Science Notes Q4

guys bad news: miss ko na sya

Module 8
Ways we can minimize human impact on our environment
1. Overpopulation - it happens when the number of organisms in a group exceeds the carrying
capacity of a region occupied by that group. The existence of additional organisms means
that more life-support materials are needed and since the life support of the ecosystem is
limited, the ecosystem may eventually break down.
- We can stop overpopulation by reducing births around the world and educating
ourselves about population issues.
2. Deforestation - the removal of a forest where the land is converted to non-forest use. It may
cause erosion of land and the extinction of wildlife.
- We can minimize deforestation by planting trees, recycling, and going paperless.
3. Pollution - an addition of harmful substances or products into the environment. Human
activities contribute to air pollution by the emission of harmful substances into the air. The
impact of pollution on our environment can lead to global warming and climate change
- To reduce pollution, we can practice the three R’s which are reduce, reuse, and recycle.
4. Overexploitation - the overuse of natural resources which occurs when harvesting exceeds
the reproduction of wild plant and animal species. This can lead to problems in the extinction
of wildlife and the destruction of natural resources.
- By using sustainable fishing and agricultural practices, we can reduce the exploitation
of plant and animal species.
5. Eutrophication - characterized by excessive plant and algal (algae) growth due to the
increased availability of one or more limiting growth factors needed for photosynthesis. This
can cause negative effects on the marine ecosystem including algal blooms that block
sunlight from entering the water and use up oxygen. The usage of agricultural fertilizers is one
of the causes of eutrophication. Fertilizers used in farming to make the soil more fertile
contain nitrogen and phosphorus.
- Preventing eutrophication efficiently is by preventing excess nutrients from reaching
water bodies.

Module 7
Ecosystem - is made of biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving) factors. Biotic factors can be classified
to how they obtain chemical energy. This chemical energy is technically the food that these
organisms acquire.

Autotrophs (auto = self, trophos = feed) [Primary producers] - are organisms that can produce their
own food. They can feed themselves by using light, water, carbon dioxide, or other chemicals.
- Plants are the best examples of autotrophs. They only need non-living things like carbon
dioxide, water, and minerals as nutrients.
Autotrophic organisms require an energy source to create organic molecules. That energy source
may be from light (photoautotrophic) or from oxidation of inorganic substances
(chemoautotrophic).
Heterotrophs (hetero = other, trophos = feed) [Consumers] - are organisms that acquire organic
molecules from compounds produced by other organisms, thence, the producers. They are highly
dependent on producers for food and oxygen.

The best examples of heterotrophs are animals. Heterotrophs can be classified on how they obtain
their chemical energy, consumers, and decomposers.

Groups of consumers based on what they consume

Herbivores (plant-eaters) animals that eat producers to get energy
Carnivores (meat-eaters) feeds on other animals, either herbivores or other carnivores.
Omnivores (variety-eaters) eats both producers and consumers.
Detritivores - eats dead animal and plant matter. Leaves some waste materials: parts of dead plants
or animals and their own waste.
Decomposers - breaks down waste matter left behind by detritivores.

Food chain - a model that shows how food energy passes from one organism to another in a feeding
pathway
Food web - a model that shows several different food chains, and the connections between them.

Cycles of Materials in an Ecosystem

Carbon-Oxygen Cycle - Organisms need and produce gases in order to survive. Animals use oxygen
when they respire; animals in turn, produce carbon dioxide. When plants photosynthesize, they use
this carbon dioxide and produce oxygen as their by-product. This occurs day and night. Plants also
take in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide just like animals, especially during night time as they
can only photosynthesize during daytime.

Hydrologic Cycles - Animals drink water which eventually leaves their body through sweat or urine.
Plants take up water from the soil. Water cycles through living things as well as through non-living
things.

When solar energy warms the Earth’s surface, water evaporates from the ocean, rivers, lakes, and
land. The escape of water in the stoma of leaves through transpiration, adds water to the
atmosphere. Upon reaching high altitude, water cools as water vapor condenses and forms clouds.
Eventually, it becomes heavier and precipitation occurs in the form of snow or rain. This cycle is
called the Water Cycle or Hydrologic Cycle. In tropical rainforests, over 90 percent of the moisture is
cycled through the process of transpiration in plants. The excess eventually overflows into the oceans
and the water cycle continues.

Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is one of the primary nutrients critical for the survival of all living organisms. Although
nitrogen is very abundant in the atmosphere as it comprises 78% of the Earth’s atmosphere, it is
largely inaccessible in this form to most organisms.

Most plants and animals cannot use nitrogen in nitrogen gas (N2). In order for plants to make use of
nitrogen, they must be transformed into molecules they can use. This can be accomplished in several
different ways. One of that is nitrogen fixation:
1. Nitrogen Fixation – special bacteria convert the nitrogen gas (N2) to ammonia (NH3) which plants
can use.
2. Nitrification – It is the process which converts ammonia (NH3) into nitrite ions which plants can
take in as nutrients.
3. Ammonification - After all the living organisms have used nitrogen, decomposer bacteria convert
the nitrogen-rich waste compounds into simple ones.
4. Denitrification – This is the final step as other bacteria convert the simple nitrogen compounds
back to nitrogen gas (N2), which is then released back into the atmosphere to begin the cycle again.

(gas to ammonia to ions to compounds to gas)

Module 6
Trophic level - defined as the position of an organism in the food chain.
Food chain - a food relationship that shows the flow of energy in an environment. It is a straight-line
diagram of who eats whom. It moves food from one organism to another, giving energy to the
organism digesting the food.
Food web - consists of interlocking food chains. It is the summary of all pathways by which energy
moves from one level to another through an ecosystem.

The figure on the left shows an energy

pyramid. It may be drawn from the
figure that the energy coming from the
sun is utilized by the producers and
transferred to consumers. Only about 10%
of biomass and energy are transferred to
the next level and much of the energy is
lost as heat. The base of the pyramid is
reduced and only 10% moves to the next
level. This loss goes on at every level until
only 0.01% reaches the top consumers.
Module 5
Biodiversity - the variety of life on Earth that includes a number of different species of plants and
animals in an ecosystem that contributes to its sustainability.
- Measured in term of two components: richness and evenness.
- Richness: the number of species (usually called species richness)
- Evenness: the equality of the proportions of species or functional groups present in an
ecosystem.
Higher biodiversity in an ecosystem -> greater variety of genes and species in that ecosystem + more
sustainability

Module 4
Biodiversity sustains our life support system on earth such as food, materials, and medicines. It also
contributes to environmental sustainability; provides options for present and future generations in
term of bio-resources

The three levels of biodiversity are

a. Genetic diversity - a sum of all genetic information or characteristics within a species
b. Species diversity - the number of different species existing in a given area
c. Ecosystem diversity - the variety of habitats, living communities, and ecological processes.

What is a Threatened Species?

Any species that are becoming rare and that may become in danger of extinction. These are the
criteria used to classify Threatened Species:
1. Present destruction and modifications of their habitat.
2. Natural or man-made factors.
3. Population size reduction.
4. Species geographic range.

Threatened Species can be categorized into:

1. Critically endangered are species in extremely high risk of extinction such as Tamaraw,
Waling-waling, Philippine Eagle, and Dugong.
2. Endangered species are considered critically endangered but whose survival in the wild is unlikely
such as Butanding, Molave and Philippine Turtle.
3. Vulnerable species are not critically endangered but are under threat. Some examples are Tiger
cat, Apitong, Seahorse and Philippine duck.

What is biodiversity loss?

Biodiversity loss is the extinction where the last individual member of the species dies or no species
exists. The causes can be:
● natural extinction caused by environmental factors like change on landscape (global warming and
climate change),
● meteor impact and cosmic radiation and extreme heating and cooling of the earth’s surface
and anthropogenic extinction caused by man-made factors such as habitat destruction,
● invasive species, population growth, pollution, and overexploitation.
What are the different levels of hierarchical taxonomic system?
Taxonomy is a branch of biology that classifies all living things. Carolus Linnaeus is the father of
taxonomy and developed binomial nomenclature, the system of giving each type of organism a
genus and species name. The organization from larger to smaller or more specific categories is
known as a hierarchical system.
The taxonomic classification system uses a hierarchical model. Taxonomists divided organisms into
three large categories called a domain: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Second domain category is
called a Kingdom and the subsequent categories of increasing distinction are phylum, class, order,
family, genus, and species.

Domain is the highest rank of organisms. The three domains of life are Bacteria, Archaea, and
Eukaryota. Archaea are single-celled organisms’ similar bacteria; some archaea that live in earth
that are not a bacterium or archaeon.

Kingdom is the second highest rank of organisms. The different kingdoms under Six Kingdoms
Schemes of Classifications are Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, Archaea, and Eubacteria.

Phylum (plural: phyla) is the next rank, it is more specific than kingdom but less than class. Some of
the phyla of kingdom Animalia are Chordata (organisms with a dorsal nerve cord), Porifera
(sponges), and Arthropoda (arthropods).

Class is next rank to phylum. There are several classes in the kingdom Animalia including Mammalia
(mammals), Aves (birds), and Reptilia (reptiles), among many others.

Order is more specific than class. The orders of class Mammalia depend on how organisms are
classified. Some orders of class Mammalia are Primates, Cetaceans (whales, dolphins and
porpoises), Carnivora (large carnivores/ omnivores), and Chiroptera (bats).
Family is next rank to order. Some families in the order Carnivora are: Canidae (dogs, wolves, foxes),
Felidae (cats), Mephitidae (skunks), and Ursidae (bears).

Genus is even more specific than family. It is the first part of an organism’s scientific name using
binomial nomenclature; the second part is the name of species. Example for the scientific name of
humans is Homo-sapiens. Homo is the genus name, sapiens is the species name.

Species is the most specific rank and the lowest level. Species are sometimes divided into
subspecies. There are an estimated 8.7 million different species of organisms on Earth, but the
massive majority have yet to be discovered and categorized. Example name of species is sapiens.

What is the difference between Archaebacteria and Eubacteria?

Monera is a large group of organisms that include archaebacteria and eubacteria. It contains
unicellular organisms with prokaryotic cell organization. Archaebacteria and eubacteria were the
main groups of bacteria. Archaebacteria live in harsh environments where few kinds of other
organisms can live. It is usually grouped according to the extreme environment in which they live
such as:
(a) salt-loving bacteria can grow in evaporation ponds used for salt production. These bacteria
contain a purple pigment
(b) some bacteria grow in hot and acidic environments like in near deep ocean vents
(c) some anaerobic archaebacteria live in digestive system tracts of animals and produce methane
gas as a waste. Examples are methanogens, halophiles.

Eubacteria usually live in a less harsh environment. It is the larger of the two groups of bacteria.
Most of them are consumers, some are producers, aerobes, and others are anaerobes. All bacteria
that cause known diseases are eubacteria. These bacteria have been classified and identified based
upon conditions under their cell walls, how they obtain food, and which waste products they produce.
Examples are streptococcus, escherichia coli.

Distinguishing characteristics of Protist

Protist is a eukaryotic organism and have one- or many-celled organisms that lives in moist or wet
surroundings. These organisms have a membrane-bound nucleus and other membrane-bound
structures in their cytoplasm. Protists are a diverse group that includes organisms with fungus-like,
animal-like or plant-like characteristics shown in Table 2. Protists get their food in a different way.
Some are producers and others are predators, parasites, or saprophytes. Important examples of
protists include the organism known as Plasmodium (causes malaria, amoeba, and euglena).
ZOANS

Economic importance of Protists

● Many protists are used in medical research such as medicines. It is used in treatment of high blood
pressure, digestion problems, ulcers, and arthritis.
● Algae are an important food source for many organisms.
● Red algae are used to make puddings and ice cream solid. Chemicals from other kinds of algae are
used to produce many kinds of plastics.

Distinguishing characteristics of Fungi

Fungi have eukaryotic cells and contain membrane-bound cell structures including a nucleus, some
fungi cells contain more than one nucleus. Most of them are reproducing through spores and are
many-celled. Most of the fungus grow underground or beneath the surface of the organic materials
on which it is growing.

Fungi are considered as plants because they have cell walls but do not have specialized tissues and
organs such as leaves and roots. Fungi also don’t have chlorophyll and cannot make their own food
like plants. They are not producers because most of them are decomposers (saprophytes) while some
are parasites.

Fungi are reproduced through the production of small, waterproof structures called spores. Spores
can spread from one place to other place and grow into a new fungus under right conditions. They
grow in warm, humid areas such as tropical forest or the spaces between your toes. A type of fungus
“Mildew” might be growing on the shower curtain in your bathroom.

Distinguishing characteristics of Plants

Plants are multicellular and eukaryotic; their cells have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
such as mitochondria. They contain plastids and photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophyll. Plants
are producers and autotrophs. They evolved from freshwater green algae and several adaptations to
life on land, including embryo retention, cuticle, stomata, and vascular tissue.

Distinguishing characteristics of Animals

Animals are multicellular and eukaryotic but have no cell wall and photosynthetic pigments. They are
heterotrophic, feeding on other organisms and cannot make their own food. They reproduce sexually
and asexually. Animals store carbon as glycogen and fat. Important examples are Porifera
(sponges), Cnidaria (jellyfish), Nematoda (nematode worms), Platyhelminthes (flatworms), Annelida
(segmented worms), Mollusca (snails and squid), Echinodermata (starfish), Arthropoda (insects
and crustaceans), Chordata (includes all the vertebrates: fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals).

Module 3

Mendel believed that heredity is the result of discrete units of inheritance, and every single unit (or
gene) was independent in its actions in an individual’s genome. Inheritance of a trait depends on the
passing-on of these units.
Gregor Mendel - An Australian Monk who proposed the three principles of heredity.
Law of Dominance - in a heterozygote, one trait will conceal the presence of another trait for the
same characteristic. Rather than both alleles contributing to a phenotype, the dominant allele will be
expressed exclusively.
Law of Independent Assortment - the alleles of two (or more) different genes get sorted into
gametes independently of one another. In other words, the allele a gamete receives for one gene
does not influence the allele received for another gene.
Law of Segregation - only one of the two gene copies present in an organism is distributed to each
gamete that it makes, and the allocation of the gene copies is random.

Monohybrid Cross
A monohybrid cross is a genetic cross involving two true breeding parents that differ only in one
characteristic. Each parent in a monohybrid cross contributes one of two paired unit factors or genes
to each offspring for every possible fertilization.

To illustrate a monohybrid cross, consider the case of true-breeding pea plants with round versus
wrinkled pea seeds. The dominant seed shape is round; therefore, the parental genotypes were RR
(homozygous dominant) for the plants with round seeds and rr (homozygous recessive) for the plants
with wrinkled seeds, respectively.

Reginald Punnett is a British geneticist who devised a Punnett square to predict the possible
outcomes of a genetic cross or mating and their expected frequencies. This is a grid-like tool used in
predicting the possible outcomes in genetic problems. The Punnett square only shows what might
occur and the possible actual results.

Dihybrid Cross
A dihybrid cross shows the possible pattern of inheritance of two independently- assorting genes. It
shows how allelic pairs of genes for a specific trait segregate and unite independently. Mendel
pollinated a plant with genotype RRYY (round, yellow seed) and a plant with genotype rryy (wrinkled,
green seeds). The first filial generation or F1 peas exhibited the dominant traits for the heterozygous
genotype RrYy. Based on Mendel’s Law of Segregation each pair will separate during gamete
formation, therefore each gamete or sex cell will receive one allele from each pair.
Example:BAT M
AY FOIL METHOD
foil method math

HS Hs hS hs
arc fr

hs HhSs Hhss hhSs hhss

hs HhSs Hhss hhSs hhss

hs HhSs Hhss hhSs hhss

hs HhSs Hhss hhSs hhss

Module 2

Cell Cycle
A series of events that take place in the life of a cell as it
grows and divides. It consists of two major phases:

Interphase
known as the preparatory or resting stage

Mitotic phase
the actual cell division. During interphase, a cell grows,
replicates its chromosomes, and prepares for cell division.
It is further subdivided into three subphases:

G1 phase (first gap phase)

cell grows physically larger, copies organelles, and makes
the molecular building blocks it will need in later steps.

S phase (synthesis phase)

where the cell synthesizes a complete copy of the DNA as well as the protein attached to them

G2 phase (second gap phase)

where the cell grows more, makes proteins and organelles, and prepares the cell for chromosomal
separation.

Mitotic phase (M phase)

the cell undergoes division of the nucleus and cytoplasm to make two new identical daughter cells.

Mitosis
a process where a single parent cell divides into two identical daughter cells. It is a type of cell
division involving somatic cells (body cells). It consists of four major phases namely: Prophase,
Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase. (PMAT)

Prophase (formation of mitotic spindle)

• Chromosomes condense and become visible
• Nuclear envelope disintegrate
• Nucleolus disappears
• Asters and spindle fibers are formed
 Metaphase (alignment of chromosomes)
• Spindle fiber is fully developed
• Centrosomes are at the opposite poles
• The centromere of each sister chromatid is attached to a spindle fiber
• Chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate or equatorial plate.

Anaphase (movement of the daughter chromosomes)

• The cell elongates
• The centromere of each chromosome divides.
• Chromosomes have separated into two sister chromatids
• Sister chromatids are moving toward opposite poles

Telophase (formation of two daughter nuclei)

• New nuclear membrane is reforming and nucleolus reappears
• Chromosomes begin to decondense
• Spindle fibers and asters disappear
• Cleavage furrow deepens as cell finally divides into two identical
daughter cells

Meiosis
process where a cell divides twice to produce four daughter cells containing half the original amount
of genetic information of the parent cell. These cells are our reproductive cells (sex cells or gametes)
It involves two successive nuclear divisions. During the first meiotic division (Meiosis I), homologous
chromosomes separate, and on the second meiotic division (Meiosis II), each chromosome
separates into two chromatids.

Prophase I
Leptotene: where chromosomes start to condense.
Zygotene: synapsis (pairing of homologous chromosomes) occurs
to form tetrad (pairs of chromosomes consisting of four chromatids)
Pachytene: crossing over occurs forming a chiasma (the point of contact
of crossing over).
Diplotene: homologous chromosomes begin to separate but remain
attached by chiasmata (sing. chiasma)
Diakinesis: homologous chromosomes continue to separate and they are
dispersed in the nucleus.
Metaphase I
• The centrioles are now at the opposite poles of the cell.
• The spindle fibers from opposing centrioles connect to centromeres
of bivalent (one pair of chromosomes in a tetrad).
• Bivalents line up at the metaphase plate or equatorial plate

Anaphase I
• Spindle fibers contract causing the bivalent to split. One of each pair
moves to opposite poles of the cell.

Telophase I
• Cell divides forming two daughter cells.
• Each cell now is called haploid. (has only half the number of
chromosomes)

Prophase II
• Condensation of chromosomes (each chromosome consists of sister
chromatids)
• Nuclear membrane dissolves

Metaphase II
• Individual chromosomes line up at the equator

Anaphase II
• Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles

Telophase II
• Nuclear membrane reforms around four haploid nuclei
• Cytokinesis occurs, producing four haploid daughter cells.
Karyokinesis - Nucleus divides
Cytokinesis - Cytoplasm divides.

Basis of Comparison Mitosis Meiosis

Where it occurs Body cells Gonads (Reproductive organs)

Why it occurs/purpose For cell growth, repair, and For sexual reproduction and
asexual division maintain the normal
chromosome number.

No. of divisions Involves only 1 division Involve 2 successive divisions

No. of cells produced 2 identical cells 4 genetically different cells

No. of chromosomes in parent 46 (diploid - w/complete set of 46 (diploid)

cell chromosomes)

No of chromosomes of 46 (diploid) 23 (haploid - w/ half set of

daughter cell chromosomes)

Gametogenesis
process of gametes formation that occurs in the gonads (ovary and testis). Gonial cells are the
designation given to reproductive cells before they enter meiosis. They replicate mitotically and are
genetically identical to the original zygote. When they begin meiosis, they are called spermatocytes
(for males) and oocytes (for females).

Spermatogenesis
process of formation of sperms. It occurs in the testes of the male, specifically in the seminiferous
tubules. Males start producing sperm when they reach puberty, which is usually from 10-16 years old.
They are produced in large quantities about 200 million a day. Meiosis I produce two haploid cells,
known as secondary spermatocytes Meiosis II produces four haploid cells, known as spermatids.
takes approximately 70 days. Therefore, in order for sperm production to be continuous and not
intermittent, multiple spermatogenic processes are occurring simultaneously within the same
seminiferous tubule, with new groups of spermatogonia arising every 16 days (spermatogenic cycle).
Each of these populations of spermatogenic cells will be at different stages of spermatogenesis.

Oogenesis
the production of an ovum. It differs from spermatogenesis in that it begins in the fetus prior to birth.
Primordial germ cells (which originate in the yolk sac of the embryo) move to colonize the cortex of
the primordial gonad and replicate by mitosis to peak at approximately 7 million by mid-gestation
(~20 weeks). Cell death occurs after this peak to leave 2 million cells that begin meiosis I before birth,
these are known as primary oocytes. Therefore, a human female is born with approximately 2 million
primary oocytes arrested in meiosis, meaning they have a finite supply of potential ova. The primary
oocytes are arranged in the gonads in clusters surrounded by flattened epithelial cells (follicular
cells) and these form primordial follicles. The primary oocytes are arrested in the prophase stage of
meiosis I. During childhood, further atresia (cell death) occurs, leaving ~40,000 eggs at puberty.
Once puberty begins, a number of primary oocytes (15-20) begin to mature each month, although
only one of these reaches full maturation to become an oocyte.

Basis of comparison Spermatogenesis Oogenesis

Location testis ovary

Number of gametes produced Millions (lifelong production) Fixed amount (only -400
mature)

Gametes produced per germ four one

cell

Beginning of process Begins at puberty Begins during fetal

development

Timing of gamete formation Continuous (anytime) Once a month (menstrual cycle)

End of process Fertility is lifelong but reduces Fertility stops at menopause

Timing of gamete release anytime Monthly cycle

Significance of meiosis
- For the formation of sex cells or gamete that are essential for sexual reproduction
- It allows genetic variation and variance among organisms
- It allows assortment of chromosomes from parents
- It maintains the normal number of chromosomes in sexually reproducing organism

Module 1
In order for us to survive, we need to consume solid and liquid food from plants and animals. The
intake of food from these sources and the process that convert food substances into living matter
are known as nutrition. The human nutrition involves the following processes:

Ingestion- intake of food into the body),

Digestion- the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into soluble form
Absorption- where food passes through the wall of the small intestine and into the bloodstream
Assimilation- the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the body where they are
used. Ex: glucose is used in respiration to provide energy
Excretion- the process of eliminating or expelling waste matter

There are two Phases of Digestion:

1. Mechanical- involves physical movement to make foods smaller.
Ex: In humans, starts in the mouth where food is chewed and broken down into smaller pieces for
easier digestion.
2. Chemical- starts in the mouth and is carried out by enzymes, molecules that speed up chemical
reactions.
Ex: Amylase in saliva helps break down carbohydrates into simpler ones that can be used by the
body.

Both mechanical and chemical digestion occurs in the mouth. There are different structures in the
mouth. These include the teeth, the tongue, and the salivary glands. The first step in digestion is
chewing which is aided by the teeth and tongue. The teeth break the food and at the same time,
saliva from the salivary glands moistens the food, facilitating its conduction into the pharynx. The
saliva contains the enzyme ptyalin or amylase, which converts starch into disaccharides (like
maltose). The food then becomes semi-solid mass called bolus. With the aid of the tongue, the food
is swallowed. Then, it is brought at the region at the back of the mouth called pharynx. As you
swallow, a flap of tissue called epiglottis closes the trachea at the entrance of the respiratory tract to
ensure that the food enters the esophagus (also called gullet). After entering the gullet, it will
temporarily store in the stomach. Digestion ends in the small intestine where nutrients are absorbed
in the villi and enter the circulatory system. Fluid enters the duodenum (one of the small intestine
regions) from the stomach through the ducts of the pancreas, liver, and the gall bladder. The
undigested food goes into the large intestine including wastes, like water that was not reabsorbed,
are temporarily stored in the rectum before they are excreted out the body through the anus. Other
enzymes, such as protease and lipase help break down proteins in the stomach and fats in the small
intestine, respectively.

Organs of the digestive system (digestive tract)

Mouth/buccal cavity (Buccal Cavity include: teeth and tongue)
- mouth/ buccal cavity is the start of digestion where food is masticated and mixed with saliva.
- teeth functions to mechanically break down items of food by cutting and crushing them in
preparation for swallowing and digesting.
- tongue helps out, pushing the food around while you masticate with your teeth.

Pharynx | Regions of the pharynx: nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx

- an intersection leading to the trachea and esophagus.
- passageway of food.
Esophagus/ gullet
- connects the pharynx to the stomach.
- it moves food by waves of muscle contraction called peristalsis.
Stomach
- is a muscular sac with expandable walls. These contract to mash the food into a water soup
called chyme.
- secretes the enzyme pepsin which digest protein.
- the inner lining of the stomach is folded (rugae) to increase its inner surface to hold more food
substances.
Small intestines | 3 Divisions: duodenum, jejunum, ileum
- the longest part of the digestive system and is chiefly involved in the digestion and absorption
of nutrients.
- It receives pancreatic secretions and bile through the hepatopancreatic duct which aid with
its functions.
 - The upper part is first to receive partially digested food from the stomach and begins with the
absorption of nutrients.
- to absorb sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids
Large intestines/colon
- to absorb water and mineral salts from the unaccumulated food material.
Rectum
- Stores feces until it is egested
Anus
- To provide an outlet for disposing of the undigested matter out of the body.
Digestive Glands and accessory organs
Liver
- a vital organ that produces bile. Bile, a yellow-green substance, is stored in the gall bladder.
- production of cholesterol, conversion of glucose to glycogen for storage of iron & fat-soluble
vitamins, synthesis of vit. A, K, & B12, converts fats and amino acids to glucose, and breaks
down alcohol, drugs and toxic chemicals taken in by the body.
Gallbladder
- is to store bile, also called gall, needed for the digestion of fats in food.
Pancreas
- It plays an essential role in converting the food we eat into fuel for the body's cells. The
pancreas has two main functions: an exocrine function that helps in digestion and an
endocrine function that regulates blood sugar.
Salivary glands
- salivary glands moistens the food, facilitating its conduction into the pharynx. The saliva
contains enzyme salivary amylase, which converts starch into disaccharides. The food then
becomes a semi-solid mass called bolus.

Digestive Enzyme Glands/organs Substrate Digestion Role in Digestion

Cavity that produced product

Mouth Cavity Salivary Salivary glands starch Maltose Breaks down

amylase or starches into
ptyalin disaccharides

Stomach Pepsin Gastric glands proteins Simpler Breaks down

proteins protein into
peptides

Pancreatic Pancreas starch Maltose Continues starch

Amylase or breakdown
Amylopsin

Trypsin Pancreas Protein Polypeptides Continues protein

breakdown

Small Lipase Pancreas fats Fatty acids Breaks down fats

Intestine and glycerol or lipids into fatty
acids and glycerol
Maltase Intestinal Maltose Simple sugars Breaks down
glands (glucose) remaining
disaccharides into
monosaccharide

Peptidase Pancreas Simpler Amino acids Breaks down

proteins dipeptides into
amino acids