Combustion Engineering 2

Otto Fuel
Otto Fuels – Light compounds –high volatility (low boiling point), high
Autoignition temperature to prevent knock
Reference fuels
n-heptane C 7H16: octane number 0 iso-Octane C8H18: octane number 100
H H H H H H H H CH3 H CH3 H
H – C – C – C – C – C –C – C – H H–C –C– C–C–C–H
H H H H H H H
H CH3 H H H
paraffins: single linear isoparaffins: branched chain,
Octane rating - Blend of n-heptane and iso-octane which gives same

knock tendency 10
Ignition Limits
Flammability limits :
Mixture within flammability limits liberate enough energy

on combustion of any one layer to ignite the
neighbouring layer of unburned gas -> self-propagation.
Mixture outside the flammability do not react if the heat

source is removed, e.g. Spark plug.
• Higher flammability : Maximum volume fraction of

fuel for self propagation. More fuel -> more incomplete
combustion -> insufficient T-rise
• Lower flammability : Minimum volume fraction of fuel

for self propagation. Less fuel -> more dilution ->
insufficient T-rise
11
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Ignition Limits
Ignition Limits
(for safety considerations !)
No ignition possible if low O2 or low fuel.
Mixture Lower Ign.Limit Upper Ign.Lim.

(Vol% Fuel-Gas) (Vol%Fuel-Gas)
H2/Air 4 75
CH 4/Air 5 15
C3H8/Air 2,1 9,5
CH 4/Air, 50 bar 4,8 48
CH 4/Air, 100 bar 4,6 57
CH 4/O2 5 60
Gasoline/Air 0,6 - 1 6-8
Diesel/Air ca. 0,6 ca. 6,5
Data for 25°C

Determination of Ignition Limit
following Coward and Jones
12
Flammability limits
Zabetakis diagram
(1 bar, 25°C)
Source:
Wikipedia
Power.corrupts 13
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Ignition Limits
Ignition limit for fuel-mixtures (foll. Le Chatelier)

a  b  ....
Z  with a, b mole fractions of diff. fuel components,
a b
  .. and A, B their lower (resp. upper) ignition limit
A B
Temperature dependence of ignition limits (foll. Zabedakis)

Z (T )  Z  1  c  T  25C 
l l ,25C
Note:
Z (T )  Z  1  c  T  25C  Range of ignitable mixture
u u,25C
increases for higher temperature
constant c depends on fuel, e.g.
c = 0,000721 for many hydrocarbons
14
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Ignition Limits
Autoignition Temperature, Flash Point

Autognition Temperature
Lower Limit for possible self ignition
(DIN 51794)
(Real ignition temperature depends
on several parameters)
= 1, 1 bar Ignition temp.

H2/Air 560°C
CH 4/Air 610°C
C3H8/Air 470°C
C8H18/Air 210°C
C6H6/Air 555°C
Gasoline 430-550°C
(Determination: Heat the mixture in

open glas flask)
15
Flash point
Temp. of a liquid fuel, above
which the evaporated gas can be Can the tank of a gasoline
ignited car explode ?
Danger Flash point

class (germany)
I < 21°C
II 21-55°C
III 55-100°C
Gasoline -16 ... +10°C

Diesel +55 ... +120°C
16
Ignition limits
Isooctane:
Flammability limits :
1.1 % - 6.0 % at 25 deg-C
What is the flashpoint ?
Can it form a flammable

mixture at 30°C ?
17
Minimum ignition energy
A mixture can be ignited locally by an ignition source, e.g. in spark

ignition engine.
Enough energy must be deposited in a volume of fluid to initiate self

propagation : -> Minimum ignition energy.
• increases with pressure (higher specific Cp)

• Increases with volume of ignition source (more mass)
Minimum ignition temperature (or minimum ignition energy density may

be more adequate :
Ono et al. Comb. Flame (2007)
18
Optical measurements

of O2-O3 mixtures
measured using a laser
source, and absorption
of reactive specie (O3)
Raffel et al. 1986
Simulations
Raffel et al. 1986
19
Minimum ignition energies
Stoichiometric Hydrogen/Oxygen mixture

at 1 bar 298 K
Mass and Warnatz 1988 20
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Quenching Distance
Near cold walls combustion is quenched (inhibited) due to heat loss (and
maybe due to changed surface reaction steps)
'Quenching Distance‚
The rate of liberation of heat by chemical Quenching Distance
reactions inside a given volume must (T=25°C)
exceed the rate of heat losses by thermal H2/Air 0,7 mm
conduction CH4/Air 2 mm
Applications: C3H8/Air 1,8 mm
Grid above flame
Device to prevent flashback
Explosion protected electro motor
Problems:
Unburnt hydrocarbons due to flame quench near wall of IC-engine.
21
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Quenching Distance
Application:
Minors lamp
(Davy‘s lamp,
Sir Humphrey Davy, 1815)
Flashback arrestors
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=obcmO
4JDNKc#
Bibliothek allgemeinen und praktischen

22 Wissens für Militäranwärter Band III,
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Content of Lecture
1. Phenomenology of Combustion
2. Thermodynamic Fundamentals
3. Chemical Reaction Kinetics
4. Ignition and Ignition Limits
5. Laminar Flame Theory
6. Turbulent Combustion
7. Pollutants of Combustion
8. Combustion of Liquid and Solid Fuels
9. Numerical Simulation
10. Measurement Techniques of Combustion Processes
11. Applied Aspects of Turbulent Combustion
12. Technical Burner Systems
13. Internal Combustion Engines
23
Content of Lecture
4. Ignition
5. Laminar Premixed Flame
6. Laminar Non-Premixed Flames
10. Practical Combustion Systems
11. Combustion Diagnostics
Jun-Prof. Benoît Fond, Institut für Stromungstechnik und Thermodynamik
G10/Raum 119 Benoit.fond@ovgu.de
1
Content
5 Laminar Flame Theory
5.1 Fundamental Processes

• Heat and Mass Diffusion
• Convective Transport
• Structure of Balance Equation
5.2 Laminar Premixed Flames

• Laminar Flame Speed
• Structure of laminar premixed flames
2
Dr .-Ing. Fr ank Beyr au 2005
5.1 Fundamental Processes
Post- Luminous Stoichiometric

oxidation zone Surface
(low blue) (yellow)
Flame front
(blue)
Flame front
(blue)
Air Air
Fuel + Air Fuel + Air Fuel
Premixed flame Rich premixed flame Non-premixed flame
3
Fundamental Processes
Heat and mass diffusion
Heat and mass diffusion in gases have similar microscopic reasons, the stochastic
molecular movement.
In both cases gradients are leading to the corresponding transport:
Heat flow Temp.-Gradient Fourier's Law
Soret-Effect
(often small, neglected)
(Dufour-Effect)
Mass flow Conc.-Gradient Fick's Law
4
Heat transfer
Q
jq  W/m2
tA
Heat flux Temp.-Gradient
T
jq    Fourier's Law (5.1)
x
Thermal conductivity [W / m K] (Wärmeleitfähigkeit)
Heat flux
For calculation of resulting temperature distribution T(x) a differential balance
(differential equation for T) leads to 'Fourier's differential equation':
T   2T
α  Fourier's 2. Law (5.2)
t  cp x 2
Thermal diffusivity α= cp [ m2 / s ] (Temperaturleitfähigkeit)
Note: First spatial derivative in eq. (5.1), Second spatial derivative in PDE (5.2) !
5
Heat flow balance equation jq x j q x  x
• Volume element A
x
x
• Balance:
H  h
Increase of Enthalpy ~ (Inflow -  
 Qin  Q out     x  A  jq x  jq x  x  A
Outflow) t t
h jq x  jq x  x
• Decrease of volume element  
t x
(difference differential):
jq x  jq x  x jq
 -
• results in:
x x x
dh  c p  dT
• with and T
jq    
follows x T   T   2T
ρ  cp       2
t x  x  x
• leading to differential equation T   2T

  2
for heat flow t ρ  c p x
6
Heat conduction
Example 1: Rod with fixed T1 , T2

• jq ?
T  T  T2
jq    2 1 T1
s x
s
• T(x) ?
T
stationary: 0
t
 2T
with eq. (3.2) follows 2
0
x T
T T2
follows  konst.
x T1
x
hence the slope is linear
7
Heat conduction and mass diffusion
Mass transfer (Diffusion)

analogous ...
Mass flux of species A (Massenstromdichte)
Mass flux Conc.-Gradient

jm, A  D  A Fick's Law (5.3)
x
Diffusion coefficient D [ m2 / s ]
Partial density of species A A
Balance equation ...
YA  2YA 2. Fick's Law (5.4)

 D
t x 2
Mass fraction of species A: YA
8
Analogy of heat diffusion and mass diffusion
Example 2: Rod shortly heated in the middle / H2 set free at x0 , t0
T
Heat diffuses away
H2
H2 diffuses away
1  z2 
YH 2 (x, t)  YH 2 , 0 exp  
4Dt  4 Dt 
x
Example 3: Hot rod meets cold rod / H2 and N2 coming together
t2 t1 t T
T 0
q    
H2 x
2
 T "Profile gets
T  a  2
x smoothed"
x
9
Heat diffusion and mass diffusion
Three dimensional formulation
 
jq     grad T      T Fourier's Law (5.5)
 
jm,i   D  grad  A   D    A Fick's Law (5.6)
Flow rates
Differential equation
∆ =
T λ
   T   (5.7)
ρ cp
t
(5.8)
=
YA
 D  YA
t
10
Convection Y(z, t  0)  Y0 (z)
Y(z, t)  Y0 (z - ut)
Coherent movement of molecules. "Shape of profile
Flow with velocity u. remains"
Differential equation:
T T
 u (5.9)
t x
YA Y
 u A (5.10)
t x
(YA Mass fraction of species A)
'Forced Convection': External force, e.g. ventilator, pressure gradient.
'Natural Convection': Density difference and gravity, e.g. hot gas rises.
11
Summary of fundamental processes
YA
t
t2
1
x x x
Diffusion Convection Reaction

(Species, heat diffusion)
YA  2YA YA Y YA

 D 2  u  A ~ wA ~ k  YA  YB  ...
t x t x t
(2. derivative) (1. derivative) (0. derivative)
12
Structure of balance equation in one dimension
(Example Species A)
YA  2
 u  YA - D  2 YA  wA (5.11)
t x x
Accumu- Convection Diffusion Reaction
lation
From energy balance follows equation with similar structure for the temperature
(or alternatively for enthalpy).
Together with continuity equation (total mass conservation), the ideal gas law, the
necessary reaction rate parameters (lecture 3), the transport coefficients and the
given boundary conditions the system of equations is solvable to calculate a
laminar flat flame. (see, e.g., Warnatz, Maas, Dibble: Combustion)
An example will be shown later for laminar premixed flame.

13

• Laminar flame speed
• Structure of laminar premixed flames
• Laminar flame front thickness
14
Zeldowich Theory of Laminar flame
• Time independent problem and 1-D
• 1 step Reaction with first order reaction rate :
 E 
rJ    YF  A  exp  
Fuel (F) -> Products (P)  RT 
• Constant properties (e.g. Cp)

• Neglect Soret Diffusion
• Thermal and Species Diffusion are equal
Le=α/D=1
 2YF Y  E 
D 2  u F  YF  A  exp  
z z  RT 
  2T YF
 u  Y 
hF  hP  A  exp  E 
F  
c p z 2 z cp  RT 
Use substitute   Tp  T  

h p  hF 
YF
cp
 2   E  “Flame propagation is caused by
 2 u    A  exp   diffusive processes, and the
z z  RT 
1
necessary gradients are sustained
  E  by chemical reactions” Combustion
Solution for u     1/k   A  exp   
L   RT   by Warnatz, Mass and Dibble
 15
Laminar Premixed Flames

Laminar flame speed
Case 1: Flame spread in Case 2: Laminar premixed

resting mixture Bunsen flame
Flame front
Products
Fuel sL Pro- (post oxid.)
+ Air duct
Flame-
Laminar flame speed sL front
Fuel+Air
16

Structure of laminar premixed flames (Simplified view Günther 1979)
Reaction
zone
Temperature Gas density Fluid Velocity
Reactants Products
Reaction rate Concentration of stable Concentration of

species intermediates and free
radicals
Concentration of intermediates and free radicals (Günther 1974, Verbrennung and
(n. Günther 1979)
Feuerungen)
17

Structure of laminar premixed flames
0,1 mm
Heat
transfer
0,6 mm
Luminous
since ~ exp(-EA/RT) zone
Diff (CH, C2)
Creation
Diff
(n. Günther 1979) Red: new analysis

18
Laminar premixed flames
Fuel sL Pro-
“Flame propagation is caused by
+ Air duct diffusive processes, and the
necessary gradients are sustained
Laminar flame speed sL by chemical reactions” Combustion
by Warnatz, Mass and Dibble
Heat
transfer Temperature
Creation
Diff
Radicals
Diff
Reactants
19

Laminar flame front thickness
Laminar flame front thickness L
Different definitions are common:
a) 'Zeldovich thickness zeld

L
• theoretical based zeld a
δL  Thermal diffusivity (5.14)
• often in older literature sL a= cp
• good for scaling laws
b) 'Thermal thickness T
L
• "Extrapolation of steepest gradient Tmax
to T-min and T-max"
• for experimental determination
T
T
Tmin L
Typ. Values (CH4/air, 25°C, 1bar)

Note: T = 5...10 zeld zeld = 85 µm
L L L
T = 530 µm
L
20

How to investigate ?
a) Measure, but difficult, since

• very thin reaction zone (< 1mm)
• Mechanical probes influence optical laser
reaction process measurement techniques
b) Theoretical analysis ('asymptotical approximation')

• 'Thermal Theory' Mallard and LeChatelier 1883
Damköhler 1940
• 'Diffusion Theory' Tanford and Pease 1947
• 'Combined Theories' Zeldovich 1940 u.a.
c) Numerical calculation
• Solve balance equations (since ~ 1980)
• e.g. program CHEMKIN
21

Methane/Air
( = 1)
1 atm.
From
Turns, An
introduction to
Combustion,
2nd Edition
22

Laminar flame speed
Laminar flame speed sL

(or burning velocity)
sL
results from complex transport and
reaction processes inside the flame.
u
Can be measured easier than more
detailed processes. Kinematic
balance
Measurement: From angle  and u
sL
(more accurate methods exist)  sin 
u
Fuel + Air
sL is important quantity to test detailed calculations of laminar flames.

And it is important for turbulent premixed flames also.
23

Laminar flame speed
Typ. values: sL = 0,1 - 0,5 m/s for many CXHY - Air (25°C, 1 bar)
sL = 2 - 3,5 m/s H2 - air
sL = up to 1,6 m/s Acetylene - air
sL [cm/s] sL [cm/s]
Vol.-% fuel Vol.-% fuel
24

Laminar flame speed
Dependencies:
sL ( ) 0.5
(Methane-air,
25°C, 1 bar) 0.4
0.3
s L[m/s]
0.2 Memorize:
0.1 Messung sL (p) ~ p -0,5 (5.13)
Rechnung
0.0
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
sL (T0 ) ~ T0 2
PHI
as rule of thumb
Safety aspect: Danger of flash back into premixed region.

Therefore: Inlet flow velocity must be significantly larger than sL !
25
Content of Lecture
4. Ignition
Jun-Prof. Benoît Fond, Institut für Stromungstechnik und Thermodynamik
G10/Raum 119 Benoit.fond@ovgu.de
1
Laminar non-premixed flames
• Structure of a laminar non-premixed flame

• The non-reactive jet
• The reactive jet
• The concept of mixture fraction
• Non premixed flame length solutions
• Flame description: Colour of flames
2
Laminar Non-Premixed Flames

Luminous
zone
(yellow)
• Fuel and air are coming separately into
the combustion area.
• Convection and diffusion to mix fuel Fuel

and air.
• Then chemical reaction can take place.

Air Air
The candle flame as classical

example of laminar
diffusion flame
3

Structure of laminar non-premixed flames Flame surface: Locus of points
Stoichiometric where the equivalence ratio, Φ
surface
Luminous
zone Flame front at
y
(yellow) =1
air + fuel
y2
rich lean x
y1
x
air air
air fuel
fuel
Laminar diffusion Laminar parallel flow

„Bunsen“-flame diffusion flame
4

Structure of laminar non premixed flames y
y2
Typical Profiles
Without reaction: With reaction: y1
Mixing from diffusion
air fuel
YOx T YBr
YOx YBr
y=y2 y=y2
YPr
x x
Reaction zone
YOx YBr YOx YPr YBr
y=y1 y=y1
x x
lean =1 rich lean =1 rich

5
The laminar jet
Air+Fuel
Air
Fuel Nonreactive laminar fuel jet issuing into an quiescent air.

(From Turns, an Intro to Combustion)
6
Conservation equations
NO REACTION
Conservation of mass
Conservation of energy
Conservation of species
Conservation of linear
momentum
Derived on the Conservation principles pdf (see e-learning platform)

7
No reactive jet
See derivation done on blackboard, also updated as

Pdf document “The laminar non-reactive jet”
8
The laminar flame
Hot zone is an annulus
Laminar Diffusion Flame Structure

(From Turns, an Intro to Combustion)
9
Flame lengths
Height of flame (constant density) =
Depends on volumetric flow rate but not on nozzle diameter !
In reactive case, the flame is longer due to density decrease, leading to

acceleration. For hydrocarbons flames, a rule of thumb is that:
Making the diameter bigger does not make the flame smaller unlike non
premixed flames
10
Flame lengths
Flame length is inversely proportional to fuel mass fraction at stoichiometry:
• Fuels which need less air, e.g. • Adding oxygen in oxidizer stream
methane produce smaller flames decreases length
11
Flame lengths
Primary aeration
Adding air to the fuel jet
12

Structure of laminar diffusion flames
YO YF YO T YF
Flame front at
y l=1 x x
y=y2 y=y2
air + fuel YPr
x x
y2
x reaction zone
YO YF YO YF
y1
x y=y1 x y=y1 x
air fuel
x x
lean =1 rich lean =1 rich
• Mixing (species diffusion, heat diffusion) dominates flame structure

• Mixing area and hot area increases with height
• Reaction take place where w.o.R. = 1
• Reaction in thin layer (since reaction rate depends strongly on T )
• Self similarity, if D = α simplified analysis possible:
13

The concept of mixture fraction
Precise Definition of Mixture Fractions f
'Mixture fraction' f : Mass of material, which has origin in the fuel flow,
normalized to total mass
Z i  Z i . Z Fuel
fi  f Fuel  (5.15)
Z i ,0  Z i . Z Fuel ,0
(0 = in fuel,  = in oxidizer), i = C, H, O, N… in particular flow of fuel, oxidizer or exhaust gas
with Mi Atomic mass of element i

Zi Element mass fraction of element i
Yj Mass fraction of species j
N
Z i    ij  Y j summed over all N species with element i
j 1
M i Atomic mass of element i

 ij  
Mj Molar mass of species j
Chen, Dibble, Bilger, 23. Comb. Symp. (90), 775-780
14

The concept of mixture fraction „Burke Schumann Approximation“
Ass.: "Fast Chemistry", F + Ox --> Pr

All diffusion coefficients are equal, and α = D (Lewis number Le = α/D = 1)
Then Transformation:
Space coordinate x --> 'Mixture fraction' f (also Z, )
without reaction zone with

reaction reaction
T
YBr,0 YPr
YF
YF
YO2,0 YO2 YO2
0 fst f 1 0 fst f 1
'Mixture fraction' f : Mass of material, which has origin in the fuel flow,
normalized to total mass
15
Soot formation
Hot fuel zones causes fuel pyrolysis:

Thermo-chemical decomposition
Fuel molecule can then combine to form
C2H2 and then aromatic rings.
-> Very complex phenomenon
reaction zone with reaction
T
YF
YPr
YO2
0 fst f 1
16

A look at flame radiation
• Radiation: Energy transport with el.-magn. waves (photons). Also in vacuum !

• Ideal Radiator "Black body radiation":
q s      T 4 Stefan-Boltzmann Law (5.16)

q s Radiation flux
= 5,67•10 -8 W/m2K4 Radiation constant
Emission coefficient
( =1 Black body radiation
<1 Gray body radiation)
Reality: = ( ) "Spectrum"
• Hot Soot, Dust and Solids (Wall of burning chamber) have strong radiation (~ T4)
• Hot Gases emit radiation (CO2, H2O with radiation in the infrared wave lengths),
but much lower amount.
17

Radiation influences heat balance (Emission and Absorption)

• Note: Radiative heat transfer ~ (T24 - T14), not ~ (T2 -T1) (as heat diffusion)
Flame temperature decreases (Premixed flames: only slightly,

Diffusion flames (radiation of soot): significantly)
Radiation sometimes undesirable:

• Heat-power-engines, IC engine, Gas turbine
Radiation sometimes desired:

• Heating flames: Industry firing, Household firing, Power plant boiler (coal dust)
• Heat exchanger = Furnace
• Candle: Radiation in visible spectrum --> Light
18

Yellow flame: Soot radiation Planck's emission spectrum

(Black body spectrum)
Diffusion flames T = 6000 K
white
Red-yellow flame: T lower than in
2000 K
yellow flame yellow
Blue flame: (weak), no soot, 1000 K

Emission of excited CH and red
C2 (Chemi luminescence, blue green yellow red
0
Normalised intensity
e.g. at 430 nm)

350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750
Premixed flames Wavelength (nm)
(Green, red, yellow color also Plank’s law for spectral radiance
from traces of Cu, K, Na, ... ) 2hc 2 1
Bl l , T   hc
l5 lk B T
e 1
19
Colour Temperature
20

Excursion: The colour of flames
Emissionspektrum B
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
I [b.E.]
3000
2000
1000
0
425 465 505 545 585 [nm] 625
Emissionspektrum A
20000
18000
16000
14000
12000 C-C
10000 C-C
I [b.E.]
8000
6000
C-H
4000
2000
0
425 465 505 545 585 [nm] 625
21
Summary
Laminar premixed flame Laminar non-premixed flame

sL
F+Ox T Ox T F
Pr
cold Pr
Rad.
x fst x
0,5mm
Premixed (but diffusion, heat Diffusion --> Mixing

conduction cannot be neglected)
Reaction progress variable Mixture fraction variable f
Flame blue (CH, C2) Flame yellow (soot)
l adjustable --> Tmax adjustable

--> low NOx possible
22
Content of Lecture
4. Ignition
1
0
Contents
7. Fundamentals of turbulent combustion
7.0 Motivation for turbulent combustion

7.1 Turbulence quantities
7.2 Turbulent premixed flames

• The Borghi diagram
• Structure of turbulent flames
• Turbulent flame speed
• Approaches for calculation
7.3 Turbulent non-premixed flames

• Examples
• Flame length
• Concept of mixture fraction
2
Motivation for turbulent combustion
Fluid A
Detail view
Splitter plate
Fluid B
http://berndnoack.com/TurbulenceControl.php
• Two flows of two species at different velocities behind splitter

plate
• Shear at interface lead to formation of eddies, which grow.
• Fluid B convected upward, and Fluid A convected downward
• Interfacial area over which diffusion occurs is increased -
>enhanced mixing
3
Dr .-Ing. Frank Beyrau 2005

7.0 Motivation for turbulent combustion
Why turbulent combustion ?
• Mixing is enhanced Heat release per volume (power density)

increases smaller burning chambers possible (engine, airplane engine)
foll. Hottel u. Hawthorne,

3. Comb. Symp. (1949)
Fuel flow rate
4

Why turbulent combustion ?
Pratt & Whitney

PW4000 Engine
e.g. Boeing 747-400

Airbus A310-300
5
Turbulence quantities
Temperature and velocity field
measured in the wake of a heated
cylinder
Cylinder heated
to 530 K
Hot cylinder (530 K)
C. Abram, B. Fond, A. Heyes and F. Beyrau, Appl. Phys. B 2013;111:155-16
6
7.1 Turbulence Quantities
Turbulent Flow:
• time dependent fluctuating velocities
• three dimensional
• eddy structures (e.g. Karman's eddy street)
2 possible approaches:
• statistical u(t )  u  u (t )
• -> Mean value
u(t)
• -> Standard deviation etc.
an einem Ort x gemessen
• structural t
• eddy description, LES, DNS
7
Homogeneous Turbulence
Idealization: Homogeneous isotropic turbulence (assumed in the following)
• In reality only as approximation:
• 1: Stirred chamber with strong mixing without swirl
• 2: "Grid turbulence " = "Wind channel turbulence"
8
Homogeneous Turbulence
Common statistical approach: Reynolds decomposition
Mean value
u(t )  u  u (t ) (6.1) u (t )  0 (6.3)
2
 
u   urms u(t ) (6.2)
"Turbulence intensity" (Fluctuation velocity =
Root-Mean-Square Velocity)
"Turbulence degree" (v. Kármán Number)
u (typ. Tu < 10% for grid turbulence )

Tu  (6.4)
u
u(t )  u  u (t )
u(t)
an einem Ort x gemessen
t
9
Concept of Eddy cascade
Eddies of different size
"Concept of eddy cascade" (eddy spectrum)
Hindrance -> Large eddies -> smaller eddies -> very small eddies
(Energy transport = Dissipation rate e) -> Molecular dissipation

(to heat)
"Integral length scale" Lx "Kolmogorov-scale" (or lk )

("Macro length scale") ("Micro length scale")
10
Transition laminar - turbulent
Note: depends on geometry !

u D
Reynolds number Re  (6.5) D = geometrical size
  = kin. viscosity
Rekr  2200 Flow in tube

100 - 1000 Axial free jet flow
"Turbulent Reynolds number"

Independent from geometry !
Ret 
u   Lx characteristic local quantity
(6.6)

turbulent: Ret > 1
Note: Ret is about 100 - 1000 times smaller than Re
11
Turbulence characterization:
(Assumption: fully developed turbulence, homogeneous, isotropic)
Turbulent fluctuation velocity u' = urms (measured)

Integral length scale (Macro length) Lx (measured)
Turbulent Reynolds number Ret = u' Lx /  (6.7)
Kolmogorov length (Micro length) h = Lx / Ret 3/4 (6.8)
Increase of turbulent Reynolds number broadens turbulence spectrum
12
Turbulent premixed flames

7.2 Turbulent premixed Flames

• Fuel and air are premixed
• Danger of flash back
• Lean premixed flames can have low pollutant emissions:
• No soot
• Very low NOX formation (stationary gas turbines, 'Blue burner')
• Turbulence increases the density of reaction (Pthermal / Vflame). How ?
6.2.1 Structure of turbulent premixed flames

6.2.2 The Borghi diagram
6.2.3 Turbulent flame speed
6.2.4 Flamelet model for calculation of turbulent premixed flames
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l5vKGMZmFh0
13

Bunsen
flame
(Heidelberg)
D=80 mm
100 kW
Photograph:
Laser-
diagnostics
(15x10 cm)
14

Several instantaneous images Average image
Flame brush
Flame front
(Flammen-
(Flammenfront) zone)
Fuel + Air
15

Turbulence - Flame Interaction
Turbulent flow field has strong influence on

premixed flames
• Details of turbulence-flame interaction only barely known for long time.

• Theoretical analysis:
Regime diagram following Borghi and Peters
• Experimental verification was difficult for long time

• Flame front fluctuates fast
• Spatial flame structure < 1mm
16

Length Scales
Model:
Large Eddies ( l >> dL) -> wrinkle flame front
Small Eddies ( l << dL) -> enter the flame front, increase diffusive transport
within the flame front ->
they thicken the flame front
unburnt burnt
Reaction zone
Comparison of length scales:
Karlovitz number:
Ka = ( L / h )² (6.12)
Lx
with smallest "Kolmogorov-Eddies"
h = Lx / Ret3/4
L
17

Turbulent flame speed sT
Definition: 'turbulent flame speed' sT
Idea: Kinematic Balance between

sT
turbulent flame speed sT and the un
normal velocity component un for
stationary flames. u
sT
sin a 
u
18

Height of flame
as approximation
sT
sin a  (6.14)
u sT
with unburnt gas velocity u and angle un
a between u and flame front.
u
For Bunsen flame (assumed u =
const.) follows with
H sT
R
sin a 
tan a  (6.15) u
H R
as (rough) approximation the flame
height H.
u
19

Turbulent flame speed sT is effective propagation velocity of premixed flame
in turbulent flow field.
Necessary for calculation:

• Relation for sT as function of
• flame parameters (fuel, stoichiometry, p, T --> sL)
• Turbulence parameters (u', Lx , Ret , Da, ...)
Is discussed in literature with several different approaches:

• Theory (Damköhler 1940): For wrinkled laminar flame surfaces the turbulent
reaction rate and thus also the turbulent flame speed is proportional to
geometrical flame surface area
sT AL u'
  1 (6.16)
sL AT sL
20

Measurements of flame propagation in turbulent stirred ignition bomb experiments

(Bradley et al.): Correlation from Gülder (1990)
0,5
sT  u'  0,25
 1  0,62    Ret  (6.17)
sL  sL 
Measurement of normal component un directly before the flame front as function of
turbulence and flame parameter from Liu et al. (1993)
0,4
sT  u'  0,44
 1  0,435    Ret  25
sL  sL  Ret = 150
(6.18) 20
15
Damköhler
sT/s L
Zimont (1995) (for u' > sL), A = 0,5 ... 1 10 Gülder

Liu ...
1/ 2 5
sT 1/ 4  u ' 
 A  Pr 1/ 4  Ret    (6.19) 0
sL  sL  0 5 10 15 20
u'/s L
21
Turbulent non-premixed flames

7.3 Turbulent non-premixed flames
• Fuel and air are mixed in burning chamber

• Turbulence supports mixing
• Large practical relevance
• Also for solid and liquid fuels
• Disadvantage: More pollutants and soot as premixed flames
3.1 Examples
3.2 Flame length
3.3 Mixture fraction-concept
22
Snap-shot of a turbulent jet-

diffusion flame (schematics)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0RdQWyqAUdg
23

Example: Burning chamber of air gas turbine (schematic)
Use of non-premixed (diffusion) flames owing to safety reasons (flashback)

24

Length of turbulent jet non-premixed flames
Length of flame nearly independent on fuel exit velocity, for developed

turbulent flame
Fuel flow rate
25

Length of turbulent jet non-premixed flames
Empirical relation for flame length of turbulent jet non-premixed flame
(Delichatsios 93, Turns 96)
Length of diffusion flame is controlled by mixing. From that the following relation is
derived for jet flames (here for "sufficiently" large momentum of the fuel flow,
buoyancy is neglected, calm surroundings; for other conditions see Turns 96).
1/ 2 Flame length Lf

23  d j   B  Diameter of fuel inlet dj
Lf   L  Density ratio between fuel and air B/L
YB,st Stoichiometric fuel mass fraction YB,st (Lecture 2,
Table 2.1)
(6.20)
Note:
Length of flame is (approx.) independent of inlet velocity !
Length of flame is proportional to diameter of inlet!
Length of flame depends on fuel
Example: Methane in air, dj = 10 mm, gives length Lf = 3,1 m
26
Summary
Turbulent combustion to enhance mixing

• Typically: fluctuating wrinkled thin flame fronts result in a broad
flame brush
• Turbulent flame speed sT
Turbulent diffusion flames
• Turbulence enhances fuel-air mixing
27
Content of Lecture
4. Ignition
1
Practical Combustion Systems
8. Practical combustion systems
8.1 Burning liquid fuels

8.2 Internal Combustion Engines
• Spark Ignition: premixed Combustion
• Compression Ignition: Non-premixed Combustion
8.3 Gas Turbines

• Traditional gas turbine combustion (non-premixed)
• Advanced traditional gas turbines (premixed)
2
Burning Liquid Fuels
Examples
• So far: Gaseous Fuels: H2, CH4, natural gas,

propane, biogas, ...
• Liquid Fuels: gasoline, Diesel, heating oil,

kerosene, heavy fuel oil, ...
• Solid Fuels: coal, brown coal (lignite),

wood, waste, ...
3
Combustion of Liquid Fuels
Liquid combustion with atomization Without atomization the process of

evaporation is slow:
4
2006

Atomization
• Aim: Formation of large surface

(because evaporation rate ~ surface)
• Liquid jet atomizes to spray / droplets
• Atomization supports the process of evaporation
• Many different types of technical atomizers and injectors

for different application
5
Atomization
Spray combustion systems

Taken from Faeth, Prog. Energ. Comb. Sci. 3 (1977)
6
Evaporation and Combustion
Models:
• Single droplet combustion
(thin spray)
• Group combustion
(dense spray)
Example: single droplet

• typ. d = 10 - 100 µm
Processes: (T0 = 800 K, p0 = 20 bar)

• Heating of droplet / evaporation
• Diffusion of gaseous fuel radially
outwards
• Self ignition
• Flame (diffusion flame), until fuel is
consumed
• dflame / ddroplet 10 (from Görner 1991 )
7
Evaporation and Combustion
Typical burning times

depend on d02
Example: Heating oil in resting air
Droplet diameter Burning time single droplet

mm ms
1 500 - 1000
0,5 125 - 250
0,1 5 - 10
0,05 1,25 - 2,5
Droplet cloud: burning time approx. twice
8
Internal Combustion Engines
Modern Spark Ignition Engines (Gasoline Direct Injection)
Port fuel injection
Direct injection
Early injection for complete

Vaporisation -> Premixed Combustion
9
Flame propagation in Spark Ignition Engine
-15 CAD BTDC -13 CAD BTDC -10 CAD BTDC -8 CAD BTDC
Ignition at -35
CAD BTDC
BeforeTopDeadCenter
Aleiferis et al. (2013)

Fuel 109,256-278
-5 CAD BTDC 0 CAD BTDC +5 CAD BTDC

10
Internal combustion Engines
Wall wetting and soot formation in Direct Injection SI Engine
Injection at -270 CAD Injection at -350 CAD

Larger nozzle to piston distance Smaller nozzle to piston distance
11
Flame and wall quenching in Spark Ignition Engines
Unburned Hydrocarbons due to flame quenching by

the wall
Challenges of Spark Ignition Engines :

• Lack of power control (fixed equivalence ratio)
• Knock limits efficiency
• Soot formed by wall wetting in GDI
• Unburned Hydrocarbons
Much more detail about Thermodynamics, Control and Operation of SI

Engines in Industrial Energy Management SoSe18
12 Brian Peterson, University of Edinburgh

Flame and wall quenching in Spark Ignition Engines
Unburned Hydrocarbons due to flame quenching by

the wall
Challenges of Spark Ignition Engines :

• Lack of power control (Stoichiometric mixture)
• Knock limits efficiency
• Soot formed by wall wetting
• Unburned Hydrocarbons
Much more detail about Thermodynamics, Control and Operation of SI
Engines in Industrial Energy Management SoSe18
13 Brian Peterson, University of Edinburgh

Internal Combustion Engine
Compression Ignition or Diesel Engine
7 jet injections. Increase atomization, evaporation and

mixing
14
Luminous flame : Soots

15
Soot are formed in fuel
rich regions and then
oxidised
NOx are formed in hot

near stochiometric zones
16
EGR decreases peak
temperature by diluting
with inert gases
Compromise between
low peak temperature
and completeness of the
reactions
CI Engine
• Control of Diesel Engine power
by injecting more or less fuel
• No knock issue
More thermal efficiency but
• Non-premixed combustion
leads to high pollutant emission
17
Gas Turbines
18
Gas turbine combustion
Can combustor
(land based industrial
GTs):
Easy access
Annular combustor
(aero-engine GTs):
Compactness
19 Correa, Proc. Comb. Inst. 1998

Gas Turbine Combustion
Traditional GT
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustor
20 Correa, Proc. Comb. Inst. 1998

Gas Turbine Combustion
Traditional dilution cooled combustor :

• 30% primary combustion air
• High temperature in primary zone ->
high NOx
• Load control by fuel mass flow
Dry-low-NOx combustion :
• Ideally premixed and lean (Φ~0.5)
• 80% primary combustion air
• At fixed Φ, load cannot be controlled
by amount of fuel only -> complex
schemes. http://www.ramgen.com/tech_vortex_
conventional.html
• 10 fold improvement in NOx emission
• Prone to instabilities (e.g. flashback)
21
Practical Combustion Systems
The observation of Combustion Technology in Engines and Gas Turbines

show the complexity of “clean, efficient and controllable” combustion.
These two components illustrate the differences between premixed and

non-premixed flame operation
Non-premixed (traditional GT combustor, CI Engine)

Simple, easy to control (add more fuel), but higher pollutant formation
Premixed (SI engine, Low NOx)

Less stable (knock, flashback), which compromises efficiency but
potentially much lower pollutant formation
Much more details from an efficiency standpoint in Industrial Energy

Management.
22
Content of Lecture
4. Ignition
Institute of Combustion Technology, German Aerospace Center
1
Contents
9. Combustion Diagnostics (measurements)
9.0 Quantities of interest

9.1 Physical probes
Thermocouples
Gas sampling
9.2 Optical techniques:

9.2.0. Light scattering/absorption/emission processes
9.2.1. Direct visualisation
IR thermography?
Emission from excited species/soot
9.2.2. Laser Diagnostics
Planar Laser Induced Fluorescence
Rayleigh Scattering
Particle Image Velocimetry
2
Quantities of interest
9.0 Quantities of interest
• Temperature: Control reaction rates for both ignition and the formation or
oxidation of pollutants. Very wide temperature range in flame (300 –
2200K). Control density (inducing acceleration and buoyancy effects)
• Gas Composition (species concentration): Fuel mole fraction, Oxygen

mole fraction to describe global reaction rates, intermediate species (to
describe the flame chemical mechanism, and indicate location of flame),
pollutants
• Flow velocity: Control time for mixing or reaction to occur. Control location
of flame front in premixed flame (allow estimation of S L). Reveals the
turbulence nature of the flow (and therefore allow estimation of S T)
Challenges:
• The flame front is very thin (100`s µm), so high spatial resolution needed,
• The flame is very easily perturbed (flame quenching by walls)
• The flame is very hot (hotter than most metal melting point).
• The flame fluctuates very fast, so very quick measurements are needed
3
Physical probes
9.1 Physical probes
• Thermocouples (up to 1,700°C)
Firesciencetools.com
1.Convection 2.Radiation to room

from flame 3. Conduction
• Probe is large and disturb flame to Support
• Glowing wire : Radiation loss
• Strong conduction losses along support
• Slow heating and cooling time
inappropriate for turbulence
Bradley and Matthews 1967
• Very thin wires needed (~10 microns)
• Catalytic effects must be considered
4
Physical probes
Hansen et al. PECS 2009, 35:168-191
• Gas sampling
CH3+
Decrease pressure to prevent molecular

collision (freeze reactions)
Molecules are ionized and accelerated

and sorted by mass-to-charge ratio
Used on “perfect” flat premixed laminar

flame burners (1-D)
Very rich data for chemical mechanism

research but unsuitable for “real flame
analysis” Hansen et al. PECS 2009, 35:168-191
5
Optical techniques
9.2 Optical Techniques
Bohr model: Electron in orbit around nuclei (balance between attraction and centrifuge force).
Only discrete orbits are possible, having different level of energies
When electron go from outer to inner orbits, energy released as photons
Absorption
and/or
Emission:
Probe specific
molecules Depends on size of
6 molecule or particle
Optical techniques
Reconstructed OH signal, Worth and Dawson, Meas. Sci. Tech. 2013 (24) 024013
9.2.1 Direct emission
Direct emission from:
Soot
Chemiluminescence
Emission in the volume so needs reconstruction

with many cameras.
Infrared thermography is unsuitable as light is

emitted everywhere by more strongly by soots or
walls
Visualisation is good to get an idea of the flame

but is hardly quantitative.
7 Source: IVT Duisburg
Optical techniques
9.2.2 Laser Techniques
LASER. Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation
• Temporal resolution – very intense short

pulse- 10 ns so it freezes the flow (like a
very short and intense flash)
• Spatial resolution – can be highly focused

into a sheet of 100 microns
• Spectral signature – can excite a specific

molecule, e.g. OH
Ideally suited to Combustion diagnostics
8
Optical techniques
9
Optical techniques
10
Optical techniques
By cross correlation, the velocity is

obtained.
Based on scattered light
Same wavelength as the laser
Any laser wavelength cause
scattering
Particles scatter much more light
than molecules
11
Optical techniques
Rayleigh scattering thermometry
If we do not have particles, and

shine the laser through the gas,
the light will be scattered by the
gas molecules
Scattered light is proportional to

the density of molecules
At constant pressure, and if we

know the gas molecules, we
can measure the temperature.
HOWEVER:
Should be no particles
Should know the gas
Source: Dantec Dynamics
composition
12
Optical techniques
Planar Laser Induced Fluorescence
The laser is tuned to excited one

molecule, e.g. OH
Zones of peak OH formed at the

flame
We then look at emission from molecules to know where

they are in the laser plane
OH PLIF turbulent premixed flame

Kobayashi et al. Proc. Comb. Inst. (2007) 31 1451-1458
13
Optical techniques
Thermographic phosphors BAM:Eu2+ YAG:Tb2+ MFG:Sn2+
Ceramic powders used in lamps
Absorb UV, emit visible light
Normal Light: Only scattering
Colour depends on temperature

UV light: absorption and shifted
If we put phosphors into flames, then emission
we can measure both temperature and Source: LTT OvGU Magdeburg
velocity
14
Thermographic phosphors Temperature and velocity field
measured in the wake of a heated
cylinder
Cylinder heated
to 530 K
Hot cylinder (530 K)
C. Abram, B. Fond, A. Heyes and F. Beyrau, Appl. Phys. B 2013;111:155-16

15
List of numbers, values, equations to memorize for the exam (to know within 20% or so)
 The lower heating value of typical Hydrocarbon fuels (CxHy e.g. Methane, propane).
 The adiabatic flame temperature for stoichiometric alkane/air flames (CH4, …) with reactants at
25°C.
 The name of a fuel with a short ignition delay (C7H16), and one with a long ignition delay (CH4).
 The octane number of C7H16
 The flammability limits of Methane/Air and Hydrogen/Air mixtures at 1 bar 25°C.
 The quenching distance at 25°C of Methane/Air and Hydrogen/Air premixed flames.
 The thermal flame thickness for a Methane/Air flame at stoichiometry
 The laminar flame speed at stoichiometry for alkane/air flames at stoichiometry
 The order of magnitude of the laminar flame speed for hydrogen/air flames (>2m/s)
 The rule of thumb equation for laminar flame speed as a function of reactant temperature and
pressure.
 The rule of thumb equation for the non-premixed flame height.
 The Damköhler expression for the ratio of turbulent to laminar flame speed
 The empirical expression for the height of a turbulent non-premixed flame

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Otto Fuel

H – C – C – C – C – C –C – C – H H–C –C– C–C–C–H

Octane rating - Blend of n-heptane and iso-octane which gives same

Mixture within flammability limits liberate enough energy

Mixture outside the flammability do not react if the heat

• Higher flammability : Maximum volume fraction of

• Lower flammability : Minimum volume fraction of fuel

Mixture Lower Ign.Limit Upper Ign.Lim.

Data for 25°C

Ignition limit for fuel-mixtures (foll. Le Chatelier)

Temperature dependence of ignition limits (foll. Zabedakis)

Autoignition Temperature, Flash Point

= 1, 1 bar Ignition temp.

(Determination: Heat the mixture in

Danger Flash point

Gasoline -16 ... +10°C

What is the flashpoint ?

Can it form a flammable

A mixture can be ignited locally by an ignition source, e.g. in spark

Enough energy must be deposited in a volume of fluid to initiate self

• increases with pressure (higher specific Cp)

Minimum ignition temperature (or minimum ignition energy density may

Ono et al. Comb. Flame (2007)

Minimum ignition energy

Raffel et al. 1986

Raffel et al. 1986

Stoichiometric Hydrogen/Oxygen mixture

Device to prevent flashback

Explosion protected electro motor

Bibliothek allgemeinen und praktischen

5 Laminar Flame Theory

5.1 Fundamental Processes

5.2 Laminar Premixed Flames

5.1 Fundamental Processes

Post- Luminous Stoichiometric

Fuel + Air Fuel + Air Fuel

Premixed flame Rich premixed flame Non-premixed flame

In both cases gradients are leading to the corresponding transport:

Heat flow Temp.-Gradient Fourier's Law

• leading to differential equation T   2T

Example 1: Rod with fixed T1 , T2

Mass transfer (Diffusion)

Mass flux Conc.-Gradient

Balance equation ...

YA  2YA 2. Fick's Law (5.4)

Example 2: Rod shortly heated in the middle / H2 set free at x0 , t0

Example 3: Hot rod meets cold rod / H2 and N2 coming together

Three dimensional formulation

(YA Mass fraction of species A)

'Forced Convection': External force, e.g. ventilator, pressure gradient.

Diffusion Convection Reaction

YA  2YA YA Y YA

(2. derivative) (1. derivative) (0. derivative)

An example will be shown later for laminar premixed flame.

5.2 Laminar Premixed Flames

5.2 Laminar Premixed Flames

• Constant properties (e.g. Cp)

Use substitute   Tp  T  

Laminar Premixed Flames