CHEMISTRY NOTES

The Year 11 course consists of four modules:

​ Module 1 Properties and Structure of Matter

​ Module 2 Introduction to Quantitative Chemistry
​ Module 3 Reactive Chemistry
​ Module 4 Drivers of Reactions

The Year 12 course consists of four modules:

​ Module 5 Equilibrium and Acid Reactions

​ Module 6 Acid/Base Reactions
​ Module 7 Organic Chemistry
​ Module 8 Applying Chemical Ideas

Band 6

demonstrates an extensive knowledge and understanding of scientific concepts,

including complex and abstract ideas

communicates scientific understanding succinctly, logically, and consistently

using correct and precise scientific terms and application of nomenclature in a
variety of formats and wide range of contexts

designs and plans investigations to obtain accurate, reliable, valid and relevant
primary and secondary data, evaluating risks, mitigating where applicable, and
making modifications in response to new evidence

selects, processes, and interprets accurate, reliable, valid, and relevant

qualitative and quantitative, primary or secondary data, and represents it using
a range of scientific formats to derive trends, show patterns and relationships,
explain phenomena, and make predictions

designs solutions to scientific problems, questions, or hypotheses using selected

accurate, reliable, valid, and relevant primary and secondary data, and
scientific evidence, by applying processes, modeling and formats
applies knowledge and information to unfamiliar situations to propose
comprehensive solutions or explanations for scientific issues or scenarios
 GLOSSARY

A variable that is kept constant (or changed in constant ways)

Controlled
during an investigation
Variable

A variable that changes in response to changes to the independent

Dependant
variable in an investigation
Variable

A thermodynamic quantity equivalent to the total heat content of a

Enthalpy
system.

The degree of disorder or randomness in the system.

Entropy

Independent A variable that is changed in an investigation to see what effect

Variable it has on the dependent variable

Molar Mass The mass of one mole of a substance. It may be represented as M,

M(x) or MM.

Qualitative Relating to, measuring, or measured by the quality of something.

Quantitative Relating to, measuring, or measured by the quantity of something.

Redox A reaction in which one substance is reduced and another is

oxidised or de-oxidised.

vector A quantity which possesses both magnitude and direction. Two such
quantities acting on a point may be represented by the two sides
of a parallelogram, so that their resultant is represented in
magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram.
MODULE 1: PROPERTIES AND STRUCTURE OF
MATTER
PROPERTIES OF MATTER:

INQUIRY Q: How do the properties of substances help us to classify and separate

them?

HOMOGENEOUS + HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURES

Matter

Matter is defined as anything that has mass and takes up space. Mass is the
volume of matter in an object

Pure Substance Mixtures

A pure substance is a substance which A mixture is two or more pure

cannot be further separated using
physical properties or methods. They
can only be broken down smaller by
chemical means. It is a substance
that is not contaminated by other
substances
substances that can be separated
using physical properties or methods.
It is a substance contaminated with
small amounts of one or more other
substances. An impure substance is
therefore a substance.

Compounds Elements Homogeneous Heterogeneous

Compounds are made Elements are made Homogeneous means Heterogeneous

of two or more of the same atoms. of uniform means 'having
different atoms. They are a pure composition non-uniform
It is a pure substance that throughout; there composition' It is
substance that can cannot be the composition is composition which
be decomposed into decomposed into evenly distributed is unevenly
simpler simpler no matter which distributed;
substances, for substances. Every part is sampled. therefore, when
example into element is made up sampled there will
elements; via of its own type of be different
chemical means. atom. proportions of a
certain pure
substance.

Separation techniques based on physical properties

SEPARATION TECHNIQUE PHYSICAL PROPERTY

Sieving Particle size

Filtration One solid substance; a liquid substance; particle
size

Vaporisation Low boiling point for a liquid compared to the

solid

Distillation Difference in boiling points [big]

Fractional Distillation Difference in boiling points [small]

Evaporation A solid dissolved in a liquid is boiled off the

liquid in an evaporating dish

Separating Funnel Components are immiscible liquids; different

densities

Magnetic Separates magnetic substances from non magnetic

substances

Calculating percentage composition by weight of component elements and/or

compounds

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 [𝑔]

% 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 [𝑔]

NOMENCLATURE OF INORGANIC SUBSTANCES

- The cation (metal) is always named first with its name unchanged.
- The anion (nonmetal) is written after the cation, modified to end in
–ide.
- Electronegativity is the ability to attract bonding electrons.

ELEMENTS + THEIR PROPERTIES

Alkali Metals; Group 1 [IA]

● Less dense than other metals

● One loosely bound valence electron
● Highly reactive, with reactivity increasing moving down the group
● The largest atomic radius of elements in their period
● Low ionisation energy
● Low electronegativity
Alkaline Earth Metals; Group 2 [IIA]

● Two electrons in the valence shell

● Readily form divalent cations
● Low electron affinity
● Low electronegativity

Transition Metals; Group 3-12 [IB-VIIIB]

● The lanthanides (rare earth) and actinides are also transition metals.
● Very hard, usually shiny, ductile, and malleable
● High melting and boiling points
● High thermal and electrical conductivity
● Form cations (positive oxidation states)
● Tend to exhibit more than one oxidation state
● Low ionisation energy

Metalloids or Semimetals; between post transition metals and reactive

non-metals

● Electronegativity and ionisation energy intermediate between that of

metals and nonmetals
● May possess a metallic lustre
● Variable density, hardness, conductivity, and other properties
● Often make good semiconductors
● Reactivity depends on the nature of other elements in the reaction

Nonmetals; upper right side of the periodic table

● The halogens and noble gases are nonmetals, although they have their own
groups, too.
● High ionisation energy
● High electronegativity
● Poor electrical and thermal conductors
● Form brittle solids
● Little if any metallic lustre
 ● Readily gain electrons

Halogens; Group 17 [VIIA]

● The halogens exhibit different physical properties from each other but do
share chemical properties.
● Extremely high electronegativity
● Very reactive
● Seven valence electrons, so elements from this group typically exhibit a
-1 oxidation state

Noble Gases; Group 18 [VIIIA]

● The noble gases have complete valence electron shells, so they act
differently. Unlike other groups, noble gases are unreactive and have
very low electronegativity or electron affinity.

Lanthanide [first bottom row]

● The lanthanides are all transition metals, these elements share common
characteristics. In pure form, they are bright, metallic, and silvery in
appearance.
● Reactive; readily forming ionic compounds with other elements.
● Unlike other most other transition metals, the lanthanides tend to be
soft, sometimes to the point where they can be cut with a knife

Actinide [second bottom row]

● They are all radioactive. There are no stable isotopes of these elements.
● Actinides have a strong electropositivity.
● Metals tarnish quickly in the air. These elements are pyrophoric (ignite
spontaneously in the air), especially as finely split powders.
● Extremely dense and have different structures.
 METALS NON-METALS METALLOIDS

● Lustrous ● Dull More More metallic properties

● Silvery Colour ● Not dense and some non-metallic
Dense Ductile ● Not Ductile properties
● Malleable ● Not Malleable
● High Melting and ● Lower melting point
Boiling Point and building point
Good conductors of ● Poor conductors of
electricity Electricity
● Good conductors of ● Poor conductors of
Heat Heat

ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND ATOMIC MASS

INQUIRY Q: Why are atoms of elements different from one another?

BASIC STRUCTURE OF STABLE AND UNSTABLE ISOTOPES

Stable Isotopes: Stable isotopes are those that do not undergo spontaneous
radioactive decay. They have a balanced ratio of protons to neutrons,
which contributes to their overall stability. The nucleus of a stable
isotope is held together by the strong nuclear force, which overcomes the
electromagnetic repulsion between positively charged protons.

For example, carbon has two stable isotopes: carbon-12 (12C) and
carbon-13 (13C). Both of these isotopes have 6 protons each (since
carbon's atomic number is 6), but they have 6 and 7 neutrons
respectively, resulting in different atomic masses.

Unstable Isotopes (Radioactive Isotopes): Unstable isotopes, also known as

radioactive isotopes, have an imbalance between protons and neutrons in
their nuclei. This imbalance can lead to the nucleus being less stable,
and as a result, these isotopes spontaneously undergo radioactive decay.
During radioactive decay, the unstable nucleus emits particles or energy
in an attempt to reach a more stable configuration.

For instance, carbon-14 (14C) is an unstable isotope of carbon with 6

protons and 8 neutrons. It undergoes radioactive decay over time,
transforming into nitrogen-14 (14N) by emitting a beta particle (an
 electron) and a neutrino [ the most abundant particles that have mass in
the universe].

- Isotopes are different forms of the same element with the same number of
protons and electrons, containing different numbers of neutrons.
- Number of neutrons has no effect on chemical properties such as
reactivity.

The distribution of electrons, protons and neutrons in the atom

- Protons [+ charge]; equivalent to the atomic number

- Neutrons [no charge]; equals to the mass number - atomic number
- Electrons [- charge]; equals to the number of protons

Representation of the symbol, atomic number and mass number

- Symbol; Identifies the element

- Atomic Number; unique to each
element, and shows the number of
protons present in the nucleus
- Atomic Mass; the sum of the number
of protons and neutrons.

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION + SPDF NOTATION

Electronic configuration refers to the arrangement

of electrons in the energy levels, or orbitals,
of an atom. Electrons are negatively charged
subatomic particles that surround the nucleus of
an atom. The electronic configuration of an atom
provides important information about its chemical
properties and behaviour.

- Aufbau Principle: Electrons fill the lowest

energy orbitals available before moving to higher
energy levels. In other words, electrons fill
orbitals in order of increasing energy.
 - Pauli Exclusion Principle: No two electrons in an atom can have the same
set of four quantum numbers (which describe an electron's energy level,
orbital shape, orientation, and spin). This means that each orbital can
hold a maximum of two electrons with opposite spins.
- Hund's Rule: Within a subshell (a set of orbitals with the same energy
level and shape), electrons will first fill each orbital with one
electron before pairing up with a second electron. This minimises
electron-electron repulsion and results in greater stability.

CALCULATE THE RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS FROM THE ISOTOPIC COMPOSITION

𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 = (%𝐴 𝑥 𝑀𝐴) + (%𝐵 𝑥 𝑀𝑀) + (%𝐶 𝑥 𝑀𝐶)...

%A = the percentage abundance of isotope A

MA = the mass of isotope A

ENERGY LEVELS IN ATOMS + IONS

Collecting primary data from a flame test using different ionic solutions of
metals

When an atom is heated, its electrons can absorb energy and transition to
higher energy levels (or orbitals). These excited electrons are not stable in
these higher energy states and tend to return to their lower energy levels. As
they do so, they release the excess energy in the form of light or
electromagnetic radiation.

1. Excitation: When a sample containing specific elements is introduced to a

flame, the heat energy from the flame causes the atoms of those elements
to become excited. Excited electrons move to higher energy levels.
2. De-Excitation: As the excited electrons return to their original, lower
energy levels, they release the absorbed energy in the form of light. The
emitted light corresponds to specific wavelengths or colours that are
characteristic of the element undergoing the process.
3. Colour Observation: The emitted light is observed and identified by its
colour. Different elements emit light at specific wavelengths, which
 correspond to specific colours. These colours are unique to each element
and can be used to identify the presence of that element in the sample.

Bohr model

Proposed by Niels Bohr in 1913, is an early atomic model

that attempted to explain the behaviour of electrons in
an atom.

Schrödinger model

Formulated by Austrian physicist Erwin

Schrödinger in 1925, it is a fundamental concept
in quantum mechanics that describes the
behaviour of particles, including electrons, at
the atomic and subatomic levels.

PROPERTIES OF UNSTABLE ISOTOPES:

Types of radiation

​ Alpha (α) Radiation:

● Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons, giving them
a positive charge. They are relatively large and heavy.
● Alpha radiation is emitted from the nucleus of an unstable atom
undergoing alpha decay.
● Alpha particles have low penetration ability and are easily stopped
by materials like paper or human skin.
​ Beta (β) Radiation:
● Beta particles are high-energy electrons (β⁻) or positrons (β⁺)
emitted from the nucleus during beta decay.
● Beta radiation has moderate penetration ability, and beta particles
can be stopped by materials like plastic or thin metal sheets.
​ Gamma (γ) Radiation:
● Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves with high energy and no mass or
charge.
 ● Gamma radiation is emitted along with other types of radiation
during radioactive decay or nuclear reactions.
● Gamma rays have high penetration ability and require thick layers of
dense materials (like lead or concrete) to be stopped.

Types of balanced nuclear reactions

Alpha Decay:

● In alpha decay, an unstable nucleus emits an alpha particle (two protons

and two neutrons), resulting in the formation of a new nucleus.
● Example: The decay of uranium-238 (²³⁸U) into thorium-234 (²³⁴Th) and an
alpha particle: ²³⁸U → ²³⁴Th + α

Beta Decay:

● Beta decay involves the emission of a beta particle (an electron or

positron) from the nucleus, accompanied by a neutron transforming into a
proton or vice versa.
● Example: The decay of carbon-14 (¹⁴C) into nitrogen-14 (¹⁴N) and a beta
particle: ¹⁴C → ¹⁴N + β⁻

Gamma Emission:

● Gamma emission involves the release of gamma rays from an excited nucleus
following other types of decay or nuclear reactions. Gamma rays carry
excess energy away from the nucleus.
● Example: Gamma emission from the decay of technetium-99m (⁹⁹mTc): ⁹⁹mTc →
⁹⁹Tc + γ
●

Natural Radioisotopes: Examples include carbon-14 (used in radiocarbon dating),

uranium-238 (used in nuclear reactors), and potassium-40 (found in rocks and
minerals).

Human-Made Radioisotopes: Examples include technetium-99m (used in medical

imaging), cobalt-60 (used in cancer treatment), and iodine-131 (used in medical
diagnosis and treatment).
PERIODICITY:

INQUIRY Q: Are there patterns in the properties of elements?

RELATIONSHIPS + TRENDS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

State of matter at room temperature

As you move from left to right across a period (from alkali metals to noble
gases), the state of matter at room temperature changes as follows:

● Metals (left side) are typically solids at room temperature.

● Metalloids (in the middle) can be either solids or brittle
semiconductors.
● Non-metals (right side) are generally gases or solids at room
temperature.

Electronic configurations and atomic radii

As you move from left to right across a period (from alkali metals to noble
gases), the state of matter at room temperature changes as follows:

● Metals (left side) are typically solids at room temperature.

● Metalloids (in the middle) can be either solids or brittle
semiconductors.
● Non-metals (right side) are generally gases or solids at room
temperature.

First ionisation energy and electronegativity

● Within a period: First ionization energy (energy required to remove the

outermost electron) generally increases from left to right across a
period. This is because as you move to the right, the atomic radius
decreases, and the electrons are held more tightly due to the increased
nuclear charge.
● Within a group: First ionisation energy generally decreases as you move
down a group. This is because the outermost electron is farther from the
nucleus, shielded by inner electron shells, and experiences weaker
attraction.
 Electronegativity (ability of an atom to attract electrons in a chemical
bond) follows similar trends:

● Within a period: Electronegativity increases from left to right due to

the increasing nuclear charge.
● Within a group: Electronegativity generally decreases as you move down a
group due to the larger atomic size and increased shielding effect.

Reactivity with water

● Alkali metals (Group 1): These metals are highly reactive with water,
producing hydrogen gas and hydroxide ions. As you move down the group,
reactivity increases due to the larger atomic size and lower ionisation
energy.
● Alkaline earth metals (Group 2): These metals also react with water, but
their reactivity is lower compared to alkali metals.
● Halogens (Group 17): These non-metals are reactive with water, forming
acidic solutions. The reactivity decreases as you move down the group due
to the decreasing electronegativity.

BONDING:

INQUIRY Q: What binds atoms together in elements and compounds?

IONIC/COVALENT NATURE OF BONDS BETWEEN ATOMS

Ionic Bonds: Ionic bonds form between atoms with a significant difference in
electronegativity. In an ionic bond, one atom (usually a metal) donates
electrons to another atom (usually a nonmetal) with higher electronegativity.
This transfer of electrons leads to the formation of positively charged cations
and negatively charged anions. The electrostatic attraction between oppositely
charged ions creates a strong ionic bond.

Covalent Bonds: Covalent bonds form between atoms with similar

electronegativities. In a covalent bond, atoms share electrons to achieve a
stable electron configuration, filling their outer electron shells. The degree
of electron sharing depends on the electronegativity difference between the
atoms involved. Covalent bonds can be categorised into three types based on
electronegativity difference:

● Non-Polar Covalent Bonds:

Form when atoms have nearly
identical
electronegativities, leading
to equal sharing of
electrons. Example: H₂, Cl₂.
● Polar Covalent Bonds: Form
when atoms have a moderate
electronegativity difference.
The more electronegative atom
attracts the shared electrons
more strongly, leading to
partial charges on the atoms. Example: HCl, H₂O.
● Coordinate (Dative) Covalent Bonds: Form when one atom donates both
electrons in the shared pair, often involving a lone pair from a Lewis
base and an electron-deficient Lewis acid. Example: NH₄⁺

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IONIC + COVALENT COMPOUNDS

Nomenclature, valency and chemical formulae (including Lewis dot diagrams)

● Nomenclature:
○ Ionic Compounds: Named using the names of the cation (usually a
metal) followed by the anion (usually a non-metal) with "-ide"
ending. For example, sodium chloride (NaCl) or calcium oxide (CaO).
○ Covalent Compounds: Named using prefixes to indicate the number of
atoms of each element in the molecule. The prefix "mono" is often
omitted for the first element. For example, carbon dioxide (CO₂) or
dinitrogen pentoxide (N₂O₅).
● Valency and Chemical Formulae:
○ Ionic Compounds: Formed between elements with different
electronegativities. Valency (charge) of ions determines the
chemical formula. Ionic compounds are formed by transferring
electrons from the metal to the non-metal.
 ○ Covalent Compounds: Formed between elements with similar
electronegativities. Valency indicates the number of bonds an atom
can form. Chemical formulae are determined by sharing electrons to
achieve a full outer electron shell.
● Lewis Dot Diagrams:
○ Ionic Compounds: Show the transfer of electrons from one element to
another to form oppositely charged ions. For example, sodium (Na)
donates an electron to chlorine (Cl) to form Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions.
○ Covalent Compounds: Show the sharing of electrons between atoms to
achieve a stable electron configuration. For example, in water
(H₂O), oxygen (O) shares electrons with two hydrogen (H) atoms.

The spectrum of bonds between atoms with varying degrees of polarity with
respect to their constituent elements’ positions on the periodic table

● Ionic Compounds: Have a significant difference in electronegativity

between elements, leading to complete transfer of electrons. The
resulting electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions
creates a strong ionic bond.
● Covalent Compounds: Have a smaller difference in electronegativity,
leading to electron sharing between atoms. The degree of polarity varies,
resulting in different types of covalent bonds: non-polar covalent, polar
covalent, and coordinate covalent bonds

Modelling the shapes of molecular substances

● Covalent Compounds: The shapes of molecules are determined by the

arrangement of atoms around the central atom and the repulsion between
electron pairs. Examples include linear (CO₂), tetrahedral (CH₄), and
trigonal planar (BF₃) shapes.
● Ionic Compounds: Ionic compounds do not consist of individual molecules
but form extended crystal lattices where ions are held in fixed
positions.
ELEMENTS THAT POSSESS THE PHYSICAL PROPERTY OF ALLOTROPY:

​ Carbon:
● Carbon is a prominent example of allotropy, with several well-known
allotropes, each with unique properties.
● Diamond: Each carbon atom is tetrahedrally bonded to four other
carbon atoms in a three-dimensional network. Diamond is extremely
hard, has high refractive index, and excellent thermal conductivity.
● Graphite: Carbon atoms in graphite are arranged in layers of
hexagonal rings. These layers are held together by weak van der
Waals forces, allowing them to slide past each other. Graphite is a
good conductor of electricity along the layers.
● Graphene: A single layer of graphite is known as graphene. It has
remarkable mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties due to its
unique two-dimensional structure.
​ Oxygen:
● Oxygen exists in two primary allotropes: dioxygen (O₂) and ozone
(O₃).
● Dioxygen (O₂): The most common form of oxygen in the Earth's
atmosphere. It consists of two oxygen atoms bonded together with a
double bond.
● Ozone (O₃): Ozone is a bluish gas and is formed from oxygen
molecules in the presence of ultraviolet light. It plays a vital
role in the Earth's stratosphere, protecting us from harmful UV
radiation.
​ Phosphorus:
● Phosphorus has several allotropes, including white, red, and black
phosphorus.
● White Phosphorus: A translucent, waxy substance that is highly
reactive and can spontaneously combust in air.
● Red Phosphorus: A less reactive form that is used in safety matches
and other applications.
● Black Phosphorus: Has a layered structure and is a semiconductor. It
has gained interest for its potential in electronics.
​ Sulfur:
 ● Sulfur can exist in multiple allotropes, with S₈ being the most
stable and common form.
● Rhombic Sulfur (α-Sulfur): A yellow crystalline solid made up of S₈
rings.
● Monoclinic Sulfur (β-Sulfur): A denser form that occurs at higher
temperatures and can revert to rhombic sulfur on cooling.
​ Tin:
● Tin undergoes allotropy when cooled.
● White Tin: Stable form at higher temperatures, with a metallic
appearance and structure.
● Gray Tin (or Gray Sn): Occurs at lower temperatures and has a
non-metallic appearance. Gray tin is less dense and more brittle
than white tin.

CHEMICAL STRUCTURES OF ATOMS:

Ionic networks

Ionic compounds are formed between elements with significantly different

electronegativities, resulting in the transfer of electrons from one atom
to another. The resulting ions are held together by strong electrostatic
forces, forming an ionic network.

Example: Sodium Chloride (NaCl) - Common Table Salt

● Sodium (Na) donates an electron to chlorine (Cl), forming Na⁺ cations and
Cl⁻ anions.
● The positively charged sodium ions and negatively charged chloride ions
attract each other, forming a three-dimensional lattice structure held by
ionic bonds.

Covalent networks (including diamond and silicon dioxide)

● Diamond is composed entirely of carbon atoms bonded covalently in a

tetrahedral arrangement.
● Each carbon atom forms four strong covalent bonds with its neighboring
carbon atoms.
 ● The structure results in an extremely hard substance with high melting
and boiling points due to the strength of the covalent bonds.

Silicon Dioxide (Quartz):

● Quartz is composed of silicon (Si) and oxygen (O) atoms arranged in a

repeating pattern.
● Each silicon atom is bonded to four oxygen atoms and vice versa, forming
a continuous three-dimensional network of covalent bonds.
● Quartz is a hard mineral and has properties similar to diamond, although
not as hard.

Covalent molecular

Covalent molecular structures involve discrete molecules held together by

covalent bonds. These compounds have relatively lower melting and boiling
points compared to covalent networks.

Example: Water (H₂O)

● Water molecules are formed by covalent bonds between hydrogen (H) and
oxygen (O) atoms.
● The molecules are held together by intermolecular forces (hydrogen
bonds), which are weaker than the covalent bonds within the molecules.

Metallic structure

In metallic structures, atoms are arranged in a regular pattern where the

outer electrons are delocalized, creating a "sea" of electrons that move
freely throughout the structure. This results in unique properties like
electrical conductivity and malleability.

Example: Copper (Cu)

● In a metallic structure, copper atoms are arranged in a closely packed

lattice.
● The outer electrons of copper atoms become delocalized, forming a "sea"
of electrons that can move freely.
 ● This delocalized electron cloud is responsible for the high electrical
and thermal conductivity of metals.

SIMILARITIES + DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INTERMOLECULAR AND INTRAMOLECULAR BONDS

Intramolecular Bonds: Intramolecular bonds are the forces that hold atoms
together within a molecule.

​ Covalent Bonds: Covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons between

atoms to achieve a stable electron configuration. These bonds are
typically strong and hold atoms together within molecules. They determine
the molecular structure and properties of a compound.
​ Ionic Bonds: Ionic bonds form between atoms with significant differences
in electronegativity, leading to the transfer of electrons from one atom
to another. This results in the formation of positively charged cations
and negatively charged anions, which are held together by electrostatic
attractions.

Intermolecular Forces: Intermolecular forces are the interactions between

molecules and affect how molecules interact with each other. The primary types
of intermolecular forces are:

Hydrogen Bonding: A specific type of dipole-dipole interaction, hydrogen

bonding occurs when a hydrogen atom bonded to a highly electronegative
atom (usually nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine) is attracted to another
electronegative atom in another molecule.

Similarities:

Both intermolecular and intramolecular bonds involve interactions between atoms

or molecules. They are essential for determining the physical and chemical
properties of substances.

Differences:

■ Strength: Intramolecular bonds (covalent and ionic) are generally

stronger than intermolecular forces. Covalent bonds involve the sharing
 of electrons and are strong within a molecule. Intermolecular forces are
weaker and act between molecules.
■ Effects on Properties:
● Physical Properties of Elements: Intramolecular bonds determine the
properties of individual elements. For example, the covalent bonds
in carbon allotropes like diamond and graphite result in vastly
different physical properties.
● Physical Properties of Compounds: Intermolecular forces play a
significant role in determining the physical properties of
compounds. Boiling points, melting points, vapor pressures, and
solubilities are influenced by these forces. Compounds with stronger
intermolecular forces typically have higher boiling and melting
points.
■ Formation: Intramolecular bonds are formed during the chemical bonding
process when atoms combine to form molecules. Intermolecular forces arise
due to interactions between separate molecules.
MODULE 2 : INTRO TO QUANTITATIVE CHEM

CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND STOICHIOMETRY

INQUIRY Q: What happens in chemical reactions?

MEASURE THE QUANTITATIVE RELATIONSHIPS:

Masses of solids and/or liquids in chemical reactions

Step 1: Write and balance the chemical equation for the reaction of interest.
This equation provides the stoichiometry or molar ratios of reactants and
products.

Step 2: Convert the mass of the known reactant to moles using its molar mass
(grams per mole).

Step 3: Use the mole ratio from the balanced equation to determine the moles of
the other reactants or products involved in the reaction.

Step 4: Convert the moles of the substances in question to mass using their
respective molar masses.

Step 5: Compare the measured masses of reactants to the calculated masses of

products to verify if the reaction obeys the law of conservation of mass.

For example, consider the reaction of hydrogen gas (H₂) and oxygen gas (O₂) to
form water (H₂O):

Balanced Equation: 2H₂(g) + O₂(g) → 2H₂O(l)

Suppose you have 2 grams of hydrogen gas (H₂). You can calculate the expected
mass of water produced:

Step 1: The molar mass of H₂ is 2 g/mol.

Step 2: 2 g H₂ * (1 mol H₂ / 2 g H₂) = 1 mol H₂

Step 3: Since the balanced equation has a 2:2 mole ratio between H₂ and H₂O, 1
mol H₂ corresponds to 1 mol H₂O.

Step 4: The molar mass of H₂O is 18 g/mol.

Step 5: 1 mol H₂O * (18 g H₂O / 1 mol H₂O) = 18 g H₂O

So, 2 grams of H₂ will theoretically produce 18 grams of H₂O. Measuring the

actual mass of H₂O formed in the reaction should verify this.

Volumes of gases in chemical reactions

Step 1: Write and balance the chemical equation for the reaction to determine
the mole ratios of reactants and products.

Step 2: Convert the given volume of one gas to moles using the ideal gas law.

Step 3: Use the mole ratios from the balanced equation to determine the moles
of other gases involved in the reaction.

Step 4: Use the ideal gas law to convert the moles of gases to volumes under
the same conditions of temperature and pressure.

For example, consider the reaction of hydrogen gas (H₂) and oxygen gas (O₂) to
form water vapor (H₂O):

Balanced Equation: 2H₂(g) + O₂(g) → 2H₂O(g)

Suppose you have 5 liters of hydrogen gas (H₂) at a certain temperature and
pressure. You can calculate the expected volume of water vapor produced using
the ideal gas law.

Step 1: The balanced equation shows that 2 moles of H₂ produce 2 moles of H₂O,
so there's a 1:1 mole ratio.

Step 2: Use the ideal gas law to calculate the moles of H₂:

P₁V₁ / (RT₁) = n₁

Assume ideal conditions and note that the temperature and pressure are constant
for this reaction.
Step 3: Since the mole ratio is 1:1, the moles of H₂O formed are also equal to
n₁.

Step 4: Calculate the volume of H₂O using the ideal gas law:

(P₁V₁) / (RT₁) = (P₂V₂) / (RT₂)

Solving for V₂ (volume of H₂O) while maintaining the same temperature and
pressure conditions:

V₂ = (P₁V₁ * RT₂) / (P₂ * RT₁)

STOICHIOMETRY - LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS

Stoichiometry is a fundamental concept in chemistry that deals with the

quantitative relationships between reactants and products in chemical
reactions. It is closely related to the law of conservation of mass, which
states that mass cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction; it can
only be rearranged from one substance to another. Stoichiometry helps us
understand how the law of conservation of mass applies to chemical reactions by
providing a method to balance chemical equations and solve problems involving
mass changes.

Balancing chemical equations

Chemical reactions are represented using chemical equations, which show the
reactants on the left side and the products on the right side. Balancing the
chemical equation is essential to ensure that the law of conservation of mass
is upheld. Each atom on the reactant side must be accounted for on the product
side, and vice versa. This means that the number of atoms of each element must
be the same on both sides of the equation.

For example, consider the reaction between hydrogen gas (H₂) and oxygen gas
(O₂) to form water (H₂O):

2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O
Solving problems regarding mass changes in chemical reactions

Stoichiometry allows us to calculate the quantities of reactants and products

in a chemical reaction. Given the balanced chemical equation, we can determine
the ratio in which reactants combine and products are formed. This enables us
to solve problems involving mass changes, such as predicting how much product
will be formed from a given amount of reactant or how much reactant is needed
to produce a specific amount of product.

For example, let's say we have 4 moles of hydrogen gas (H₂) and we want to know
how many moles of water (H₂O) can be produced using the balanced equation from
above:

2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O

Since the balanced equation shows that 2 moles of H₂ produce 2 moles of H₂O,
the 4 moles of H₂ would produce 4 moles of H₂O.

MOLE CONCEPT

INQUIRY Q: How are measurements made in chemistry?

CALCULATING THE MOLAR MASS [OF ONE MOLE]

Element

● Look up the atomic mass of the element on the periodic table. This value
is typically given in atomic mass units (u) or grams per mole (g/mol).
● The molar mass of the element is equal to its atomic mass in grams per
mole.

For example, let's calculate the molar mass of carbon (C):

● Atomic mass of carbon (C) = 12.01 g/mol

● Molar mass of carbon (C) = 12.01 g/mol
Compound

● For a compound, add up the molar masses of all the atoms in the chemical
formula. The chemical formula provides the subscripts that indicate the
number of each type of atom in one molecule of the compound.
● Multiply the atomic mass of each element by the number of atoms of that
element in one molecule of the compound and then sum these values.

For example, let's calculate the molar mass of water (H2O):

● Atomic mass of hydrogen (H) = 1.01 g/mol

● Atomic mass of oxygen (O) = 16.00 g/mol
● Chemical formula of water (H2O) indicates 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen
atom.
● Molar mass of water (H2O) = (2 × 1.01 g/mol) + (1 × 16.00 g/mol) = 18.02
g/mol

So, the molar mass of water (H2O) is 18.02 grams per mole.

RATIOS BY MOLES

consider the example of water (H2O):

Mass of Hydrogen (H): The molar mass of hydrogen (H) is approximately 1 g/mol.

Mass of Oxygen (O): The molar mass of oxygen (O) is approximately 16 g/mol.

According to the Law of Definite Proportions, in any sample of water, the mass
of hydrogen will always be 2 grams for every 16 grams of oxygen. This ratio
simplifies to 1:8.

So, regardless of the source of water (whether it's from a lake, a laboratory,
or a raindrop), the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen by mass will always be 1:8.
This simple whole number ratio demonstrates the law in action.

The concept of moles is closely related to this law because it allows us to

express the ratio in terms of whole numbers of moles. In the case of water, one
mole of water contains two moles of hydrogen atoms and one mole of oxygen
atoms, reinforcing the idea that chemicals react in simple whole number ratios
by moles.

AVOGADRO'S CONSTANT

Avogadro's Constant → value is approximately 6.022 x 10^23 entities per mole.

This constant allows us to bridge the gap between the macroscopic world (mass)
and the microscopic world (number of particles).

Calculating Mass from Moles

● The molar mass of a substance is the mass of one mole of that substance
in grams. It is numerically equal to the atomic or molecular mass
expressed in atomic mass units (u) or unified atomic mass units (amu).
● To calculate the mass of a given number of moles of a substance, you can
use the formula: Mass (g) = Moles (mol) × Molar Mass (g/mol)

Calculating Moles from Mass

● To find the number of moles in a given mass of a substance, you can use
the formula: Moles (mol) = Mass (g) / Molar Mass (g/mol)

Calculating Moles from Particles

● Given a number of particles (atoms, molecules, ions, etc.), you can find
the number of moles using Avogadro's constant: Moles (mol) = Number of
Particles / Avogadro's Constant (6.022 x 10^23 entities/mol)

Percentage composition calculations

● The percentage composition of a compound tells you the mass percentage of

each element in the compound.
● To calculate the percentage composition of an element in a compound,
divide the mass of that element by the molar mass of the compound and
multiply by 100%: Percentage Composition (%) = (Mass of Element / Molar
Mass of Compound) × 100%
Empirical Formulae

● The empirical formula of a compound represents the simplest whole-number

ratio of the elements in the compound.
● To determine the empirical formula from a chemical analysis, find the
moles of each element in the compound, and then divide each by the
smallest number of moles to obtain the ratio of elements.

Limiting reagent reactions

● In chemical reactions involving multiple reactants, the limiting reagent

is the reactant that limits the amount of product formed. It is
completely consumed first.
● To identify the limiting reagent, compare the mole ratio of reactants to
the stoichiometric coefficients in the balanced chemical equation.

CONCENTRATION AND MOLARITY

INQUIRY Q: How are chemicals in solutions measured?

CALCULATE CONCENTRATION, MASS OR VOLUME

Mass Concentration

Mass concentration represents the mass of solute (in grams) dissolved in a

given volume of solution.

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Volume Concentration

Volume concentration represents the volume of solute (in milliliters or liters)

dissolved in a given volume of solution.

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
× 100
Molarity formula

𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛​
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝑀) = 𝑙𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒​

Example, Calculate the molarity of a solution if you have 0.5 moles of solute
dissolved in 2 litres of solution.

0.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
(𝑀) = 2 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠
= 0. 25𝑀

So, the molarity of the solution is 0.25 M.

Dilutions

𝑀1 × 𝑉1 = 𝑀2 × 𝑉2

Where:

- M1 = Initial molarity
- V1 = Initial Volume
- M2 = Final molarity
- V2 = Final Volume

Example, You have 0.2 L of a 0.4 M solution. What will be the new molarity if
you dilute it to 0.6 L?

0. 4𝑀 × 0. 2𝐿 = 𝑀2 × 0. 6

0.4𝑀×0.2𝐿
𝑀2 = 0.6𝐿
= 0. 133𝑚

So, the final molarity after dilution is 0.133 M.

GAS LAWS

Inquiry question: How does the Ideal Gas Law relate to all other Gas Laws?

IDEAL GAS LAWS

Gay-Lussac’s Law

Gay-Lussac's Law states that, at constant volume, the pressure of a gas is

directly proportional to its temperature in Kelvin (K). Mathematically, it can
be represented as: P1 / T1 = P2 / T2
 - where P1 and P2 are the pressures at temperatures T1 and T2.

Boyle’s Law

Boyle's Law states that, at constant temperature, the volume of a gas is

inversely proportional to its pressure. Mathematically, it can be represented
as: P1 * V1 = P2 * V2

- where P1 and P2 are the pressures at volumes V1 and V2.

Charles’ Law

Charles' Law states that, at constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly
proportional to its temperature in Kelvin (K). Mathematically, it can be
represented as: V1 / T1 = V2 / T2

- where V1 and V2 are the volumes at temperatures T1 and T2.

Avogadro’s Law

Avogadro's Law states that, at constant temperature and pressure, the volume of
a gas is directly proportional to the number of moles of gas. Mathematically,
it can be represented as: V1 / n1 = V2 / n2

- where V1 and V2 are the volumes of gas with moles n1 and n2.

Ideal Gas Law

The Ideal Gas Law combines these individual gas laws into a single equation
that describes the behaviour of gases under various conditions. The Ideal Gas
Law is given by: PV = nRT

- where P is pressure, V is volume, n is the number of moles, R is the

ideal gas constant, and T is temperature in Kelvin.
● When P and V are held constant (Boyle's Law), the equation simplifies to:
V1 / T1 = V2 / T2.
● When V and T are held constant (Gay-Lussac's Law), the equation
simplifies to: P1 / T1 = P2 / T2.
● When P and T are held constant (Charles' Law), the equation simplifies
to: V1 / T1 = V2 / T2.
● When T and n are held constant (Avogadro's Law), the equation simplifies
to: V1 / n1 = V2 / n2.
MODULE 3: REACTIVE CHEMISTRY
CHEMICAL REACTIONS

INQUIRY Q: What are the products of a chemical reaction?

INDICATORS OF A CHEMICAL REACTION:

The rearrangement of atoms to form new substances

● Change in Color: A change in the colour of reactants or the appearance of

a new colour in the product is often indicative of a chemical change.
This suggests that the chemical composition of the substances has
altered.
● Formation of Precipitate: The formation of a solid precipitate in a
solution, especially in a double displacement or precipitation reaction,
indicates the creation of new chemical species.
● Evolution of Gas: The release of gas bubbles or the production of a gas
as a product can be a sign of a chemical change. For example,
effervescence (fizzing) in an acid-base or carbonate reaction.
● Temperature Change: Significant changes in temperature, such as the
production or absorption of heat, can signal a chemical reaction.
Exothermic reactions release heat, while endothermic reactions absorb
heat.
● Formation of New Odours: The emergence of new odours or the disappearance
of familiar odours can be a sign of chemical change. This is often
observed in combustion reactions or reactions involving volatile
compounds

The conservation of atoms in a chemical reaction

● Law of Conservation of Mass: One of the fundamental principles of

chemistry is the law of conservation of mass, which states that in a
chemical reaction, the total mass of the reactants is equal to the total
mass of the products. If you measure the mass of reactants before a
reaction and the mass of products after, they should be the same within
 experimental error. This law demonstrates the conservation of atoms in a
chemical reaction.
● Balanced Chemical Equations: A balanced chemical equation illustrates how
the atoms in the reactants are rearranged to form the products while
maintaining the same number and type of atoms on both sides of the
equation. This balance reinforces the idea that no atoms are created or
destroyed during a chemical reaction.

RANGE OF REACTIONS

Synthesis

General Equation: A + B → AB

Products: In synthesis reactions, two or more reactants combine to form a

single product.

Example: Hydrogen gas (H2) + Oxygen gas (O2) → Water (H2O)

Decomposition

General Equation: AB → A + B

Products: In decomposition reactions, a single compound breaks down into two or

more simpler substances.

Example: Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) → Water (H2O) + Oxygen gas (O2)

Combustion

General Equation (complete combustion): Hydrocarbon + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide +

Water

Products: Combustion reactions involve the reaction of a substance (often a

hydrocarbon) with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water, along with heat.

Example: Methane (CH4) + Oxygen (O2) → Carbon dioxide (CO2) + Water (H2O)
Precipitation

General Equation: AB + CD → AD + CB (where AD is insoluble and forms a solid)

Products: Precipitation reactions occur when two soluble ionic compounds react
to form an insoluble product (a solid), which then precipitates out of
solution.

Example: Silver nitrate (AgNO3) + Sodium chloride (NaCl) → Silver chloride

(AgCl, solid) + Sodium nitrate (NaNO3)

Acid/base reactions

General Equation: Acid + Base → Salt + Water

Products: Acid-base reactions, also known as neutralisation reactions, result

in the formation of a salt and water.

Example: Hydrochloric acid (HCl) + Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) → Sodium chloride

(NaCl) + Water (H2O)

Acid/carbonate reactions

General Equation: Acid + Carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide

Products: In acid-carbonate reactions, an acid reacts with a carbonate to form

a salt, water, and carbon dioxide gas.

Example: Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) + Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) → Calcium sulfate

(CaSO4) + Water (H2O) + Carbon dioxide (CO2)

PREDICTING REACTIONS OF METALS

INQUIRY Q: How is the reactivity of various metals predicted?

THE REACTIVITY OF A VARIETY OF METALS:

Water

High Reactivity: Metals like sodium (Na) and potassium (K) are highly reactive
with water. They react vigorously, producing hydrogen gas and forming metal
hydroxides.
Moderate Reactivity: Metals like calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) react with
water, but less vigorously than sodium and potassium.

Low Reactivity: Metals like zinc (Zn) and aluminum (Al) have low reactivity
with water and may only react when the water is in the form of steam.

Very Low/No Reactivity: Metals like copper (Cu), silver (Ag), and gold (Au) do
not react with water at all.

Dilute Acid

→ Hydrochloric Acid

High Reactivity: Highly reactive metals like sodium (Na) and potassium (K)
vigorously react with dilute acids, producing hydrogen gas and forming metal
salts.

Moderate Reactivity: Metals like magnesium (Mg) and zinc (Zn) react with dilute
acids, but the reaction rate is slower than with highly reactive metals.

Low Reactivity: Metals like iron (Fe) and aluminum (Al) have lower reactivity
with dilute acids and may require concentrated acids for noticeable reactions.

Very Low/No Reactivity: Noble metals like copper (Cu), silver (Ag), and gold
(Au) do not react with dilute acids.

Oxygen

High Reactivity: Metals like sodium (Na) and potassium (K) react vigorously
with oxygen, often catching fire when exposed to air.

Moderate Reactivity: Metals like calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) can burn in
oxygen but do so less vigorously than sodium and potassium.

Low Reactivity: Metals like iron (Fe) and aluminium (Al) can corrode in the
presence of oxygen but generally do not burn spontaneously.

Very Low/No Reactivity: Noble metals like copper (Cu), silver (Ag), and gold
(Au) do not react with oxygen under normal conditions.
Other metal ions in solution [Displacement Reactions]

In displacement reactions, a more reactive metal can displace a less reactive

metal from its salt solution. For example, zinc (Zn) can displace copper (Cu)
from a solution of copper sulfate (CuSO4) to form zinc sulfate (ZnSO4).

The reactivity in displacement reactions follows the same trend as the

reactivity series, with more reactive metals displace less reactive metals.

PATTERNS IN THE METAL ACTIVITY SERIES

Ionisation energy

Definition: Ionization energy is the energy required to remove one mole of

electrons from one mole of atoms in their gaseous state to form cations.

Trend: Ionization energy generally increases across a period from left to right
and decreases down a group from top to bottom in the periodic table.

Explanation: Metals that are more reactive and situated at the top of the metal
activity series tend to have lower ionization energies. This is because they
have a smaller atomic radius and fewer electron shells. The lower ionization
energy means it's easier for these metals to lose electrons and form positive
ions (cations), which is a characteristic of highly reactive metals.

Atomic radius

Definition: Atomic radius is the size of the atom, typically measured as half
the distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms of the same element.
Trend: Atomic radius generally increases down a group from top to bottom and
decreases across a period from left to right.

Explanation: As you move down a group in the periodic table, the atomic radius
increases because there are more electron shells, resulting in greater distance
between the outermost electrons and the nucleus. This increase in atomic size
makes it easier for metals in lower periods (e.g., alkali and alkaline earth
metals) to lose electrons and become more reactive.

Electronegativity

Definition: Electronegativity is a measure of an atom's ability to attract

electrons when forming chemical bonds.

Trend: Electronegativity generally increases across a period from left to right

and decreases down a group from top to bottom.

Explanation: Metals at the top of the periodic table, which are more reactive,
tend to have lower electronegativities. They have a stronger tendency to lose
electrons and form cations, rather than gaining electrons. As you move across a
period, metals become less reactive because their higher electronegativities
make them more likely to form compounds by gaining electrons rather than losing
them.

OXIDATION AND REDUCTION

Oxidation (Loss of Electrons): Right-Side [Product]

Definition: Oxidation refers to the process in which an element, compound, or

ion loses electrons.

Oxidation Number Increase: In a redox reaction, the oxidation number of an

element increases as it loses electrons. This is also known as an increase in
the oxidation state.

Example, Oxidation of Iron (Fe) to Form Iron(III) Oxide (Fe2O3):

Oxidation: Iron (Fe) loses electrons and is oxidised from Fe^0 to Fe^3+.

Reduction: Oxygen (O2) gains electrons and is reduced from O2 to O2-.

Overall Reaction: 4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3

Reduction (Gain of Electrons): Left-Side [Reactant]

Definition: Reduction refers to the process in which an element, compound, or

ion gains electrons.

Oxidation Number Decrease: In a redox reaction, the oxidation number of an

element decreases as it gains electrons. This is also known as a decrease in
the oxidation state.

GALVANIC CELLS

These cells are devices that convert

chemical energy into electrical energy
through redox (reduction-oxidation)
reactions. A galvanic half-cell consists of
an electrode (often a metal or a conducting
material) in contact with an electrolyte
solution.

Oxidation occurs at the anode, where

electrons are released by the metal
electrode and enter the external circuit.

Reduction occurs at the cathode, where electrons from the external circuit are
accepted by another species in the electrolyte, often a metal ion or another
chemical species.

The electrons flow from the anode to the cathode through the external circuit,
and this flow of electrons can be used to perform electrical work.

Key components of a galvanic half-cell include:

● Electrode: The electrode is typically made of a metal or a conducting

material and serves as a site for redox reactions. It can be the site of
either oxidation (losing electrons) or reduction (gaining electrons),
depending on whether it's the anode or cathode, respectively.
● Electrolyte Solution: The electrolyte solution is a liquid that contains
ions. It allows the flow of ions between the half-cells to maintain
charge neutrality during the redox reactions. The electrolyte also
 provides a medium for ions to move between the electrode and the
solution.
● Salt Bridge (Optional): In some galvanic cells, a salt bridge or a porous
barrier may be used to connect the two half-cells while preventing the
mixing of the solutions. It allows ions to pass through to complete the
electrical circuit and maintain charge balance.
● External Circuit: The galvanic half-cell is connected to an external
circuit, such as a wire, which allows the flow of electrons between the
two half-cells. This electron flow constitutes an electric current, which
can be harnessed for various applications.
● Electron Flow: In the half-cell where oxidation occurs (the anode),
electrons are released and flow through the external circuit toward the
half-cell where reduction occurs (the cathode). This flow of electrons is
what generates an electric current.

REDOX REACTIONS

→ Type of chemical reaction in which there is a transfer of electrons between

two or more substances.

Key characteristics of redox reactions:

● Electrons are transferred from the reducing agent (substance undergoing

oxidation) to the oxidizing agent (substance undergoing reduction).
● Redox reactions are not limited to the transfer of free electrons; they
can also involve the transfer of hydrogen ions (protons) or the gain/loss
of oxygen atoms.
● Redox reactions are common in various chemical processes, including
combustion, corrosion, biological processes (e.g., cellular respiration),
and many industrial and laboratory reactions.

In a balanced redox equation, the number of electrons lost in the oxidation

half-reaction is equal to the number of electrons gained in the reduction
half-reaction, ensuring charge conservation.

Example, Combustion of Hydrogen Gas (H2) with Oxygen (O2) to Form Water (H2O):

Half-Reactions:
Oxidation Half-Reaction (Loss of Electrons): H2(g) → 2H+(aq) + 2e^-

Reduction Half-Reaction (Gain of Electrons): O2(g) + 4e^- → 2O2-(aq)

Balanced Overall Equation: 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)

​ predict the reaction of metals in solutions using the table of standard

reduction potentials

PREDICTING THE SPONTANEITY OF REDOX REACTIONS

1. Determine the Half-Reactions: First, identify the two half-reactions that

make up the redox reaction. Separate the oxidation half-reaction (loss of
electrons) from the reduction half-reaction (gain of electrons).
2. Find the Standard Reduction Potentials: Look up the standard reduction
potentials (E°) for each half-reaction in a standard reference table.
These tables are readily available in chemistry textbooks or online
resources.
3. Calculate the Cell Potential (Ecell): The cell potential (Ecell) can be
calculated using the Nernst equation for non-standard conditions or, more
commonly, by subtracting the standard reduction potential of the anode
(oxidation) from the standard reduction potential of the cathode
(reduction):
Ecell = E°cathode - E°anode
The cell potential is measured in volts (V).
4. Determine Spontaneity:
● If Ecell is positive (greater than zero), the reaction is
spontaneous in the direction as written (from left to right in the
cell diagram).
● If Ecell is negative (less than zero), the reaction is
non-spontaneous in the direction as written and will proceed in the
reverse direction.
● If Ecell is exactly zero, the reaction is at equilibrium, and there
is no net change in the concentrations of the reactants and
products.
5. Understand the Significance of Ecell: The sign of Ecell indicates the
direction of electron flow and the spontaneity of the reaction:
 ● A positive Ecell indicates that the reaction is thermodynamically
favorable, and electrons flow from the anode to the cathode,
resulting in a spontaneous reaction.
● A negative Ecell indicates that the reaction is not
thermodynamically favorable in the direction as written, but it may
proceed in the reverse direction.
● A zero Ecell means that the reaction is at equilibrium, and there is
no net change in the system.

Keep in mind that the standard reduction potentials (E°) are specific to
standard conditions (25°C, 1 M concentrations, and 1 atm pressure) and may need
to be adjusted for non-standard conditions using the Nernst equation if
necessary.

Rates of Reactions

INQUIRY Q: What affects the rate of a chemical reaction?

RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Temperature

Effect: Increasing the temperature generally increases the rate of a chemical

reaction.

Explanation: Higher temperatures provide reactant molecules with more kinetic

energy, leading to increased molecular collisions and a greater number of
collisions with sufficient energy to overcome the activation energy barrier.
This results in a higher frequency of successful collisions and faster reaction
rates.

Surface area of reactant(s)

Effect: Increasing the surface area of reactants generally increases the rate
of a chemical reaction.

Explanation: When reactants are in solid form, breaking them into smaller
particles or increasing their surface area exposes more reactant molecules to
each other. This increases the frequency of collisions and, consequently, the
rate of reaction.

Concentration of reactant(s)

Effect: Increasing the concentration of reactants generally increases the rate

of a chemical reaction.

Explanation: Higher reactant concentrations mean that there are more reactant
molecules in a given volume, increasing the likelihood of collisions between
reactant particles. More collisions lead to a higher reaction rate.

Catalysts

Effect: Catalysts increase the rate of a chemical reaction without being

consumed in the process.

Explanation: Catalysts provide an alternative reaction pathway with a lower

activation energy. This lower energy barrier allows a greater fraction of
reactant molecules to overcome the activation energy and participate in the
reaction. Catalysts do not alter the thermodynamics of the reaction; they only
facilitate the kinetics, making the reaction proceed faster.

THE ROLE OF ACTIVATION ENERGY, COLLISIONS AND MOLECULAR ORIENTATION IN

COLLISION THEORY

Activation Energy

● Definition: Activation energy (Ea) is the minimum energy required for a

chemical reaction to occur. It represents the energy barrier that
reactant molecules must overcome to transform into products.
● Role in Collision Theory: For a reaction to take place, colliding
molecules must possess sufficient kinetic energy to surpass the
activation energy barrier. If the colliding molecules have energy equal
to or greater than the activation energy, they can react and form
products.
Collisions

● Definition: Collisions occur when reactant molecules come into contact

with each other. Not all collisions lead to chemical reactions.
● Role in Collision Theory: According to collision theory, the following
conditions must be met for a collision to result in a chemical reaction:
○ Sufficient Energy: Colliding molecules must possess kinetic energy
greater than or equal to the activation energy (Ea) for the
reaction.
○ Proper Orientation: Colliding molecules must have the correct
orientation relative to each other. This means that they must
collide in a way that allows the necessary bonds to be broken and
new bonds to be formed.

Molecular Orientation

● Definition: Molecular orientation refers to the relative alignment of

atoms and molecules during a collision.
● Role in Collision Theory: Proper molecular orientation is crucial for an
effective collision that leads to a chemical reaction. When molecules
collide with the correct orientation, the atoms involved can come into
close proximity, allowing the necessary bonds to be broken and new bonds
to be formed. If the collision occurs with the wrong orientation, the
reaction may not proceed.

A CHANGE IN REACTION RATE

Increase in Temperature: When the temperature of a reaction is increased, the

kinetic energy of the reactant molecules also increases. According to collision
theory, this leads to a higher collision frequency and more energetic
collisions. As a result, a larger fraction of collisions will have energies
greater than the activation energy (Ea), making it more likely for the reactant
molecules to overcome the energy barrier and react. Consequently, the reaction
rate increases with higher temperature.
Decrease in Temperature: Conversely, lowering the temperature decreases the
kinetic energy of the molecules, resulting in a lower collision frequency and
fewer collisions with sufficient energy to overcome the activation energy. This
leads to a slower reaction rate at lower temperatures.

Increase in Concentration: If the concentration of reactants is increased,

there are more reactant molecules in a given volume, which leads to a higher
collision frequency. More collisions mean that there is a greater chance of
molecules colliding with enough energy and the correct orientation to overcome
the activation energy barrier. Consequently, an increase in reactant
concentration typically results in a faster reaction rate.

Decrease in Concentration: Reducing the concentration of reactants has the

opposite effect. Fewer reactant molecules lead to a lower collision frequency,
which decreases the likelihood of effective collisions. This results in a
slower reaction rate at lower reactant concentrations.

Catalysts are substances that increase the rate of a chemical reaction by

providing an alternative reaction pathway with a lower activation energy.
According to collision theory, a catalyst achieves this by facilitating the
proper orientation of reactant molecules during collisions.

A catalyst does not alter the overall energy difference between reactants and
products (ΔG), but it reduces the activation energy required to initiate the
reaction. This means that a greater fraction of collisions between reactant
molecules will have sufficient energy to proceed along the catalyzed pathway,
leading to a faster reaction rate in the presence of a catalyst.
MODULE 4: DRIVERS OF REACTIONS

Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions

INQUIRY Q: What energy changes occur in chemical reactions?

ENDOTHERMIC AND EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS

1. Endothermic Reactions:

● Definition: Endothermic reactions are chemical reactions that absorb heat

energy from their surroundings as they occur. In other words, these
reactions require an input of energy to proceed.
● Energy Flow: Heat energy flows from the surroundings into the reacting
system, resulting in a decrease in temperature in the surroundings.
● Examples:
○ The dissolution of certain salts in water, such as ammonium nitrate
(NH4NO3), where the temperature of the solution decreases as the
salt dissolves.
○ Photosynthesis in plants, where carbon dioxide and water are
converted into glucose and oxygen using energy from sunlight.

2. Exothermic Reactions:

● Definition: Exothermic reactions are chemical reactions that release heat

energy into their surroundings as they occur. These reactions generate
heat as a product of the reaction.
● Energy Flow: Heat energy flows from the reacting system into the
surroundings, causing an increase in temperature in the surroundings.
● Examples:
○ Combustion reactions, such as the burning of gasoline or wood, where
the heat produced contributes to a flame and an increase in
temperature in the surroundings.
○ Many chemical reactions in which new chemical bonds are formed, like
the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to form water.
ENTHALPY CHANGES IN REACTIONS

Investigating enthalpy changes in reactions using calorimetry and the equation

q = mcΔT involves measuring the heat exchange between a chemical reaction and
its surroundings. Calorimetry is a technique that allows for the precise
determination of enthalpy changes (ΔH) during chemical processes.

𝑞 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇

● "q" represents the heat transfer (in joules or calories).

● "m" is the mass of the substance undergoing the temperature change (in
grams).
● "c" is the specific heat capacity of the substance (in J/g°C or cal/g°C).
● "ΔT" is the change in temperature, which is calculated as the final
temperature minus the initial temperature (T_final - T_initial).

If the value of q is positive, it indicates an endothermic reaction (heat

absorbed from the surroundings).

If the value of q is negative, it indicates an exothermic reaction (heat

released to the surroundings).

ENERGY PROFILE DIAGRAMS

Endothermic Reaction: In an
endothermic reaction, the products
are at a higher energy level than
the reactants, and the curve rises
from left to right. The activation
energy (Ea) is positive because
energy is absorbed from the
surroundings. The products have more
energy than the reactants.

Exothermic Reaction: In an
exothermic reaction, the products
are at a lower energy level than the
reactants, and the curve descends from left to right. The activation energy
(Ea) is negative because energy is released to the surroundings. The products
have less energy than the reactants.

Activation Energy: The height of the activation energy barrier indicates the
difficulty of the reaction. A higher activation energy implies a slower
reaction, as more energy is required for the reactants to overcome the barrier.

Reaction Rate: The slope of the energy curve at the transition state (‡) can
provide information about the reaction rate. A steeper slope indicates a faster
reaction, while a shallower slope implies a slower reaction.

ANALYSE THE ROLE OF CATALYSTS

Activation Energy Reduction:

● One of the primary roles of a catalyst is to lower the activation energy

required for a chemical reaction to proceed. Activation energy is the
energy barrier that reactant molecules must overcome to convert into
products.
● Catalysts provide an alternative reaction pathway with a lower activation
energy, making it easier for reactant molecules to collide and react.

Increased Reaction Rate:

● Catalysts increase the reaction rate by providing an alternate route for

the reaction with a lower activation energy.
● This higher reaction rate can be especially important in industrial
processes, where faster reactions can lead to higher productivity and
lower energy consumption.

Specificity:

● Catalysts are often highly specific to certain reactions. They can

promote one reaction while leaving others unaffected.
● This specificity is crucial in organic chemistry, where catalysts are
used in selective synthesis to produce desired products while minimizing
unwanted byproducts.

Catalyst Regeneration:
 ● Catalysts are not consumed in the reaction; they remain unchanged at the
end. This property makes them highly economical.
● Catalysts can be used repeatedly, and their effectiveness is maintained
as long as the reaction conditions are suitable.

Enthalpy and Hess’s Law

INQUIRY Q: How much energy does it take to break bonds, and how much is
released when bonds are formed?

HESS’ LAW

→ means that the total enthalpy change for a chemical reaction remains
constant, regardless of the specific steps or intermediate reactions involved,
as long as the initial and final states are the same.

Carbon reacting with oxygen to form carbon dioxide via carbon monoxide

Step 1: Carbon reacts with oxygen to form carbon monoxide.

C(s) + 0.5O₂(g) → CO(g)

Step 2: Carbon monoxide reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide.

2CO(g) + O₂(g) → 2CO₂(g)

Overall Reaction: C(s) + O₂(g) → CO₂(g)

Now, investigate each step and calculate the enthalpy change for each using
standard enthalpy change data and bond energy data:

Step 1: To calculate the enthalpy change for Step 1, we can use the standard
enthalpy change of formation (ΔH°f) values for each compound involved:

ΔH°f(CO(g)) = -110.5 kJ/mol

ΔH°f(C(s)) = 0 kJ/mol

ΔH°f(O₂(g)) = 0 kJ/mol
 ΔH₁ = [ΣΔH°f(products)] - [ΣΔH°f reactants] ΔH₁ = [ΔH°f(CO(g))] -
[ΔH°f(C(s)) + 0.5ΔH°f(O₂(g))] ΔH₁ = [-110.5 kJ/mol] - [0 kJ/mol + 0.5(0
kJ/mol)] ΔH₁ = -110.5 kJ/mol

Step 2: Similarly, for Step 2, we can use the standard enthalpy change of
formation values:

ΔH°f(CO₂(g)) = -393.5 kJ/mol

ΔH°f(CO(g)) = -110.5 kJ/mol

ΔH°f(O₂(g)) = 0 kJ/mol

ΔH₂ = [ΣΔH°f(products)] - [ΣΔH°f reactants] ΔH₂ = [2ΔH°f(CO₂(g))] -

[2ΔH°f(CO(g)) + ΔH°f(O₂(g))] ΔH₂ = [2(-393.5 kJ/mol)] - [2(-110.5 kJ/mol)
+ 0 kJ/mol] ΔH₂ = -393.5 kJ/mol - (-221 kJ/mol) ΔH₂ = -172.5 kJ/mol

Overall Reaction: Now, we can use Hess's Law to find the enthalpy change for
the overall reaction:

ΔH(overall) = ΔH₁ + ΔH₂ ΔH(overall) = (-110.5 kJ/mol) + (-172.5 kJ/mol)

ΔH(overall) = -283 kJ/mol

APPLICATION OF HESS’ LAW TO SIMPLE ENERGY CYCLES

Heat of combustion

The heat of combustion is the enthalpy change that occurs when one mole of a
substance reacts completely with oxygen to form its combustion products
(usually carbon dioxide and water vapour).

For example, let's calculate the heat of combustion for methane (CH₄):

Step 1: Combustion of methane to form carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water (H₂O):

CH₄(g) + 2O₂(g) → CO₂(g) + 2H₂O(g)

Step 2: Formation of water from its elements:

H₂(g) + 0.5O₂(g) → H₂O(g)

Overall Reaction: CH₄(g) + 2O₂(g) → CO₂(g) + 2H₂O(g)

Now, use Hess's Law to calculate the heat of combustion (ΔH_combustion) of
methane:

ΔH_combustion = ΔH(Step 1) - ΔH(Step 2)

enthalpy changes involved in photosynthesis

The overall equation for photosynthesis is:

6CO₂(g) + 6H₂O(l) + light energy → C₆H₁₂O₆(aq) + 6O₂(g)

Step 1: Formation of glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) from its elements in their standard

states:

6C(graphite) + 6H₂(g) + 3O₂(g) → C₆H₁₂O₆(aq)

Step 2: Formation of oxygen (O₂) from its elements in their standard states:

3O₂(g) → 3O₂(g)

Step 3: Formation of carbon dioxide (CO₂) from carbon (C) and oxygen (O₂) in
their standard states:

C(graphite) + O₂(g) → CO₂(g)

Step 4: Formation of water (H₂O) from hydrogen (H₂) and oxygen (O₂) in their
standard states:

2H₂(g) + O₂(g) → 2H₂O(l)

Now, we know the enthalpy changes (ΔH) for these individual reactions based on
standard enthalpy of formation (ΔH°f) values:

ΔH₁ = [ΔH°f(C₆H₁₂O₆(aq))] - [ΣΔH°f reactants]

ΔH₂ = [ΣΔH°f(O₂(g))] - [ΣΔH°f reactants]

ΔH₃ = [ΔH°f(CO₂(g))] - [ΣΔH°f reactants]

ΔH₄ = [ΔH°f(H₂O(l))] - [ΣΔH°f reactants]

Now, calculate the overall enthalpy change (ΔH_photosynthesis) for the

photosynthesis process: ΔH_photosynthesis = ΔH₁ + ΔH₂ + ΔH₃ + ΔH₄
Enthalpy changes involved in respiration

The overall equation for cellular respiration is:

C₆H₁₂O₆(aq) + 6O₂(g) → 6CO₂(g) + 6H₂O(l) + energy

Now, break this down into several simpler reactions and apply Hess's Law:

Step 1: Formation of glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) from its elements in their standard

states:

6C(graphite) + 6H₂(g) + 3O₂(g) → C₆H₁₂O₆(aq)

Step 2: Combustion of glucose to produce carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water (H₂O):

C₆H₁₂O₆(aq) + 6O₂(g) → 6CO₂(g) + 6H₂O(l)

Step 3: Formation of water (H₂O) from its elements in their standard states:

2H₂(g) + O₂(g) → 2H₂O(l)

Now, we know the enthalpy changes (ΔH) for these individual reactions based on
standard enthalpy of formation (ΔH°f) values:

ΔH₁ = [ΔH°f(C₆H₁₂O₆(aq))] - [ΣΔH°f reactants]

ΔH₂ = [ΣΔH°f(CO₂(g), H₂O(l))] - [ΔH°f(C₆H₁₂O₆(aq)) + ΔH°f(O₂(g))]

ΔH₃ = [ΣΔH°f(H₂O(l))] - [ΣΔH°f reactants]

Now, we can calculate the overall enthalpy change (ΔH_respiration) for the
respiration process using Hess's Law: ΔH_respiration = ΔH₁ + ΔH₂ + ΔH₃

​
Entropy and Gibbs Free Energy

INQUIRY Q: How can enthalpy and entropy be used to explain reaction

spontaneity?

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ENTROPY AND ENTHALPY

Definition:

Enthalpy (H): Enthalpy is a measure of the total heat energy content of a

system at constant pressure. It includes both the internal energy of the system
and the energy associated with the pressure-volume work done by or on the
system. Enthalpy is usually denoted as H and is expressed in units of energy
(e.g., joules or calories).

Entropy (S): Entropy is a measure of the degree of disorder or randomness in a

system. It represents the number of microstates (ways) that a system can be
arranged at a given energy level. Entropy is usually denoted as S and is
expressed in units of energy per temperature (e.g., J/K or cal/K).

Physical Meaning:

Enthalpy: Enthalpy relates to the heat content of a system and is associated

with energy transfer during chemical reactions or phase changes. It is a
measure of the total energy, including potential and kinetic energy, in a
system.

Entropy: Entropy represents the statistical likelihood of different microscopic

arrangements within a system. It is a measure of the system's disorder or
randomness.

Change in Value:

Enthalpy: Enthalpy change (ΔH) describes the change in heat energy during a
chemical reaction or phase transition. It can be either positive (endothermic)
or negative (exothermic), depending on whether heat is absorbed or released.

Entropy: Entropy change (ΔS) describes the change in disorder or randomness

during a process. It typically increases (ΔS > 0) for processes that lead to
greater disorder and decreases (ΔS < 0) for processes that lead to greater
order.

Units

Enthalpy: Enthalpy is expressed in units of energy, such as joules or calories.

Entropy: Entropy is expressed in units of energy per temperature, such as

joules per Kelvin (J/K) or calories per Kelvin (cal/K).

Symbol and Formulae

Enthalpy: Represented by the symbol H, and the change in enthalpy is ΔH.

Entropy: Represented by the symbol S, and the change in entropy is ΔS.

Role in Reactions

Enthalpy: Enthalpy change is related to the heat absorbed or released during a

chemical reaction and provides information about the thermodynamics of the
reaction.

Entropy: Entropy change is related to the dispersal of energy and matter within
a system and provides information about the spontaneity and direction of a
process.

Relationship to Gibbs Free Energy (ΔG):

Enthalpy and entropy are both components of the Gibbs free energy equation (ΔG
= ΔH - TΔS), which determines whether a process is spontaneous or
nonspontaneous at a given temperature. The sign of ΔG depends on the relative
magnitudes and signs of ΔH and TΔS.
PREDICTING ENTROPY

Entropy Increases:

● Phase Changes: Generally, when a substance changes from a solid to a

liquid or from a liquid to a gas, the entropy increases because the
molecules have more freedom of movement in the new phase. For example:
○ Solid → Liquid → Gas: ΔS is positive.
● Increase in the Number of Particles: When a reaction results in an
increase in the total number of moles of gas or particles, it typically
leads to an increase in entropy. This is because there are more ways
(microstates) for the particles to be distributed in space. For example:
○ 2H₂(g) + O₂(g) → 2H₂O(g): ΔS is positive.
● Complexity of Molecules: Larger and more complex molecules tend to have
higher entropy because they have more ways to vibrate and rotate. For
example:
○ CH₄(g) + 2O₂(g) → CO₂(g) + 2H₂O(g): ΔS is positive.
● Mixing of Substances: When different substances are mixed, the entropy
generally increases because there are more ways to arrange the molecules
compared to when they are separate. For example:
○ Mixing solute and solvent to form a solution: ΔS is positive.

Entropy Decreases:

● Phase Changes toward More Ordered States: When a substance changes from a
gas to a liquid or from a gas to a solid, the entropy decreases because
the molecules become more ordered and have fewer degrees of freedom. For
example:
○ Gas → Liquid: ΔS is negative.
○ Gas → Solid: ΔS is negative.
● Fewer Particles Produced: If a reaction results in fewer moles of gas or
particles than the reactants, it typically leads to a decrease in
entropy. For example:
○ 2H₂(g) + O₂(g) → 2H₂O(l): ΔS is negative.
 ● Formation of More Ordered Structures: Reactions that lead to the
formation of highly ordered structures or crystals often result in a
decrease in entropy. For example:
○ Formation of a crystal lattice: ΔS is negative.
● Separation of Substances: When substances are separated or isolated from
one another, the entropy generally decreases because there are fewer ways
to arrange the molecules compared to when they are mixed. For example:
○ Crystallisation of a solute from a solution: ΔS is negative.

REACTION SPONTANEITY

Spontaneity in chemical reactions refers to whether a reaction will occur on

its own without any external influence, such as the addition of heat or the
performance of work. This concept is explained using several key thermodynamic
terms, including Gibbs free energy (ΔG), enthalpy (ΔH), and entropy (ΔS). The
relationship between these terms is described by the Gibbs free energy
equation:

ΔG = ΔH - TΔS

Gibbs free energy

● Gibbs free energy is a thermodynamic potential that quantifies the

maximum amount of reversible work that can be performed by a system at
constant temperature and pressure.
● ΔG represents the change in Gibbs free energy during a chemical reaction.
● The sign of ΔG determines the spontaneity of the reaction:
○ ΔG < 0 (negative): The reaction is spontaneous in the forward
direction, meaning it will proceed without external intervention.
○ ΔG = 0: The system is at equilibrium, and there is no net change in
the reactants or products.
○ ΔG > 0 (positive): The reaction is non-spontaneous in the forward
direction, meaning it will not occur without an external driving
force.
Enthalpy

● Enthalpy represents the total heat content of a system, including

internal energy and the energy associated with pressure-volume work.
● ΔH is the change in enthalpy during a reaction.
● When a reaction is exothermic (ΔH < 0), it releases heat, contributing to
spontaneity. Exothermic reactions often have a negative impact on ΔG.
● When a reaction is endothermic (ΔH > 0), it absorbs heat, which can make
the reaction non-spontaneous if not counteracted by other factors.

Entropy

● Entropy is a measure of the disorder or randomness of a system.

● ΔS is the change in entropy during a reaction.
● When a system becomes more disordered (ΔS > 0), it contributes to
spontaneity, as it increases the number of microstates and favors
increased entropy.
● When a system becomes more ordered (ΔS < 0), it can make the reaction
non-spontaneous unless compensated by other factors.

SOLVING PROBLEMS W/ STANDARD REFERENCES + GIBBS TO CLASSIFY SPONTANEOUS AND

NONSPONTANEOUS REACTIONS

Step 1: Collect the relevant information:

● ΔH (change in enthalpy): Determine whether the reaction is exothermic

(negative ΔH) or endothermic (positive ΔH).
● ΔS (change in entropy): Determine whether the reaction results in an
increase (positive ΔS) or decrease (negative ΔS) in disorder or
randomness.
● Temperature (T): This should be in Kelvin (K).

Step 2: Calculate ΔG:

● Plug the values of ΔH, ΔS, and T into the ΔG formula.

● If ΔH and ΔS are given in joules, make sure that the temperature is also
in kelvin to have consistent units.

Step 3: Determine spontaneity:

 ● If ΔG < 0, the reaction is spontaneous in the forward direction under the
given conditions.
● If ΔG > 0, the reaction is nonspontaneous in the forward direction under
the given conditions.

Example, Consider the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) into water

(H₂O) and oxygen (O₂) at 298 K:

2H₂O₂(aq) → 2H₂O(l) + O₂(g)

Given data:

● ΔH = -196 kJ/mol (exothermic, heat is released)

● ΔS = 88 J/(mol·K) (increase in disorder)
● T = 298 K

Step 2: Calculate ΔG:

● Convert ΔH to joules: -196 kJ/mol = -196,000 J/mol

● Use the Gibbs free energy formula:

ΔG = ΔH - TΔS

ΔG = (-196,000 J/mol) - (298 K) * (88 J/(mol·K))

ΔG = -196,000 J/mol - 26,224 J/mol

ΔG = -222,224 J/mol

Step 3: Determine spontaneity:

Since ΔG is negative (-222,224 J/mol < 0), the reaction is spontaneous at 298 K
under these conditions. Heat is released, and entropy increases, driving the
reaction forward.
PREDICTING THE EFFECT OF TEMP CHANGES ON SPONTANEITY

Temperature plays a significant role in determining the spontaneity of a

chemical reaction, and its effect can be predicted based on the Gibbs free
energy (ΔG) equation:

ΔG = ΔH - TΔS

Effect of Temperature on ΔG:

● When you increase the temperature (T) in the ΔG equation, the

temperature-dependent term, -TΔS, becomes more significant.
● If ΔH and ΔS remain constant, an increase in temperature makes the
magnitude of the -TΔS term larger.

→ As a result, the sign of ΔG can change:

● If ΔG becomes more negative (ΔG < 0), the reaction becomes more
spontaneous at higher temperatures.
● If ΔG becomes less negative (ΔG > 0), the reaction becomes less
spontaneous at higher temperatures.

Effect of Temperature on Endothermic Reactions:

● For endothermic reactions (ΔH > 0), an increase in temperature generally

makes the reaction more spontaneous.
● This is because as temperature rises, the increase in the entropy term
(ΔS) can dominate the Gibbs free energy equation and make -TΔS more
negative, even if ΔH is positive.
● Endothermic reactions that are nonspontaneous at low temperatures can
become spontaneous at higher temperatures.

Effect of Temperature on Exothermic Reactions:

● For exothermic reactions (ΔH < 0), the effect of temperature on

spontaneity is less straightforward.
 ● An increase in temperature can sometimes make the reaction less
spontaneous if the increase in entropy term is not sufficient to
counteract the positive ΔH.
● However, for many exothermic reactions, an increase in temperature
enhances spontaneity because the increase in entropy (ΔS) is often
significant and can outweigh the positive ΔH.

Temperature and Equilibrium:

● Temperature changes can also affect the position of chemical equilibrium.

● For endothermic reactions, an increase in temperature shifts the
equilibrium toward the products (Le Chatelier's principle).
● For exothermic reactions, an increase in temperature shifts the
equilibrium toward the reactants.