Experiment No.

3 Cooling system of an Engine

Objective
To understand how the optimum temperature of an engine is maintained by cooling system.

Introduction
A typical 4 cylinder vehicle cruising along the highway at around 50 miles per hour, will produce
4000 controlled explosions per minute inside the engine as the spark plugs ignite the fuel in each
cylinder to propel the vehicle down the road. Obviously, these explosions produce an enormous
amount of heat and, if not controlled, will destroy an engine in a matter of minutes. Controlling
these high temperatures is the job of the cooling system.

The engine runs best at an optimum temperature. If the engine temperature is too low, fuel
economy will suffer and emissions will rise. If the temperature is allowed to get too hot for too
long, the engine will self-destruct.

Types of Cooling System

Actually there are two types of cooling systems found on motor vehicles.

Air Cooling

The heat is transferred to the air present in the atmosphere through the extended surfaces
called fins.

Liquid Cooling

The heat is transferred to a coolant and this coolant operates on a close cycle.

Working of a Cooling System

The main components of a cooling system are given below:

 Water pump to circulate the coolant

 Thermostat valve to control the temperature of the coolant
 Radiator to cool the coolant
 Radiator cap to control the pressure in the system
 Coolant
 Cooling Fan
 Interconnecting hoses to transfer the coolant from engine to radiator
Cooling Cycle
Cooling cycle refers to the flow of water through the whole system which is driven by water pump.
The schematic of water flow is given as:

Water Engine Thermostat Radiator

Pump Valve

Thermostat valve is placed between radiator and engine. Thermostat valve opens fully at higher
temperature and closes at lower temperature.

Water Pump
A water pump is a simple device that will keep the coolant moving as long as the engine is
running. It is usually mounted on the front of the engine and turns whenever the engine is
running. The water pump is driven by the engine through one of the following:

 A fan belt that will also be responsible for driving an additional component like an
alternator or power steering pump
 The timing belt that is also responsible for driving one or more camshafts

Thermostat Valve

Thermostat valve controls the amount of water going in the radiator to maintain a certain preset
temperature of coolant. Thermostat is simply a valve placed between the engine and the radiator
that measures the temperature of the coolant and, if it is hot enough, opens to allow the coolant to
flow through the radiator. If the coolant is not hot enough, the flow to the radiator is blocked and
fluid is directed to a bypass system that allows the coolant to return directly back to the engine.

The bypass system allows the coolant to keep moving through the engine to balance the
temperature and avoid hot spots. Because flow to the radiator is blocked, the engine will reach
operating temperature sooner and, on a cold day, will allow the heater to begin supplying hot air
to the interior more quickly.

Radiator
Radiator has two main types:

 Vertical flow Radiator

 Cross flow radiator

Vertical Flow Radiator

In this type of radiator, the inlet and outlet valves of the radiator are placed at the top and
bottom of the radiator.

Cross Flow Radiator

In this type of radiator, the inlet and outlet valves are placed at right and left sides of the
radiator.

Working Principle

A radiator is a type of heat exchanger which is used to cool the water coming from the engine.
The hot water travels in the parallel tubes in the radiator and some extended surfaces are
attached to those tubes which are called fins to increase the surface area.

A fan is placed in front of radiator so that forced convection can take place. In this way, heat
is transferred by convection from water to the ambient air. If the car has a heating system, the
air coming from radiator can be used in heater by process.

Radiator Cap
Radiator cap performs two important tasks in a radiator:

 To increase the boiling point of the coolant

 To maintain the specific pressure in the radiator

Increasing boiling point of the coolant

When the pressure is increased, the boiling point of any liquid increases as well. The same
thing happens in the radiator. The radiator cap increases the pressure which consequently raises
the boiling temperature.
 Maintaining the pressure in radiator

Radiator cap has two valves has two valves in it:

 Pressure valve
 Vacuum valve

When the fluid in the radiator has higher temperature, it tries to expand which ultimately increases
the pressure in radiator. Now the only place where this pressure can be released is radiator cap.
So, the spring on pressure valve determine the maximum amount of pressure in the system.

If the pressure is raised above this point the spring will be compressed causing the valve to open
and let the fluid escape to the reservoir. When the radiator cools back down, a vacuum is created
in the system which opens the vacuum valve and the water comes back to make up efficiency of
coolant.

Cooling Fan
The speed of the cooling fan should be related to the amount of hot water coming in radiator to
save the energy. Its speed should be directly proportional to the amount of cooling required. But
usually in most cars, the fan rotates with a constant speed.

Also the fan should be kept working when the thermostat valve opens. It should not be directly
connected to the electrical system of the car.

Coolant
The coolant must not freeze in the tubes at cold weather and it should not react with the system
component. So, in order to achieve that target, following additives are added in water:

 Anti-freeze agents
 Anti-rust agents

Lab Tasks:

Attach extra pages if required.

Lab Task 5:

Figure of the Cooling system of the engine (and location of major components; label with
arrowheads):
Lab Task 6:

Major Components of the Cooling system (Individual Description):

Experiment No. 4 Electrical system of an Engine

Objective
To understand the working of different components of an electrical system of a car.

Introduction
For any engine to start, it must first be rotated using an external power source. It is the purpose
and function of the cranking circuit to create the necessary power and transfer it from the battery
to the starter motor, which rotates the engine.

The cranking circuit includes those mechanical and electrical components required to crank the
engine for starting. The cranking force in the early 1900s was the driver’s arm, because the driver
had to physically crank the engine until it started.

But modern cranking circuits include the following components:

Starter Motor:

It is a series DC motor which has a higher torque and less speed as compared to any shunt
motor. It serves the purpose of giving initial revolution to the crankshaft. The starter is
normally a 0.5 to 2.6 horsepower (0.4 to 2 kilowatts) electric motor that can develop nearly
8 horsepower (6 kilowatts) for a very short time when first cranking a cold engine.

Battery:

The battery must be of the correct capacity and be at least 75% charged to provide the
necessary current and voltage correct starter operation.

Alternator:

It serves the purpose of charging the battery. Alternator is coupled to crankshaft via a belt.
Its output is electric current.
Starter solenoid or relay:

The high current required by the starter

must be able to be turned on and off. A
large switch would be required if the
current were controlled by the driver
directly. Instead, a small current switch
(ignition switch) operates a solenoid or
relay that controls the high current to
the starter.

Starter drive:

The starter drive uses a small pinion

gear that contacts the engine flywheel gear teeth and transmits starter motor power to rotate
the engine.

Ignition switch:

The ignition switch and safety control switches control the starter motor operation.

Starter Drive:

 A starter drive includes small pinion gears that mesh with and rotate the larger gear
on the engine flywheel or flex plate for starting.
 The pinion gear must engage with the engine gear slightly before the starter motor
rotates, to prevent serious damage to either the starter gear or the engine, but must
be disengaged after the engine starts.
 The ends of the starter pinion gear are tapered to help the teeth mesh more easily
without damaging the flywheel ring gear teeth.
 All starter drive mechanisms use a type of one-way clutch that allows the starter to
rotate the engine, but then turns freely if the engine speed is greater than the starter
motor speed.
 This clutch, called an overrunning clutch, protects the starter motor from damage
if the ignition switch is held in the start position after the engine starts.

Over-running Clutch:

 Starter motor is driving the starter pinion and cranking the engine. The rollers are
wedged against spring force into their slots.
 The engine has started and is rotating faster than the starter armature. Spring force
pushes the rollers so they can rotate freely.
How the car battery is charged?
• The battery is charged by an alternator on modern cars, or by a dynamo on earlier ones.
Both are types of generator, and are driven by a belt from the engine.

• The alternator consists of a stator -a stationary set of wire coil windings, inside which a
rotor revolves.

• The rotor is an electromagnet supplied with a small amount of electricity through carbon
or copper-carbon brushes (contacts) touching two revolving metal slip rings on its shaft.

• The rotation of the electromagnet inside the stator coils generates much more electricity
inside these coils.

• Thus electrons now come from the alternator to the battery and enter the battery through
the negative grid of the cells. The reaction is reversed.

Preheaters:

In cold winter, when the temperature is very low, preheaters are required to start the engine easily.
When we switch on the preheaters it heats the intake manifold, hence fuel is atomized efficiently
and combustion starts easily. Preheaters are on every cylinder.

Gauges:

There are many electronic gauges which serves different purposes. For example,

 Temperature Gauge
 Fuel Gauge

Fuel Pressure Switch:

Fuel Pressure switch tells us about the purpose of fuel present in the system. When we start the
starter motor, the fuel light should be turned off, if it is not, then it’s mean that there is no oil
pressure in fuel delivery system, and either fuel pump is not working properly or there is a blockage
in filter or any other line.

Heater Timer:

When we turn on the pre heaters, it controls the heat of pre heaters and turn off the pre heater at a
specific temperature,

Side Lightening Relay:

These relays control the switching of side lights.

There are two other relays present in the electrical system of the car.

 Head light Relay

 Starter Relay

When we open a switch. Switch activate corresponding relay and do the task.

Fuse Box:

Fuse box is for the safety of whole electrical system. It is situated below dashboard. If there is a
short circuit due to any reason, then the corresponding fuse burnt and brakes the circuit.

Reverse Light:

When reverse gear is applied then reverse light is turned on because its switch is attached to reverse
gear.

Cutout:

When Battery voltage is increased, then it gives the safety. Charging of alternator is switched off.

Ignition Coil:

IGNITION COIL WINDINGS Ignition coils use two windings and are wound on the same iron
core.

 One coil winding is connected to a battery through a switch and is called the primary
winding.
 The other coil winding is connected to an external circuit and is called the secondary
winding.
 When the switch is open, there is no current in the primary winding. There is no magnetic
field and, therefore, no voltage in the secondary winding. When the switch is closed,
current is introduced and a magnetic field builds up around both windings. The primary
winding thus changes electrical energy from the battery into magnetic energy of the
 expanding field. As the field expands, it cuts across the secondary winding and induces a
voltage in it. A meter connected to the secondary circuit shows current.
 When the magnetic field has expanded to its full strength, it remains steady as long as the
same amount of current exists. The flux lines have stopped their cutting action. There is no
relative motion and no voltage in the secondary winding, as shown on the meter.
 When the switch is opened, primary current stops and the field collapses. As it does, flux
lines cut across the secondary winding but in the opposite direction. This induces a
secondary voltage with current in the opposite direction.

 Mutual induction is used in ignition coils. In an ignition coil, low-voltage primary current
induces a very high secondary voltage because of the different number of turns in the
primary and secondary windings.
 Because the voltage is increased, an ignition coil is also called a step-up transformer.

How to test Battery and Alternator?

 Use a multimeter. Set the voltage to DCV - 20 V.
 Join black with –ve and red with +ve. The voltage should be around 12.6 to 12.7 volts.
 Now, keeping the terminals attached, start the car and the voltage should jump to
somewhere between 14.2 – 14.7 volts. If your meter is showing more than 14.7 V that
means your alternator is overcharging and it can affect your battery. If your meter is
under charging, depending on how much it is doing that, you can assess the health of
the alternator.
 Now put all load on the battery and the alternator, and see where the voltage is at. If
the voltage goes below 12.7, there is a problem, otherwise the alternator is running
great.
 If any of the above mentioned problem exists, first check the battery terminals.
 Check the back of the alternator and see if they are plugged in.
 Check for any corroded or kinked wire.
  Check the alternator voltage regulator if it is plugged in correctly.
 Check the belt of the alternator. It should not be loose.

Lab Tasks:

Attach extra pages if required.

Lab Task 7:

Figure of the Electrical system of the engine (and location of major components; label with
arrowheads):
Lab Task 8:

Major Components of the Electrical system (Individual Description):

Experiment No. 5 Braking system of a Vehicle

Objective
To understand the working principle brakes and its types, and the whole braking system.

Introduction
Brakes are by far the most important mechanism on any vehicle because the safety and lives of
those riding in the vehicle depend on proper operation of the braking system. It has been estimated
that the brakes on the average vehicle are applied 50,000 times a year! Brakes are an energy-
absorbing mechanism that converts vehicle movement into heat while stopping the rotation of the
wheels. All braking systems are designed to reduce the speed and stop a moving vehicle and to
keep it from moving if the vehicle is stationary. Service brakes are the main driver-operated brakes
of the vehicle. Service brakes are also called base brakes or foundation brakes

Working Principle
Most vehicles use a brake on each wheel. To stop a wheel, the driver exerts a force on a brake
pedal. The force on the brake pedal pressurizes brake fluid in a master cylinder. This hydraulic
force (liquid under pressure) is transferred through steel lines and flexible brake lines to a wheel
cylinder or caliper at each wheel. Hydraulic pressure to each wheel cylinder or caliper is used to
force friction materials against the brake drum or rotor. The friction between the stationary friction
material and the rotating drum or rotor (disc) causes the rotating part to slow and eventually stop.
Since the wheels are attached to the drums or rotors, the wheels of the vehicles also stop.

Brakes Components
Following are the main components of braking system:

 Brake pedal
 Power booster
 Brake master cylinder
 Brake shoes/pads
 Brake fluid
 Brake drum/rotor
 Brake pipe line
 Caliper
 Figure 1: Typical vehicle braking system showing all components

Hydraulic Brakes:
All modern hydraulic systems are excellent example of pascal’s law and its applications. It is a
very effective method of force transfer through pressure transmission. Brakes also apply this
mechanism. Pressure may be transmitted to brake oil or air (in case of pneumatic brakes).

There are two types of brakes:

 Disc Brakes
 Drum Brakes

Disc Brakes
These are the modern version of hydraulic brakes. They are usually used in small cars or
comparatively low momentum vehicles. In such applications, they are found very effective as
they allow a very effective heat transfer as well. Disc brakes are used on the front of most
vehicles and on the rear wheels of many vehicles. A disc brake operates by squeezing brake
pads on both sides of a rotor or disc that is attached to the wheel. Due to the friction between
the road surface and the tires, the vehicle stops. To summarize, the sequence of events
necessary to stop a vehicle include the following:
 Due to the friction between the road surface and the tires, the vehicle stops. To
summarize, the sequence of events necessary to stop a vehicle include the following:
 The driver presses on the brake pedal.
 The brake pedal force is transferred hydraulically to a wheel cylinder or caliper at each
wheel.
 Hydraulic pressure inside the wheel cylinder or caliper presses friction materials (brake
shoes or pads) against rotating brake drums or rotors.
 The friction slows and stops the drum or rotor. Since the drum or rotor is bolted to the
wheel of the vehicle, the wheel also stops.
 When the wheels of the vehicle slow and stop, the tires must have friction (traction)
with the road surface to stop the vehicle.

Disc pad Assembly:

Disc pad assembly, in which component of braking system are assembled, where disc, with
rough surface is also attached.

Disc Pad:

They are designed for high friction. Wear and tear may also be called in these pads with
the passage of time and also depending on its material and disc material, thus they can be
replaced.

Brakes Bleeding Nipple

Bleeding nipple is an opening for draining oil, specifically used to remove oil when air
bubbles enters into the pipe line. These air bubbles are highly undesirable as they do not
allow an effective hydraulic action (poor pressure transmission) and thus low performance
braking.

Figure2: Disc Brake Assembly

Drum Brakes
Drum brakes are used on the rear of many rear wheel-drive, front-wheel-drive, and four
wheel-drive vehicles. When drum brakes are applied, brake shoes are moved outward
against a rotating brake drum. The wheel studs for the wheels are attached to the drum.
When the drum slows and stops, the wheels also slow and stop. Drum brakes are
economical to manufacture, service, and repair. Parts for drum brakes are generally readily
available and reasonably priced. On some vehicles, an additional drum brake is
used as a parking brake on vehicles equipped with rear disc brakes.

Drum Assembly:

The brake drum is made of a special kind of a cast iron that is heat conductive and wear
resistant. It is positioned close to the brake shoe without touching it and it rotates with the
wheel and axle.

Brake Shoe:

They are typically made of two pieces of sheets steel welded together. It has friction lining
on it as well as the brake drum. Thus it helps in a very effective braking. Lining must be
resistant against heat and wear.

 Drum brakes have a drawback, and that is their poor heat loss as it has a closed
drum assembly.

Figure 3: Drum Brake Assembly

Antilock Braking System
Introduction

The purpose of an antilock braking system (ABS) is to prevent the wheels from locking during
braking, especially on low-friction surfaces such as wet, icy, or snowy roads. Remember, it is the
friction between the tire tread and the road that does the actual stopping of the vehicle. Therefore,
ABS does not mean that a vehicle can stop quickly on all road surfaces.

Working of ABS

ABS uses sensors at the wheels to measure the wheel speed. If a wheel is rotating slower than the
others, indicating possible lockup (for example, on an icy spot), the ABS hydraulic controller will
reduce the brake fluid pressure to that wheel for a fraction of a second the road surface than a
rotating wheel. A locked wheel has less traction to the road surface than a rotating wheel.

The ABS controller can reapply the pressure from the master cylinder to the wheel a fraction of a
second later. Therefore, if a wheel starts to lock up, the purpose of the ABS system is to pulse the
brakes on and off to maintain directional stability with maximum braking force. Many ABS units
will cause the brake pedal to pulse if the unit is working in the ABS mode.

The pulsating brake pedal is a cause for concern for some drivers. However, the pulsing brake
pedal informs the driver that the ABS is being activated. Some ABS units use an isolator valve in
the ABS unit to prevent brake pedal pulsations during ABS operation. With these types of systems,
it is often difficult for the driver to know if and when the ABS unit is working to control a locking
wheel. Another symptom of normal ABS unit operation is the activation of the hydraulic pressure
pump used by many ABS units. In some ABS units, the hydraulic pump is run every time the
vehicle is started and moved. Other types of units operate randomly or whenever the pressure in
the system calls for the pump to operate.

Figure 2: Components of an antilock braking system (ABS) used on rear wheel drive vehicles
Lab Tasks:

Attach extra pages if required.

Lab Task 9:

Figure of the Braking system of the engine (and location of major components; label with
arrowheads):
Lab Task 10:

Major Components of the Braking system (Individual Description):