’s philosophy considered to be a turning point in philosophy?St. Thomas Aquinas came from a distinguished Aristocratic family. He joined the Dominican order and
became a begging friar. Aquinas turned his back on family and wealth and reduced his chances of advancements within the church. His family imprisoned him in their family castle for a year and he spent this time
trying to convert his family members. In 1245, Aquinas was set free by his family, and he returned to the Dominicans. Aquinas was prodigious as a student and achieved his degree before the age of 31, which was
unheard of. Aquinas became associated with St. Magnus who was the first western philosopher to make a comprehensive review of Aristotle’s works. Following Aristotle, Magnus observed nature and made
significant contributions to science. Magnus presented Aristotle’s views on sensation, intelligence, and memory to the church scholars and attempted to show how humans’ rational powers could be used to achieve
salvation. Aquinas built upon this and further synthesized Aristotle’s philosophical works and the Christian tradition. A negative aspect of this feat was that once Aristotle’s ideas were assimilated into church dogma,
they were no longer challenges.The Aristotelian emphasis on reason was so great that it could not be ignored. The emphasis on reason put the church in a difficult position because it emphasized faith, and spiritual
experience over empirical observation and rationality. For Aquinas, the greatest task was the reconciliation of faith and reason. For him, all paths led to the same truth – God and his glory. Although sensory
information was accepted as a viable source of knowledge, Aquinas, following Aristotle, said that the senses could provide information only about particulars, not about universals, which reason must abstract from
sensory information, reason and faith cannot conflict because both lead to the same ultimate reality, God. The Philosopher uses logical proof and demonstration to verify the existence of God, whereas Theologian
takes the existence of God on faith. Aquinas spent considerable time discussing the differences between humans and lower animals. He said that non-human animals do not possess rational soul, and therefore,
Aquinas determined that salvation is not available to them. Aquinas’s synthesis of Aristotelian and Christian thought was debated by the church. One of the most influential voices of conservatism was St.
Bonaventure who condemned the works of Aristotle. Bonaventure followed Augustine and believed that one comes to know God through introspection, not reasoning or studying nature. This view lives on in
Protestantism, where scripture is values more highly than reason and a personal relationship with God is values more highly than ritual and church prescriptions.Aquinas’s work had several effects. It divided reason
and faith, making it possible to study these separately, it made the study of nature respectable, and it showed the world that argument over church dogma was possible. William of Occam was a British-born
Franciscan monk who accepted Aquinas’s division of faith and reason. He believed that explanations should be kept as simple as possible and this belief that extraneous assumptions should be “shaved” from
arguments came to be known as Occam’s razor. Occam applied his razor to the debate concerning the existence of universals. Realists believed universals existed and that individual empirical experiences were
manifestations of those universals. Nominalists believed that universal were nothing more than verbal labels to describe common group experiences. Occam saw the assumption that universals had an independent
existence as unnecessary and he sided with the nominalists. According to Occam, the fact that experiences have common features allows us to use general labels but that use of these labels does not mean there is a
pure idea, essence or form that exists beyond our experiences. Occam changes the question concerning the nature of knowledge from a metaphysical one to a psychological problem. For Occam, the question was
how the mind classifies experiences, and his answer was that we habitually respond to similar objects in similar ways. Occam went beyond Aristotle. Aristotle believed that sensory experience was the basis of
knowledge but that reason needed to be applied to extract knowledge of universals and essences from individual experiences. Occam said that sensory experience provided information about the world period.
Occam’s philosophy marks the end of the scholastic period .What does the word Renaissance mean? What period of time did the Renaissance encompass? What is meant by Renaissance humanism, and what
four themes does it encompass? The Renaissance is generally dated from 1450 to 1600. Renaissance means “rebirth. During this period, there was a return to open-minded inquiry. Similar to early Greek
philosophy. During the Renaissance, Europe became more human centered as opposed to God centered and the view was that there was more to humans than their souls. Attention was shifted from the heavens to
living humans. As Humanism related to the renaissance, it does not mean humanitarianism (welfare of humans) nor humaneness (respectful treatment), but rather it refers an intense interest in human beings as if
being discovered for the first timeHumanism had 4 themes. First, individualism refers to the great concern with human achievement and potential as well as individual power to make positive difference. Second,
personal religion indicated that although many were Christian, people wanted religion to be more personal and less ritualistic. People argued for a personalized religion rather than church hierarchy imposed on the
people. Third is intense interest in the past which described how humanists were highly interested in the works of early Greeks and Romans. Renaissance scholars desired to read what was said rather than the
interpretations of the past. Marsilio Ficino wanted to do for Plato’s philosophy what had been done for Aristotle’s by the scholastics. The fourth theme is Anti-Aristotelianism. Humaists believed that Aristotle’s
philosophy was embraced heavily and that his ideas were flawed. Aristotle’s ideas were accepted as rules and became church dogma, and these ideas became more important than people’s actual relationships with
God. Briefly describe the philosophy and contributions of Francesco Petrarch (1304–1374), Giovanni Pico (1463–1494), Desiderius Erasmus (1466–1536), Martin Luther (1483–1546), and Michel de
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Montaigne (1533–1592). In what respect did Montaigne’s philosophy stimulate Bacon and Descartes?Some believe that the writings of Francesco Petrarch mark the beginning of the Renaissance. Petrarch was
concerned with freeing the human spirit from traditional confines. His main criticism was of Scholasticism because he said the classics should be viewed as works of humans rather than being reinterpreted or
embellished. He urged for a personal religion which would be based on the Bible, personal faith, and personal feelings, much like that described by St. Augustine. He said that by attempting to make religion
compatible with Aristotelian philosophy of rationalism, it became too intellectual. Petrarch argued that peoples lives are equally important both before and after death. He said that God wanted people to use their
abilities. By focusing on human potential, Petrarch sparked many endeavours which characterized the Renaissance. He opened the door for Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo and his overall skepticism paved the way
for modern science. Giovanni Pico. He argued that God granted humans a unique position. He said that angels are perfect and because humans are between angels and animals, we are capable of change. He said
that freedom allows for choice in lifestyle and viewpoint and he insisted that all philosophies share common elements. He argued that philosophies reflect human rationality and individuality. Due to this agreement,
Pico said that all viewpoints should be studied objectively in order their commonalities are relation to Christian views. Pico sought harmony among all human works. Desiderius Erasmus had no taste for church
life and preferred instead to travel and study. He was strongly opposed to fanatical beliefs and chose to point our mistakes and point out that no human is perfect. He was eclectic and practical and observed the world
with all its problems. He had traditional and progressive views of women and said that they should have access to education , commended their role as caregivers, and strongly opposed celibacy being superior to
marriage. In his book, Erasmus attached the church, philosophers, , nobilities and superstitions, he said that fools are better off than the wise and happier because they are not fearful, concerned and worried.
Erasmus’s criticisms of the Catholic church of his day closely paralleled those of Luther’s: “pope had far too much power; the preaching of indulgences had degenerated into shameless moneymaking; the veneration
of saints had been corrupted to superstition; church buildings were stuffed full of images; the music in services was more fitting for a wedding”. Erasmus’ work went on to be placed in the Catholic Church’s index of
forbidden books.Martin Luther was an Augustinian priest and biblical scholar who disagreed with the Christianity of his day. He agreed with St. Paul and St. Augustine that human intentions are either inspired by
God or Satan. Luther insisted on a personal religion where a person is only answerable to God and church hierarchy and ritual are deemphasized. In 1517 Luther nailed his ninety-five theses to the door of a
Wittenberg castle church and this was said to begin the reformation. Luther was opposed to the church’s indulgences, which allowed sinners to reduce retribution for sins by paying money. He said the church drifted
away from the teachings of the Bible and Jesus. Jesus preached the simple life, devoid of luxury and privilege, but these were valued by the church. Luther believed that a major downfall of Catholicism was the
assimilation of Aristotle’s philosophy. Luther also disagreed with compulsory celibacy and he celebrated sexual enjoyment within marriage. Luther and Erasmus disagreed on human free will. Erasmus defined free
will as the power of human will whereby man can apply to or turn away from that which leads to eternal salvation. According to Erasmus, God indicated to humans what is good and bad and encourages them to
choose good. Erasmus believed that without free will, humans cannot be responsible for their actions. Erasmus argued that even if human actions are predestined, it would be dangerous to reveal such a doctrine
because morality is dependent on the consciousness of freedom. His solution was to combine Gids grace and free will. In contrast, Luther said that God foresees purposes and does all things according to his will (or
Satan’s will). Luther said that in all things pertaining to salvation or damnation, man has no free will but is captive to the will of God or Satan. God is all-knowing, all-powerful, and is present everywhere. In this
debate, Erasmus was kind and respectful while Luther was mean and disrespectful and believed his interpretation was the only correct one. When Luther was excommunicated in 1521 his views became known as
Protestantism. The new religion denies the authority of the pope and said that all individuals had the right to interpret the Bible for themselves. Michel de Montaigne demonstrated severe skepticism, similar to that
represented by earlier Pyrrho. He questioned the possibility of indisputable knowledge and argued that both catholic and protestant theory were equally indefensible. He said that human rationality caused human
problems and that because nonhumans lack rationality, they are superior. Montaigne analyzed the philosophies of others and pointed of inconsistencies within and among. He rejected science as a means of obtaining
knowledge because science constantly fluctuates and so do the “truths” science presents. He denyed that sensations act as guides for living and said that hey are illusionary and influenced by our body and personal
history. Montaigne’s skepticism sparked many others to disprove it, including Bacon and Descartes. These scholars responded to Montaigne’s doubts regarding knowledge by describing their oppositional
philosophiesDescribe the work of Ptolemy (fl. ca. second century AD), Copernicus (1473–1543), and Kepler (1571–1630). Describe their beliefs and their contributions to astronomy. Why did Ptolemy’s
incorrect model of the universe prevail for over a thousand years? Explain why Pythagorean and Platonic thinkers tended to be the first to embrace a heliocentric view of the solar system. Describe the
roles that Giordano Bruno and Michael Servetus played in the history of science. In the second century A.D. Ptolemy summarized the observations of astrology and mathematics which occurred during his time.
In his Almagest, he describes the Ptolemaic System which includes beliefs that heavily bodies were spherical and that the sun, moon and other plants travel around in circular and uniform orbits. Some disagreed with
this view, like Aristarchus of Samos, who was an Alexandrian astronomer who said that earth and the other planets rotated around the sun, not the earth. The Ptolemaic system prevailed because it accorded
well with the testimony of the sense, it allowed for reasonable astronomical predictions and it was congenial to Christian theology by making humans central in the universe. Many teachings of Ptolemy became
official church dogma and unchallengeable. Nicolaus Copernicus challenged the Ptolemaic system seriously. Copernicus was able to successfully argue that the view of the sun revolving around the earth
(geocentric theory) was incorrect and instead, the earth revolved around the sun (heliocentric theory). This sparked many questions regarding the church because these ideas clearly questioned church dogma.
Copernicus’s heliocentric theory was known as being revolutionary because it challenged the worldview dating back to at least Aristotelean time. Giordano Bruno was a Dominican priest who was interested in
Hermetic philosophy as well as magic forces of benefit to humans and harmony among the plants. The Hermetic tradition said that within the universe, there are many uninhabited worlds and that in each, the sun is
considered divine. Bruno accepted Copernicus’s heliocentric theory because it restored the divine status of the sun by saying that the plants revolve around it. “All known celestial phenomena could be accounted for
by the Ptolemaic system; there were no major mysteries that needed explanation. The only justification for accepting Copernicus’s heliocentric theory was that it cast the known astrological facts into a simpler, more
harmonious mathematical order.”. In the Ptolemaic system, complex assumptions had to be made regarding the paths of planets around earth before paths of planets and eclipses could be made with accuracy.
Copernicus’s system reduced the number of assumptions which needed to be made to make the same accurate predictions. In the 15 th and 16th century there was an increased interest in platonic philosophy, especially
the Pythagorean aspect. The Pythagorean-Platonic view that the universe operated according the simple and harmonious mathematic principles worked in favor of accepting the Copernican viewpoint. Johannes
Kepler was a Pythagorean-platonic mathmagician and was one of the first converts to Copernicus’s heliocentric theory Kepler’s teacher, Michael Maestlin encouraged critical evaluation of both Ptolemaic and
Copernican astronomy. Kepler first studied to become a Lutheran, however, he could not accept the entirety of the Lutheran doctrine. Luther had completely condemned the heliocentric theory as flagrant
contradictions of biblical teachings. Others rejected Copernican theory, however, Kepler continued to take the risk of embracing it because he was a Platonist seeking simplistic mathematical harmony and because he
saw the sun as a mystical force. Because of his Pythagorean-Platonic background, he believed that true reality was the mathematical harmony which exists beyond mere appearance of the world. The sensory world
is the world of appearances and it is an inferior reflection of the unchanging mathematical world. Kepler took over the Prague observatory and through deduction and observation he found that the plants paths around
the sun were not circular as Copernicus believed but rather they were elliptical. He anticipated Newton’s concept of gravitation by observing the velocities of the plants and how they vary inversely with their distance
from the sun. he also demonstrated that all planetary motions could be described with a single mathematic statement. Kepler also contrasted early vision theories by finding that environmental objects and inverted
when projected onto the retina. 18. Briefly describe the life and work of Galileo Galilei (1564–1642). Explain why Galileo’s attitude toward experimentation was Pythagorean-Platonic. Describe Galileo’s
views of (a) objective and subjective reality and (b) the possibility of a science of conscious experience.Galileo was a brilliant mathematician who was University of Pisa mathematics professor. Galileo agreed
with Copernicus and Kepler and viewed the universe as a perfect machine understood only by mathematics. Galileo believed his task was to explain the mathematic reality that existed beyond the world of
appearances (sensory world). Using his Pythagorean-Platonic beliefs he corrects many misconceptions about the world including Aristotle’s statement that heavy objects fall faster than light ones. Galileo accepted
the Copernican theory and wrote a book to argue against opposition. In 1609 Galileo used his modified telescope to discover the moon, sunspots and milky way. He described that there are four moons of Jupiter,
which disproved the churches belief that the solar system had only 7 bodies. Many people refused to even look through the telescope or denied that they saw even when they did look. Galileo demonstrated that a
single set of mathematical laws governs the motion of all bodies under all circumstances. Regarding experimentation, Galileo believed that discovering a physical law was like discovering a platonic form.
Observations suggest lawful relationships and experiments either confirm of disconfirm. Of importance, once a law is discovered, no further experimentation is required. Galileo said that not only do experiments
confirm existence of laws, but they also function to convince skeptics of the existence. Galileo emphasized rational deduction much more than on experimentation and was a true realist. Actual laws (forms) existed
and they structure the physical world. While senses provide hints of reality, rational order is the ultimate explanation of reality and it must be mathematical. Galileo distinguished subjective and objective reality. He
said that objective reality is independent of people’s perception and has primary qualities, which are absolute, objective and capable of mathematical description. Primary qualities include size, shape, quantity, and
motion or rest. Subjective reality is comprised of secondary qualities, which are psychological experiences and have no presence in the physical world. These secondary qualities include color, sound, temperature,
smell and taste. Galileo believed that secondary qualities are subjective, relative, and fluctuating. He said that of primary qualities (like Plato’s forms) we find true knowledge, but that with secondary qualities there
is only opinion and appearance. Galileo said that because much of conscious experience consists of secondary qualities, consciousness cannot be studied mathematically or through objective scientific methods.
Prior to Galileo, many gave humans a prominent position within the world but the Briefly describe the life and work of Isaac Newton (1642–1727). Describe his contributions to science, the influence of his
work on religion, and the six principles of Newtonian science. Isaac Newton was born the same year Galileo died. His bather died before his birth and he was sent to his grandmother when his mother remarried.
Newton was a mediocre student in school but showed great knowledge and ability of building mechanical contrivances such as windmills. Newton’s mother removed him from school after her second husband died
and she hoped he would farm. One of Newton’s teachers recognized his potential and prepared him for Cambridge university. He obtained his degree add wrote The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.
He said he obtained many ideas from Copernicus, Kepler and Galileo. He wrote about theology and alchemy more than science but to him, the three topics were inseparable. Newton conceived of the universe as a
complex, lawful machine created by God. Newton developed differential and integral calculus, developed the universal law of gravitation and did pioneering work in optics. He created a conception of the universe
which prevailed in astronomy and physics for 2 centuries. He used mathematical deduction, observation and experimentation to verify his works. Although Newton believed in God as the creator of the universe, his
work nevertheless diminished God’s influence. God created the universe and set it in motion, but that exhausted his involvement. Newton believed in God, but his ideas diminished the influence of God nonetheless.
Following Newton, deism became popular which was the belief that God created the universe but “let it be”. Newton’s universal law of gravitation said that all objects in the universe attract each other but that the
level of attraction is directly proportional to the product of the masses of the bodies (planets) and inversely proportional to the square distance between them. Newton had 6 influential principles. First, although God
is the creator, he does not actively partake in the events of the world (deism). Second, natural laws govern the material world. Third, there is not place for purpose in natural laws, and natural events cannot be
explained by postulating properties inherent in them (rejected Aristotle’s final cause). Fourth, Occam’s razor is accepted because explanations should be as simple as possible. Newton said that everything in the
world can be explained in terms of space (consisting of points), time (moments), matter (existing in space and possessing mass), and force (providing change in the motion of matter). Fifth, natural laws are absolute
but that our understanding is imperfect, which means we settle for probabilities rather than certainties. Sixth, classification is not an explanation Briefly describe the life and work of Francis Bacon (1561–1626).
Describe his perspective on science. What is radical empiricism? Define induction and deduction, and distinguish between the two. What is positivism? Identify and describe the four sources of error that
influence scientific work, according to Bacon. Specify and describe the two types of experiments Bacon identified.Francis Bacon moved to France after studying at Cambridge. And returned to England to
practice law. He was a member of parliament but was impeached for accepting bribed and following a brief prison sentence, was forced to retire. His retirement was used to focus on science and philosophy and he
has been known as a key spokesman for new science’s revolt against past authorities (Aristotle). Bacon was a radical empiricism who followed Copernicus and Galileo and believed that nature could only be
understood by direct and objective observation. He opposed those who said nature should be based on scripture and faith because this hampers their ability to learn how the world functions.Although Galileo and
Bacon were both contemporaries, their ideas differed. Galileo sought general mathematical laws which could be used to make deductions about the physical world. Galileo said is a law is expressed mathematically,
a large number of manifestations of the laws could be deduced (predicted from a general principle). Bacon promoted induction and said that science should not include theories, hypothesis, math or deductions and
should only include observable facts. Bacon said that theories will bias observations and emphasized that Aristotle was heavily biased because he assumed all objects were governed by final causes., which led to
conclusions which supported this theory. Bacon distrusted rationalism because of its emphasis on words but also distrusted mathematics because of the emphasis on symbol. According to Bacon, direct observation
must be used and the ultimate authority in science was this observation. Bacon’s ideas of science was later known as positivism. According to Bacon, one moves from an observation to a generalization (induction),
but to Galileo and Newton, one proceeds from a general law to predict specific empirical events (deduction). According to Bacon, scientists should follow two cardinal rules: “One, to lay aside received opinions and
notions, and the other, to restrain the mind for a time from the highest generalizations” Bacon was not against generalization, only premature generalization.According to Bacon, there are 4 sources of error in
scientific investigation. First, the idols of the cave are personal biases which arise from intellectual endowment, experiences, education, and feelings which all influence a persons perception and interpretation of the
world. Second, the idols of the tribe are biases due to human nature. For example, all humans share the ability to imagine, will, and hope and these can and do distort perception. They filter out judgements. Third,
the idols of the marketplace are biases resulting from the strong influence of meaning assigned to words such as with verbal labels of descriptions. These influence a person’s understanding of the world and distort
observations. Fourth, the idols of the theater are biases resulting from blind allegiance to a viewpoint of philosophy or theology. Bacon said that science should provide useful information which changes the world
for the better. Science should further knowledge, improve technology and improve the world. Bacon said that the practical knowledge obtained by science is important for this betterment of science. Bacon said that
“knowledge is power” and said that by understanding nature we command it. To understand nature is to understand causal relationships. Bacon proposed two experiments designed to explore the laws of nature and
how to utilize them. First is experimenta lucifera (experiments of light) and second, experimenta fructifera (experiments of fruit). Bacon said science is inducive and that experiments only provide practical
information if conducted correctly (in an unbiased manner)21. Briefly describe the life and work of René Descartes (1596–1650). What were his reasons for believing that philosophy was useless? Describe
Descartes’ beliefs regarding (a) the process of discovering philosophical truth, (b) innate ideas, (c) the reflexive nature of organisms’ interactions with the environment, and (d) the mindbody interaction.
Did Descartes make lasting contributions to psychology? Explain.Descartes was a Renaissance man but also a soldier, mathematician, philosopher, scientist and psychologist. He was raised by his grandmother
and was a very bright child. He studied the writings of Plato, Aristotle, and other early Christian philosophers. He was very fond of mathematics but travelled with the military to experience life before settling down
in St. Germain outside Paris. It was here that Descartes observed a mechanical statue of water pipes which influenced his later philosophy. Descartes experienced a crisis when he recognized that people have been
unable to agree for centuries. He concluded that nothing was beyond doubt in philosophy and he became very depressed, he wanted to learn things for himself rather than from experts and developed a method of
self-exploration, which was proven to be highly productive. Descartes showed how geometry and observation could be integrated and made it possible to represent astronomical phenomena as planetary orbits with
numbers. He discovered an exact correspondence between the realm of numbers and the realm of physics which meant that all natural events could be described with mathematics. Descartes sought other areas of
human knowledge to be understood with the same certainty as analytic geometry. He had 4 rules for attaining certain in any area. First, never accept anything as true unless he recognized is to be evidently so and
include nothing in his conclusions unless it presented itself so clearly in his mind that he had not reason to doubt it. Second was to divide each of the difficulties he encountered into as many parts as possible to make
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solutions easier. Third was to think in an orderly fashion, beginning with the most simple things and gradually reaching for more complex knowledge. Fourth was to make enumerations so complete, and reviews so
general, then he would be certain that nothing was omitted, . Thus began his search for philosophical truth. He would doubt everything that could be doubted and use whatever was certain Descartes analyzed the
content of his thought and found that some ideas were so clear and distinct that they needed to be accepted as true, and yet they had no counterparts in his personal experience. He said that such ideas were innate.
Innate ideas were natural components of the mind, and included those of unity, infinity, perfection, the axioms of geometry and God. Because God exists, is perfect, and will not deceive humans, we can trust the
information provided by our senses, but this information must be clear and distinct to be accepted as valid. Descartes said that the rational processes were valid and that knowledge of the physical world gained
through the senses could be accepted because God would not deceive us, but that even sensory information had to be analyzed rationally in order to determine its validity.Descartes used intuition and deduction. The
first principles of Descartes’s philosophy were cognitive in nature and were arrived at by intuition. Descartes also had a mechanistic conception of human behavior and said that animals respond to the world in a way
that is explained by physical principles. Descartes said that the like the statue in St. Germain, the bodies sense receptors were like pressure places which start water flowing though tubes that activate the statue. He
said that nerves are hollow tubes with delicate threads that connect receptors to the brain. Descartes concluded that threats were connected to the cavities (ventricles) of the brain, which contained animal spirits.
Many Greek philosophers had concepts of animal spirits and they believed that the presence distinguished the living from non living. This was the first description of what was later called a reflex. That is, an
environmental event (heat) automatically causes a response (foot withdrawal) because of the way the organism is con- structed (nerves, muscles, and animal spirits). By saying that both animal and human interactions
with the environment were reflexive, he made it legitimate to study nonhuman animals to learn more about humans. Evidence eventually proved Descartes ideas of reflexes incorrect. Nerves were not hollow, there
were 2 distinct types of nerves, sensory nerves carried information to sense receptors in the brain and motor nerves carried information from brain to muscle. Eventually, others formed the Cartesian theory, which
referred to some aspects of Descartes philosophy or methodology. Descartes said that animal behavior and internal processes are explained mechanically. He specified a major difference between animals and
humans in that only humans poses a mind capable of consciousness, rationality and free choice, He stated that the mind was nonphysical and the body was physical. He believed that humans body operates according
to physical principles and a mind that does not but the two interact and influence one another. Descartes was a dualist and subscribed to interactionism. He said that because the mind was not physical, it could not be
found anywhere as it permeated the entire body. Sensory and cognitive experiences allow the body to experience bodily states such as hunger, and that these experiences would not be possible if the mind and body
weren’t closely related. Descartes sought a unitary brain structure where the mind experts influence on the body. The structure, which he said was the penal gland because it was surrounded by animal spirits
(cerebrospinal fluid), was uniquely human because only humans possess a mind. He said the pineal glad allowed the mind to will the body to act. Because the mind is free it inhibits and modifies reflexive behaviour
which would be expected to result. Descartes explained bodily functions through completely mechanical explanations and his analysis of reflexive behavior began the stimulus-response and behaviouristic
psychology. He focused attention on the brain as a mediator of behavior which was later elaborated on. Reactions to his belief in innate ideas launched new philosophical and psychological positions such as modern
empiricism and modern sensationism. By investigating the bodies of animals, he proposed physiological psychology and comparative psychology. He also paved the way for the scientific study of consciousness.
What followed Descartes was, in one way or another, a reaction to him.