F IG U R E D R A W ING

A ND

C O M P O S IT I O N

B EING A NUMB ER OF HINTS F OR THE S T UD ENT

A ND D E S IGNER UP ON THE TR EA TMEN T

O F TH E H UMA N F IG URE

R IC HA RD G . HA T T O N
A U THO R O F A T EX T- B O O K O F EL EMENTA RY D ES I GN

WI T H N UME ROU S I LL U S T RA T ION S

L O ND O N : C HA PMA N A ND HA L L ,
LB .

1 895

[A Z! nIz ts
r reserved !
 INT RO D U C T IO N
‘

T H E h i nt s and ugge sti o n s w h i c h m a ke up t h i s b o o k

s

h a ve been p u t t o gether i n the h O p e th a t they m a y a ss i st

the s tudent a n d de signer i n their s tudy o f the hu m a n
figu re T h a t a cqu a i nt a n c e with t h e fo r m c o n st ructi o n
.
, ,

a n d a c ti o n o f the b o dy so v a lu a ble t o the a rti st a n d

, ,

i nd i spen sa ble t o h i m w h o h a s t o w o rk w i t h o ut m o del s i s ,

p erh a p s o nly t o be cultiv a ted a s t h e w o rd i t s elf s ugge st s

, ,

by cl o se a n d c o n tinu a l o b serva t i o n B o o k s c a n n o t t o
.
,

the a rt s tudent st a n d i n pl a ce o f re se arch n o r c a n a n y

-
, ,

thi ng sa id i n the m be rea lly o f v a lue t o h i m t i ll h e h a s ,

re di sc o vered
-
i t hi m self . The pr o per fu nct i o n o f such
b o o k s i s then t o i nd ic a te w h ere the tre a s ure l i e s a n d w h a t
i t i s thu s sh o rten i ng t h e ter m o f st uden t sh ip
, .

T h e a uth o r k n o w s o n ly t o o wel l h o w gre a t a ga p th ere

i s be t ween wh a t h e h ere pre sent s t o t h e re a der a n d t h e
figu re it sel f a ga p whi c h t he a ble st o f pen s c o u ld h a rdly
,

h a ve h o ped t o fi ll up Fur ther h e h a s n o t p re su m ed t o

.
,

wri te a b o o k up o n a r ti st i c a n a t o m y whi c h h a s o n ly been

,

e m pl o yed so fa r a s i t pr o vide s n a m e s fo r wh a t o t h er w i s e
w o uld h a ve t o be c a lled kn o b s lu m p s a n d c o rd s while
, , ,

m a ny o f t h e a n a t o m ic a l fa c ts h a ve m erely been i ntr o duced

t o sa ve the re a der t h e tr o uble o f tu rning t o o t h er b o o k s .

A s reg a rd s t h e a cti o n o f t h e m u sc le s very li ttle h a s been

,

sa i d s i nce i t h a s been t h o ught t h a t the a ppe a r a nce o f the

,
 vi IN T RODU C T ION
b o dy i n i ts m o ve m ent s a n d p o s iti o n s i s o nly t o be a cquired
in the o rdi n a ry a rti sti c w a y by n o ting the a ttitude o f a n y
,

figure o n e m ay h a ppen t o se e In fa c t every figure a n d .

, ,

n o t m ere l y the p o sed m o del s h o uld s erve the dr a ught s m a n

,

in thi s w ay A l l d ay l o n g o n e m a y thu s be pi c king up

.

the o n ly k n o wledge whi c h i s re a lly servi c e a b le Fa c e s .

,

t o o m u st be a s c riti ca lly ex a m ined

,
.

If the stude n t be so u nfo rtun a te a s n o t t o be a bl e t o

a tte n d a li fe c l a ss o r t o hire a m o del
,
the be s t su b s titute
,

i s t o dr a w fr o m ph o t o gr a ph s o f the nude D ra wing fro m .

the i m agi n a ti o n i s a l so a n ex c ellent m e a n s o f o bt a i ning

c o m m a nd of the figure Im a gin a ti o n i s very l a rgely
.

m e m o ry h o w ev er a n d so the student n eed s t o see a s

‘

m a n y figure s a s he c a n so th a t h i s he a d m a y be ful l
,

o f the m if o n e m a y so spe a k H e sh o uld further dra w

, .
, ,

a t le a s t o n e figure a da s m a l l o r l a rge n o m a tter wh a t

y , , .

H e sh o uld a lw a y s m a ke the figure s m e a n so m ethi n g a n d ,

be so m ething — m e n fighting running a w a y sc r a m bling , ,

o u t of the re a c h o f d o g s ee ing r o und rner o r fa t

p p ,
c o s ,

a n d j o lly e a ti n g their di n ner s The m o re the dra ught sm a n

.

c a n l o s e hi m self i n the a c ti o n o f the figure the m o re

“

likel y he i s t o repre sent it .

The fo ll o wing m a y be studied with a dv a nt a ge F o r the .

dr wing
a o f —
the fi g u re The G reek v a se p a inting s ; the
dra wing s o f the It a li a n m a ster s fr o m Ma ssa c c i o to Titi a n ,

e sp e c i a lly G hirl a nd aj o Ve rro c h i o M a n teg n a the L ippi

, , , ,

Perugin o R a p h a el L e o n a rd o M i c h a el A ngel o a n d Titi a n

, , , , .

Mu n t z s s e of R ap fi a el co nt a i n s a g o o d st o re o f repro
’

d u c t i o n s o f the m a ster s dr a wi n g s s k et c he s a n d fini shed

’

, ,

w o rk s .

In ter m ingled with thi s study o n e sh o uld ex a m ine J a p a ne se

dra wi n g s p a rti c ul a rly th o se o f H o ku sa i The figure s o n

, .

U rbin o m aj o li c a w a re a re c o n c i se a n d i n s tructive a n d ,
 I N T R ODU C T IO N vi i
the reliefs o f D o n a tell o a n d G hiberti a re very v a lu a ble .

In G reek terr a c o tt a s a nd R o m a n s tu cc o e s i s m u c h th a t
-

i s helpful the techn ique being p r o m pt a n d dire c t

,
.

O f G er m a n w o rk spe c i a l a ttenti o n m u s t be given t o

B urg m a i r s Tr i u m ph o f M a xi m ili a n t o D ii re r s Pa ss i o n s
’ ’ ’ ’

, ,

‘ ‘
A po ca lyp se a n d L i fe o f the Vi rgi n a n d t o H o lbei n s
’ ’ ’

, ,

‘
D a n c e o f D e a th a n d Bible figure s They a re a l l n o t
’
.

o n ly ex c ellen t i n d r a wi n g a n d c o m p o s i ti o n but a re a l so ,

v a lu a ble a s bei ng i n th i ck li n e whi c h i s by n o m e a n s ,

e a sy t o m a n a ge .

O f the w o rk s o f a rti s t s n o w l iving o r re c ently de a d we , ,

m a y m enti o n t h e fo ll o wing F o r m o nu m en t a l c o m p o s iti o n s

.
,

S i r E Bur n e J o ne s ; fo r figure de sign s gener a lly M r

.
-
,
.

W a lter C r a n e M r H enry H o llid a y the l a te J o h n H a rd m a n

,
.
,

Po wel l ; M r H o w a rd Pyle s Pepp er a n d S a l t & c The se ’

. .
,

l a st a re very suit a ble fo r s tude n t s the det a i l s bei n g v a ried , ,

a n d well c a rried o u t F o r ex c ellen t dr a wi ng a n d c o m

.

p o sit i o n bu t le ss de c o r a ti v e D a n iel Vierge s D O72 R a e/o

, ,
’

de S eg ow a a n d A d o l f M en zel s F rederi ck Me G rea t

’ ’
.
,

F o r ex a m ple s o f de c o r a ti o n o f the e a rly G o t h i c peri o d s

we s h a ll turn t o V i o l l et l e D u c s D i c ti o n a ries o f A r c hite c tu re
- -
’

a n d Fur n iture The i llu str a ted c a t a l o gue s o f th e S o u t h

.

K en singt o n M u seu m h a ve m a ny v a lu a bl e illu s tr a ti o n s .

The ph o t o graph s t o t h e c a t a l o g u e o n Iv o rie s a re re m a rk

a bly go o d F o r dec o r a tive effe c t we s h a ll s tudy the
.

Byz a ntine a n d e a rly G o thi c peri o d s the Egypti a n a n d ,

J ap a ne se There a re m a ny det a il s i n the Po m pei a n

.

de c o r a ti o n w o rthy o f n o te p a rt i c ul a rly t h e carved ent a bl a ,

tu re s a n d fr a m e s .

O n e t hi ng we c a nn o t fa i l t o n o ti c e i n the G o thi c
s tyle s i n the J a p a ne s e a n d even i n the G reek v a s e p a in t
, ,

i ng s i s the little v a ri a ti o n there i s i n the det a il s o f the

,

figure s T h a t i s t o say the sa m e view o f the he a d o r

.
,
 I N T RODU C T ION
h a n d o cc ur s m a ny ti m e s Indeed there c a n be n o d o ub t
.
,

th a t a m a n c o uld do very g o o d a n d ex p re ssive fig u re

de s ig n s o f a de c o ra tive c h a r a c ter with a fe w h e a d s h a nd s
,

a n d a r m s fee t a n d a little dra pery a t h i s c o m m a nd

, ,
B ut
.

i f he a d o p t the li m ited s tyle here sugge sted he m u st

p o sse ss either a pro fo und i ntere st i n hu m a n li fe a n d a,

de sire t o p o rtra y it ( the pi c t o ri a l geniu s ) o r a true feeling

,

fo r o rn a m e n t a l be a uty ( the de co r a tive ge n iu s)

. W ith o u t
o n e o r o ther o f the se the w o rk c a n o nly be s tupid a n d

i m pude n t.
 C O NT ENT S

A IM A ND ME T H OD
Th e A r i s t t ’
t i
s In en t o n , C o n c ep ti o n , an d
'
Ex p ressi o n of hi s S u b j t
ec

In t en t i o n
x r i
E p ess o n

C t
o n ce
p i on

T h e D evel o p m en t of C o n ce p t i o n a m on g th e O l d Ma sters
Of F i n i sh , a n d th e fre q u en tg t re a e r su cc ess o f a S kt
e ch th a n of a

F i n i sh e d V Ol k
V ‘

Meth o d of D raw i n g

T HE F IG URE AS A W H OLE
Lon g L i n es o f th e F ir t S k t h
s e c

Pose an d ,
G es t ur
e

IO . Th e Effe c t of G ra v i t tia on o n t h e F l e sh

II . G en e rlP
a ro o r
p ti ons of th e F i g u re

I2 . O b l i q ity
u of C er ti a n D e ta i l s of F o rm

THE H E AD A ND NECK
G e n e ra l A pp earan ce o f th e H e ad an dN k ec

Th e Pro p o r o n s o f th e ti ea d H
Th e Pro p o r ti on s o f th e F a c e

Th e G en e r al F o rm of th e C r an i um

Th e G en e r al F o rm of th e F ace
y
T h e Z g o m a c A rch ti
C o m p arison o f th e F o rm s of th e H ead i n th e t w o S e x es

Th e B y on S tru c t u re of th e F ac e

Th e Mu scl es o f th e F ace
Th e Effe c t of th e B o n es a n d Muscl es O
f th e F ac e
Th e Eye an d i ts Ne i ghb o u rh o o d
 CON T EN T S

Th e Nose
Th e Mo uth an d Ch i n

Th e Ea r
Th e Neck ,
to w h a td g e ree c yl i i
n dr c a l

Th e B on es o f th e N k ec

Ho w th e Neck fi ts on t o th e Trun k
Th e S tern o C l e i do - -
Ma stoi deu s Mu scl e
Th e Th ro a t
Th e C o l l ar -
B on e

S o m e S u b o rdi n a te Muscl es o f th e Nec k

Th e Trap e i us z Muscl e
C er a ti n o th er De t il
a s of th e Nec k
Prop o r i o n s t of th e Neck an d S h o u l ders to th e H ea d

T HE T R UNK
D ra w i n g th e Trun k
Th B y M f h T k — T h Il i C t—Th S a cru m
y M f th T k —Th Th x
e on t a ss o e ru n e ac res e

Th B e on a ss o e run e o ra

B y F m f th B k —Th V t b l C l m
on or s o e ac e er e ra o u n

M m t f th B
ov e en s o f th T k e o n es o e ru n

Th E et S pi rec o r d S l mb l i M l
n ae an a cro - u a s u sc es

L ti i m iM l
A bd m m M l
a Dss us o rs u sc e

Th E t e l O bl iq
x e rn a d R t u e an ec u s o I s u sc es

O th D t il
er f Ab d m i l F m
e a s o o na o1

Th e Pec to ra l Muscl es
Th e B Ieast
C o m p ari son of th e B on es o f th e TI un k In th e t w o S e es x
Th e Wa i st
S h o ul de r Bl
-
a de a n dS h o u l der

PI o p 0 1 tl o n s of th e Trun k

T HE A RM

Th e F i rst L i n es in a D ra w i ng of th e A rm
B on e s o f th e A rm , F o re- A rm , an d H an d

Th e Tri c ep s Muscl e
Th e B ra c h i al i s A n ti c u s, C o ra c o B ra chi a l s i an d Bi c ep s it
C ub i
Mu scl es
Th e O rder o f A rra n gem en t of th e Mu
sc l es a b o u t th e A rm p i t
-

A rran gem en t of th e Muscl es o f th e F o re Arm

G en eral C h arac t i ti
er s cs o f th e A rm
Mo vem en ts o f th e Wri st an d H an d
D etai l s o f th e F o rm o f th e Wri st
Th e H an d
 !

CON T EN T S x i

Th e F o rm of th e F i n g ers

Th e Th u mb
Th e P r op o r ti on s o f th e Upp e L m b r i

THE L OWE R L IM B
Th e B o n es o f th e Hi p an d L o w er L i m b
Th e Mu scl es o f th e L o w e r Li mb
Rem ar k s up o n th e Mu scl es o f th e L o w e r L mbi
Th e Hi p
T h e T high
Th e K n e e
D ra w i n g the L eg
k
Th e A n l e a n d F o o t
G en eral R e m a r k s upon th e L o w e r L m b i
Th e H ai r

D RA PE RY
75 . Po it
n s an d S u rfa ces o f S pp t u or

Th e S u m m it s or Co rd f th D p y
s o e ra er

77 ~ V a ri o u s ki n ds o f D ra p y
er

C OMPO SI T ION
Th e F u n c ti on of Co m p iti os on

i
Th e S n gl e F i gure i n a S p ace
Gr p i
ou ng

Em p h a s izi t
Pa r i c u l a r F i g u res
ng

i i —
F l l n g o f S p a ces Tw o Me h o ds o f t LtC t y as en u r

F l l in g o f S p a ces—A n o h er O I l a er S
i t t ytm s e

i
Th e F gu re i n D ec o ra i o n t
r i
S o m e G en e al Pr n c ip l es o f D eco ra t i ve C o m po si ti on

A l l th e F i gu re t o b e sh o w n

Th e Po i n o f S i ght t
Th e V al u e o f Pro l e fi
C o n c l usi o n

In de x
 L IS T O F ILL U S T R AT IO NS

G l ass Pai n ti n g, 1 3 th cen u r t y

H ead o f a G i rl , b y G h i rl an daj o
Peasan ts, b y A l b er D Ii rer t '

i t t
D i agram s l l u s ra i n g m e h o d t
Pa r t
F ri ez e , b y C l o di on
of a

i t ti
D agram i l l us ra n g r g d o u l i i ti ne

sh ad n g i
i
D i agram s l l ust rati n g th e i mpl t l i
s es n es i n th e fig u re

i r m i l l t ti g p
D ag a us ra n ose

G th i I
o cy C i g 4 th t y
vo r a rv n ,
1 c en u r

Am i i or nL ,
b y Pi zz tt
or o v es, a e a

D i gr m i l l tr ti g g
a a s us l p r p ti
a n en era o or o n s

b l i q ity f f m i o u o or n th e fig r u e

th e h e a d
th e p r op o r ti ons of th e h ea d

a, n fa ce
th e b o n es, m uscl es, an d f
of th e h ead

th e eye

n o se

m ou th
e ar

th e b o n es, m u scl es an d f
of th e n e c k
th e draw i
g o f th e
n t run k
th e b o n es, m u scl es an d fo rm
of th e t run k
1 06 —12 2 . th e b o n e s, m u scl es, an d fo rm
of th e a rm

12 3
-
I3I . th e w r it
s an d h an d
 L IS T OF I LL U S T RA T ION S
PA G E

D i '
agram s il l ustr
a ti ng th e p ro p o r on s ti of th e upp er

l imb
133 — 1 48 . th e b o n es, m u scl es, an d fo rm
of th e h i p an d r i
l o w e l mb
d r a p er y
g ro u
pi &cn g, .

e m p h a si s

Th e A do ra ti on of th e S h ep h erds
Il l us t tira t x d t l i k m p it i
on s o f v o r e an s ar e co os on

H f t g l r m p iti
o re c an u a co os on

f w ll d oti a eco ra on

f l l y fill d d
o ti
c ose e ec o ra on

Th D th f M l g
e ea o by L B e ea e r, e run

A f l i t d h l f fig
n on- o a e a -
u re

Th Em b k ti
e f H r l d fr m t h
ar a on B y x
o a o , o e a eu

t p t ya es r

Il l t ti
u s ra fp on o i l m p iti
ro cess o n a co os on

Di g m
a r
a fR s o M i & ave n n a osa c , c .

Eff t f l g
ec o d h t di t
on an
p p tsi or s an ce e rs ec ve

Il l rrstrati o n s o f c o m p o si t i on

ER RA TU M

Pag e 16, f or H mil t

a
’
o n s rea d H wki
a
’
ns s
FIGURE DRAWING AND COMPOSITION

A IM A ND MET HO D
T h e A rt i s t s In t e n t i o n C o n c e p t io n d
’
I .
, ,
an

E x p re ss io n of his S u bj e c t .

I N T EN T ION n c epti o n a n d expre ss i o n a re the t h ree

,
co ,

ingred i ent s o f A rt The a rti s t m u st i n t h e fir s t pl a c e

.
‘

, ,

i n ten d to re a lize t o c a l l t o the m ind o f the spe c t a t o r s

l

, ,

o r pl a ce befo re their eye s a s i f i n b o dily pre sence so m e ,

i de a whether o f h u m a n e x p e ri e n ce a c ti o n o r a spir a ti o n
,
'

, , ,

o r o f n a tur a l fo r m o r t h e a spe c t o f it
,
be i t be a utifu l o r ,

n o t be a utiful T h e ide a i ntended t o be expre ssed i s the

.

s ubj ect .

The i ntent i o n fi xed the s ubj e c t h a s t o be re a lized

, ,

th a t i s the a rti s t h a s t o be c o m e p o sse ssed o f the u nder

,

s t a nding o f wh a t i n pi c t o ri a l a rt will repre sen t t o the

, ,

s pect a t o r wh a tever n a tur a l fa c t s the s ubj e c t i s c o n c erned

w i th Thu s a n o v a l w i th fo u r d o ts withi n it s ugge st s

.
, ,

a n d i n rude a rt s t a nd s fo r the hu m a n fa ce but i t c ert a inly

, ,

d o e s n o t sa ti s fy u s S o th a t t h e d ifferen c e between wh a t
.

i s t o u s a fa i r repre sent a t i o n o f a fa c e o r he a d a n d ,

w h a t sa t i sfie s t h e c h ild o r the sa v a ge i s the difference ,

B
2 FI GU RE D RAWIN G AND CO MPOSI TIO N
between o u r a n d their c o n c epti o n o f wh a t will expre s s
th o se things
The expre ss i o n i s the te c hni c a l m e a n s o f a p plying
wh a tever m a teri a l s we u se t o p a int o r dra w with t o ,

e m b o dy o u r c o n c epti o n o r re a liz a ti o n o f the s ubj e c t .

A c co rdi n g a s m a s tery o f the s e three s ide s o f the p a inter s

’

a rt h a s been a c quired a n d devel o ped h a ve the re sult s a s , ,

s een i n h i sto rrc c o m p o siti o n s a n d dr a wi n g s exhibited ,

differe n t s tyle s a n d c h a r a c teri s tic s .

2 . O f In te n t io n .

O N E S intenti
’
o n m a y be devel o ped in thi s w a y
— ( )
I I
i n ten d t o dra w a K n ight i n a r m o ur with l a n c e a n d s hield .

( N o te ,
th at one ca n e a s ily de c eive o ne s el f even i n thi s

fi rst s tep fo r it m a y h a p p en a n d genera lly d o e s i n p o o r

, ,

w o rk th a t o n e i ntend s t o do n o su c h thing but m erely to

, ,

dra w p a rt o f a he a d so m u c h a r m o u r a n d the ne c e ssa ry

, ,

l a n c e a n d shield a n d n o t fo r a m o m en t t o tr o uble o ne self

,

a b o ut the wh o le o f the m a n the wh o le o f the s ui t o f

,

a r m o ur o r h o w it i s j o int ed )
,
A nd . s in c e a l l m e n h a ve

individu a l c h a r ac ter a n d c a rry so m e hi st o ry in their fa c e s

,

a n d be a ring I i ntend t o expre ss so m e s u c h c h a r a c ter i n

,

thi s knight ; a n d I c h o o se the c h a r a c ter a n d hi s t o ry o f

S i r G a l a h a d o r W a rwi c k the K ing m a ker
, If the l a tter
-
.

be c h o sen c o rre c t hi st o ri c det a il s will pr o b a bly be a l so

,

expe c ted Then . s in c e there i s perh a p s a deeper

s ignifi c a n c e i n thing s th a n thei r o utwa rd a spe c t reve a l s ,

I intend t o end o w e ac h p a rt with a n iride s c en t be a uty ; o r ,

s in c e W a rwi c k lived a n a c tu a l life I i n tend while a d

, ,

m itting a l l hi st o ri c ugline sse s t o so tre a t the subj e c t th a t

,

i t sh a ll be ple a s ing t o l o ok up o n A n d then . si n ce m

y
dr a wi n g i s fo r a b oo k illu str a ti o n I intend t o so a rr a nge
,
 M
AI A ND M E T H OD 3

the line s a n d m a sse s th a t the d esi gn sh a l l s u i t the type

it i s pr i nted with the si ze a n d s h a pe Of the p a ge i t i s
,

pri nted o n wit h o ut nece ssi t a ting a n y O dd a rr a nge m ent

,

o f type &c
,
.

To further illu str a te i ntent i o n we m a y sa y t h a t t h e ,

a rm In Egypt i a n p a int i ng w a s t o de sc ribe i n the pl a i ne st

ter m s a n d a l so t o give so m e degree o f dec o r a tive e ffe c t ;

,

th a t the a im i n Byz a nti ne w a s t o r ec a l l to the m ind o f the

spe c t a t o r the per so n a lity s pi r i tu a l r a ther th a n b o dil of
,
y ,

the sa int o r ki ng repre sen ted w i th a l so a n expre ss i o n b o th

,

o f e x a lted dignity a n d o f a s en se o f l ivi ng etern a lly i n the

s ight o f he a ven a n d i n t h e c a l m o f i nten se s t e m o t i o n

, .

”
It i s n o t t o o m u c h t o sa y th a t o n e d o e s n o t pr o perly
‘

i n tend ti ll o n e c a n t a lk w i t h the figure o n e i s dra w m g .

G ive h i m a n a m e a defi n ite c h a r a c ter ; even i f he i s o nly a

,

c o m m o n c a rt m a n s treet s weeper o r wh a
,
-
t yo u wi ll let h i m , ,

h a ve a h i st o ry It i s be c a u se we ca n re a d the s t o ry o f
.

their l i ve s i n t h e m e n a n d w o m en o f C ruik sh a nk a n d
L ee c h th a t t h e i r w o r ks a re so full o f i ntere st a n d they ,

the m selve s a re c a lled gen i u se s In t h e be a utiful de sign s .

o f S i r E B u rne J one s there i s a s i m il a r i ntere s t

.
-
Hi s .

pe o ple dwell i n a r o m a ntic c i ty full o f fa i r h o u se s w h ere , ,

the w a r m gl o w o f the eve ni ng l i g h t l a st s l o ng o n t h e w a ll s ,

where the bubbling a n d pl a sh i ng o f the fo u nt a i n s fi ll s t h e

s till a i r w i th m u s ic sa —
d a n d so o t h ing a pe o ple m o urn i ng
,

ever the fr a ilty o f thei r n a ture s gl a d o f a l l t hi ng s be a utiful , ,

pr a i s in g a l l th i ng s l o vely gentle the m selve s a n d pur i fied

, ,

by t h e l o ng str i ving a n d l o ng w a tc hi ng o f t h ei r a d o ring

sp i r i t s. S i r Edw a rd m ust kn o w a l l the hi st o ry o f th ese
w o nderful c o m p a n i o n s o f h i s .

But th o ugh n one o f u s h a ve t h e gen i u s o f s u c h m a ste rs

a s t he se we yet m a e a s il y end o w O u r fi gure s wit h m o re
, y
i ntere st a n d per so n a l i ty Th e te m pt at i o n t o neglect the
.
4 F IG URE D RA WI NG A ND CO MPO SI T ION
ma tter i s gre a t be c a u,
s e i n t o o m a ny qu a rter s the dry

b o ne s o f a n a t o m i c a l a n d te c hn ic a l a c c ur a c y a re m a de the
a rti sti c te s t o f the w o rk .

Of E x p ress io n .

A RT m ay —
be defi ned a s the rr a nge m ent o f li ne s
a ,

t o ne s o r c o l o ur s so a s t o e x pre ss so m e th o ught o r fa c t o r
, , ,

b o th t o gether The a c tu a l d o ing o f thi s i s the zeefi m gue ‘

’

o r exp ress i o n Expre ssi o n h a s devel o ped by exp a ndi n g

.

i t s b o u n d a rie s it w a s n o t fo r m erly we a k a n d h a s be c o m e ,

s tr o ng fo r i n the o l d ti m e s it w a s equ a l t o the de m a nd s

,

m a de up o n it by i t s s i ster s Intenti o n a n d C o n c epti o n .

I h a ve n a m ed three m o de s o f expre ssi o n : by line by ,

t o ne o r C hi a ro sc uro a n d by c o l o ur Ea c h o f the se i s
,
.

du a l in p o wer being b o th exp /a n a fory a n d d rtketz e

'

.
,

By expl a n a t o ry I m e a n th a t it c o nvey s t o the i n telle c t

'

the fa c t s which m a ke u p the s ubj e c t Thu s s u pp o se a .

blind m a n i s repre sented j u st stepping int o a dit c h o r a

tra p The situ a ti o n c a n o f c o ur se be e a sily s ugge sted
. .

If t o sh o w th a t the m a n i s blind he i s dr a wn w i th se a led

eye s o r he a vy sh a de s then th a t i s a di a gra m m a ti c r a ther
, ,

t h a n a n a rti st i c w a y o f expl a ining h i s c o nditi o n a n d the ,

di agra m m a ti c i s by n o m e a n s t o be de spi sed But it .

w o uld be m o re a rti sti c t o rely c hiefly up o n the expre ssi o n

o f th o se pe c uli a ritie s o f g a it whi c h c h a r a c terize blind m e n .

Then the p o o r m a n s sti c k m a y be sh o wn t o re st u p o n

’

a n a ssur i n g p a t c h o f gr o und a n d h is leg m a y be a lre a dy

,

r a i sed in c o nfiden c e The req u ire m e n t s a re a l l expl a n a

.

t o ry a n d line a l o ne w o u ld be quite c a p a ble o f repre senting

,

w h a t h as been sugge sted If n o m o re i s required t o ne

.
,

a n d c o l o ur c o uld o nly be u sed fo r the be a uty they give ,

o r fo r the sa ke o f i m it a tiv e re a liz a ti o n S u c h re a liz a ti o n

.
6 F IGU RE D RA WING A ND COMPOSI T ION
de m o n stra tive ; but i t m a y be expl a n a t o ry to a quite
s u ffi c ient extent fo r m o s t dra wing s by sugg esti ng the ,

c o l o ra ti o n Its o ffi c e when thu s u sed w o uld be pr i m a rily

.

o n e o f definiti o n a s in m a p dra wing

-
.
,

No w it i s very c ert a i n th a t n o ne o f o u r three m o de s

Of expre ssi o n sh o uld be u sed with o ut being e i ther ex
l a n a t o ry o r be a utiful It m a y be b o t h a t o n c e ; but i f
p .

fifty per c ent o f the c o l o ur i s fo r expl a n a ti o n the o t h er

.
,

fi fty m u s t be fo r be a uty Very r a rely i ndeed i s n a tura l .

c o l o ur i n g n o t be a utiful it see m s sa c rilege even to say

,

th a t it ever c a n be so th a t there i s n o ex c u se fo r b a d
,

c o l o ur F o r if the a rti st c a nn o t equ a l Na ture s effe c t whi c h

’
.
,

wo uld be be a utifu l he m u s t pr o m ptly relinqui sh the

,

i m it a tive st a ndp o int a n d c o l o ur h o w he c a n in o n e c o l o ur

, ,

o nly perh a p s so l o ng a s he d o e s i t well

,
.

Indeed t o u se o n e c o l o ur i s by n o me a n s a b a d w a y o f
c o m m en c ing t o s tudy the s ubj e c t S a y the c o l o ur i s blue
.

— ch o o se a green i sh blue t o c o m m ence wit h a n d va ry t/ze

-
,

Izue n o w t o w a rd green n o w t o w a rd purple o r grey till the

, , ,

c o m p o s i ti o n i s a be a ut i ful p a tc h o f blue T h en t a ke t w o .

c o l o u r s a n d so o n
, .

The s tudent m u st r i d h i m self o f t h e i de a th a t a rt i s a n y

the higher fo r being c o m p lex th a t i s d o ne i n t o ne a n d , ,

c o l o ur : i n the A ca de m y s tyle The highe st a rt m a ke s the

.

m o st o f si m ple m a teri a l ; m a ke s it expre ss th o ught a n d

fac t fully a n d a dequ a tely
, .

4 . O f C o n c e p t io n .

HIS T O RIC AL L Y the Co n c epti o n o r re a liz a ti o n o f the

s ubj e c t h as been c o ntinu a lly a dv a n c i ng The gre a t di s .

t i n c t i o n s between the w o rk s o f o l d a n d m o dern sc h o o l s

a re due t o chan es
g of co nce ti o n
p No thin g i s m o re .
 A IM A ND M E T H OD 7

ev i den t t o the s tudent o f a rt h i s t o ry th a n the re pe a ted

a ss u r a nce with whi c h the a rt i s t s o f o l d fl a ttered the m selve s

t h a t they h a d a ppr o a c hed the repre sent a t i o n o f life a n d ,

h a d even su c ceeded . A n d t h e c o n c lu s i o n i s irre s i s tibly

b o rne d o wn up o n the inquirer th a f the de c o r a tive fitne ss ,

w hi c h i s so m u c h a d m ired i n the i r w o rk s i s m o re due

_
,

t o t h eir defi c i en c y a s pr o ducer s o f the life like -

th a n
,

t o t h ei r v o lun t a ry reducti o n o f t h ei r p o wer s o f i m it a ti o n

befo re a de co r a t i ve ide a l In W i ll a r s de Ho n n e c o u rt s
’
.

b o o k o f sket c he s ( thirteenth century) o f a r c h i te c ture o rn a ,

m ent a n d the figure there i s a d r a w i ng o f a li o n up o n

, , ,

wh i c h i s i n scr i bed Thi s i s a l i o n ; t a ke n o t i c e i t i s

,
“

d r a wn fr o m t h e qu i c k . Fr o m the q ui c k it m a y be but ,

i t i s p a lp a bly c o nven t i o n a l If a m o ng the c onventi o n a l

.
,

w o rk s o f t h e se m o st de c o r a tive peri o d s there were t o be

,

fo u nd figure s re co gn ized by the a rti st s a s i m it a t i ve a n d

'

n o t to be u sed a s de c o r a ti o n there w o ul d be re a so n
,

t o reg a rd thei r de c o r a tive a n d c o nventi o n a l m et h o d a s

o n e they v o lunt a r i ly a d o pted a s be s t s u i ted t o i t s fun c ti o n s .

But the a c tu a l fa c t see m s t o h a ve been the o pp o site th a t ,

the i r w o rk beg a n in the he ad a n d p i c ked up n a tu re a n d

, ,

the a spe c t o f it a s it c o uld a n d a s i t see m ed t o requ i re

, , .

In a l l ti m e s m en h a ve so ug h t t o i m it a te ; but t h e i r de s i re
h as n o t been a c c o m p a nied by a c tu a l i m it a tive p o wer a s ,

W itne ss the det a il s i n A ssyri a n sc ulpture S o m e pr i m i t i ve

.

pe o ple s see m t o h a ve been defi c ien t i n the de si re t o

i m it a te a n d t o h a ve fo u nd deligh t i n m a king p a ttern s
, ,

c o rrupting even the hu m a n c o unten a n c e i nt o th o se s i m ple

de co r a ti o n s a c o rrupti o n n o ti c e a ble i n Ch i ne se o rn a m en t
,

p a rti c ul a rly But o t h er pe o ple s h a ve see m ed defi c ien t i n

.

de c o r a t i ve i n stin c t a s t h e prehi s t o ri c rei n deer d ra ught s

,

m a n a n d the m o dern Esqui m a ux

, A n d even if a rt
.

co m men ce d a s i m i ta ti o n an d not as
p a ttern m a ki n g
-

, ,
8 F IGU R E D RAWIN G A ND COM POSI T ION
there is eviden c e th a t the c o n c epti o n o f the s ubj e c t
no

w a s a n y m o re a dv a nced th a n the re sult a nt dr awing li m ited , ,

th a t i s t o o nly a gener a l l ikene ss A n d in t h i s c o n n ec t i o n

, .
‘

i t m a y be o b served h o w very m u c h m o re pr o b a ble i t i s

th a t a n i m a l s sh o uld be repre sented with grea ter truth ,

i n the se a n c ient w o rk s th a n m a n a s i s hi st o ri ca lly the

, ,

c a se .F o r the o b serv a ti o n o f a ni m a l s w o u ld pr o b ably be

the c l o se st o f a l l the o b serv a ti o n s o f e a rly m a n No t .

u nfrequently a ni m a l s were v a lued a b o ve hu m a n beings ,

e spe c i a lly a b o ve w o m en It i s well kn o wn th a t o n the

.

A ssyri a n reliefs a n i m a l s a re m uch better repre sented

th a n m en The sa m e is true o f Egypt i a n a rt It i s
. .

quite p o ssible th a t i n Egypt the d ra wi ng o f the figure

w a s a s h a s a lw a y s been sa id
,
re stri c ted t o a fo r m ul a
,

under w h ich it m a de n o pr o gre ss if i ndeed n o retro gre ss i o n

, ,

a n d th a t thu s it fell behind the a ni m a l dr a wing A -

.

s i m il a r st a gn a ti o n a n d c o nvent i o n a lity fettered the B yz a n

ti n e a n d d o e s still a c c o rding t o J B A tkin so n wh a tever

, ,
. .
,

o f re a lly n a ti o n a l a rt there i s i n Ru ss i a .

A m o st c ur so ry ex a m in a ti o n o f hi st o ri c fi g u re w o rk -

will sh o w h o w the e a rly repre sent a ti o n s a re a lw a y s a p

ro a c h i n g the di a gr a m m a ti c Thi s i s referred t o by S i r
p .

G a rd ner W ilkin so n in h i s A n ci en t Egypt i a n s where (v o l ,

.

i i p 2 6 9 ) he spe a k s o f the co n st a n t u se o f the pro fi le

. .

i n e a rly a rt be c a u se o f i t s intelligibility t o the m o st

inexperienced spe c t a t o r s H e m ent i o n s to o h o w t h e u n
.

i n stru c ted pe a sa n t c a n get o n very wel l with the o l d

Egypti a n pro file s but th a t
,
n o a rgu m en t will
“
i ndu c e
h i m t o t o lera te fo re sh o rten ing the o m i ss i o n o f th o se
,

p a rt s o f the b o dy c o nce a led fro m h i s view by the

perspe c tive o f the pi c tu re o r the intr o du c ti o n o f sh a d o w s
,

” ,

”
p a rti c ul a rly o n the hu m a n fle s h H .e i s s eld o m a ble t o
“

di stingui sh m e n fro m an i m a l s i n a n Eur o p e a n dr a wing .

 AIM A ND ME T H OD 9

T h e fa c t i s th a t right s eei ng h a s c o m e o nly gr a du a lly

,
-
.

T h e Byz a nt i ne a n d e a rly G o th i c d r a w i ngs were m o re

‘

sy m b o l s th a n p o rtr a it s but a c h a nge w a s r a pid ly m a de in

t h e t h irteenth a n d fo u rteenth c enturie s The m i nute h a rd .

penetr a tin g style o f t h e fo urteen th a n d e a rly fi fteent h

c entur i e s a s seen i n l a ter
,
G o thi c a n d e a rly Ren a i ssa nce
w o rk s i s p o ssibly due t o the a vidity with wh i ch the m a ster s
'

o f th o se t i m e s se i zed up o n the n ewly s een det a il s Fro m .

thi s p o in t the a c qu i siti o n o f true s ight i s m a rked by

repre sent a tive w o rk s o f gre a t a rti s ts till a t l a s t we fi n d ,

o ur s elve s in a v o rtex o f i m pre s s i o n i s m whi c h i s t h e true s t

“
seei ng
” yet re c o rded The i m pre ssi o n i s t relie s u p o n
.
,

the spe c t a t o r s s en se o f a sp e ct r a ther t h a n hi s kn o wledge

’

o f the c o ns t i tuen t p a rt s o r fo r m a ti o n o f the o bj e c t re p re

s ented a s the o lder a rti s t s did

,
.

5 . T he D e v e l o p m e n t of C o n c e p t io n a mo n
g
the O l d M a st e rs .

T HE m o dern p e ri Od my
be sa id t o c o m m en ce
o f a rt a

w i t h t h e twelft h c entu ry It m u st h a ve been n o ti c ed by

.

a n y o n e w h o h a s l o o ked c a refully a t w o rk s executed i n

the e a rl y p o rt i o n o f thi s peri o d h o w everyth i ng i s sh o wn

'

t h a t a n i gn o ra nt perso n m i ght like Wi lk i n so n s m o dern ,

’

Egypti a n expe c t t o fi nd repre sented

, No t o n ly a re .

t h e figu re s c o m plete i n h a vi ng i n a ctu a l v i sible fa c t

al l the p a rt s th a t h u m a n be i n g s a re c redited w i th but ,

a n y o bj e c t s uten s il s o r det a il s o f a n y kind t h a t pl a y a n

, y
p a rt i n the subj ect a re m o s t p a lp a bly expre ssed o ften
, ,

gro ssly ex a gger a ted i n s i ze Thu s the i n tellect w a s fi r s t

.

sa ti s fied p o ssibly w i t h t h e b a re s t re c o rd t h a t su c h were

,

t h e fa c t s a s sa y a h a n d h a d fo u r fi nger s a n d a thu m b a s
,

p o s it i vel
y sh o wn W i t hi n the
. se n a rr o w l i m it s there w as
IO F IG URE D RAWIN G A ND CO MPOSI T ION
a devel o p m ent t o w a rd s excellen c e ; the fi ng e r s t h e h a nd ,

it self wh i le n o t l o si ng th eir s i m pli c i ty o f st a te m ent bec a m e

,
,

,
—
truer a n d truer t o fo r m a s seen fo r a l l kn o wledge in a rt
,

c a m e then by s ight W i th a l l i ts rudene ss t h e gl a ss

.

p a i nt i ng here repr o duced p o sse sse s in the a r m s a n d h a nd s

qu a lit i e s whi c h w ell de serve study W hen such qu a litie s .

begin to a ppe a r o n e m ay expect ch a n ge s w hi ch a ffec t n o t

FIG . 1 ,
—G l a ss Pa i n ti n g ( thi rteen th cen tu r y) .

( By p erm i ssi on of Jo h n B . Ha rdm an Esq )

, .

o n ly th e truth o f the fo r m a s expre ssed i n the o utline but ,

the c o n c epti o n o f the subj e c t it self .

It i s i n It a li a n A rt th a t the pro gre ss fr o m t h e s i m ple

s t a te m ent t o the de c eptive a spe c t ca n be s t be s tudied .

Firs t i n o rder o f ti m e c a m e the sti ff Byz a nt i ne co n

v en t i o n a l m eth o d relying very m u c h up o n the fa c t th a t
,
.

fo ur str o ke s i n a n o v al make a fa c e a n d th at h o riz o nt al ,

 A IM A ND M E T H OD II

o v a l s w i th l a rge d o t s i n the m m a de eye s fo r the fa c e a n d ,

th a t thu s o n e pr o du c e s a M a d o n n a with a gl a n c e whi c h

,

penetr ates t o the very c o re o f the w o r shipper s being a s ’

i s s t a ted i n Eugene Mu n t z s R a ph a el
’ ‘ ’
.

T h e n c a m e C i m a bue ( 1 2 40 w h o put j u s t t h e

le a st m o ti o n int o t h e se er stw h ile s ti ff figu re s T h en .

D ucc i o ( c ir c a w ho fo und t h a t so m e degree o f

m o del ling m igh t be expre ssed by t o n i ng i n gr a d a t i o n
a g a in s t t h e o utl i n e T h e n t h e Pi sa n i ( Ni co l a Pi sa n o
.

1 2 06 — 1 2 7 8 ) u ne a rthed so m e a nt i que s a n d t o o k i n s c ulp

, ,

tu re a s tr i de wh i c h pl a c ed the m fa r befo re the p a i nters

,
.

G i o tt o ( 1 2 7 6 —1 3 3 7 ) sped t o o vert a ke t h e m pr o fi ted by ,

the i r stud i e s a n d pr o duced b a s relief like pictu re s T h i s

,
- -
.

s c ulpture sque o rig i n of It a l i a n a rt sh o uld a lw a y s be

re m e m bered L a ter the gre a t n a m e s c o m e thi c k a n d
.

fa st —Ma ssa c c i o ( 140 1 B o tt i cell i Fi lipp o L ippi

, ,

Perug i n o Ma ntegn a G h irl a nd aj o w h o se w o rk s fo r m t h e

, , ,

gl o ri o u s fo ren o o n o f It a li a n A rt m o re ple asi ng t o m a ny

,

th a n the h ig h n o o n th a t s u c ceeded The w o rk s o f the se

!
.

m a ster s a re a n a lyt i c i n dr a w i ng hi g h i n th o ug h t a n d
, ,

pu re a n d d i re c t i n i ntenti o n . O n e c a n n o t h o wever
a sso c i a te the n a m e o f a n y o n e o f t h e m w i th a n y d i s t i nct

ph a se o f a rt s tudy th o ug h Ma ssa cc i o w a s per h a p s t h e

,

fi r s t to pl a ce a i r al l r o u nd h is fig ure s .

No repre sent a ti o n s o f w o m en a re m o re c h a r m i ng t h a n
th o se o f thi s peri o d T h e illu str a ti o n o n th e n ext p a ge
.

c a n o n ly di m ly reflect t h e p i o u s be a uty o f the o r i gin a l .

To t h e sa m e t i m e bel o ng s U cce l li ( 1 3 9 6 w ho

dil igen tly so ugh t i nt o t h e m y stery o f per spe c t i ve a n d ,

w h o c o n sequen tly delig h ted i n pl a c i n g a c o rp se p e rp e n

di c u l a r t o the p i c tu re a n d v a n i shing i t t o the c entre o f

,

v i si o n t h o ugh i n the ex a m ple i n o u r Na ti o n a l G a llery he

,

ha s co ntented hi m self w ith so di sp o s i n g t h e br o ken l a nc es

12 F IGU RE D RAWING A ND CO MPOSI T IO N
on the gr o und S ign
. o relli t o o t o o k gre a t p a i n s t o rep t e
e
s n t figure s i n s tr o ng fo re s h o rteni ng L -
e o n a rd o s pe . c i a lly
s tudied s h a ding so a s t o a c hieve de c eptive r o un dne ss

C o rreggi o the pl a y o f light a n d sh a de u p o n a figure

’

s ubj e c t,
a n d gr a c e ; M i c h a el A ngel o di ffi c ult p o s iti o
, n s o f
figure s ; t h e V enet i a n s t h e v alue o f c o l o u r an d t o n e
,
.

FIG . 2 .
—H ea d o f a G i rl .

( F ro m a c h al k dra wi n g i n th e B ri ti sh Museu m ,
b y G h i rl an daj o .
)

Thu s it m ight be sa id It a li a n A rt w a s gr a du a lly pu t

, ,

t o gether a n a c c u m ul a ti o n o f be a ut i ful fa c t s a ppro a c hing

,

ne a rer a n d ne a rer t o the de c eptive i m it a ti o n o f n a ture ,

th o ugh it see m s by d o ubling i t s sc ulpture sque ch a ra c ter

,

u n der L e o n a rd o M i ch a el A ngel o a n d R a ph a el t o h a ve
, , ,

be c o m e so m ewh a t co nve n ti o n a l s in c e the se m aster s a lw ay s

,

s ee m to h ave ex ec ted a figure t o h a ve a li ht s ide a n d a

p g
 I4 F IG UR E D RA W IN G A ND COMPOSI T ION
p o e m s i n c o nt o ur a s M a ntegn a d id They c o m p o sed .
,

s ele c ted a n d a rr a nged a s c o m pletely a s the It a li a n s a n d

, ,
’

their w o rk s yield e q u a l l y sc ie n t i fi c a n a ly se s th o u gh they ,

a i m ed a t ph o t o gr a phi c a c c u ra c y They s tro ve t o l o se .

their m eth o d s c o m pletely i n the a spe c t o f the o bj e c t s

repre sented W herever the In ethOd i s a pp a ren t a s a n
.

i n si st a n c e up o n o utline sh a pe o r a n a tte m pt a t m o re grac e

, ,

th a n i s pro b a ble in the n a tura l fa c t a c o rre sp o ndi n g ,

degree o f c o nventi o n a lity m u s t be the re sult T h e It a li a n s .

did n o t m ind o ver stepping the se b o und s be ca u se th ey ga ve

a degree o f th o ught a n d feeling whi c h o verweighed the

o bj e c ti o n j u s t a s the p o et s do
,
o r s h o uld when e m pl o ying
, ,

ver se in ste a d o f o rdin a ry w o rk a da y pr o se - -

.

M u ch i s t o be ga ined by s tudying the Wo rk s o f the O l d

Ma s ters be c a u se a s h a s been sh o w n e a c h m a ster s t a nd s
, , ,

fo rwa rd a s a n exp o nent o f thi s o r t h a t p a rti c ul a r a rti stic

qu a lity It i s well indeed fo r a ti m e t o in o rdin a tely
.
, ,

a d m ire so m e gre a t m a s ter o r o ther a n d w e sh a l l i n dee d

'

m o st truly fi nd o urselve s w h en we see m t o be m ere

w o rshipper s o f o thers Indiv i du a lity i s o f the highe st
.

v a lue but it ca nn o t c o m m ence i ts l i fe i ndependently

, .

6 . O f F i n i sh an d t he fre q u e n t g re a t e r s u c c es s
S k e tc h o f a F i n ish e d W o r
'

of a than k

R USKI N h as c a lled fi n i sh a n a dded truth Every s tep .

to wa rd the fi ni shing o f a w o rk i s a s tep ne a rer the

c o m plete re a liz a ti o n o f the a rti s t s i n tenti o n Thu s a s fa r ’
.

a s he intend s s o he sh o uld ende a v o u r t o fi ni sh If h e .

i n tend s, de sire s say the deli c a te c urv a ture o f a n eyelid t o

, ,

in s i s t up o n it a s a thi n g to be sep a ra tely c o n te m pl a ted ,

h i s picture 13 n o t fi ni shed till h e h a s a c hieved i ts re p re -

se n t a t i o n L o renz o de M ed ic i w o uld t a ke a l m o st e q ua l
.
-
 A IM A ND M ET H OD 1;

delight in the fo r m o f the figur e a s i n the subj e c t i t

per so nified B ut where there i s n o su c h i n s i sten c e up o n
.

fo r m t h ere IS n o speci a l de m a nd fo r i ts deline a ti o n There .

i s h o wever a lw a y s a gener a l de m a n d fo r it ; thu s n o o n e

, ,

w o uld pre su m e t o expect a dr awing i n whi ch the fe a tu re s

were a l l a wry t o re c eive c o m m end a t i o n , a n d j u st a s the

di sp o si t i o n o f the fe a ture s m u s t be true so thei r fo r m s ,

m u st be true The D ut c h a i m ed a t n o t m erely pre senting

.

the i m a ge o f a m a n but a m i nute de sc ripti o n o f h i m so

, ,

th a t i f the spe c ie s be c a m e l o st the p a ttern w o uld re m a i n

, , ,

c le a r a n d di st i n c t en o ugh t o m a ke n e w m e n by O n th e .

o ther h a nd Vel a squez i n h i s l a ter m a n ner did n o t see m

, ,

t o c a re whet h er a m a n c o uld be m a de fr o m o n e o f h i s

pi c ture s a n d i n deed repre sented fe a ture s h a nd s a n d feet

, , , ,

n o t be c a u se he h a d a n p a rti c ul a r i ntere s t i n the m bu t

y ,

bec a u se the repre sent a ti o n c o uld n o t E xi s t with o ut the m .

H e a l so gener a lized the eye s To sa y th a t h e did n o t

'

c a re a b o ut eyel a s he s w o uld be r i di c u l o u s a n d c o ntr a ry t o

,

h i s e a rlier w o rk but h e knew perfe c tly we l l th a t n o o n e

,

w a s g o ing t o c o u nt the eyel a s he s o f h i s fig ure befo re

a ffi r m ing th a t it repre s ented a m a n O n the o ther h a nd

.
,

Teut o n i c Ho lbei n m u st give every h a ir a s ne a rly a s he

s i n c e the s e t o h i m a re a p a rt o f h i s s ubj e c t s c o rpu s
’
can , ,

a n d a s m u c h t o be rep r e sented a s the l a rger det a il s o f

t h e b o dy .

B o t h m en were r i ght They were a c tu a ted by dif

.

—
fe re n t i ntenti o n s d ue t o di fferent te m per a m en t s a n d
, ,

a cc o rding a s they i n t ended so they fi ni shed

, .

The d a nger o f gen e ra l i z a t ro n Is e m pti ne ss ; o f m inute

ne ss t h e fi n i c a l The w o rk s o f Vel a sque z h o wever a re
, .
, ,

n o t e m pty n o r th o se o f H o lbei n fi n i c a l
, but i t i s highly
,

pr o b a ble th a t t h e pr o d ucti o n s o f their dev o tee s o f to —

‘
da y
will be .
 F IGU RE D RA WIN G AND C OMPO S I TI O N
The live s o f the gre a t m a sters te a c h n o thi ng s o
pl a inly a s hu m ility a n d purity o f a i m The s tudent
,
.

m u s t rid hi m self o f a n y n o ti o n he m a y h a ve th a t he i s
c lever ; he m u s t n o t de c eive hi m self int o fa n c yi n g th a t
by ra nki n g hi m self with the gre a t m a s ter s he be co m e s a
p a rt a ker i n their ex p erien c e a n d m a y s te p str a ight t o
,

the higher ru n g s o f the l a dder It i s the o l d m o ra l .

a b o ut th o se w h o c ry L o rd ! L o rd ! a n d sh a ll n o t e n ter
int o the K ingd o m o f H e a ven The o n ly w a y t o fo ll o w
.

the gre a t m a sters i s t o w o rk a s they wo rked de spi si ng n o ,

d rudgery a n d infl a ted by n o n o ti o n s o f wh a t i s a rt a n d

,

wh a t n o t V e l a sq u e z s a n d Re m br a ndt s e a rly w o rk w a s
.
’ ’

h a rd a n d m inute C a n we h o pe t o g a in their m a stery

.

with o ut in so m e w a y a c quiring wh a t they a c quired i n thei r

e a rly m a nh o o d ! Is it n o t highly pr o b a ble th a t the n
a dvi c e t o u s w o uld be m u c h the sa m e a s th a t given by

the o l d Engli sh luti s t t o a pupil w h o de s ired t o le a r n

t o do the s h a ke j u s t a s the m a s ter did — In y o uth I ,

bro ke b o th m y w ri sts I see n o o ther w a y th a n th a t

'

y o u s h o uld a l so begin by bre a king y o ur s ( H a m ilt o n s

’

Hi s tory of Mus i c) .

A s ket c h s o m eti m e s l o o k s better th a n a fi ni shed dr a wing

be c a u se it pl a c e s n o li m it t o the ide a s a s d o e s a p o o r
fini shed w o rk S upp o se the ide a s i n a pi c ture nu m ber a
.

hundred a n d the a rti st c a n o n ly gr a sp fi fty ; i f he i s

,

m a de t o fi n i sh h i s w o rk he le a ve s fi fty o u t be c a u s e he ,

ca n n o t c o m p a ss the m The w o rk thu s be c o m e s dull

.

a n d s tupid . But if it re m a in a sket c h he will pr o b a bly,

e x pre ss h i s fifty a n d the re m a i nder will if n o t expre ssed

‘

, , ,

n o t be s hut o u t by the fi n i shing a n d the s pe c t a t o r c o n se

,

quently c redit s the w o rk with s o m e a t le ast o f wh a t i s n o t

there .

V a guene ss a n d the c o ndit i o n s wh i c h c a u se i t a re a s

 A IM A ND M ETH OD I7

m u c h m a tter s kn o wledge a s a re t h e h arde st o f edge s

of .

T h ere i s a v aguene ss éef ore fa c t a n d a v a guene ss af ter

fa ct befo re kn o wledge a n d a fter kn o wledge W hen t h e
,
’

kn o wledge i s t o o slig h t t h ere i s the v a guene ss o f ign o r e

a nce ; w i th m o re kn o wledge there i s the di s t i n c tne s s o f

fa c t ; then fi n a lly w i th c o m plete kn o wledge kn owledg e ,

n o t m erely o f the o bj ect s t h e m selve s but o f t h e c o n d i ti o n s,

o f lighting & C und er which they a re ex i sting ther e c o m e s

,
.
, ,

the se co nd v aguene ss the v aguene ss o f tru e a pp ea r an c e

, .

T h ere i s little d o u bt o f the a rt student s bec o m ing pro fi c i en t ’

i n the fi rst o f t h e se t h ree c o u r se s H e m u s t h o wever

”
.
, ,

m a ster the o t h e r t w o sh eer in ten sity o f dr a w i ng a s

‘
“
,

B a stien L ep a ge c a lled i t a n d the v a gue bre a dth o f a ctu a l

-
,

a ppe a r a nce befo re h e c a n h o pe t o do re a lly a rti s tic w o rk

, .

The studen t m u st then bec o m e a Pre R a p h a elite H e -

.

m u s t n o t re st t i ll h e c a n repre sen t t o t h e l a s t t o u c h w i th ,

the c o m plete st fidelity t h e fo r m o f det a il o f a n y o bj e c t

,

th a t c o uld p o ssi b l y be pl a ced befo re h i m H e m u st b e .

a n i m pre ssi o n i st t o o .

7 . M e th o d of D ra w in g .

IN Vel asquez t h e i m pre ssi o n i st s see t h e i r m aste r In .

h i m kn o wledge i s s ub o rd i n a ted t o a spect b u t w h a t a ,

we a lt h o f kn o wledge t h ere w as ! S tudent s i m pre ssi o n

i st i ca l l y i ncl i ned o verl o o k t h e fa ct t h a t hi s e a rly w o rk w a s
h ard a n d severe a n d t h a t h e stud i ed t h e A nt i que It w a s
, .

by h i s gre a ter kn o wledge w i elded by a n i ntellec t o f

re m a rk a ble p o wer a n d c o m pre h en si o n t h a t h e suc c eeded ,

i n el i m i n a t i ng hi s m e a n s o f pr o duct i o n There i s a s m rrch

.
.

k n o w l e dge r e q u i red t o l o s e a n o utl i ne a s t o ge t o n e .

T h erefo re it c a n n o t be sa i d t h a t kn o wledge w h et h er o f
t h e figure o r a nyt hi ng el se i s b ad .
18 F IGU RE D RAWIN G A ND COMPOSI T ION
The i m pre ssi o ni st principle i s n o t m erely percept i o n o f
a spe c t
,
but expre ssi o n by a spe c t as di stingui shed fro m
,

FIG .
3
.
—P easan ts. ( B y Al b ert D u re r
.
)

expre ssi o n by kn o wn fac t Thu s it i s a kn o wn fa ct th a t

.

the finger s j o in o n t o the h a nd the h a nd t o the wri st

, ,

the wri st t o t h e a rm a n d so o n In an It a li a n w o rk w e
, .
 A IM A ND ME T H OD 19

s h o uld pr o b a bly s e e thi s c o n ne c ti o n p a lp a bly expre s s ed

by the c o nt o u r fl o wing evenly thro ugh a l l the p a rt s a n d ,

the bru sh fo r m s fo ll o wi ng the line s o f c o n st ru c t ro n j u s t a s ,

the line s do i n the a n nexed ex a m ple o f D ii re r Thi s i s .

w o rking by c o n stru c ti o n a n d kn o wledge But i n a ctu a l .

a spec t t h ere i s n o c o n necti o n a s by directi o n o f l i ne s & c ,

.

Ea c h spe c k o f t o ne a n d c o l o ur i s up o n i t s o w n a cc o u nt a n d
i ndependent o f the re st except i n t h a t genera l e ffe c t o f the
wh o le o f whi c h it i s a s it were u n c o n sc i o u s A dra w i ng
, , ,
.

exe c uted i n p a ra llel li ne s p a ssi ng di a g o n a lly a c r o ss the

s ubj e c t m a y be reg a rded a s i n the i m pre ss i o ni st m o o d a s ,

i n F i gs 1 6 a n d I7
. .

C o n stru c t i ve d ra wing i s t h a t i n w h ich the o rg a n i c

rel ati o n o f p a rt t o p a rt i s rec o gn i zed Thu s a fo ld o f.
,

dr a pery i s fo ll o wed fro m i t s o rigin w h ere perh a p s i t i s

,

n o t seen t o i t s ter m in a t i o n per h a p s i n full v i ew

, , The .

equ a l m e a su re m ent s o f a n o bj e c t a re rec o gn i zed a s a p

pe a r i ng equ a l the repre sent a ti o n o f a n a rm i s seen t o
,

c o rre s p o nd t o s tructu r a l fa ct the r o u nd ne ss o f i t s se c t i o n

,

h a s been di st i nct l y n o ted In a d ra wing o f t h e h e a d it

.

i s seen th a t t h e fa rt h er fo re s h o rten ed s ide c o rre sp o nd s

-

t o the ne a rer th a t the fa lling b a c k o f t h e s u rfa c e s o f the

,

cheek s a gree o n either side o f the n o se a n d th a t t h e ,

sy m m etri c a l s e c t i o n o f the fa c e i s pr o perly pre s erve d In

brief c o n structive dr a wing i s so und m o del d ra wi ng
,
.

The b a s i s o f the c o n structi o n o f the figure i s the skelet o n ,

a n d so the b o ne s sh o uld receive fr o m the s tudent t h e m o s t

c a reful a ttent i o n A ct i o n a n d p o s e re s t m o re In the b o ne s

.

th a n i n the fle sh ; a figure m a y i ndeed get o n very well

with o u t i ts fle sh a s witne ss th e extre m ely a ct i ve de a t h s
,
“

i n H o lbe i n s fa m o u s D a nce A n d i s it n o t thei r a d apt

’
.

a bil i ty t o a c ti o n th a t g a in s fo r the s kelet o n s t h e re a rd

g
o f t h e sc h o o l b o a b o ve a l l o t h er figu re s !
y
-
20 F IGU RE D RA WIN G A ND COMPOSI T ION
T h e dra w i ng m u st be m a de i n a s l o ng line s a s p o ssible ,

there m u st be n o p a t c hing t o gether o f little b i t s Indeed .

dra wing m u st be d o ne very m u c h a s writing ex c ept th a t ,

the wh o le a rm sh o uld be m o ved a n d n o t the wri s t a n d

finger s o nly The letter W i s in writing a s c o m pli c a ted a
.

letter a s we h a ve a n d yet h e w o uld be a so rry p en m a n

,

w h o wr o te it in little s tr o ke s .

The gener a l m a ss a n d sh a pe o f the figure m u s t firs t be

built up so th a t the pr o p o rti o n a n d p o se c a n be secured
,

a n d te sted It i s a gre a t m i st a ke t o expect t o begin a t

.

FIG .
4 .

the to p o f the h e a d a n d gr a du a lly w o rk d o wn t o the

feet putting i n a l l the det a i l s a n d with pr o per pr o p o rti o n
, ,

and p o se No err o r i s gre a ter th a n t o reg a rd the

.

ro ugh bl o cking o f the figu re a s a w a s te o f ti m e It i s .

n o d o ubt very n i c e t o p a ss a l l d o wn o n ce a n d h a ve i t ,

d o ne a n d get to so m ething el se but n o t u nfrequently su c h

, ,

a pr o c eeding re sult s in a n ill p o sed a n d ill pr o p o rti o ned

- -

figure whi c h h a s to c o m e o u t a fter a l l A t t h e sa m e ti m e

, .

the student m u st n o t o m it to m ake m a ny stud i e s in whi c h

n o bl o c king i s u sed F o r in the se the bl o ck i n g w i ll re a l ly
.

be d o ne i n the he a d .
2 2 F IGU RE D RA W IN G A ND CO MPOSI T ION
find the c entre s between n o ti c e a ble p o int s Thu s i n Fig 5 . .

the dra ught sm a n will see th a t the c entre fro m the t o p

o f the he a d t o the end o f the fo o t i s a b o ut the c entre o f

the a bd o m en a s i s indi c a ted by d o t s Then the height

,
.

o f the line o f the thigh fr o m the gr o und m a rked by ,

c r o ss e s
,
repe a t s a t the eye Then the di st a n c e fr o m the
.

s e a t m a rked by a ring t o the elb o w repe a t s a t the thu m b , .

The sa m e sy ste m m ay be fo ll o wed d o wn t o the sm a lle s t

det a i l T h u s fi nd t h e centre between the a rm p i t a n d
.
,
-

FIG . 6 . FI G .
7 .

the c h i n ,
fa ll s w i thin the a rm ; try then t o repe a t the
width o f the a rm a t the a rm pit up t o w a rd s the fac e the
-
, ,

repe a t fa ll s a t the end o f the n o se Thi s sy ste m o f .

finding the c entre s i s very v a lu able i n s i m ple dr a w i ng s ,

a s i n the freeh a nd c o py a t the s ide o f the figure It i s .

a l so o f gre a t u se i n dr a w i ng d r a pery a n d h a i r
. c a se s in ,

whi c h o n e i s so m et i m e s a pp a lled by the m a ss o f det a il .

O ther ex a m ple s o f pr o p o rti o ning by repe a ting d i st a n c e s

a re exe m plified i n the s t a nd i ng figure Fig
( .

It m u st be unders t o o d th a t the se m e a sure m ent s m u st

 A IM A ND M E T H OD 2 3

o nly be u sed o n ce a s the living figu re i s a lw a y s subj e c t t o

,

m o ve m ent .

In gue ss ing the c entre between t w o p o in t s the thu m b ,

fi nger o r pen c i l m a y be held befo re the m o del a n d m o ved

,

till it i s fel t t o c o rre sp o nd with the true c entre th o ugh the ,

fi r s t gue ss sh o uld be m a de with the e ye s o nly Every .

m e a sure m ent t a ken w i th o ut previ o u s gue ssi ng put s b a c k

t h e pro gre ss o f the tra i ning o f o ne s eye Nevert h ele ss ’
.
,

F IG . 8 .
—S l a n ti n g Li n es .

when t h e c en tre i s be i ng fo u nd by s e m i m ec h a n i c a l m e a n s -
,

i t i s well t o h a ve i t d o ne a c c u r a tely a n d t h erefo re i n ste a d

,

o f t h e c lu m sy thu m b o r pen cil m eth o d a s l i p o f p a per wit h ,

a few divi s i o n s up o n i t will be fo u n d m uc h m o re reli a ble

a n d sa t i s fa c t o ry F i g t a k i ng the s i ze o f t h e he a d
( . In

i t i s c u st o m a ry t o t a k e i n t h e h a i r a s well a s i t g i ve s a ,

defi n i te li m it.

A n o ther w a y o f secur i ng pr o p o rti o n i s by t a k i ng sl a nt i ng

l i n e s c o n necting pr o m i nen t p o i nt s a s i s sh o wn i n Fig 8
,
. .
24 F IGU RE D RA WIN G A ND COMPO S IT IO N
S o m e wh a ti n the sa m e w ay a s i n the ge o m etric a l pr o b le m ,

the a n gle s being equ a l the figure s a re equ a l In Fig 9

,
. .

t w o m eth o d s o f s t a rting a re s h o wn In A the he a d i s .

dr a wn fi r st a n d the fo r m s r a di a te fro m it In B the first .

line dra wn w a s the sl a nting line thr o ugh the elb o ws t o

the fo o t a s b a se ; then the t w o o ther s ide s o f the tri a ngle
,

giving the knee Then o n e elb o w i s seen t o o cc upy a b o u t

.

the c entre o f the b ase line wh i c h thu s bec o m e s d i vided

-
,

into tw o h a lve s In the left o f the se the he a d o c c urs a

.

little t o the o ut si de o f the c entre The se m eth o d s o f .

F IG .
9 .

fi nding c entre s a n d e m pl o ying s l a nting line s m a y be u sed

i n dra wing fr o m i m a gin a ti o n fo r it i s o f very little u se
,

o ne dr a wing o u t o f o ne s he a d i f ’
o n e d o e s n o t see the
figure ly i ng o n the p a per a l m o st a s if i t were verily pre sent
there It o nly need s m a rking o ver
.
.

Fig 1 0 wh i c h w a s d r awn with o ut a n y pen c i lling w a s

.
,
,

dra wn i n the w ay j u st indi c a ted D o t s were fir st pl a c ed .

a t the right s ide o f the thigh a n d the left o f the n o se,

o f the d o lphin th en o n the h a i r a b o ve t h e fo rehe a d a n d

, ,

so a tr i a ngle en co m p a ss ing the wh o le w a s defi ned by three

d o t s Then the side o f the a bd o m en ne a r the u m bilicu s

.
 AIM A ND ME THO D 2 5

Wa s s een t o be ab o u t h a lf w ay a l ong t h e b e line a n d

-
as -
,

w as fixed a l so by a do t Fro m i t by s l a nt i ng line s the

.

a rm a n d bre ast were re a c hed a n d s o t o the h e a d

,
Of .

c o u r s e it i s m u c h e a s i er t o do a s h a ded d r a wing i n th i s ,

w a y th a n o n e o f rigid o pen li ne s Thu s the s ubj ec t .

FIG . 10 .
—P t
ar of a Fri e z e .
( By C l o di on )
.

bec o m e s a p a ttern o f d a rk p a tc h e s a n d t h e pro ce ss i s ,

i m pre ssi o n i st i c
.

T h e dr a ug h t sm a n m u st a lwa ys be a r i n m i nd t h e fa ct
t h a t t h e figure i s a so l i d A s he d ra w s e a ch p a rt h e m u st
.

re me m ber t h a t t h ere i s a p a r t hi dden fr o m h i m a s well

 2 6 F IG URE D RA W IN G A ND CO M O P SI T IO N
as a p a rt pre s ented to h i m H e m u s t ende a v o ur to ex p re ss
.

the fa c t th a t there IS a rr a l l r o u nd the fi g u re a n d th a t i t ,

s t a nd s free by it s elf with a b a c kgr o und di s t a nt behind it

, ,

,
a n d s p a c e o n ever y s ide Ho w t o repre sen t thi s fa c t i s
.

a l m o st bey o nd telling but it i s p ro b a ble th a t wh a tever

,

the dr a ught sm a n h o ld s i n hi s m i nd will fi nd ex p re ssi o n

i n so m e m y steri o u s w a y in h i s dra wing .

F IG . 11 .
—Emp l oy m en t o f ri g i d o ut l i n e .

It i s fa ult a n d a gra ve o n e to a ll o w o ne self to reg a rd

a , ,

a dr a wing o f the figure a s m erely a n a sse m bl a ge o f line s

de c o ra tively a rr a nged a n d t o fo rget th a t a figure sh o uld

,

never be dr awn but t o repre sent so m e o n e so m e ver i t a ble ,

per so n w h i c h per so n will cert a inly be so l i d a n d h ave a i r

, ,

a l l a r o und h i m .

The fl o wing line s o f the o utline a re o f c o urse o f t h e , ,

gre a te s t i m p o rt a nce but they a re n o t t h e o nly exp o nent s

,
 A IM A ND ME T H O D 2 7

of fo r m Between the m there m u st be a n equ a l s ug

.

ge sti o n o f su rfa c e a n d m o delli ng In o bj e c t s h av i ng .

s h a rply j o ined s ur fa c e s there a re edge s o r c h a nnel s wh ic h

,

c a n be legiti m a tely repre s en ted by a defi nite lin e Thu s .

i n a dr a wi ng o f a pyr a m id we h a ve n o t o nly the o u t

s ide line s but a few i ntern a l o ne s wh i c h expre ss the
i nter m ed i a te surfa ce s In the hu m a n figu re so m e o f the
.

depre ssi o n s a n d pr o m i nen c e s a re su ffi c i ently sh a rp t o be

repre sen ted by l i ne s a n d i f th e se a re expre ssed a better
,

FI G . 12 .
-
Shadi n g k pt fl
e a t a n d sh a rp l ydfi
e n e d.

i de a o f t h e bulk o f t h e figure w i ll be c o nveyed S u c h i s .

the m et h o d a d o pted i n t h e o lde s t w o o d —

cut s i n Poly/p ai nts , ,

fo r ex a m ple . There i s n o sh a d i ng a n d n o a tte m pt a t ,

m a king o n e s ide o f t h e figure d a rker th a n t h e o ther It .

i s true we never see the figure thu s a s a netw o rk o f line s , ,

but we see the fa ct s a n d the se c a n be c o nveyed to o u r

,

m i nd by their sh a pe m erely .

If sh a ding be a dded the s i m ple st k i nd i s th a t i n wh i c h

.

the sh a de i s kept i n a so l i d m a ss unbr o ken by reflect i o n s ,

a s i f the o bj ect were i llu m i n a ted b v electr i c l i g h t The .

2 8 F IGU RE D RAWIN G A ND COMPOSI T ION
edge o f t h e sh ad o w the s h a d o w line i s very expre ssi ve
, ,

o f fo r m It i s i n fa ct the o utline a s seen fr o m the su n

. .

T h e m a ss o f the sh a ding m ight be o m itted a n d the line

ret a ined a n d thi s i s o ften d o ne in o utline dr a wing s o f
,

picture s by o l d m aster s There a re m a ny ex a m ple s i n

.

Mu n t z s R ap na el
’
.

The effec t o f reflected light i s t o neutr a lize the sh ado w .

In d i ffu sed d a yligh t there i s i n the o pen l i ttle o r n o

, ,

sh a d o w the l i ght c o m ing equ a ll y fro m a l l side s Wh a t

, .

i s i m p o rt a n t t o n o ti c e i s th a t the refle c ted lig h t qu a l i fie s

,

the sh a d o w u neq u a lly Th a t i s t o say it m a ke s t h e p a rt s

.
,

up o n wh i c h i t sh i ne s m o st d i re c tly l i ghter th a n th o se
,

w hi c h a re m o re re m o te so th a t t h e sh a d o w i s gener a lly
,

d a rker ne a r i ts edge t o w a rd t h e light T h u s l i ne s o f .

t o ne very si m i l a r i n direct i o n t o the sh a d o w l i ne s a re

fo r m ed w hi ch m ay a l o ne repre sen t t h e sh a d o ws so m e
,

t i m e s a n d a t the sa m e t i m e expre ss t h e fo r m They

,
.

g i ve a n effect o f sun ny br i ghtne ss A little o f t hi s k i nd

.

o f sh a d i ng m a ke s a v a lu a ble a ux i l i a ry t o o utl i ne ( S ee .

Fig 2 1 D )
.
, .
3 0 F IGU RE D RA WIN G A ND COMPOSI T ION
gr ac eful c o nne c t i o n between the line s o f t h e b a c k a n d
fro nt o f the leg by w ay o f the ili a c cre st
,
.

The l o ng line s d o wn the m iddle o f the b a c k a n d fr o nt

be c o m e m o dified a s so o n a s the a ttitude dep a rt s fr o m the
ere c t T h a t o f the b a c k i s m u c h the l o nger with i ts
.
,

exten si o n in the cre ase between the gl u tea l s u su a lly a t a n

a ng l e w i th t h e m a in b o dy o f the line B o th the fro nt a n d .

the b a ck line s pre serve a c o n sidera ble degree o f str a i ght

ne ss i n the c he st .

FIG . 13 .
—S im pl est fo rm o f th e F ig u re .

The i n ner line o f the leg fr o n t view m ay be sket c hed , ,

s tr a ight fr o m the t o t o j u s t a b o ve the a n kle which m u s t

, p ,

proj ec t bey o nd it The o uter li ne o f the leg sh o uld

.

h o wever a lw a y s be d o ubled E sh o w s the m a le G the .

,

fe m a le a n d the tre a t m ent o f the hip s c a n thu s be

,

c o m p a red The l i ne m ust bre a k a t the knee ; there wi ll

.

be a l o o k o f b a ndine ss i f the line c o n t i n u e s fro m the hip t o

’

the a nkle The o nly i n st a n c e i n whi c h the o uter li ne m a y

.

be s tra ight i s sh o wn i n F a n d thi s will n o t h o ld go o d

,

i f t h e fi gure turn s a little a nd sho w s the c a l f

-

,
 TH E F I G U RE AS A WHOLE 3 1

T h e a ttit u de m ay o f c o u rse c re a te l o ng line s su c h a s ,

a re so m eti m e s c a lled de co r a tive s u c h a n o n e w o uld be the

left s ide o f the b o dy o f F but the se m u s t be left t o the

,

s tu den t .

9 . P o se an d G e s tu re .

IN s ecur i ng t h e p o se a ttent i o n m u s t be g i ven t o t h e

,

l a rge m a sse s o f t h e b o dy fa lli ng pr o perly o ver t h e p o i n t

o f s upp o rt If the figure s t a nd s o n o n e leg i t will be
.
,

fo und th a t the hip o n the o t h er s ide sink s while to b a l a n c e ,

the l o i n s up o n the s t a nd i ng fo o t the s t a ndi ng h ip wil l ,

be t h r o wn o u t Then t o bring the m a ss o f t h e c h e st

.
,

a l so o ver the s t a n di ng fo o t the l o i n s wil l ben d so m ew h a t

, ,

while a rever se c urve will frequen tly be up o n the ne c k ,

t o bring the h e a d i nt o the li ne o f gr a vit a t i o n T h e sl o pe

‘

o f the sh o ulder s a n d h ip s i s therefo re c o ntr a ry ( g

F i . .

A n y a rr a nge m ent o f the li m b s whic h di s tu rb s t h i s e q u i l i

,

b ri u m h a s t o be c o un terb a l a n c ed by some o t h er a lter a ti o n

, .

T h e c h a nge i s m o st n o ti c e a ble when so m et h ing h e a vy i s

h eld in o n e h a nd If i t be held i n the h a nd o n the s ide
.

o f t h e s t a nding leg the tendency t o pull the figu re o ver

,

o n th a t s ide w i ll be c o un ter a cted by thr o wi ng the free leg .

fu rther o u t If h o wever t h e weigh t be held o n t h e fre e

‘

.
, ,

leg s ide the s t a ndi ng hip will be thro w n furt h er o u t In

, .

h o lding a weight befo re the b a c k i s bent b a ck w a rd so a s t o

,

bri ng t h e t o t a l weight a s centr a lly o ver the feet a s p o ssible .

In l o o king thr o ug h a wind o w o n e leg i s gen er a lly thr o wn ,

b a c k t o c o un ter ac t the in cre a sed v a lue a s weight o f the , ,

upper p a rt o f t h e b o dy w hi c h i s thro wn fo rw a rd
, .

T h e d i fferent a ngle s a t which the v a ri o u s se c ti o n s o f

t h e b o dy a re pl a c ed, m u st be pa rticul a rl y n o ted a s i s ,

i llu stra ted i n F i g 1 4 . ,

3 2 F IGU RE D RA WING A ND COMPOSI T ION
In p osing the s i m ple st a n d m o st n a tural a ttitude s
al l ,

m u st be sele c ted ; n o rega rd fo r the gr a c e o f the figure

mu st be a ll o wed to interfere with the pro b a ble a spect o f
the a c ti o n No r m ay a figure be p l a c ed in a n y p o si ti o n
.

with o ut so m e a pp a rent i ntenti o n in the fi gu re s m ind t o ’

perfo r m so m e a c ti o n fo r a l l p o sing i s si m p l y the a rra nging

,
.

o f the b o dy in the a tt i tud e m o st s uit a ble fo r the p erfo r m

F IG . 14 .

a n c e o f so m e a cti o n It w i ll t h erefo re be fo und fo r

.
,

i n st a n c e th a t when a per so n l o o k s a t a n o bj ect h e turn s

, ,

h i s he a d t o w a rd s it a n d d o e s n o t m erely r o ll h i s eye s
‘

i n i ts dire c ti o n S u c h o nly i s d o ne W
. hen the perso n
wi she s to o b serve with o ut betra yi ng wh a t he i s d o ing
by h i s ge sture A g a in when a perso n u se s h i s h a nd s
.
, ,

ex c ept o n trivi a l a cti o n s such a s pu sh ing a side a curt a in

, ,

t h e b o dy i s t o be turned t o wa rd s the a ct i o n It i s ex .
 THE F IGU RE AS A W HOL E 33

cc edi n g l y r i d ic ul o u s how ften figu re s a re repre sented

o

w r i t i ng up o n bl o c k s ,
or s—
re a ding he avy b o o k t o m ent i o n

FIG . 15 .
—G o th i c y
Ivo r ca rvi ng ,

tw o o nl y o f t h e m o st frequen t ex a m ple s
— i n the m o st

t w i sted an d t o rt uo u s p o si ti o n s G ener a lly t h e re

.
is no

D
34 F IGU RE D RAWI N G A ND COMPOSI T ION
re aso n fo r the m e i ther t o re a d o r write the se a re o ccup a
ti o n s given the m m erely t o fill u p the sp ac e A desig n e r
.
.

s h o uld never a tte m pt a figure u nle ss he i s re a lly in tere s ted

i n pe o ple a n d t a ke s delight i n po rtr a yi ng thei rh a bit s

, .

It i s r a ther a s ign o f a de s igner s in a bility when i n

’

d rawi ng a c o m p o siti o n he put s in the fe a ture s e a rly ; thi s

i s c hiefly be c a u se ex p re ss i o n m u s t fi r s t c o m e by ge s ture .

If the ge sture o f the figure d o e s n o t expre ss the p a rt the

figure i s pl ayi ng i n the subj ect a n d even i t s c h a ra c ter
,

a n d di sp o s iti o n wh ether o f pride

, hu m ility hyp o c ri sy o r
, , ,

an
y o ther qu a lity i t i s little
,
u se relyi n g up o n the fe a ture s

the effe c t will o nly be a w a x w o rk Furt h er the de signer

-
.
,

sh o uld try t o let the wh o le dr a m a o f h is subj e c t be

expl a ined by the ge sture s o f the figure s a n d c o m p o sit i o n
of the wh o le It w o uld be a very go o d thing if a t
.

exhibiti o n s o f pi c ture s n o title s were de c l a red .

The G o thi c de si gn s depended gre a tly up o n t h e ge sture

o f their figure s Even i n Fig 1 5 i n whi c h there i s little
. .
,

c a ll fo r e m ph a t i c st a te m ent the u se o f ge st i cul a ti o n i s

,

d i sc ernible .

10 . Th e E ffec t of G ra v ita t io n on th e F l e sh .

THE fa lling o f the fle sh i n re sp o n se t o the l a w o f

gr a v i t a ti o n i s m o st n o tice a ble i n t h e l o wer li m b if r a i sed ,

when the figure i s ly i ng d o wn The tibi a o r sh i n b o ne .

-

sh o w s up very di stin c tly a s a l so d o e s the knee

,
.

In a per so n se a ted o n a l o w s e a t with the knee s high ,

the b o ne s w o uld si m i l a rly sh o w In a figure se a ted o n a

.

se a t o f o rdin a ry height whi c h by the w ay i s a b o ut

,

e i ghteen i nche s th a t p a rt o f the thigh befo re the se a t

,

dro o p s c o n sidera bly e spec i a lly i n t h e fe m a le In the a rm

,
.
,

t o o the tr i cep s o r b i cep s si nk a s t h ey h a ppen to b e

, , ,
3 6 F IGU RE D RA WING A ND COM POSI T ION
u ndern ea th the p a rt a b o ve fl a ttening so m ewh a t by fa ll i ng
,

d o wn the side s .

In o l d pe o ple w h o se ski n l o se s i t s el a sti c ity t h ere i s

, ,

m o re d ro o ping o b serv a ble th a n i n y o u n g p e o ple But .

fl a b b i n e ss re a c he s i t s c li m a x i n the drunke n S ilenu s a n d

the i nfa n t B a c c hu s .

In hi st o ri c a rt the fa lling o f the l o wer p a rt s o f the b o dy

,

w a s a d m ir a bly repre sented i n t h e G reek s c ulpture o f the

fi fth c entu ry B C the be st per i o d It i s excellently sh o wn

. .
,
.

i n the The seu s a n d Il l ysu s i n the Briti sh M u seu m In the .

The seu s in the fa lling o f the fle sh bene a th the leg a n d

,

thigh ; i n the Il l ysu s i n the fa lling o f the a bd o m en a n d

, ,

c o n sequent a c c entu a ti o n o f the th o r a ci c a r c h O n the .

R o m a n stu c c o e s a l so the fa c t i s well expre ssed It i s .

likewi se re sp e c ted i n the Ea rly Ren a i ssa n c e but fro m a b o ut ,

the ti m e o f R a ph a el the fle sh a p p e a rs m o re so lid a n d

s t a tue sque th a n fo r m erly the well kn o wn m u sc ul a r fo r m s
,
-

bei ng o ften added with o ut m uch reg a rd t o c h a nge u nder

v a rying co nditi o n s It i s o f c o ur se o nly i n the w o rk o f
.

s e co nd r a te
-
m e n th a t t h i s peculi a rity o c cu rs In a l l .

peri o d s the gre a t m e n h a ve fo un d truth the m ed i o cre o nly ,

fo r m m a nneri sm s The tightly dr a wn fle sh o f the Re

.
-

n a i ssa n c e gra du a lly s l a c kened till it be ca m e m o re a n d

m o re fl a bby a n d a s s o o n a s L e Brun h a d fi n i shed h i s
,

ra n dro se l a b o u r s a t Ver sa ille s it u m ed l ene

‘

g a s s a o o s ,ss

unp a r a lleled i n a rt hi s t o ry B o u c her a n d Fra go n a rd m a y .

s t a nd a s typi c a l m a s ter s o f thi s fl a bby sc h o o l There w a s .

o f c o u r s e so m e g o o d i n thi s l o o se tre a t m ent It l o o ked .

s o ft a n d fle s hy a n d the se a re qu a litie s by n o m e a n s t o be
,

de spi sed but it w a s c a rried t o o fa r W ith the Fren c h

, .

Rev o luti o n c a m e D avid wit h h i s reviv a l o f t h e a ntique

, ,

a n d then there i s a return t o rigidity a n d a n a l m o st c a st ,

i r o n h ardne ss i n t h e e a rly p a rt o f t hi s century .

 3 8 F IGU RE D RAWING A ND COM POSI T IO N
the dr aw i ng o f the peri o d when fl a b b i n ess w a s m o st
In
c ultiv a ted the fo r m s a re gener a lly expre ssed with
a s o rt o f w a vy li ne where a s i n the h a rd ti m e s o f the
,

Ren a i ssa n c e a n d e a rly n i neteenth c entury the c urve s a re ,

a l m ost ure a r cs o f ir c le The h ppy m edi m i s I

p c s a . u ,

s upp o se the be s t , .

1 1 . G e n e ra l P ro p o rt io n s of t he F igu re .

S OME pra c t i c a l hint s up o n the pro p o rt i o n s o f the dif

fe re n t m e m ber s will be fo und i n sep a r a te p a r a gr a ph s ,

a cc o m p a ny i ng the p a rt s they tre a t o f In the pre sent .

p a ra gr a ph the pr o p o rti o n s o f the wh o le figure a re c o n

s i de re d .

A nu m ber o f w o rk s o n the pr o p o rti o n s h ve been pub a ~

l i sh e d the m o s t v a lu a ble o f w h i c h give the re sult s o f

,

c a reful m e a sure m ent o f nu m er o u s a n d typ i c a l m o del s a n d ,

thu s the a uth o rs h a ve a rr i ved a t v a r i o u s rule s In the .

be st o f the se w o rk s the m e asu re m ent s o f the different

p a rt s a re given i n feet a n d in c he s a n d w i th the c o m ,

p l e t est a c c u r a c y T o the .dr a ught s m a n t h e s e s c i entifi c

i nvestig a ti o n s a re v a lu a ble a s wh o le so m e c o rrect i ve s o f
c o nventi o n a li s m s ; but they a re n o t so u seful t o h i m a s
they m ight be t o the s culpt o r The dra ught sm a n de .

light s i n fo re sh o rtening which de str o y s the feet a n d

,

inche s o f the scienti st .

To the dr a ught s m a n the m a tter o f pr o p o rti o n s pre sent s

s —
i t elf i n t w o light s o n e the o reti c a l o n e pr a c tic a l K n o w
,
.

ing t w o m e a sure m ent s a re equ a l he c a n m a ke the m a ppe a r

,

equ a l a lt h o ugh b o t h a re fo re sh o rtened j u st a s he c a n

, ,

m a ke the three s ide s o f a c ube a ppe a r a l l ex a c t a n d equ a l

s qu a re s a lth o ugh n o t o n e a ngle m e a s ure s n inety degree s
,
.

S o th a t i t m a y be a g a in t o h i m t o kn o w th a t the o ret i c a lly

 THE F IG U RE AS A W HO L E 39
t hi s i s equ a l to th a t b ut h i s p o wers w i ll be o nly c a p a ble
,

o f repre sent i ng m e a sure m ent s a ppr o x i m a tely a n d n o t to ,

h a lve s o f in c he s T h en pra ct i c a l ly he will be i ntere sted

.

in a n y rule o f pr o p o rt i o n w hi c h h e c a n a pply ra p i dly a n d

e a si ly so th a t he m ay be saved fr o m a n y egregi o u s
,

m i st a ke.

FI G . I8 .
—Th e F em al e Fig ure di vi ded b y e igh t h ea ds.

A cc o rd i ng t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n s a rr i ved a t by the s c i entifi c

i nve stig a t o r s t h e d i vi s i o n o f the wh o le figure i nt o eig h t
“ ” ,

h e a d s m ay be ret a i ned i f the fo o t be ex ten ded .

O f t h e s e e i g h t he a d s the fo u r upper m o s t c o rre sp o nd ,

i n t h e fe m a le t o t h e extre m i ty o f t h e c hi n the nipple s

, , ,

t h e u m bil i cu s a n d the a b so lute en d o f t h e trunk In

,
.

t h e m a le t h e d i v i s i o n s fa ll a t the extre m ity o f the ch i n ,

40 F IGU RE D RA WIN G A ND COMPOSI T ION
the l o w er b o rder o f the bre a st bel o w the u m bili c u s a n d
, ,

a t the a b so lute end o f the trunk In the l o wer li m b

.

the he a d s do n o t fa ll a t a n y di stin c t divi s i o n s unle ss ,

the wide st p a r t o f the c a lf o n the o ut s ide c a n be c o n

, ,

si de re d a s u ffi c iently di s tin c t l o c a ti o n fo r the s ixth he a d .

F o r further det a il s re spe c ting the se sc ientifi c m e a s ure

m e n t s the re a der m u s t c o n sult the w o rk s whi c h s pe c i a lly
tre a t o f the subj e c t It i s p erh a p s m o re t o the pre sent
.

purp o se t o c o n s ider a rule m o re pr a c ti c a l a n d t o run the ,

ri sk o f i t s being le ss sc ientifi c .

A rule o f pr o p o rti o n t o be o f v a lue t o the dra ught sm a n

m u st fo ll o w a s ne a rly a s p o ss ible the s y s te m a dr a ught s
m a n a d o pt s i n s e c uring o rdi n a ry p r o p o rti o n s No m a tter .

wh a t i s being dra wn whether a figure o r a tree o r a n y

, , ,

o ther o bj e c t he s h o uld fi r s t fi x the gre a te s t di m en s i o n s i n

, ,

al l pr o b a bility the height o r the width The t o t a l size

, .

thu s deter m ined the next thi n g t o do will be t o fi nd the

,

m iddle a n d t o fi x the ne a re s t defi nite fe a ture o f the o bj e c t

t o it. By thi s m e a n s a n y err o r in the o n e h a lf will n o t
a ffe c t the o ther h a lf . Th u s with a fig u re if the he a d i s ,

dr a wn fi rst then the ne c k then the b o dy a n d so o n d o wn

, , ,

w a rd i n a l l prob ability the l o wer p a rt will be t o o l o n g

,

o r t o o s h o rt Thi s m a y be p a rti a lly o bvi a ted by fi ndi n g

.

the m iddle .

H en c e a s reg a rd s the pro p o rti o n s o f the figure the ,

m e a sure m ent the dr a ught s m a n w a nt s i s a m iddle a s ex a c t ,

a s p o ss i ble ,
dividing the figure int o h a lve s Next if .
,

p o ssible he will fi nd a divi si o n fo r e a c h h a lf prefer a bly

, ,

a t the m iddle o f e a c h o r a t the third s a s bei n g the

, ,

next e a s ie st t o fi x r a pidly .

It i s a lw a y s e a sier t o co m p a re m e a sure m ent s a p p ro a c h m

ing equ a lity th a n th o se th a t a re p a lp a bly u nequ a l Thu s .

,

if o n e line i s eight a n d a n o ther nine it i s e a sy t o see fi rs t

, , ,
 l B ULA

FIG 1 9 T h e Pro p o rti o n s o f th e Mal e a n d Fe m al e sh o wi n g t h e co m p a ra ti ve

,

z
. .

h e ig h ts, a n d w i th t h e d i vi si o n s i n to t h re e o n e s a n d w i th verti ca l l i n es re p t e
,

sen ti n g i n c h es B k x
( 2 ) a c vi e w o f Mal e T h o ra S c a p ul ae a n d s ul l u p o n k
t t
.
, , ,

z
h o ri o n ta l l i nes si x i n c h es a p a r a n d verti ca l l i n es t h ree i n ch es a p a r
, (3 )
.

k
Ba c o f F em al e .
( )
4 B k
ac o f M a l e .
42 I U
F G RE D RAWI NG A ND COM POSI T I O N
th a t they a re s i m il a r i n length a n d then whi c h i s the ,

l o nger a n d by a pp a rently h o w m u c h But if o n e line be

,
.

three a n d the o ther fo urteen a n d the a rith m eti c a l ca l c u

,

l a ti o n be n o t e m p l o yed it will be di ffi c ult t o e sti m a te

,

whether the sh o rter i s a qu a rter o r a fi ft h o f the l o nger

It w a s be c a u s e o f the gre a ter v a l u e o f h a lve s a n d qu a rter s ,

th a t the a rti st s i n the p ast c a m e to use eight he ad s fo r

the figure a n d m a de a l l t h e p a rt s settle o n the se divi si o n s
, ,

o r o n the h a lve s o r qu a rter s o f t h e m .

The c entre o f the s t a nding figure i s a greed by the

sc ientifi c i nve stig a t o r s o f the s ubj e c t t o fa ll a t the m iddle

o f the l o we s t p a rt o f the trunk bel o w the gro i n th a t i s

,
.

T a king thi s level a c ro ss the hip s it will be seen to a rrive ,

a t the tr o ch a nter s o f the thigh b o ne s In m a n the b o tt o m

-
.

o f the tr o c h a nter i n w o m a n the m iddle i s o n the m iddle

, ,

line o f the figure T h i s then deter m ine s the centre o f the

.

figure a n d divide s it i nt o trunk a n d leg

,
.

The l o wer l i m b i s t a k i ng the t o t a l length o f the thigh

,

b o ne i n c luding the b a ll by whi c h i t a rti c ul a te s i n the

a c et a bulu m ex a c tly divided int o h a lf a t the knee j o int
,
-
.

S o th a t fro m the centre o f the figure o r the tr o c h a nter , ,

the he a d o f the fibul a o r b o tt o m o f the p a tell a m a rk s the

h a lf w a y
-
.

Every dr a ught sm a n m u st h ave felt t h a t the l o c a t i o n o f

the he a d s in t h e sy ste m o f eight he a d s up o n t h e nipple s
, ,

a n d u m bili c u s w a s a defe c t pr a c tic a lly i n the rule true a s

, , ,

it m ay be t o a n a t o m i c a l fa c t ; be ca u se the n ipple s a n d
u m bili c u s a re n o t the fi rs t things dra wn a n d a rule t o be ,

o f pr a c ti c a l v a lue m u s t de a l W ith the br o a d l a nd m a rk s o f

the figure The se in the trunk a re c ert a inly the sh o ulder s

.
, ,

a n d the w a i s t .

It will be fo un d th a t a c c o rding t o the m e a sure m ent s

,

g i ven by sc ienti st s the w a i st a n d sh o ulders fa ll ex actly o r

,
 THE FIGU RE A s A W H O LE 43

v ery ne a rly a t the t hi rd s bet w een t h e to p o f t h e cra n i u m

a n d t he l o w er end o f the wh o le trunk .

T11 15 18 In m a n thirty si x i nche s a n d the three d i vi s i o n s

-
,

t h u s bec o m e t w elve in c he s e a c h ; i n w o m a n eleven in c he s , ,

with a n exce ss o f o n e i nc h i n t h e upper m o st In m a n .

t h e t h o r a x extend s l o wer d o wn th a n i n w o m a n but n o t ,

so m uc h a s t o m a ter i a lly a ffect t h e ru le .

In a pply i ng t h e rule o n e h a s a fter fi nd i ng the m i ddle

, ,

F IG 20 .
-
t
Th e Ap pl i ca io n o f th e Ru l e .

of t h e figure t o d r o p t h e centre a l i ttle befo re t h e l o we s t

, ,

o f the three div i s i o n s c a n be m a de .

In the b a ck Vi ew t h e rule m a y be a ppl i ed by t a k i n g t h e

l o wer b o rder o f the glute a l m a ss a s the l i m i t o f t h e l o w est
'

t hi rd T hi s glute a l line o c c ur s h o wever a l i ttle hi g h er i n

.
, ,

m a n a n d l o wer i n w o m a n t h a n t h e pr o per end o f the t h i rd

d i v i si o n But th i s v a r i a t i o n o pera te s r a t h er benefi c i a lly
.
“

a s i t tend s t o keep t h e sh o ulder s up i n m a n a n d d o wn i n ,

 44 F IGU RE D RA WI NG A ND COMPOSI T ION
wo m a n The glute a l line m u s t be dr o pped bel o w the
.

c entre ,
a s w a s the l a s t d ivi s i o n i n the fr o nt view .

In the s e a ted p o se the s e a t be c o m e s the l o we s t line a n d ,

thu s a ll o ws the rule t o be a pplied .

By Fig 5 it will be seen th a t the c entre o f the se a ted

.

figu re i s j u st bel o w the u m bili c u s .

The pr o p o rti o n s a re m enti o ned i n det a il i n the p a r a

gra ph s dev o ted t o the co n s ider a ti o n o f the p a rt s the m selve s .

A fe w re m a rk s i n elu c id a ti o n o f F i g 1 9 m a y h o wever be .

m a de here No I sh o ws the t w o sexe s c o m p a red h a lf

. .

a g a in s t h a lf the u m bili c u s being m a de t o s erve a s a c entre

,

o f co m p a ri so n Thu s the b o die s will be seen t o be very

.

s i m il a r i n le n gth the deep gr o i n i n m a n giv i ng a n a pp a rently

,

r a ther th a n re a lly gre a ter depth o f a bd o m en The nipple s .

a re o n the s a m e line but the l o wer b o rder o f the bre a s t i s

,

l o wer in w o m a n The leg o f the w o m a n re a c he s o nly

.

t o the a nkle o f the m a n The width s m ay be c o m p a red

.

by c o un ting the li ne s whi c h repre sent o n e i nch e a c h A i s .

the j o in t between the c o ll a r b o ne a n d the a c r o m i o n B ; C

-
, ,

the ili a c c re s t ; D the a nteri o r s uperi o r spine o f s a m e ; E

, ,

the tro c h a nter o f the thigh b o ne F the he a d o f the fibul a

-
, ,

a n d P the p a tell a o r knee c a It will be n ti c ed th a t

p o
-
, .

the he a d o f the fibul a i s j u st bene a th the p a tell a No 2 . .

s h o w s the well kn o wn re c urren c e o f the m e a sure m ent o f

-

S i x i n c he s i n the b a c k o f a m a n The m e a sure m ent s w o uld

.

be a b o ut five a n d a h a l f i n c he s i n w o m a n NO 3 sh o w s a . .

re rk a ble re c urren c e o f a m e a su re m en t o 1 2 }5 i n c he s
m a f —
i n the b a c k o f a w o m a n ; the t o p divi s i o n st a rt s a t the
vertebra pro m inen s ; see No 2 a b o ve it No 4 sh o w s a . . .

s i m il a r a n a ly s i s o f a man In the s e c a l c ul a ti o n s the

.

height o f a m a n h a s been c o n sidered to be 6 7 in c he s ;

th a t o f a w o m a n 6 3 in c he s ,
.
4 6 F IGU RE D RAWIN G A ND COM POSI T ION
the a b do m en the o utline Of the thigh s the sa rto ri a l line
, ,

o n the fr o nt o f the thigh , the o uter line o f the leg a n d ,

the l i ne o f the tibi a li s up o n i t a l l a ppr o a ch the c entre

,

line a s they de scend In the fe m a le ( C ) the sa m e m ay

.

be n o ti c ed .

The b a c k view pre sent s a m o re a ltern a ting a rr a nge m ent .

The m a sse s c o nvergi n g d o wnw a rd s a re th o se o f the b a c k ,

a n d o f the l o in s a n d g l u t e a l s. D ivergen t d o wnw a rd s a re

the m a sse s o f the ne c k a n d o f the m u sc le s a t the b a c k
,

o f the thi g h .The m a le a n d fe m a le m ay be c o m p a red

i n B a n d D T h e fe m a le side view ( E) sh o w s h o w c o n
.

t i n u a l l y the verti c a l a n d h o riz o nt a l dire c ti o n s a re a v o ided

.

The o bliquity o f the line o f the il i a c c re s t i s very i m p o rt a nt .

 T HE HEA D A ND NEC K

13 . G e n e ra l A pp e a ra n ce of th e He ad an d Ne c k .

F all —
f a ce f or ron t v
v i ew
a l —A n
s erve s fo r t h e fi rost

s ugge s ti o n b o t h o f the m a le a n d fe m a le The o v a l i s .

be st a co rn sh aped the w i der p a r t repre senting t h e h a i r

-
,

c o rre sp o nd i ng t o the a c o rn cup ( Fig -

The l i ne s
. .

fo r the ne c k c o m m ence a b o ut h a lf w a y d o wn the fa ce -

FIG . 22 .

l i ne T h ey S h o uld be sl i ghtly co nvex o utw a rd but b e

.
,

c o m i ng c o nc a ve a t thei r l o wer end s T h ey sh o uld sl ig h tly.

d iverge as they de scend a n d w i ll m o re o ver be l o nger

, , ,
.

i n th e fe m a le th a n t h e m a le i n c o n sequen c e o f the l o nger

,

fe m a le ne c k T h e neck i n the m a le i s so m et i m e s very

.

w i de The sh o ulder li ne i s c o nt i n u o u s w i th t h e curve o f

.
-

t h e fa ce a s i n A b u t t hi s c o i n cidence depend s u po n t h e
, ,

p o se .
48 F IGU R E D RA WIN G A ND COMPOSI T ION
The h a ir s h o uld be d ivided fr o m the fa c e by the h a ir
line very e a rly i n the dr a w i ng ; fo r the length o f the
fa c e i s frequently u seful a s a n i ndex o f p ro p o rti o n The .

o blique m e a s ure m en t fr o m the c hin t o the end o f the

s h o ulder i s a b o ut equ a l t o the height o f the fa c e The .

h a ir line de n o te s very m a rkedly the se x ; B i s fe m a le

-
,

C m a le The differen c e i s o n e o f width o f fo rehe a d

.
,

m a king the fe m a le o v o id the m a le squ a re ,

Thi s i s re .

p ea t e d i n the l ine o f the j a w In the fe m a le the

.
j a w line -

will i n c lude the so ft m a ss o f fa t bene a th the j a w so th a t ,

the c hi n i s a b o ve thi s line The h a ir line a s it de sc end s

.
-
, ,

F IG . 2
3 .

c urve s r o und the b o ny m a ss befo re the ea r Th e c o ll a r .

b o ne will p r o b a bly be repre sented by a s lightly u ndul a ting

c u rve ,
whi c h m u s t n o t h o wever re a c h a s fa r a s the
, ,

s h o u lder O n either s ide o f the pit o f the ne c k i s a s h a rp

.

tend o n directed t o w a rd s the e ar A b o ve it the A d a m s

,
.
’

a pple i s l o w in m a n high i n w o m a n
,
.

Pr o c eeding it i s i m p o rt a n t th a t the h a ir l ine sh o uld

,
-

p a s s r o u nd the b o ne befo re the e a r a n d then n o t d o wn ,

t h e o utline o f the fa ce but d o wn the C heek verti c a lly

, ,

i n the m a le ( B a n d C Fig ,
o r i n the c u st o m a ry o v o id
.

m a n n er i n the fe m a l e (A ) The fe a tu re s m ay be sugge sted

.

by h o r i z o nt a l l i ne s very slightly c u rved u pw a rd s a s i n A , ,

 THE HE AD A ND NEC K 49

The se a re eve n
s ,
—
in nu m ber repre sent i ng t h e br o ws the ,

eye s the n o se t h e o pen ing o f the m o uth t he l o wer lip

, , , ,

the t o p o f the c hi n a n d the di m ple o r per h ap s l o wer

,

li m it o f the sa m e .

In the m a le i t w i ll be better t o expre ss m o re defi n i tely

F IG . 2 4 .

the m o dell i ng t h e br o w In B a n d C i t m ay be see n

of .

h o w t h e h a i r l ine c u r v e s gr a cefully r o und the br o ws

-
,

m eet i ng the br o w li ne s w hi c h a t the i r i nner en d s m a r k

-
,

the b o l d e m i nen c e s o f the m ale fo re h e a d .

T h e upper eyel i d i s m o re i m p o rt a n t th a n t h e l o we r ( B ) .

E
50 F IGU RE D RA WI N G A ND COM POSI T ION
The l wer li ne
o the eye so c ket i s s h o wn i n C In o l d
of -
.

pe o ple it i s very m a rked but i n a dult m e n it hel p s t o

,

give c h a r a c ter t o the fo r m ; a s a l so do the c u rve s o n

either s ide o f the n o se fro m the eye s t o the w i n g s o f
,

th a t fe a t u re .

The line s o f br o w a n d c h e c k a s i n B m u st re c eive , ,

-

a ttenti o n bef ore the fe a tu re s W ith o u t the m pr o perly

.
,

tre a ted a he a d c a n n o t be s tr o ng The t w o s h a d o wed

, .

he a d s ( D a n d E) will a ssi s t t o expl a i n the fo r m No te .

the sh a d o w li ne o f the fo rehe a d i n E .

The p rofi l e m a y be c o m m en c ed by a n irreg u l a r o v a l

F IG . 2 5 .

(A, Fig 2
.
5 ) if fe m a le o r o f a s qu
,
a rer fo r m B
( ) if m a le .

If a definite pr o fi le i s requ ired a p o i n t s h o uld be gi v e n ,

t o sugge s t the n o s e a s i n B ; but i f it i s n o t yet deter m i ned

,

w h ether the view i s t o be ex a c tly pr o fi le o r n o t a n o v o i d ,

fo r m w i th o ut the p o i nt wil l be be s t The ne c k i s s ug .

ge s ted by t w o l i ne s whi c h i n the fe m a le a re c o nvex

,

fo rw a rd (A) The rel a t i o n they be a r t o o n e a n o ther i n

.
,

p o s it i o n i s e m ph a sized by the d o tted line s i n t h e di a gra m

, .

The l o wer end o f the b ac k c urve i s a b o ut o n a level wi th

the c h i n ; i ts upper end a b o ut level with the n o se The .

ne c k m u st w i den a s it de sc end s The fr o nt l ine m u st .

h a ve o nly a little c o n c avity a t i ts l o wer en d i n the fe m a le ,

but i n the m a le ( B ) i t s c urv a ture m u st be m o re pr on o un c ed ,

 THE H EAD A ND N ECK 5 1

an d i tsn c a vity gre a ter T h e b a ck line i n the m a le

co .

m a y be s tr a ight o r c o nvex b a c kw a rd s The j a w m u s t

.

be kept squ a rer i n t h e m a le In C t h e fe m a le he a d i s

'

c a rr i ed further The j a w li ne m u st n o w l o se so m e o f
.
-

i ts fo rce yielding t o t h e d r o o p i ng l i ne ben e a t h it Th i s

, .

d r o o ping l i ne i s o f gre a t va lue i n the fe m a le h e a d a n d ,

m u st n o t be o m i tted fr o m t h e m a le i n wh i c h h o wever
, , ,

t h e so ft fa tne ss i t s ugge s t s i s n o t so i m p o rt a nt T h e .

h a ir l ine a n d ea r m u st next be a dded t h e h a ir c o m ing

-
,
5 2 F I GU R E DRA WIN G A ND COMPOSI T IO N
d o wn bel o w a n d befo re the e a r ; the e a r being ne a rer
the b a c k th a n the fro nt The fe a ture s m a y be sugge sted
.

by p a r a llel line s o f very s light Curv a ture ( C ) ; but i n the

m a le ( D ) it will be better t o fir s t m o del the br o w a n d
c heek a s s h o wn .

Tne t/zree q u a rter v i ew n a t u ra l l c o m b i n es the c h a r a c ter

-

i s ti c s o f the a b o ve t w o F o r a fe m a le i t m a y n o t be ill
.

c o m m en c ed with a n o v a l o f c o n s ider a ble purity Fig

( A , .

F o r a m a le the fo r m will be be s t m a de s qu a re ,

as .B The o va l o f A i s o f c o urse o nly a fi rs t fo r m .

O n e peculi a rity o f the fe m a le he a d i s t h e de c livity fro m

F IG . 2 7 .

the highe st p a rt fo rw a rd t o the fa c e Thi s give s a

, .

s tr a ightne ss t o the fo re p a rt o f the o utline o f the c r a niu m ,

a n d h ence the s h a pe C i s ne a rer the pr o per fo r m th a n

A . The p a rting o f the h a ir a s i n D a n d E a l so a ssi sts
, ,

t o fi x the s ex o f the he a d A n d even i f the p a rting

.

i s n o t t o be sh o wn it a n d a line d o wn the fa c e ( D ) a re
,

very u se fu l a s deter m ining the c entra l line o f t h e he a d

_
,

on either s ide o f w hi c h the line s o f the fa ce a n d the

fe a t u re s c a n be sy m m etr i c a lly a rra nged Neglect of thi s .

sy m m etry i s the c hief fa ult Of m a ny w h o dr a w the figure

“

a n d it i s c ert a i n t h a t t i l l o n e c a n render i n fo re sh o rtening

‘

r a three qu a rter he a d i s h a lf o f it fo re sh o rtened ) t h e

( fo -

sy m m et r i c a l c h a r a c ter o f a he a d o n e h a s n o t even c rossed

,
54 F IGU RE D RAWI N G A ND COM POSI T ION
Tfi e taree qu a rter é a e/e v i ew will
-
be fo u nd very not

di fli c u l t i f o ne s d ra wi n g be m a de i na cc o rd a n c e with the
’

fo ll o wing fa c ts T h e n o se w ill tend t o be hidden a n d

.
,

therefo re it sh o uld be c o m p a r a tively neglected a n d a n ,

o utli n e u sed wh i c h d o e s n o t in c lude i t (a s A Fig ,

.

Thi s o utli ne i s preci sely the sa m e a s o n e w o uld ulti m ately

h a ve in a dr a wing o f the three qu a rter fro n t Vie w -
.

The fa c i a l o utline o f o u r three qu a rter b a c k v i ew m u st -

tu c k in well a t the eye A n o ther fa c t o f the b a c k View i s

.

the peculi a r sh ape o f the ea r whi c h m u st be kept n e a rer ,

the fa c i a l o utline th a n the o ther Then the j a w line will .

-

FIG . 2 9 .

tend t o bec o m e c o nvex upw a rd a n d the l i ne o f j unct i o n ,

between the ne c k a n d j aw w i ll be co m e pr o m i nent T h e .

c entr a l depre ssi o n a t the b a ck o f the neck w i ll be

”
i m p o rt a nt a s w i ll a l so be the sh a pe o f t h e h a ir l i ne a n d -
, ,

the p o s iti o n o f t h e fl a t s i de o f the he a d w hi ch i s sh aded

“
,

i n the di a gr a m .

F o r a f ores/zortened view ( a s B Fig i t w i ll be be st to , .

dra w the j a w line first then the upper li m i t o f the thro a t

-
, .

T h e c h i n m o uth a n d n o se m a y be sugge sted by sh o rt

, ,

str o ng c urve s a s a l so m a y the eye but the line up o n whi c h

, ,

the eye s a re a n d the bro w line m u s t n o t the m selve s c u rve

,
-
,

very m uch In su c h a v i ew a s C the p a rting o f the h a ir

.
,

sho uld be pl a c ed fi r st a n d b o ldl y then the hai r l ine

, ,
-
 THE HE A D A ND N EC K 55
curvi ng dow n w a rds The s m a ll line s o f t h e fa c e w i ll al so
.

c urve d o w n w a rd s a n d a s be fo re t h e br o w line will be le ss

‘

-
, , ,

cu rved th a n t h e eye s o r m o ut h .

T h e furt h er pr o gre ss o f the h e a d requ i re s a kn o wledge

o f fo rm t o t h e det a iled c o n s ider a ti o n o f w hi c h t h e su c c eed
,

in g p a ra gr a p h s a re dev o ted .

Th e P ro p o rt io n s of t he He a d
.

T HE he a d ,
as a m a ss , fa ll s inpr o file i nt o a s qu a re o f
9
-
i n c h s ide s a m an, an d S Q i n c h s i de s fo r a w o m a n
L -
,

FI G .
30 .
-
Th e H ea d in a S q u a re.

the h a i r be i n g o m itted ( Fig Thi s pr o p o rti o n i s

. .
,

h o wever n o t o f very m u c h u se sin c e while it i s e a sy

, ,

en o ugh t o re c o gn ize the height o f the fa c e it i s n o t so ,

eaS
y t o re c o gn i ze the height o f the he a d be c a u s e t h e ,

level o f the c hin h a s t o be c a rried in i m a gin a ti o n b a ckw a rd

till i t fa ll s u nder the highe s t p o i n t o f the to p o f the
he a d a n d s i m il a rly the w idth i s n o t e a sily re c o gn ized
,

be c a u se the s qu a re i s re a c hed by the pr oj e c ti o n o f the

n o se where a s o n e w o u ld m o re n a tur a lly o m it the n o se
,

i n c o n sideri ng the width ( fr o n t t o b a c k m e a su re m ent ,

th a t i s) o f the he a d M o re o ver c o m p a ring m e a su re m ent s

.
,

i s far m o re s a fel y p erfo r m ed if t h e t w o di men s i o n s m ee t

'
 5 6 F IGU RE D RAWIN G AND COMPOSI T ION
at a co m mon p o int as do t h e tw o line s o f t h e letter L
, ,

a n d n o t w h en they a re pl a c ed c r o ss wi se a s i n the letter T -

.

Thu s In a l l pro p o rti o ning s it w i ll b e be st t o fi nd o u t

,
‘

th o se whi c h h a ve o n e c o m m o n end p o i nt The he a d -

.

co n s i st s o f th e fa c e a n d t h e c r a niu m a n d t h e i m p o rt a nt ,

m e a sure m ent s a re the l ength o f t h e fac e a n d the p ro

j ec t i o n b a c kw a rd s o r the c r a niu m The length o f the .

fa ce i s i n m a n 7 5 i n c he s a n d the c r a n iu m fro m j u st ,

a b o ve the eyebro w s t o the wide st p a rt behind a b o ut

8 in c he s But if
. the t p
o o f the fa c e —the li m it upw a rd s
o f the 7 32 in c he s —b e t a ken a s a c entre o f t w o di m en si o n s
1
,

FI G .
31 .
—Th e Pro p o rti o n of th e Fa ce to th e Head .

o ne g o i ng t o the c hin a n d giv i ng t h e fa c i a l lengt h a n d ,

t h e o ther t o the b a ck o f the he a d a s sh o wn by the cro sse s ,

in Fig 3 1 A then t h e se t w o di m en si o n s will be fo u nd t o

.
, ,

be ab o u t equ a l It m u st be n o ti c ed th a t the a ngle

.

encl o se d by the t w o line s i s le ss th a n a right a ngle t h e ,

tri a ngle a ppr o a c hing the equil a tera l .

O r t h e m a tter m a y be reg a rded fr o m the b a si s o f the

h a ir line
-
In m e n the h a ir line diverge s fa r o ver the
.
-

te m ple s ; but i n w o m en o wi n g i n a gre a t m e a sure t o ,

'

their m eth o d o f dre ss i n g the h a ir the line i s m o re dire c t , .

( Fig .
3 1 C ) ,
F o r pr a c ti c a l purp o se s it m a y b e sa i d t o p a ss
.

fr o m the t o p o f the fa c e t o the m iddle o r b o tt o m o f the

 T HE H E AD A ND N ECK 57

ear . On it h er s i de o f thi s line a s a t B the fa c e a n d

e , ,

the c r a niu m lie i n a b o u t equ a l m a sse s Thi s i s s een .

better i n F W here t h e m a ss o f the fa ce i s tr a c ed d o wn

,

i n the sp a c e o f the cra n i u m It w i ll be seen t h a t t h e .

c hi n fa ll s a t the pr o per pl a ce a t t h e b a ck o f the h e a d .

Mo re he a d h a s t o be a dded a b o ve ; but W h a t i s required

o f the ru le i s the W idth b a ckw a rd r a ther th a n t h e hei g ht , ,

a n d th i s i s o b t a i ned D a n d E a re he a d s f r o m G reek v a se s
.

o f the be s t per i o d The h a i r i s w o rn very l o w o n the

.

fo rehe a d but the m a ssing c a n be e sti m a ted The e a r s

,
.

a re re m a rk a bly s h o rt It m a y be re m a rked th a t when

.

a he a d a ppe a r s i n a dr a wing t o o l a rge o r t o o s m a l l it ,

i s m o re p ro b a b l y the fa c e th a t i s wr o ng
'

15 . P ro p o rt io n s of t he F ace .

EX C L U DI N G the h a i r t h e fa c e i s d i v i sible i nt o t h ree

,

equ a l d i vi si o n s fa ll i ng between t h e eyebr o w s an d t h e

,

eye s a t the tip o f the n o se a n d t h e end o f the c hin

, ,

whi le t h e eye i s pl aced a t the h a l f w a y between the “

extre m e t o p a n d b o tt o m o f the he a d when it i s held i n ,

the n o r m a l upright p o siti o n ( Fig The m o uth fa ll s

. .

a th i rd o f the w a y d o wn t h e l o we st d i vi s i o n .

In s t a rting a he a d i t w i ll be fo u nd be st t o fi r s t dr a w
,

the full m a ss a n d then t o sep a r a te the fa c e fr o m the

,

c r a n iu m ,
o r br o a dly s pe a king
,
put i n the h a i r If the , .

h a ir i s n o t fa lling l o w o n the fo rehe a d t h e h a ir l i m i t ,

-
,

o r t o p o f the fo rehe a d ; c a n be u sed a n d i n t hi s c ase the ,

pr o p o rt i o n s o f the fa ce wi ll be be st secu red by the pl a c ing

o f the eyebr o w s a n d the n o se a c c o rdi ng t o the fa c t o f .

the three equ a l d i vi si o n s a s i n Fig 3 3 A If h o wever

, .
, .
, ,

the h a i r fa ll s o ver the fo re h e a d a n d h ide s the upper li m it ,

i t i s p erh a p s be s t t o pl ac e the e ye fi r s t h a lf w a y d o w n ,
-
5 8 F IGU R E D RA WIN G A ND COMPOSI T IO N
the wh o le he a d then t o a dd the eyebro w s a b o ve the m
, ,

then the n o stril s h a lf w ay between the bro w s a n d the

-

c hi n a s i n Fig
, 33 B The
. s a m e m e a n
,
s c a n.be a d o p ted

FIG .
32 .
—Th e Pro p o rtio n s o f th e Fac e .

fo r fo re sh o rtened fa c e s ; b rrt with th o se there i s a s i s ,

o nly t o be expe c ted fa r gre a ter c h a n c e o f g o ing wr o ng

, .

O f the m o re det a iled pr o p o rti o n s the fo ll o wing m ay

FIG .
33 .

of erv i c e First the l o wer eyelid i s seld o m l o wer

s .
,

th a n h a lf w a y between the eyebro w a n d the t o p o f the

-

wing o f the n o se ( Fig 3 4 A ) The h eight o f the br o w s

. .
, .

a b o ve the eye s v a rie s c o n s i dera bly Thu s there a re .

,

b eetl e b ro w s a n d t h e reve rse an d therefo re the b ro w

, ,
 THE H E AD A ND N ECK 59

l in e m u st
perh a p s n o t be rega rded a s h a ving the fi x i ty
‘

of a b o ny pr o m inence It i s c hiefly i n the fa c e s o f

.

w o m en th a t the sp a ce between the eye a n d the bro w

i s o f a n y extent ; fre quently i n m e n i t i s a l m o s t h idden
by the o ver h a ng i ng bro w B i llu str a te s h o w the lin e
.

fr o m t h e eye t o t h e W ing o f t h e n o se i s n o t p a r a llel to

F IG .
34 .

t h e line o f t h e n o se b u t s lig h tly c o nvergen t upw a rd s

, .

A s i m i l a r c o nvergen c e d o w n w a rd i s seen i n the c a se o f

the m o ut h a s a t C
, . In G reek h e a d s t h e n o s e be i ng ,

h igh er a t t h e ro o t a l l o w s t h e line fr o m t h e eye to be

'

p a r a llel t o i t T h e c o nvergen ce d o wnw a rd i n C a pplie s

.

FIG .
35 .

o n ly t o view s n e a r l y o r quite i n pro file By D it wil l .

be seen t h a t by j o in i ng t h e o uter c o rn er s Of the eye s t o

the t i p o f the n o se a right a ng l ed tr i a ngle i s fo r m ed
,
-
.

E de m o n str a te s h o w t h e di st a n ce fr o m the c o rner o f t h e

eye t o the fro n t o f the e a r i s the sa m e a s fr o m t h e co rner

,

o f the e e to t he c o r ner o f t h e m o ut h T hi li e
y s a
pp s .
60 F IGU R E D RA WING A ND COM POSI T IO N
p a rti c ul a rly t o he a d s o f w o m en i n m e n the e a r i s a little
,
.

furt h er b a ck .

A S to the rel a tive width s o f the eye s n o se a n d , ,

m o uth so m e elu c id a ti o n i s a ffo rded by the fa c t o f the

,
.

figure s o f w o m en p o sse ssi ng a s light s i m il a rity t o th o se

o f c hildren where a s the figure s o f m e n get bey o nd t h e
,
.

s t a ge a t whi c h the se s t o p i n their devel o p m ent a n d so ,

a c q ui re the m a sc uli ne Ch ar a ct e ri sti c s :

The sp a c e be tween the eye s i n m e n w o m en a n d , ,

c hild ren i s the s a m e n a m ely the widt h o f o n e o f the

, ,

eye s ; therefo re i n thi s o n e p a rti c ul a r the three a re a like .

But i f the length o f the n o se a n d the width o f the n o se

,

a n d m o uth a re t a ken i nt o c o n s ider a ti o n the re s ult i s a n

, ,

a ppe a r a n c e 0f g re a t e r s i z e i n the eye s o f w o m en a n d

'

c hildre n o r le ss in the m o uth s a n d n o s e s

,
The W idening .
,

i n m en o f the n o se a n d m o uth see m s t o thro w the eye s

, ,
'

ne a rer t o gether a n effe c t whi c h i s further a ssi sted b y

, ~

the g re a ter width o f the n o se genera lly from t h e ro o t ,

d o w nwa rd s The w rdth a c r o ss the W ing s o f the n o se i n

.

m e n i s equ a l t o o r gre a ter th a n the width o f a n eye in

-

, ,

w o m en i t i s s lig h tly le ss in c hildren le ss still

,
The .

m o uth i s m u c h l a rger i n m e n th a n w o m en a n d s m a lle s t ,

i n c hildren .

Very frequently the l o we s t third in the fac e o f a m a n

a ppe a r s m u c h l o nger th a n the n o se p o rti o n Thi s i s .

o ften t o be seen i n ph o t o gr a phi c p o rtr a it s .

16 . T h e F o rm o f t he C ra n i u m .

THE fa c e i s pro perly th a t p a rt bel o w the bro w s a n d

befo re the e a rs A l l el se i s c ra niu m In studying the
. .

fo r m o f the differe n t p a rt s o f the b o dy it i s well to err ,

rat h er o n t he s ide o f the p o ly go n al th an o n th at o f

 F IGU RE DRAWIN G A ND CO MP O SI TIO N

The m o s t i m p o rt a nt l i n e i n the c ra niu m i s the te m p o r a l

c urved line B it ri se s o ver the o uter end o f the br o w a n d ,

tr a verse s the s ide o f the he a d i n a p a th a l m o st p a ra llel

,

t o the o utline o f the v a ult . There a re o f c o urse t w o o f

the se te m p o ra l c urved li n e s a n d they to so m e extent
,

a tten the s ide s o f the he a d The fl a ttening i s lp b le

fl .
p a a

j u s t a b o ve the bro w i n the te m ple th a t i s but gr a du a lly

, ,

di m in i she s a s it pro c eed s b a c kw a rd It i s ge n er a lly .

evide n t i n m e n a s fa r a s t he do t o f referen c e B The ,

.

fl a t n e ss o f the s ide o f the he a d i s so m ewh a t a ss i sted by

the p a riet a l e m inen c e s D By pl a c ing o n e s p a l m o n o ne s
.
’ ’

he a d o n e m a y re a dily feel th a t the he a d i s slightly fl a tter

,

a t D th a n i n the regi o n j u s t befo re it

,
.

The o va l sp a c e in whi c h the letter C i s pl a c ed i s the

te m p o r a l fo ssa o r h o ll o w ; it i s b o unded by the ca rved l i n e
B It be c o m e s a h o ll o w by bei n g w a lled a b o ut by the
.

b o ny pro m inen c e s K o therwi se it i s r a ther a m o und th a n a

,

h o ll o w p r o vid ing i n fa c t the gre a te s t width o f the c r a niu m

,

s i x t o s i x a n d a h a lf i n c he s .

The fro nt a n d b a c k elev a ti o n s sh o wn a t H a n d I ex

h i b i t the v a ried extent t o whi c h the c h a r a c teri sti c s th a t
'

h a ve been referred t o influen ce the fo r m ; the ex a m ple I

i s very m u c h m o re a ngul a r o r pent a g o n a l A t J a re .

tra c ing s fro m tw o skull s cut thro ugh a t the gre a te st length
,

h o riz o nt a lly It wi ll be seen h o w very m u c h purer the

.

o v a l i s i n the upper o n e . In the l o wer o n e w i ll be seen

the p r o m i nen c e o f the bulging a t C with the h o ll o wi ng
,

o f the te m ple s to the left o f it while the s l i g h t exten t

,

l a ter a lly o f the o c cipit a l pro tuber a n c e E w i ll be n o ted ,

a fa c t which i s expre ssed by the sh a ding i n I .

T h e v a ult a s seen i n s ide V iew h a s o ften a n u ndul a t i n g

, ,

o utl i ne s i m il a r t o the upper c urve o f J .

 THE H EA D A ND N EC K

I7 . T h e G e n e ra l F o rm o f t he F ace .

THE fa c e m ay be sa i d i f the n o se be o m itted t o be

, ,

m a de up o f t h ree br o a d a n d gener a l s urfa ce s pl a c ed ,

s o m ew h a t a t rig h t a ngle s t o o n e a n o ther a n d fo r m ing t h e

,

t w o s ide s o f the c heek s a n d the fr o nt o r fa c e pr o per

, .

The j un c ti o n o f t h e S Ide with the fr o n t i s o f c o ur s e n o t

a s h a rp o r c le a r line but m a very well be repre s en ted by
, y
the s h a d o w li ne whi c h o ften fa ll s d o wn the c heek a n d
, ,

F IG .
37 .

whi c h c o rre sp o nd s wit h the o utlin e B Fig 3 7 Between , . .

the s e t w o li ne s i s the c entr a l o r fa c i a l su rfa c e a n i nverted ,

tri a ngle with i ts b ase acr o ss t h e eye s a n d i t s a pex a t the

,

c h in
. T hi s s urfa ce i s c o nvex ; th a t i s t h e c entra l p a r t
,

s upp o rting t h e n o s e a n d m o ut h i s h ig h er th a n the b o rder s .

Further it m u st be n o ti c ed t h a t thi s su rfa c e i s n o t

,

c o nt i nu o u s w i th the fo rehe a d bu t i s set b a c k u nder t he

,

bro w s t h e eye s pr oj ecting a b o ve o r up o n it som ewh a t i n

, ,

t h e sa m e w ay a s the n o se .

T h e s id e s urfa c e s a re a l so tr i a ngle s h av i ng the i r a pice s

 64 F I GU RE D RAWI NG AND CO MPO SI TIO N

the c hin
at B u t the tri a ngul a r fo r m i s di sturbed b y
.
‘

the proj e c ti o n o f the cheek b o ne E a n d the a ngle o f -

, ,

the j a w F If the width s o f t he h e

,
. ad a t the p o i nt s

C D E a n d F be t a ke n they will be fo und t o be n o t

, , , ,

very different D i s the gre a te st then fo ll o w C F a n d

.
, , ,

E i n o rder E bei n g the s m a lle s t

,
The re sult o f the .

s i m il a rity o f di s t a n c e i s t o m a ke t he fo u r S ided sp a c e -

C D ,
E F a l m o st fl a t l a ter a lly th o ugh i t re a lly l o o k s
, , , ,

so m ew ha t fo rw a rd a n d d o wnw a rd E F thu s be c o m e s .

the b ase o f a s m a ll tri a ngle E F G c o m pletin g the s ide , ,

o f the fa c e a t the c hin It run s inw a rd s in c e the c hi n

.
,

i s m u c h n a rr o wer th a n the c heek O wi n g t o thi s o bliquity .

it frequently t a ke s a t o ne deeper o r lighter a cc o rdi n g t o ,

t he p o siti o n o f the lu m in a ry th a n the qu a dril a ter a l C D E F

, .

18 . T h e Z ygo m a t ic A rc h .

T H IS i s b o ny c o n ne c ti o n between the m a l a r o r c heek

a ,

b o ne an d the te m p o r a l o r b o ne o f the ea r It i s n a rr o w
, ,
.
,

but wider a t the c heek end fl a tten in g o u t there a n d , ,

p r o l o nging the fl a t s urfa c e o f the m a l a r b o ne whi c h pl a y s

so i m p o rt a nt a p a rt in the a ppe a r a n c e o f the s ide o f the

fa c e It m u st be n o ti c ed th a t the zyg o m a run s h o ri z o nt a lly

.

b a c kw a rd s o n t he level o f the l o wer edge o f the eye so cket

,
-
.

Pa ssi n g a s i t d o e s o ver the o rifi c e o f the e a r ( C Fig ,

.

.
i t i s s ugge stive o f the fa s tening s o f s pe c t a c le s whi c h ,

i ndeed l ie a s m u c h o n t h e m ass pr o du c ed by the zyg o m a

-

a s up o n the ea r The th ong o f the spe c t a c le s i s h o we ver

.
, ,

a l i t t l e h i gh e r t h a n t h e b o ne o f the zyg o m a The sh a rp .

\

a ngle A m u s t a l so b e n o ti c ed the b o n es f0rm i n g it s t a nd

’

a b o ut a n i n c h a w a y fro m t he b o dy o f t h e sk u l l a n d a re
“

n o t r o unded t o a n e tent being very th i n The s h a rp

y x ,
.

ne ss pr o du c i n g thi s e dge i s v e ry evide nt in o l d p eo ple ;

 THE H EAD AND N EC K 65

even in well fl e sh e d s ubj ect s thi s pa rt l ooks h a rd a n d

-
.

b o ny i n c hild ren p a rti c ul a rly so It i s o n e o f the h a rde s t

.

pr o ble m s in figu re dr a wing to give a b o ny l o o k t o a p a rt

,

th a t i s n o t defi n itely a ngu l a r ; there i s o f c o ur se a si m il a r

FIG .
3 8 .
—Th e y
Z g o ma .

d i fficulty i n m a kin g the ly m ph a t i c p a rt s l o o k tender a n d

e a sily pre ssed .

It m u s t be o b served th a t th i s zyg o m a prevent s t h e

FIG .
39 .

h o ll o w o f the te m ple j o ining the h o ll o w o f t h e c h eek

’

T h e m o st i m p o rt a nt fa c t c o n nected wit h it i s h o wever , ,

i ts pr o m i nence V i ewed fr o m a b o ve i t pre sent s the

.

a ppe a r a nce o f a gen tly cur vi ng a rc —a n a rc o f a l a rge

F
66 F IGU RE D RA W I NG A ND C O MPO S I T IO N
c ir c le It i s highe st a t i t s thinne s t p a rt ( Fig 3 8 B ) a bo u t
. .
, ,

h a lf w a y bet w ee n the o rifi c e o f the e a r a n d the eye so c ket

-

,
-
.

The fa c e i s wide st there fo re a little befo re the e a r so ,

th a t the width a t th e e a r i s o nly a very little gre a ter

th a n the width a t the c heek b o ne s -
.

The effe c t o n the fo r m i s fi r st t o a dd a m a ss between

f —
th a t o the c heek b o ne a n d the te m p o ra l p ro m inen c e a n d ,

j u s t befo re the e a r a s in A Fig 3 9 Thi s a ddit i o n receive s

, ,
. .

light a n d thr o w s sh a d o w the l ight s l a nting up i nt o the

,

te m ple the sh a d o w d o wn i n t o the h o ll o w o f the c heek

, ,

a s In B .

19 . C o m p a ri so n o f the F o rm s of th e Hea d in
th e Tw o S e x e s .

THE di m en s i o n s o f the m a le fe m a le he a d s a re
and

virtu a lly the sa m e but thi s ,

is m o re be c a u se the m e a sure

FIG .
40 .
—C o m p ari so n b e tw ee n th e F o rm s of th e Hea d
i n th e T w o S e x es
.

m ent swhi c h a re t a ke n do n o t a ffe c t th o se p a rts i n whi ch

differen c e s o c c ur th a n bec a u se the he a d s a re si m il a r
,
.

Thu s a ll o wing the height t o be c o m p a r a tively the sa m e

 THE HE A D A ND N ECK 67

i n b o th i t i s i n w o m a n further b a c k o r i n o ther w o rd s
, , , ,

the fr o nt a l b o ne d o e s n o t ri se so h ig h a s i n m a n ( Fi g 4 0 . .
,

A and B ) .

The c hin o c cupie s the sa m e p o s i ti o n i n b o t h b u t the ,

a ngle o f t h e in w m a n m u c h le ss pr o n o un c ed
j a w i s a o

th a n i n a m a n Mo re o ver the d i st a nce fr o m a ngle to

l

.
,

a ngle a c r o ss the t h r o a t i s le ss fr o m c heek b o ne t o c heek ,

-

b o ne i s le ss a n d fr o m zyg o m a t o zyg o m a i s le ss The

,
.

chee k b o ne s a re le ss pro m i nent fo rw a rd s a n d a re so t o

-
, ,

FI G .
41 .
—The o vo i d a n d o b l i q ue ch a ra c ter o f th e F e m al e Hea d ,

c o n traste d w i th th e q
s uare n ess o f t h e Mal e .

s pe a k further behind the c h i n Thu s t h e c h i n bec o m e s

, .

m o re p o inted the fle sh y line fr o m t h e cheek b o ne t o the

,
-

c hi n a ss u m e s a little m o re i m p o rt a n c e by the retiri ng o f

t h e a ngle o f the j a w a n d so the fa ce be co m e s r o un der

,

a n d s m a ller The sa m e fa lling b a c k i s n o ti c e a ble a s h a s

.
,

been p o inted o u t i n the fo re p a rt o f the c r a niu m

, .

The re sult o f the se di fferen c e s i s t o fl a tten the fe m a le

he a d i n the regi o n o f t h e e a r a n d a l so t o so ften the ,

genera l fo r m a n d t o e m p h a si ze th a t o bliquity w hi c h i s
, ,

s o typ i c a l o f b o t h the c r a niu m a n d fa ce o f a w o m a n .

The he a d o f a m a n i s squ a rer a n d i ts p a rt s pr oj e c t m o re ,

defi n i tely T h e fo rehe a d i s h igher t h e zyg o m a che e k

.
, ,
68 F IG URE D RAWIN G A ND CO MPO SI T IO N
and hin b o ne s a re m o re pro m inent a n d t h e a ngle o f the
c -
,

j a w m o re pr o n o un c ed a n d squ a rer The fro nt o f the fa c e .

a t the m o uth m a be s a id t o be fl a tter

y .

20 . Th e B o n y S t ru c t u re of t he F ace .

TH E b o dy o f the l o wer j aw o r i nferi o r m a xill a ry lie s , ,

s o m ewh a t h o r i z o nt a lly a n d h as t w o a sc end i ng ra m use s

, ,

ri si ng t o the so cket s bene a th the zyg o ma s a n d thu s fo r m ing ,

the h i nge o f the j a w Up o n the teeth o f the l o wer j a w

.

re st th o se o f the t w o upper j a w b o ne s o r super i o r m a x -

,

i l l a ri e s
. The se superi o r m a xill a rie s re a ch a s h igh up a s
the i nner c o rners o f the eye so c ket s pro v i ding a l so the s ide s
-
,

o f the n o se a n d s ending o u t o n the o uter s ide s br a c ket s

, ,

up o n wh i c h re st the m a l a r o r c heek b o ne s The se m a l a r -

.

b o ne s a re r o ughly s t a r sh a ped fo ur p o inted O n e p o int

-
,
-
.

s tret c h e s t o w a rd s the n o se a n d fo r m s the o uter s i de o f the

,

l o wer b o rder o f the eye so cket o n e pro c eed s vert i c a lly

-
,

upw a rd a n d fo r m s the o uter b o rder o f the so c ket a n o ther

, ,

pr o ceed s b a ckwa rd a n d be co m e s a bra c ket to supp o r t

the zyg o m a w hi le the l a s t i s le ss p o i nted a n d fa lling
, ,

verti ca lly d o wnwa rd m a ke s the l o wer b o rder o f the

c heek b o ne
-
The n a sa l b o ne s a re v ery s m a ll a n d st a rt
. ,

fr o m the i ntern a l a ngul a r pr o ce ss o f the fro nt a l b o ne ,

between the eye s a n d pr oj e c t j u s t so fa r a s to m a ke the

,

bridge o f the n o se The re st o f the sh ape o f the n o se i s

.

built up o f c a rtil a ge o r gri stle The fr o nt a l b o ne o r b o ne

,
.
,

o f the fo rehe a d c a p s the wh o le fac e ; i t pro vide s the

,

upper b o rder s o f the eye so c ket s a n d by i t s extern a l -

,

a ngul a r pr o c e sse s fo r m s p a rt o f their o uter a n d by i t s ,

intern a l a ngul a r pr o ce sse s p ar t o f the i r inner b o rders , ,

a n d the r o o t o f the n o se .

Viewing the b o ny s tru c ture o f the fa ce a s a wh o le the ,

7 0 F IGU RE D RA WI NG A ND COM POSI T ION
bel o w i t fa ll b a c k m o re o r le ss ; le ss in the c a se o f the
,

c heek b o ne m o re i n the c a s e o f the upper j a w b o ne

-
,
The -
.

h o ll o w thu s fo r m ed i s c o ntinu o u s with the fl a n ki n g b a c k o f

the b a c k teeth Br o a dly spe a king it m a y be sa id th a t the
.
,

pr o m inence s o f the b o n e s o f the fa ce viewed fro m befo re , ,

a re i n the sh a pe o f a T .

Bel o w a n d a b o ve the teeth there i s a d i stin c t si n ki n g ;

thu s a t the b o tt o m o f the n o se the b o ne lie s further b a c k
th a n t h e teeth A n d s i m il a rly there i s a depre ssi o n
.
,

b e t ween the l o wer fro nt teeth a n d the e m i nen c e o f the

c hin .

The l o wer j aw b o ne i s o rigi n a lly a d o uble b o ne like the

-

upper j a w ; the p o i nt o f c o nj uncti o n o r fu si o n i s the , ,

sy m phy s i s o f the c hin whi c h o c c ur s ex a c tly i n the c entre

, .

A t the l o wer end o f the sy m phy si s o r c entr a l j o i nt there

i s a s light n o t c h which thr o w s i nt o pr o m i nen c e the
,

m ent a l ( m en s the c hin ) e m i nen c e s whi c h m eet o n the

, ,

sy m phy s i s a little a b o ve the n o tch The u nder b o rder .

o f the j a w i s n o t a s tr a ight edge fr o m the a ngle t o the

p o in t o f the c hin th o ugh it i s so m ewh a t o f o n e

, .

Fr o m the sy m phy si s t o a p o int j u st bel o w the l a st

teeth the o utline i s a gentle c urve c o ntinu o u s with the
,

o utline o f the a s cending r a m u s

“ ” S o th a t the a ngle
.
” “

i s a s it were a n a dditi o n ; o r i n o ther w o rd s there i s a

, , , ,

s light depre ssi o n a b o ve a n d bel o w the a ngle Thi s i s a .

m a tter o f c o n sider a ble i m p o rt a n c e .

The l o wer b o rder o f the j a w whi c h h a s ju st been

s p o ken o f a s fa r th a t i s
,
a s fr o m the sy m phy s i s t o a n d
, ,

i n c luding the a ngle i s fa irly evident i n the fin a l fo r m a s

, ,

a l so a re the fr o n t a l s uper c i l i a ry a n d n a sa l e m i n en c e s o f
, ,

the fo rehe a d To the c h a r a c teri sti c s which the se sup p ly

.
,

a ttenti o n will be further dire c ted a fter the m u sc le s o f t h e

fac e h ave bee n briefly n a m e d .

 THE H EAD A ND N ECK

2 1 . T he M u sc l e s of t he F a ce .

IT will be seen b y the d i a gr a m Fig 4 3 t h a t i n the fa ce ,

.
,

there a re three m u scle s o f c ir c ul a r fo r m a n d c a lled t h ere ,

fo re orbi cul a ri s T h ey c l o se the eyelid s a n d t h e m o uth

.
,

a n d the i r n a m e s c o n sequently a re the t w o oroi en l a res

p p
a l eb ra ru m a n d orlz i ea l a ri s ori s Their s i m il a r i
. ty‘

o f s h a pe
a ffo rd s a g o o d s t a rti ng p o int i n t h e c o n si der a t i o n o f the
-

CORRUGATOR S UPIRCILH
OCCl Pl TO FRO NTA L I S
PYRAMI DA LI S Ne a r EMPO RAI
”
AR R:
B R A RU M

M I NO R

LEVATO R M
DEP
R
LA B S U P O RB I C U LA R IS o a rs

FIG .
43
.
—Th M e usc l es o f t h e F a c e.

m u scle s of t h e fa ce But w hi le the i r S h ape a n d fun cti o n s

.

a re S i m i l a r ,
t h ere i s between the m a m a rked di fference ,

i n the fa c t o f t h e orbi en l a ris ori s being the c entre fo r

almo s t a l l the o ther m u scle s o f the fa ce while orbi ea l a ri s ,

p p
a l eb ra r n i n o,
r m u sc le o f the eyel i d s h a s h a rdly a n y ,

r o u nd i t a n d th o se o f little i m p o rt a nce They a re

, .
,

h o wever the py ra m i da l i s n a s i a n d oeeip i to f ron ta l i s the

,
-
,

fo r m e ra n ex te n si o n o f the l a tter a n d b o t h c o ncer n ed i n,

7 2 F IGU RE D RA WIN G A ND C OMPOSI T ION
—
wrinkling the s kin the py ra m i da l i s th a t o f the n o se t h e ,

oeeip i tozfron ta l i s th a t o f the fo rehe a d

,
.

G ener a lly a m u sc le p a sse s fr o m o n e b o ne t o a n o ther

b o ne the c o n ne c ti o n with the b o ne being a tend o n
, ,

s o m eti m e s l o ng a n d so m eti m e s sh o rt There a re m a ny .

c a se s i n whi c h i n s te a d o f a tt a c hing t o b o ne they a tt a c h t o

tendin o u s she a th s t o liga m ent s a n d si m il a r n o n b o n y

,
-

p a rts The o rbi c ul a ri s o ri s pro vide s a n u m ber o f the se

.

c a se s ; t h e m u sc le s whi c h pull the m o uth up d o w n o r , ,

—
b a c kw a rd t o briefly su m m a rize their fun c ti o n s a ri se fro m —
b o ne but fi nd their i n serti o n s in a n d a m o ng the fibre s
,

o f the o rbi c ul a ri s o ri s H en c e it i s th a t a l m o st a l l the

.

m u sc le s o f the fac e h a ve o nly o n e l o c a ti o n i n the b o n e s .

The o rbi c ul a ri s o ri s it self h a s n o b o ny c o nne c ti o n a n d it i s ,

the re c ipie n t o f the end s o f so m e n ine o ther s whi c h h a ve ,

o n e en d a tt a c hed t o b o ne Re a di n g fr o m the n o se there

.
,

a re the elev a t o r o f the up p er l i p a n d a l so o f the wing

of the n o se (L ev l a b s np s et o l d n a s i ) ; the pro per

. . .

elev a t o r o f the u p per l i p ( L ev l a b s ap ) Bene a th . . .

the se the eleva t o r o f the a ngle o f the m o ut h (L ev a ng . .

o ri s.
) Then the zyg o m a ti c u s m aj o r a nd mino r a ri s ing ,

a s they do fr o m the c heek b o ne n e a r the zyg o m a ti c

-

pro c e ss The se a re o pp o sed bel o w by the depre sso r o f

.

the a ngle o f the m o uth ( D ep a ng ori s) the de p re sso r

.
. .
,

o f the l o wer lip a n d the elev a t o r o f the

( D ep l ab . i nf
) .
,

c hi n whi h being l depre r the

( L ev i n en ti
.
) c
,
a s o a sso o f
l o wer l i p c o rre sp o nd s with the depre sso r o f t h e upper lip
,

( D ep l a b s a
.
p)
. s,
itu a ted under the n o s e .

The li s t o f m u sc le s r o und the m o uth i s c o m pleted

by the bu cc i n a t o r o r c heek m u sc le the m o st a rti sti c u se ,

o f whi c h i s m a de by the tru m p eter The i n fl a ti o n o f .

the li p s i s due t o the lu ng s but the bu c c in a t o r c o m pre sse s

,

th e sp a c e within t he m o uth a nd fo rce s th e b rea th

,
 THE H E AD A ND N ECK 73

r a pidly thr o ugh the c o n st ri c ted li p s A tt a c h ed a s it i s t o .

the c o rner o f the m o uth i t s a c ti o n pr o du c es a d i m p l i ng

,

there a s wel l a s a pu c ker i ng o f the C heek j u s t beh i nd

,

the c o rner .

The effe c t up o n t h e fa c e o f the m u scle s will be tre a ted

i n the n ext p a r a gr a ph It i s o nly ne c e ssa ry t h erefo re
.

t o n a m e the comp ressor n a s i whi c h c o m pre ss e s the n o s e

‘

a s i n s m ell i ng a n d the dil a tor n a s i whi c h lie s up o n a n d

, ,

exp a nd s the w rn g o f the n o se .

The i n a sseter o r m a stic a t o ry m u scle i s o n e o f a p a i r

, ,

whi c h i n c o nj un c ti o n w i th the tei np ora l es perfo r m s th a t

o ffi c e The temp ora l i s ri se s in the br o a d sp a c e kn o wn
.

a s t h e te m p o r a l fo s sa w h i c h i s b o u nded by the te m p o r a l
,

c urved line ( Fig s .

4 3 a n d 3 6 B ) . I t i s g a thered t o gether
,

i nt o a fa n sh a pe a n d p a sse s u nder the zygo m a t o be ,

i n serted i n the i n n er s ide o f the r a m u s o f the l o wer j aw .

The n za sseter a r i se s fr o m t h e edge o f t h e c heek b o ne -

a n d zyg o m a a n d a tt a c he s t o t h e ou ter s ide o f the r a m u s

, .

2 2 . T he E ffe c t o f th e Bo nes and M u sc l e s on

t he F ace .

L E A VI N G m a ny m a tter s
det a il a n d o f s culptu r a l
of

qu a lit y t o t h e succeeding p a r a gr a p h s o n the di fferent

fe ature s, there a re a nu m ber o f pe c ul i a r i tie s o f the fo r m o f
the fa c e a ri sing fro m b o th b o ny a n d m u scul a r stru c tu re
, ,

whi c h a re o f the fi r st i m p o rt a n c e t o the d r a ught s m a n .

T h e fr o nt a l e m inen c e s (A Fig 4 4) give the full r o u nd ne s s

,
.

t o the fo rehe a d They a re sep a r a ted by a very sl i ght

.

h o ll o w whi c h c o n t i n ue s to the r o o t o f the n o se J u st a b o ve

,
.

the n o se o n t h e bro w a re t h e n asa l e m i nen c e s B with the ,

s uper c ili a ry e m i nen c e s C c l o se by The se n a sa l a n d s uper

, .

c i li a r e mine n ce s are m u c h m o re devel o ed i n m a n th a n

y p
74 F IGU RE D RAWING A ND COM POSI T ION
i n w o m a n an d therefo re a ssi s t i n deter m ining the appe a r
,

a n c e o f se x in t h e he a d In m e n a line U i s gener a lly

.
, ,

t r a c e a ble o ver the super c ili a ry a n d n a sa l e m inen c e s It i s .

s h o wn a l so i n Fig 4 5 . The se e m i n en c e s o f the fo rehe a d

.

fo r m a so rt o f fro nt to it b o u nded by the line D w h i c h

, ,

be c o m e s a sh a d o w l ine when the light fa v o ur s it It .

will be seen in the p a ra gr a ph up o n the eye a n d i ts

s u rr o undi n g s th a t there i s a so rt o f c o rner i n the br o w in
, ,

FIG .
44 .

Fig .
44 ,
m a rked E . the j un
It i s c ti o n between c ert a in
m asse s o r fo r m s o f whi c h the super c ili a ry a n d n a sa l
, ,

e m ine n ce s fo r m o n e a n d the m a ss whi c h c o vers the eye

,

on the o uter s ide ( F ) i s a n o ther Thi s l a tter m ass i s

.

m a de up o f the extern a l a ngul a r pr o c e ss c o vered a n d ,

thi c kened by the o rbi c ul a ri s p a lpebra ru m m u sc le C l o se .

behind thi s i s the te m p o r a l c urved li n e st a rti ng upwa rd ( G) ,

a n d s urr o unding within the te m p o r a l fo ssa the te m p o ra l ,

m o und c o vered by the te m p o r a l m u sc le a n d m a king a ,

 T HE H E AD A ND NECK 75

l ow but i m p o rt a n t pr oj ecti o n a b o ve the e a r Bel o w

t hi s i s the zygo m a I rece i ving l i ght i n a l l pro b a bil i ty
, , .

Fr o m t h e u nder side o f the zyg o m a st a rt s a l i ne whi c h ,

d i vide s t h e fa c e fr o m t h e c h eek a n d run s d o w n t o the

,

c hin T hi s i s a m o s t i m p o rt a n t line sin c e it expre sse s

.
,

t h e mo delling o f the fa c e Its c o unterp a rt i s the o utline

.

o f the o ther s ide F o ll o w i ng th i s line d o wn there i s fi r s t

—
.

the c urve fo r the heek b o ne J then the cu rve fo r m ed by

c ,

the m u s c le s o f the c heek edged by the zyg o m a ti c u s m aj o r

,
‘

( )
K .N ext c o m e s a c urve fo r m ed by the o rbi c ul a ri s o ri s

( )
L ,
wh i le the line d ie s a w a y a r o un d the l o wer b o rder o f

the m a ss t o whi c h th a t m u scle m a y give i t s n a m e .

The sh ape o f the j aw i s pretty well expre ssed by t h e

r a m u s (M) the a ngle ( N) the c urve
, ,
a n d the c o rner s P P
( ) .

U p o n t h e j a w the m a sseter m u sc le lie s s l a nti n g b a c k ,

w a rd with a fa irly s tro ng b o rder i n the h o ll o w o f the ,

c heek Q ,
Bel
. o w i s the m a ss o f t h e depre sso rs ( R) .

The m ass o r m a sse s o f the c hin ( S ) a re so m e little

di st a n c e a b o ve the o utli ne Bel o w a l l the se will be
.

n o tice d a n a rr o w sp a ce j u st o n t he o utli ne o f the j a w

,
7 6 F IGU RE D RA WIN G A ND COMPOSI T ION
befo re the m u sc le s a re re a c h ed The s kin a nd the fa t
’

bene a th it o f c o ur se blend t o gether a l l the se fo r m s a n d ,

o b scure the m m o re o r le ss p a rti c ul a rl y i n w o m en

, .

In he a vil y fl e sh e d fa c e s a s i n t h o se o f h a le o l d m
-
, en ,

su c h a s S i r J o hn G ilbert s wel l k n o wn p a tri a rc h s the

’
- ~

l o o ser skin with i ts weight o f fa t m o difie s the fo r m c o n

S i de ra b l y .The fo ld s o f the ski n it self d o m i n a te t h e fo r m
bene a th the eye s a n d be si de the n ose a n d m o uth When
, .

th ese fo ld s a re very l o ng they p a ss d o w n the c heek a n d

,

turn under the j a w S u c h w o uld be the next st age

“

a fter th a t sh o wn In Fig 4 5 There will be n o t i ced a

. .

fle shy m a ss o n the l o wer p a rt o f the c heek a so rt o f ,

c o m bi n a ti o n Of the m a sse s Q a n d R i n Fig 44 whi c h , .

,

fo ld s r o u nd u nder the j aw t o the m a ss bene a th the c hin .

The a n gle o f the j a w genera lly ret a i n s i ts expre ssi o n In .

p er s o n s o f a l l a ge s there i s a degree o f thi s fo lding r o und

the m a ss o f the c heek t o the thro a t o ver a n d so ften i ng ,

the c rrrv e O o f the j a w ,

.

2 3 . T he Eye and i ts Ne ighb o u rh o o d .

T HE rbit
o eye so c ket i s o bli q uely pl a c ed ; so m e
,
or -
,

wh a t re c t a ngu l a r i n s h a pe it h a s i t s i n ner end the h igher

,
,
.

The d o wnwa rd sl a n t o f i t s l o wer a n d u p per b o rder s give s

t o the skelet o n th a t expre ssi o n o f gri m m i sery whi c h i s so

c h a r a c teri sti c o f it .

The b o rder s o f the o rbit h ad better be n o ti c ed i n

det a il The di agr a m repre sen t s the c o m plete fle shed
.

eye with h o wever the eyebro w o m itted a l so the sa m e

,

view o f th e b o ny o rbit The fir st det a i l t o c a ll a tte n ti o n

.

t o i s the n o t c h i n the upper b o rder m a rked A in b o th ,

figure s To the left o f thi s n o t c h i s the extern a l a ngul a r

.

p r o c e ss whi ch i s enl a rged b

y t h e o rbi c ul ari s
p a lpebr a ru m
7 8 F IGU R E D RA W ING A ND COM POSI TIO N
In o ld
p e o ple the te a r p o u c h -
E be c o m ,
e s very
,
m a rked ,

a n d i n the m the s h a e o f the b o ne i s m o re pl a i nly s een

p
th a n i n yo u n g pe o ple The s m o o the st p a rt o f the b o rder
.

o f the o rbit i s bene a th the n a sa l e m inen c e F an d i s , ,

i ndi c a ted by sh a di n g o n the skelet o n It fo r m s a kind .

o f en tr a n c e t o the h o ll o w o f the o rbit a n d i s well k n o wn ,

t o m o deller s .

The n a sa l b o ne s a l so pr o vide a very s m o o th de c livity

i n t o t h e o rbit a lt h o ugh the edge H i s sh a r p i n the skull
, , ,
.

H en c e in o l d pe o ple the b o rder o f the pie c e I s h o w s , ,

very p l a inly Thi s p a r t will be seen t o be a n exp a n si o n

.

fr o m the n a rr o w ridge , J t o w a rd s the n o se Th i s e x p a n

,
.

s i o n i s very i m p o rt a nt Being b o ne it d o e s n o t w a ste a n d

.
,

c o n s equently t a ke s light i n per so n s o f a l l a ge s Bel o w .

J the s urf a c e o f the m a xill a ry b o ne r u n s b a c k w a rd s a t

a gentle a ngle It i s thi s h o l l o wi n g whi c h thr o wing up

.
,

the ridge J a ss i s ts the gh a st l i n e ss o f e m a c i a ted fa c e s

,
.

O n e very i m p o rt a nt det a il o f the eye i s the surfa c e L It .

o c c ur s t o the i nner s ide o f the n o t c h i n the upper b o rder ,

and i s i n fo r m o v a l o r a l m o nd sh a ped and -

pl a c ed ,

o bliquely It ter m in a te s i n a blue vein li ne M

. Thi s -
, .

s m a ll s urfa c e o c c ur s o ver a tr o chle a o r p ulley thro ugh ,

whi c h o n e o f the m u scle s o f the eye o per a te s T h e

,

p o siti o n o f the tro c hle a i s sh o wn i n the a n a t o m i c a l

di a gra m .

It h a s been sa id by M r H o l m a n H unt th a t there a re

.

no co n c a vitie s i n the b o dy There i s genera lly a little

.

bu m ping up i n the depth o f s u c h whenever they o c cur ,

a n d thi s s urfa c e L i s a c a s e i n p o int .

The upper lid i s very p a lp a bly c o n ne c ted a t i t s inner

e n d by the sh o rt re f /l i te ten don o f the eyelid s ( Fig 47 A ) . .
,
.

Thi s tend o n le a d s t o the b o rder o f the o rbit a n d i s the ,

st a rt p o i nt fo r a nu m ber o f m in o r line s
-
There i s a slight .
 TH E H EA D A ND N ECK 79

s tr i ng o b serv a ble w h en the eyebro w s a re r a i sed ru nn ing

, ,

upwa rd fr o m the n o se en d o f t hi s white tend o n B To

-

, .

t h e s i d e o f thi s str i ng i s a s light h o ll o w C a g a i n st the

, ,

n o se d o wn wh i c h o n e m a y n o ti c e t h e blue li ne o f a vein
, ,

c o ntr a sting w i th the yell o w o f the w hi te tend o n Between .

the s tri ng B a n d t h e upper lid i s a n o ther h o ll o w i n the ,

upper p a rt o f wh i c h t h e su rfa ce L o f Fig 46 m o u nt s up . .

The white ten d o n keep s a m a rkedl y s tra ight c o urs e to the

upper lid w hi c h fi ts i nt o i t while bene a t h i t t h ere i s a
, ,

F IG .
47 .

m e m br a ne o u s c o n ne c t i o n w i th t h e b a ll o f the eye so t h a t ,

the white tend o n i s so m ewh a t h i g h er th a n the h o ll o w o f

t h e i nner c o rn er o f the eye in w hi c h o c c u rs the ca ru n cl e
,

o r l a c hry m a l w a rt D The l o wer l i d m a y be sa i d t o

.

re a lly s t a rt j u s t t o the o ther s ide o f th i s w a rt i ts c o n ,

n ec t i o n t o w a rd s the n o se getting o u t o f the w a y a s i t

were o f t h a t fle shy speck T h e u nder l i ne o f the l o wer lid
.

i s so m ewh a t bro ken by re a so n o f i t s s k i nny c o n ne c ti o n

w i t h t h e c h eek Bel o w t h e wh i te tend o n supp o r ts t h e
.
,
80 I U RE
F G D RA W IN G A ND COM POS ITIO N
s ki n th a t p a rt o f the fa c e between the eye a n d n o se
of
,

as is S ho wn a t E A t the o u ter end o f the eye the upper

.

lid o n ly c o ntinue s by a tend o n o r s tring t o wa rd s the

, ,

FIG .
48 .

zyg o m a the under l id c urving very r a pidly upw a rd a n d

, ,

m eeting t h e upper a t a b o ut a right a ngle .

The i ri s i s genera lly c o vered a t i ts u pper p a rt ; i ndeed it

t ake s a very wide st a re t o c o m pletely S h o w it But o n the .

o ther h a nd it i s n o t a t a l l unc o m m o n fo r the white to

,

s h o w a l l a l o ng bene a th the ir i s .

The edge o f e a c h eyelid i s squ a re in se c ti o n a s if it w ere ,

edged w ith s qu a re wire so th a t when the eye s cl o se the

, , ,
 T HE H EA D A ND N ECK 81

l id s t o u c h by n a rro w fl a t su rfa c e s wh i ch a re fa irly w ell ,

s een i n the di a gr a m s Thi s squ a re edge st o p s a bruptly a t

.

the c o rner s o f the eye .

By the illu stra ti o n s it will be seen th a t the fo r m s a re

by n o m e a n s s i m ple o r t h e c urve s pu re a rc s The c h ief
, .

pe c uli a ritie s m a y be briefly enu m er a ted In Fig 4 8 B . .

, ,

the o v o id fo r m a n d the m e m br a n e a t the o uter c o rner

, ,

a n d a l so the p o s iti o n o f the pupil n ot i n the m iddle o f

the iri s In C the irregul a r i ty o f t h e l o wer lid In Fig

.
, . .

49 ,
A a n d B a
,
s e c o nd fo ld t o the upper l id In a n d D .

the d o uble cu rv a tive o f the upper lid .

FIG .
50 .

T h e c o rne a o r len s o ver the i ri s i s a bulging m a ss up o n

, , ,

a n d i n ex c e ss o f the eyeb a ll it self

,
It r a i ses t h e lid a little
.

bey o nd i ts o rd i n a ry pr o j e c ti o n s u ffi c ien tly gener a lly t o

’

c a t c h a l ittle m o re light a s i n F ig ! 5 0 i n whi c h a l so a re

, ,

sh own t h e t w o d a rk s pe c k s repr esenting the u ppe r b o rder

o f the upper lid whi c h i s p a rtly h idd en by t h e bro w

,

d r o o ping Up o n i t In o l d pe o ple the d r o o ping b ro w a n d

.

s pheric a l eyelid c o ntr a st very sh arply a s i n C , .

The l a she s ha ve t h eeffect o f d a rken i ng t h e edge s o f the

lid s m o re p a rticul a rly i n the o uter t w o third s : The upper
,
-

l id a n d l a she s thr o w a degree o f sh a de up o n the eyeb a ll ;

b u t o ft e n a t the p r o j ecti o n c a used by the c o rn e a the t o p s ,

G
82 F IGU R E D RA WI N G A ND COMPOSI T ION
of the l a she s t ak e light whi c h thu s en c ro a c h es Up o n the
,

i ri s a s sh o wn i n the left eye i n Fig 5 0 In a s i m il a rw a y

,
. .

the edge o f the l o w er lid c a t c he s the light a n d refle c t s a ,

l ittle o n t o the b a ll .

It i s p o s s ible t o repre sent m a ny m o re o f the se subtletie s

th a n the En gli sh d r a ught sm a n u su a lly a tte m pts The .

Fren c h h a ve l o ng d o ne so The m iddle eye a b o ve

.

illu stra te s the tre a t m ent .

The fo u r c o rners o f the t w o eye s a re a l m o st o n a

s tr a ight line the i nner c o rner s a re a l ittle ne a rer the
,

s pe c t a t o r .

2 4 . T he No se .

T HE length fr o m the h o ll o w to the tip i s a b o ut t w o

i n c he s The b o ne pr o v i de s c o m p a r a tively little o f the
.

s tru c ture the n a sa l b o ne s being s h o rt a n d c e a s ing a t the

, ,

bridge whi c h i s sc a rcely h a lf w a y d o wn the re st i s built

,
-

o f c a rtil a ge .

The c entra l ca rtil a ge o f the end A Fig 5 I pr o ceed s , .

,

o c a a s—
further d wn th a n the s ide rtil ge the wings B T h e ,
.

wi n g s a re i n fo r m between the c ir c ul a r a n d the a ngul a r .

There i s a lw ay s a degree o f a ngul a rity a b o ut t h e m , but

they a re so m eti m e s ne a rer the r o und a s i n L a n d som eti m e s, ,

ne a rer the squ a re a s i n M B o th the c entr a l c a rt i l age A

,
.

a n d the wing s B curl up i nt o the n o stril Fr o m the wing .

there p a sse s a buttre ss C o ver th e n o st ri l t o o n e bulb

’

, ,

o f the tip D Thi s buttre ss i s le ss v o lu m in o u s th a n either

.

the wing s o r the tip which st a nd up a little a b o ve it

,
.

Further the buttre ss i s h o l l o wed a b o ve a s i s S h o wn in C

, ,

and L . T h e tip c o n si st s o f tw o sy m m etri c al bulb s D a n d ,

E between whi c h there i s gener a lly a s l i ght depre ss i o n

,
.

Fr o m the tip the c o lu m n st art s upw a rd fi rSt bein g so m e ,

‘
 T HE H EA D A ND N ECK 83

wh a t ro un ded a t F then fl a tter wider a n d b o ny a t G

, , , ,

n ext t hi nner a n d r o un der a g a in at H .

The r o un dne ss c o nti nue s till i t re a c h e s a sl i gh t h o l l o w I , ,

whi c h i s o b serv a ble i n t h e s kelet on The s ide o f the

’
.

n o se (J ) i s h ard a n d b o ny be i ng built up o n a pl a te o f t h e
,

s uper i o r m a x i ll a ry T hi s su rface 15 n o t fl a t but S l i g h tly

.
,

depressed a t a l l i ts b o rder s a n d thu s bec o m i ng s i m il a r

,

i n bulg i ng t o o n e si de o f a n a l m o n d
,
.

The n o se o f a w o m a n i s n a rr o w a n d le ss b o ldly
m o delled th a n a m a n s T h ere 13 le ss w i dt h a cro ss a t J J
’
.
,

FIG .
51 .

an d le ss a c ro ss t h e w i ng s B B a nd h en c e i ts w a ll s a re m o re
,

precipit o u s T h e m o dell i ng o f the w rn g a n d t i p a re a l so

.

m u c h le ss fo r cible th a n a m a n s a n d the n o str i l s h a ve n o t

’

the sa m e a ppe a r a n c e o f dil a t i o n bu t l o o k p i n c h ed L i s

, .

the n o se o f a w oma n but it a l so serve s t o sh o w t h a t t h e

’

m o st p r o j ecting p o i nt i sn o t a b so lutely a t t h e end .

In dr a wing in o utli ne the fr o n t v i ew o f t h e n o se i t i s

‘

Cu st o m a ry t o w a ve th e de scend i ng li ne c o n si der a bly i n a

m a n s but it m u st be ke pt m ri c h s tr a ighter In a w o m a n s
’ ’
, .

The b ea uty o f a G re c i a n n o se i s Often sp o ken o f a n d i t ,

n eed o n ly here be Sai d th a t the G reek s fi lled up t h e h oll o w

84 F IGU R E D RAWIN G A ND COM POSI T ION
at the ro o t o f the n o se t o so m e extent The r o o t t o o
,
.
, ,

whi c h in the di a gr a m i s m a rked H is gener a lly w i der i n ,

the Greek he a d s a n d n o t so sen sitive b o ny a n d thin

, , ,

a s i n o u rs .

The line 0 i n di c a te s the m o delling o f the l o wer end

o f the n o se a n d divide s the receding s urfa ce s a b o ve a n d
,

bel o w it O f the s e the upper 15 the m o re ne a rly verti c a l ;

.

th e l o wer m o re ne a rly h o rrz o n t al a n d so m ewh a t tri a ngul a r

, ,

c o nt a in s the n o stril a n d m eet s i t s fell o w a t t h e centr a l

,

c a rtil age whi c h i s so m ewh at squ a re In se c t i o n P

, , .

2 5 . T he M o u th an d C h i n .

T HE m o uth , m o re
pr o perly sp e a king the lip s fo r m
or ,

a m a ss a s di st i nctly i n exce ss o f the o rdin a ry surfa c e o f

,

the fac e a s t h e n o se o r c hin In m o delling a fa ce a .

sep a r a te m a ss m u st be a dded It i s t h e lip s th a t fo r m .

the pr oj ecti o n the end s o f the slit o f the m o uth being i n

,

t h e genera l m a ss o f the fa c e Every o n e kn o ws the three .

line s o f the lip s a n d h o w the c entr a l a n d upper o ne s a re

,

i n sh a pe so m ewh a t like a C up i d s b o w T h e s i m ple st ’

.

deline a ti o n o f the m o uth i s sh o wn in the sm a ll drawing ,

Fig 5 2 A In thi s it will be seen th a t st a rt i ng a t the

.
,
.

c entre between the lip s the sl i t fo r m s a l i ne o f be a uty

”
“
,

a n d gr a c e a d o uble c urve th a t i s t o eit h er c o rner

,
Thi s , .

a rr a nge m ent i s repe a ted slig h tly v a r i ed i n the line o f the

, ,

u pper lip If thi s di a gra m ( A) be c o m p a red with the

.

m o uth i n the l a rger dr a wing i t will be seen th a t i n t he ,

l atter the line s o f the lip s a re m uch m o re c o m pli c a t e d .

Fo ll o wing the c u rve s in thi s the slit will be see n t o ,

des c ribe t w o gentle c urve s befo re it h a s c o m pleted the ,

On e si d e o f the lip s pr o per ; a n d t h e n w h a t i n t h e d i a gr a m , ‘ _

86 F IGU RE D RAWI N G A ND C O MPOSI T I O N
fa c t the s lit i s there h a rdly perc e p tible Thi s w idth o f .

c o rner repre sent s n o t so m u c h the end o f the slit o r

li p s a s the h o ll o w o r di m ple fo r m ed by the fle shy fo ld
,

a lre a dy s p o ken o f .

The m o uth i s m a de up o f a l tern a ti ng c h a n nel s a n d

e m i nence s T hu s there i s the well k n o wn c entra l e m inen c e
.
,
-

o f the upper lip ; th i s i s o pp o sed by the slight ch a nnel

i n the l o wer lip a c h a nnel fo r m ed by th e m eeting o f the
,

t w o m o und s o f the l o wer lip a n d therefo re n o t a t a l l ,

i n c l i n rn g t o a con ca ve but t o a V sh a ped c h a n nel

,
-
.

The se t w o m o und s o f t h e l o wer lip a re o pp o sed in the

upper by a very gentle so ften ing o r depre ss i o n The .

l o wer l ip ter m i n a te s a bruptly the m o und s r o u n ding o ff

,

b o ldly ( D ) A s i f t o b a l a n c e o r c o ntr a st w i th thi s s udden

.

fi n i sh t h e upper l i p o pp o se s a little extra fullne ss t o the

,

v a c a n c y i n the l o wer c a u sed by i t s ter m in a t i o n a n d die s , ,

but n ot a bruptly int o the sl i t

, .

A n o ther i te m o f c o n tr a st between the tw o l i p s i s t h a t

the upper h a s o n e h igh p o int the w h o le fo r m i ng m o re o r
,

le ss a p o int fo rwa rd The l o wer lip h as t w o m o u nd s o f

.

equ a l h eig h t a n d thu s pre sent s a fl a tt i sh fr o n t

,
.

T h e tw o m o und s o f the l o wer l i p a re repe a ted i n the

t w o s urfa c e s ( E) bene a t h i t a n d a g a i n i n t h e t w o b o ny
,

pro m i nence s u nder the c h i n ( F ) The c hin it self h a s i ts .

gre a te st pro m i nence r a ther h i gh where the letter G i s a n d , ,

i s re m a rk a bly s i m il a r i n pr o file t o the tip o f the n o se ,

a n d t h e Upper lip H l l three be i ng o t o nly s qu a r i s h

( ) a ,
n

i n fo r m but o bliquely pl a c ed a n d a t m u c h the sa m e a ngle

”
.
, ,

A c le ar c u t m o uth h a s c o nsi de ra b l e sh a rp n es s a t the

“ ‘
-

edge s o f the lip s a sh a rpne ss so m eti m es c o ntinu i ng the

,

wh o le length o f the upper lip but c o nfi n ed to the fro nt ,

o f th e l o wer s i n c e the r a pid c urvi ng i n D tend s t o m a ke

‘

a h o ll o w r a ther th a n t o thr o w up a ridge The sh a rp .

 THE H EA D AND N E CK 87

p a rt of the l o wer lip ( I ) as well a s the to p o f the c hin ( J )

, ,

a re i m p o rt a n t i n dr a wi n g a s they a re gener a lly sh a rply

,

a c c ented In . i m p re s si o n i n g the m o ut h On e w o uld s eize

“

the little m a ss o f sh a d o w between the se l i ne s t h e sh a d o w ,

o n the upper lip a n d the s peck s i n the c o rner s ( K ) thu s ,

a rriving n o t a th o u sa n d m ile s fr o m the tre a t m ent o f t h e

m o uth o n a c hild s d o ll D i a gr a m K w ill further serve

’
.

t o i llu s tr a te the fa c t th a t the c o rner s a re n o t o n a level

,

with the div i s i o n between the lip s bu t so m ewh a t a t the ,

s ide s o f the l o wer o ne Thi s i s i m p o rt a n t indeed n o t h i n g

.

l o o k s so b a d a s a g a shy m o uth .

2 6 . Th e Ea r .

THE n a m e s o f the differen t p a rt s o f t h e ea r wi l l b e

fo un d o n d i a gra m A Fig 5 3 The s i m ple st o utli ne sh a pe
,
. .

o f the e a r i s s h o wn a t D a n d c o n s i s t s o f a n o v o i d c urve
,

w i t h a I o o p bel o w a n d a n o ther s i m i l a r cu r ve wit hi n it

, .

Th e s h a pe o f the e a r v a r i e s very gre a tly a n d c o n sequently ,

a c o n s i der a ble l a t i tude i s a ll o wed the dr a ught s m a n Thu s

,

.
,

t h e l o bul e bel o w i s so m et i m e s s m a ll a n d dr o p like a n d -

,

s o m eti m e s br o a d In wh i c h c a se it fo r m s a fa i rly c o ntinu o u s

o v o i d c urve w i th the upper p a rt o f t h e e a r A s a r u le .

,

h o w e v e r t h e re i s a di s tin c t C h a nge o f c urve fr o m t h e helix

'

t o the l o bu le Between the h eli x a n d the a nt i h elix i s

.
-

a gr o o ve deepeni ng an d widen ing a s it a sc e nd s T h i s .

s o m eti m e s a ppe a r s quite wide a n d s heet l i ke i n t h e e a r s -

o f m en F,
The width o f the hel i x i t self v a r i e s very gre a tly
.
-

It i s a r o lli ng o ver o f the edge o f t h e ea r i nt o t h e gr o o ve

between it a n d t he a n t i helix T h i s ro lling o ver i s s o m e
-
.

ti m e s m o re a n d so m et i m e s le ss c o m plete a n d perfect It .

i s m o re frequently wel l r o lled i n w o m en t h a n i n m e n .

A t a l l event s it p o sse sse s a n d gener a lly e x hi b i t s i n t h e

, ,
88 F IGU RE D RA W ING A ND C O MPOSI TIO N
upper p a rt a sh a rp edge p a rti a lly c o n c e a led by bei n g
r o lled o r c urled i nwa rd whi c h c an e a sily be felt in o n e s
,
’

o w n e a rs . It i s sc a r c ely n e c e ssa ry t o p o i n t o u t th a t the

helix w a n ders r o u n d the m a ss o f the e a r re c eive s a s o rt ,

o f buttre ss fr o m the C heek a n d then p ro c eed s further ,

i nw a rd a n d die s a w a y a b o ut h a lf w a y d o w n the e a r —a -

u seful l a nd m a rk D The a nti heli x s t a rt s a t the e m ine n c e

, .
-

c a lled the a nti tr a gu s-

whi c h m a ke s a very c o n sidera ble
,

elev a ti o n Fr o m the a nti tr a gu s the a nti heli x turn s

.
- -

r a pidly b a c k wa rd a n d pr o c e ed s upw a rd so m ewh a t p a ra llel

,

HELI X

TRAG

NTIHEUX '

LOBULE NTITRAGUS C

FIG .
53 .
—Th e Ea r . F is a Mal e Ea r
.

to the helix fin a lly dying a w a y int o the fo ld o f the e a r

,

by t w o exten si o n s The inner line o f the a nti helix i s

.
-
,

a s s h o wn i n D n o t di ss i m il a r t o the o utline o f the e a r

,
.

The tra gu s o c c u rring j u st befo re the c o n c h a o r sl zel l o r , ,

h o ll o w t a ke s i ts n a m e fr o m the fa c t o f i ts so m eti m e s
,

be a ri ng a n u m ber o f c o a r se a n d l o ng h a ir s whi c h sugge s t ,

a g o a t s be a rd
’
-
.
.

It i s o f very gre a t i m p o rt a n c e th a t the m o delli n g o f the

ea r s h o uld be s tud i ed quite a s m uch a s the o u t line o r

di a gra m m a t i c sh a pe A n e a r th a t l o o k s fl a t i s i n t o ler able

. .
90 F IGU RE D RA W IN G A ND CO MPOSI T IO N
The b a c k view o f the e a r s h o w s the o u t side o f the c o n c h a
s upp o rting the m a i n m a ss E , .

The p o siti o n o f the e a r i s j u s t up o n t h e edge o f

the j a w In m e n i t i s a l m o st verti c a lly pl a c ed in w o m en
.

i t i s in c lined c o n sider a bly b a c kw a rd a n d i s s m a ller ,

pro p o rti o n a lly .

It m u s t be o b served th a t the m a sse s see m i n gly r o und i n

“

se c ti o n a re o ften fl a ttened o r d o ubled The e xpre ssi on

”
.

d o ubling m a y st a nd fo r the pl a cing o f say t w o s m a ller , ,

c urve s in pl a c e o f o n e l a rge o n e o r repr ese nting i n ste a d , ,

F IG 5 4
. .
—Th ree F e m al e Ea rs .

of a h a lf gl o be a fo r m wh i c h a ppr o a che s th a t sh a pe , b ut
,

h a s t w o m o und s In the ea r t h ere a re m a ny i n st a n c e s

.

o f do u b l i n
g s o m e t i m es ,
trebling
,
a n d qu a drupling Thu s .

the l o bule c o nt a in s re a lly n o t on e d o m ed surfa c e but ,

sever a l
( S ee
. Fig 54 A a n d B ) T. h e helix
,
i s very o ften .

d o ubled e spe c i a lly i n m en there being a sugge sti o n o f

, ,

t w o c i r c ul a r c o rd s twi s ted in o n e m ass r a ther th a n one ,

c ir c ul a r co rd o f equ a l bulk Thi s re sult s in fl a tten ing “

. .

( g
F i .
5 3 F a n d 5 4 A, a n d B ) The l a tter t w o ex a m ple s .

a re t a ken fr o m a b o o k o n dr a win publi sh ed in Veni c e i n

g
I7 6 2 . A b a d per i o d t h e re a der wi l l say ,
B a d fo r m a ny .

thing s u nfo rtun a tely but the fl esh a lw a y s l o o k s fle shy

, ,
'

,
 THE H EAD A ND N EC K 9 1

perh a p s even d o ughy a n d there i s a n exce ss i ve c a re

,

fo r the d o ubling s a s they h a ve bee n c a lled a b o ve

“
,
.

A rt i s t s o f thi s peri o d s ee m t o h a ve c a rr i ed thei r s tudy a n d

expre ss i o n o f fl e sh i n ess a n d sq rra re n e ss o f fo r m r a ther
t o o fa r ; bu t it i s d o ubtfu l w h et h er we s h a ll ru n t o quite

s u c h length s ; a n d a gl a n c e a t the i r w o rk s m a be r a ther

y
benefi c i a l th a n o t h erwi se .

2 7 . The Ne c k : to w ha t de g re e c
yl i n dri c a l .

T HE neck Of
w o m a n i s ne a rer a cyl i nder in fo r m th a n
a
-

th a t o f a m a n ; the sp l aym g o u t to the tru n k i s le ss

m a rked a s a re t h e a n a t o m i c a l fo r m s gener a l ly wh i le t h e
, ,

wh o le ne c k i s pr o p o rti o n a lly l o nger T h e fr o nt v i ew o f a

.

FIG .
55 .

w o m a n s ne c k m a y then be fa irly repre sented by tw o li n e s

’

very slightly c u rved a fter t h e m a n ner o f Ho ga rth s l ine ’ “

o f be a uty a n d gr a ce T hi s 15 o f c o ur se o n ly true o f t h e
.
, ,

u pr i ght p o si t i o n ; a n y bend i n g i m m edi a tely bring s i nt o

9 2 F IGU RE D RAWIN G A ND COMPOSI T ION
pr o m inence so m e o f the a n a t o m i c a l det a il s whi c h a re ,

referred t o i n sub sequent p a ra gr a p h s .

In s ide v iew a l so the neck o f a w o m a n i s ne a rer the

‘

, ,

s i m le c ylindri c a l fo r m th a n a m a n s th ugh i n thi view ’

p o s ,
.

the c ylinder i s bent b e rn g o utlined by the gr a c eful .

c urve s o f the n e ck an d thr o a t In a m a n the m u sc le s .

at the b a c k o f the ne c k bulge o u t a n d de stro y the

s i m il a rity of the t w o o utl i ne s C o m p a re A a n d B .
,

Fig 2 5 . .

There a re s ugge sti o n s o f fl a tne ss a t the b a c k a n d s ide s

o f the neck p a rti c ul a rly i n the m a le
,
The b a c k i s fo r m ed .

by the upper p a rt o f the tr a pezi u s m u sc le s a n d h a s a ,

s light c h a n nel d o w n the m id dle o f it neutr a li zed bel o w ,

by the s pine s o f the vertebr ae whi c h be c o m e pr o m i nent ,

a n d a b o ve when the he a d i s he a v i ly d r o pped by the

, ,

lig a m entu m n uc h x .

The fl a t n e sses a t the s ide s extend fr o m the e a r s b a ck

w a rd to the tra pezi us there bei n g s o m et i m e s a s ligh t c o n
,

c a vity bet w een the stern o c leid o m a st o ideu s a n d tr a peziu s

- -

m u s c le s .

2 8 . The B o n es of t he Ne c k .

F IGS .
57 5i6llu s tr a te
andthe b o ne s o f t h e ne c k The .

n a m e s o f t h e sep a ra te b o ne s a n d t h e i r c h a r a cteri s ti c
fe a ture s will be fo u nd o n the di agr a m s .

In Fig 5 8 i s illu str a ted the lig a m e n t o f the ne c k w h i c h

.
,

s tret c he s fr o m t h e vertebr a pr o m inen s t o the o cc iput .

T h e o bliquity o f the b ase a n d j a w o f the fe m a le s kull a s ,

c o ntr a sting with t h e s qu a rene ss a n d h o riz o nt a lity o f the

m a le m ay a l so be n o ti c ed ; a n o bliqui ty whi c h extend s t o

,
94 F IGU RE D RA WI N G A ND COMPOSI T ION
the fi rs t r i b a s well The tilting up o f the b a se . of the
fe m a le s kul l lengthen s the b a c k o f the ne c k .

FIG .
58 .
—Th e Mal e a n d Fe mal e Ne cks , w i th t h e L i g a me n tum Nu ch ce .

2 9 . Ho w the Ne c k fi ts on to the Tru n k .

T HE ne c k c o n sidered a s a t o ler a ble c ylinder fi ts fa i rly

c le a nly i nt o the tru nk a l m o s t a s if it c o ntinued i nt o the
,

i nter i o r with o ut a l teri n g i t s o w n genera l sh a pe o r th a t o f ,

the trunk Its b a se m ay be sa id to be the fi rs t p a ir o f rib s

.
,

d o w n t o wh i c h it plunge s W ith o ut m u c h m o dera ti o n o f t h e

a ngle thu s m a de w i th the s h o ulder o r h o ri z o nt a l p a rt o f ,

the ne c k Thi s i s m o re t o be re m a rked i n the ne c k s o f

.

w o m en a n d e spe c i a lly if the sh o ulder s be r a i sed when the

, ,

n e c k a ppe a r s s t a nding i n a h o ll o w a n d su rr o unded by t h e ,

c o ll a r b o ne s a n d the m u s cle s a t
-
the b a c k o f the ne c k .

( Fig .
5 9 A ) If h
,
o wever the. ne c k be c yli
,
ndri c a l a b
,
o ve it ,

i s little m o re th a n h a l f a cylinder th a t settle s d o wn int o

the trunk i n the m a nner j u st de sc ribed The i m p o rt a nt .

tra peziu s m u sc le (see p a r a g ra ph w h ile it lie s as a

fl a t S heet o n the upper p a rt o f the b a ck wr a p s o ver ,

the S ho ulder a n d f o r ms bu ttr esses a t eit h e r si de o f the

,
 T HE H EAD A ND N ECK 95

ne c k i n the m a n ner sugge sted i n the di a gr a m whi c h ,

buttre sse s o f c o ur se t a ke the pl a c e o f the hi nder h a lf o f

the l o wer part o f the c ylinder ( Fig 5 9 B ) . .
,
.

T he extr a le ngth o f the ne c k i n the w o m a n i s due t o the

dr o pp i ng o f the c o ll a r b o ne s F o r a ssu m i n g t h e l o wer end
-
.

o f the bre a st b o ne t o o c c upy t h e sa m e p o siti o n i n b o t h

-

FI G .
59 .

sexe s the bre ast b o ne o f the wo m a n bei ng s h o rter p ro

-

p o rti o n a lly by a l m o s t h a lf a n Inc h dr ag s the c o ll a r b o ne s

,
-

a n d the fi r s t p a i r o f rib s d o wn a c o rre sp o nding d i s t a n c e

-

thu s le a v i ng t h e ne c k a s m u c h l o nger It i s therefo re the .

c o lu m n a r o r fo rw a rd p a rt o f the ne c k t h a t g a in s i n length .

The vertebra pr o m i nen s i s very little l o wer .

3 0 . Th e S t e rn o -
c l e ido -
ma sto ide u s .

T HE m u sc le i s een i n i t s c o m pletene ss i n the t h r ee

s

qu a rter view o f the ne c k The s tern a l he a d a ppe a rs the

.

mo re i m po rt a n t l yi n g i n a direct io n very sug ge st i ve o f a

,
9 6 F IGU R E D RAWIN G A ND COMPOSI T ION
l dy b nnet s tring A b o ve under t h e ea r it fo r ms o n e
a
’
s o -
.
, ,

m a ss with the c l a vi c ul a r he a d a n d the se c t i o n o f the t w o ,

t o gether i s th a t o f a swo llen ribb o n fo r m being a t o n c e -

,

fle sh y a n d br o a d The fo r m o f the m a st o id p r o c e ss it self

.
‘

help s t o g o vern the se c ti o n the m a st o id re se m bli n g a n ,

i nverted fi r co ne so m ewh a t fl a ttened The stern a l he a d

-
, .

de sc ending be co m e s ro under i n se c ti o n the wide st p a rt o f ,

the wh o le m u sc le bei n g a t a b o ut the h a lf w a y d o wn i t s -

FI G . 60 .
—S tern o - cl eid o -
m asto i deus Muscl e .

A tt a c h m en s t—b a ov e, t o th e mas t i d pr
o o c e ss o f th e tem p oral b o n e,
an d b ackw r d a s so m e d it
s a n c e al o n g t h e sup e ri r r o c u v ed l i n e of

th e o c c i p it l —b
a el o w , b y th e i nne r tr
o r s e n al h ea d t o t h e f r t
on

of th e t o p o f t h e s e tr n um , an d b y th e c l a v c ul a i r h ea d t o th e
i rm t th ird f th
nne os o e u pp e r b o de r r of th e cl a v cl e ; th e i h ea d of

th t b l y i g b tw e
a on e n e e n th e t w o a tt ach m en s t .

co urse T h e stern a l he a d i s c o n c luded by a co rd like

.
-

tend o n ru nn ing o n t o the bre a st b o ne Thi s tend o n i s -

.

i n f ron t o f t h e m u sc le a n d hence even i n well fl e sh ed ,

-

w o m en a n d c hild ren it sh o w s in m a ny p o se s a s a S h a rp
c o rd Indeed so m eti m e s when the b o rder s o f the v a ri o u s
.

m u sc le s a re quite l o st i n o n e so ft s o m ewh a t c ylind ri ca l

m a ss the se t w o te n d o n s s t a rt u p b u t t re s s like fr o m eithe r
,
-

s ide o f the o f t h e ne c k Fig 6

p i t ( 1 B l ) . .
,
9 8 F IGU R E DRA WING AND CO MPOSI TIO N
s welling out under the a ngle o f the j a w a n d m eeting the
‘

m a ss o f the thro a t with c o n sider a ble a bruptne ss ( Fig 6 1 . .

,

D ) . Im m edi a tely under the a ngle o f the j a w there i s a

so ftening whi c h i s s h o wn i n t he di a gr a m i f the in ner
( )
C a s ,

b o rder o f the m u sc le tu rned sh a rply r o und t o the c hin .

The stern o c leid o m a s t o ideu s lying then a s a di a g o n a l

- -
,

c o rd like pr oj e c ti o n m a ke s the o utline in three q u a rteI

-
,
-
‘

and s i m il a r view s It s curve i s a l m o s t a lw a y s a full

.

s welling c urve returning s h a rply where the ten d o n o c c ur s .

It i s s tr a ighte st when the c hin i s turned t o the c o ntr a ry

s ide a n d the ne c k i s s ti ff ; but s o m eti m e s with thi s a c ti o n
,

the line i s c o n s idera bly br o ken a n d a ngul a r .

3 I . T he T h ro a t .

B E T WEEN the t w o s tern o m a st o id s o r b o n net s tr i ng s i s

-
,
-
,

t h e tri a ngul a r sp a c e o f the thro a t Its a pex i s a t the pit .

o f the ne c k i t s b a se fr o m a ngle t o a ngle o f the j a w

,
.

A n o ther tri a ngle extend s fr o m thi s s a m e b a se t o the c hin ,

a n d the t w o t o get h er fo r m the sp a c e n o w t o be s p o ken o f .

A t thi s c o m m o n b a se lie s the l iy o i d b o ne o r U snaped ,

-

b o ne gener a lly o m itted fr o m the spe c i m en s keleto n s t o be

,

seen i n o u r s c h o o l s It lie s fa irly h o riz o nt a lly with the

.
,

t a il s o f the U dire c ted b a c kwa rd s a n d n o t t o o deep but ,

th a t i t m a y j u st be felt Thi s hy o id b o ne i s the upper

.

m o s t pie c e o f the l a ryn x the s w a ll o wi ng a n d v o ca l,

a pp a r a tu s ,
the o ther pie c e s being the thyr o id a n d the
cri c o id c a rtil a ge s It i s the t h yr o i d c a rtil a ge whi c h fo r m s
.

the m ass of the A d a m s a pple U p o n it o c c urs a little

’
.

ex tra proj e c ti o n c o m ing c l o se up to the skin The .

thyro id c a rtil a ge i s in sh a pe a sh o rt p re c e o f a tube a n d ,

bene a t h i s the cri c o i d o r ring c a rtil a ge so m ewh a t si m il a r ,

i n fro nt t o the hy o i d b o ne T h e se fo r m s a re a l l m o re .
 THE H EAD A ND N EC K 99

di s tin c tly een i n m e n th a n i n w o m en fo r t w o re a so n s

s ,

fi rs t be c a u se t h ey a re l a rger a n d l o wer a n d s e c o nd
, , ,

be c a u s e they a re le ss m a s ked by t h e thy roid body a gl a n d ,

wh i c h i s n o t o n ly l a rger i n w o m en bu t m o re pr o m inen t
a l so s upply i ng t h e gra ceful fullne ss befo re a w o m a n s ’

t hr o a t
.
( S ee F i g 5 5 B ) .
, .

In d r a w i ng the neck fr o nt view i t will be fo und th a t the ,

tubul a r m ass the t h yr o id c a rtil a ge m u s t fi rs t be expre ssed

, , ,

a n d will fill up very ne a rly t h e s p a c e bet w een t h e s tern o

m ast o i d s i f t h e se a re wel l devel o ped T h en t h e centre o f .

thi s m ass m u st be pe a ked w i t h t h e sh a rp proj ect i o n befo re

“
HY O I D B O NE .

T HY RO ID
T

C A RT ! LAG E
O R A DAM S APPLE
~
C RI C O I D
C A R T IL A G E

F IG 6 2
. .
—T h e L ar y x n .

n am ed wh i le bel o w m u st be t h e sec o nd h o r i z o nt a l r i dge

, ,

t h e cr i c o id c a rt i l age .

If th e c h in be h eld up a n d t h e a ct i o n o f gasp i ng be,

perfo r m ed a l l t h e fo r m s o f the t h ro a t w i ll be br o ug h t o u t
, ,

a n d the s e a m o un t fo r t h e d r a ug h t s m a n t o t w o d i ve rgen t

m a sses a b o ve the a pple a n d sa y fo u r d i vergen t m asse s

, , ,

bel o w i t While o n eit h er si de i s a so ft le ss fo r m a l m a ss

, ,

fi l l i n g u p t h e di a m o n d o f t h e thr o a t ( F i g 6 3 A ) T h e
'

. . .
,

d i vergen t m asse s virtu a lly m ee t o n t h e hy o i d b o ne The .

m u scle s w hi c h pro duce t h o se fo r m s a re t o o n u m er o u s

a n d sm a l l fo r a de ta i led de script i o n t o be m u ch m o re
v a lu a ble pr a ct i c a lly t o t h e d ra ug h t sm a n t h a n w h a t ha s
, ,
100 FI URE D RA W
G ING A ND CO MPOS ITIO N
a lre a dy been s a i d O n e o nly need be s p e c ified by
.

n a m e the oi n o l zy oid ( Fig 6 3 B ) The i m p o rt an c e

,
-
. .
,
.

o f thi s little c h o king m u s c le i s due t o i t s being the

s o le di sturber o f the e m ptine ss o f the tri a ngle o n the
o ther s ide o f the s tern o m a st o id The o m o hy o id run s
-
.
-

fro m the upper b o rder o f the bl a de b o ne t o the hy o id b o ne - -

.

A lth o ugh the bl a de b o n e i s m o s t d i sti n c tly a t the b a c k o f

-

the figure yet the p a rt a b o ve the s pi n o u s pr o c e ss o f it

,

c o m e s fo rw a rd c o n s ider a bly The o m o hy o id i s m o re o ver

.
-

a d o uble m u sc le h a vi ng t w o fle shy b o d i e s c o nt i nu o u s with

,

o n e a n o ther so m ewh a t
, m a y it be s a id a s tw o sa u sa ge s
, , ,

F IG . 63 .
—Th e T h ro a t . B ,
th e O mo - H y oi d .

and j o ined t o gether in so m ewh a t s i m il a r fa shi o n by a n

i nter m edi a te tend o n T h i s i nter m ed i a te tend o n p a sse s
.

under the s tern o m a st o id whi c h a p pe a r s t o h o ld it d o wn

-
, ,

and fo r m a c entr a l a tt a c h m ent Fro m thi s p o siti o n .

t h e m u sc le pr o c eed s i n a n e w dire c ti o n m o re verti ca l , ,

up t o the hy o id b o ne Thi s upper p a rt i n the thro a t

.
, ,

sh o ws no m o re th a n the o ther s m a l l m u sc le s o f th a t
regi o n The l o wer p a rt i s a little m o re i n evi den c e
.
,

m a king a dull pro m inen c e a l o n g i ts c o ur se th o ugh o ften ,

h a rd ly di scern ible .
10 2 F IGU RE D RAWI N G A ND COMPOSI T ION
r a i sed o r depre ssed the in c h o r m o re o f ac ro m i o n a t the
,

end o f the C up i d s b o w m a de c hiefly by the c l av i c le s

’

, ,

turn s a l ittle upw a rd ( Fig 6 5 A ) o r d o wnw a rd ( B ) When

.
, .

the a c r o m i o n i s thu s bent d o wnwa rd the o uter end o f the ,

c l avi c le m a ke s it self m o re evident A g o o d de a l o f the

, .

c o ll a r b o ne a n d of i t s exten si o n
-
t h e a cro m i o n i s su b , .
,

c ut a ne o u s th at i s cl o se u nder the skin The v a ri o u s

, ,
.

m u sc le s a tt a c h t o their upper a n d l o wer b o rder s S o me .

ti m e s i n a dr a wing the line s w i ll st a nd i m m edi a tely fo r

b o ne a n d so m eti m e s by repre senting the edge o f the
,

m u scul a r m ass w i ll o n ly sugge st the b o ne a s i n C ,

.

FIG . 65 .

As a rule th eb o ne give s the fo r m a b o ve the m u s ,

c u l a r m a ss bel o w S t a rting fr o m the pit o f the ne c k

.
,

a fter the tend o n o f the s tern o m ast o i d c o m e s the he a d -

o f the cl a v i c le b o ldly ; then fo ll o w s t h e i n serti o n o f the

,

c le i d o m a st o i d
-
b u t w i th o ut su ffi c i ent v o lu m e t o g a in
,

pre c eden c e o f the b o ne w hi c h pr o vide s the w h o le o f

,

the upper l i n e F o r beyo nd the cle i d o m a st o i d there

.
-

i s the sa lt c e l l a r
-
h o ll o w br o ken o nly by t h e o m o h yo id
,
-
,

wh i c h i s so m e little di st a n c e wit h in ; then to thi s h o ll o w

s u c ceed s p a rt o f the tr a pez i u s m u sc le n o t genera lly
‘

sufficientl y v o lu mi no u s t o m ake a fle sh y ridg e ; a t a l l

 THE H EA D A ND N ECK 103

event s n o t o n e so pr o n o u n c ed a s th a t o f the delto id j u st ,

bel o w o n the o pp o s ite o r u nder s rde o f the b o ne Thi s .

delt o id m a ss c o ntinue s h a rd ly h a lf w a y a l o n g w h en t h ere

-
,

s u cc eed s a s m a ll sh a rp v a c a n c y fo ll o wed by the m a sse s

o f the gre a t pect o r a l m u sc le L e t it be n o ticed t h a t t h e

.

l ine s b o u ndin g the se m u sc le s a re n o t si m ple c urve s but a re ,

m a de up o f a suc c e ssi o n o f sh o rt c o nvex o ne s expre ss i ng ,

the bu nd le s i n t o wh i c h a l l m u scle s a re d i vided In wh a t .

m a y be c a lled the d r a ug h t s m a n s s h o rth a n d o n e line

’

gener a lly su ffice s fo r the t o p o f the sh o ulder fa lling a little ,

a s it pr o c eed s i nw a rd the o ther p a rt o f the c o l l a r b o ne

,
-

bein g repre sented by a line i n c li ned the o ther w a y The .

line o ver the sh o ulder m u st either st a nd fo r t h e a cr o m i o n

a n d a l i ttle o f t h e cl a v i cle o r fo r the m a ss o f the delt o id
,
.

( Fig . 6 5 D a n d,
E ) .

33 . S o m e S u b o rdi n a t e M u sc l e s of the Ne c k .

AT the s ide o f the n e c k will be seen three c o m p a ra t i vely

u n i m p o rt a n t m u sc le s T h e se a re the S ca l en u s t he L eva tor
.
,

a ng u l i s cap n l w a n d the Sp l en i u s cap i t i s

,
There a re pr o perly .

—
three S c a leni a nti c u s m ediu s a n d p o sti c u s
, , , .

T h e S c a leni divergen t d o wnw a rd s a n d s t a nd ing up o n

, ,

the fi r s t a n d se c o n d rib s fo r m the spre a ding b ase o f t h e

,

ne c k Very little o f the m re a c he s the surfa c e but th i s

.
,

l ittle fo r m s a n i m p o rt a n t m a ss a t the S ide o f t h e neck ( Fig .

6 7 A ) a m a ss which fi ll s the a pex o f the extern a l tr i a ngle

, ,

o f the ne c k T h e line repre senting i n a d ra wi ng the

.

S c a len i r a d i a te s w i th the c leid o m a s t o id fr o m under the

-

e a r ( B) .

S pleniu s c a p i t i s a n d L ev a t o r a nguli b o th sh o w a little

o f the m se lve s a g a i n st t h e S c a len i Their p o siti o n i s .
1 04 F IGU RE D RAWI NG A ND COMPOSI T ION
h o wever higher a n d further b a c k If they m a ke a n y
, .

s urfa c e li n e s they will be s i m il a r t o the C leid o m a sto id -

a n d S c a leni r a di a ti n g d o wnw a rd fr o m behi nd the ea r ;

,
'

but while the S c a leni line i s a b o ut vertic a l the se will ,

run b a c kw a rd a little (C ) .

Perh a p s the S pleniu s a n d L ev a t o r a re m o s t u seful fo r

their sugge stivene ss o f fo r m r a ther th a n fo r their a c tu a lly ,

Meo ruS
Am i cus

FIG . 66 .
—Mi no r m u scl es o f th e n ec k .

A . S p l en i us c ap iti s . A tt a c h m en st —O i p it l b d m t id cc a one an as o

p r o c e ss o r —S p i
ft e m p o al n es o f th rt b r f th l w r p rt f th
e ve e ae o e o e a o e

n ec k d pp r p rt f th b
an u e a o e ac k d th l i g m t m
,
an h e a en u n rrc ae .

B L. t r g li p l
ev a o an u sc a u ae . Att h m —
t Tr r pr
ac en sf a n sv e se o c e sses o

fi r t
s t f orth i
ou l rt b r — A gl
c e rv c af th p l ve e ae n e o e sc a u a .

C S . l ti
c a en u s , m di and p ticus A tt h m t —Tr
e u s, an os cus . ac en s an s

r pr
v e se i rt i f th r i l rt b r th
o ce sse s o ce a n ti t th o e ce v ca ve e a
e, e an cu s o e

th ird f rth fi fth d i xth t h m di t th

,
ou , ,
an d t th
s th ,
e e us o e s ec o n o e sev en ,

t h e ti t
os t hcusfi ft h i x t
o h d e t h — ti t f r rts f s ev e n cu s o o e a o
p , p ,
an an

fi r t ib m di t h i d r p rt f fi t ib p ti t h i d r p rt f
s r , e us o n e a o rs r ,
os cus o n e a o

se c o n d ri b .

pr o viding a n y the m selve s o r a l o ne Thu s S pleniu s c a piti s ,

.

a ss i s t s o n e t o re a lize t h e u p w a rd divergent c h a r a c ter o f ’

the fo r m o f the ne c k whi c h i s s ubtly i nterw o ven with the ,

d o wnw a rd divergent a s repre sente d in the S c a leni a n d

106 F IGU RE D RAWING A ND CO MPOSI T ION
r i n with the seven t h o r fifth c erv i ca l vertebra
ac o m o .

—
Indeed there i s a so rt o f c o rd edge vi sible i n the b a c k

p a s s ing in the d ire c ti o n de sc ribed ( Fig 6 9 A ) The p a rt . .

, .

a b o ve thi s a n d fo r m i n g the n arr o w b a c k o f the ne c k

, ,

p a ss e s t o the fr o nt .

The c o rd like ed ge fo r ms t h e b ac k l i ne o f the b a se o f

-

I
L G AMENT C M
Nuc a e

PRO MINEN

C Ro m ro N

APO NEU RO S ES

FIG . 68 .
—Th e z
T ra p e iu s Muscl e .

A tt t —S p i
a c h m en s f ll d r l n es o dl t ar i l rt b r l ig m
o sa an as ce v c a ve e a, a en

t m
u h
n ucfr m l t ae , r i l t
o i p it l p r t b r e d
as c e v ca o o cc a o u e an c ,
an on e

th ir d f p ri r
o su d li
e o f i p t—O t r th ird f h i d r
c u rv e ne o occ u u e o n e

b rd r f
o e ll r b
o i r b rd r f r m i
co a -
o n e, nne pp r b r d
o r f e o ac o on , u e o e o

spi pr
n ou s f p l l l
o c e ss oi tisca it y T h er e
u a, a i p n con nu . s an a o n eu

r i t th rt b r l i rti w h i h x p d r d th rt b
os s a e ve e a n se on , c e an s a o un e ve e ra

pr m i
o d l
n en s a n t th l w r a so d a d th r i e tri g l r
o e en ,
an e e s a an u a

ap ur
on ei ri ng th r ot f th pi f th
os s c ov e e o p l o e s ne o e sca u a .
 H EA D A ND N ECK
'

T HE 1 07

the neck a n d the upper li m it o f the trunk ; a n d fr o m the

fro n t a ppe a r s i n c o nt i nu i ty w i t h t h e o utl i ne o f t h e fa c e ; a
u se fu l fa c t se rv rn g t o keep t h e ne c k a t a pr o per lengt h
‘ “

.
,

T h e b o ny g i rdle repre sented i n fro nt by t h e c o ll a r b o ne -

p asse s Ove r t h e z sh o u l de r i n t h e a cr o m i o n a n d c o nt i nue s ,

d o wn w a rd o n t o t h e b a ck i n t h e sp i n e o f t h e sc apul a .

Fr o m the c o rd edge the m u s cle fa ll s so ftly fo rw a rd o ver

-

the s h ou lder till it re a c h e s i ts i n serti o n o n t h e o uter

third o f t h e c o ll a r b o ne a n d t h u s c o m plete s t h e o uter
-
,

tri a ngle o r sa lt b o x o f t h e neck ( F i g 6 9 B ) T h e b o rder

-
. .
, .

i s h a rdly perceptible i n the l o wer p a r t up o n t h e sh o ulder ,

A 8 J C
/

FI G . 69 .
—Effec t o f th e Trap ez iu s o n t h e n ec k .

m elt i n g gently i nt o t h e gener a l m ass but the n a rr o w p a rt ,

up t h e neck sh o w s i t s edge pretty cle a rly ( D ) It i s i n the .

reg i o n o f t h e tr a pez i u s t h a t t h e b a ck c urve o f the neck

o ccur s with i t s s exu a l pecul i a r i t i e s In the fe m a le i t i s .

a gr a ceful h o ll o w c urve ; i n t h e m a le the h o ll o w i s fi lled

up a s h a s befo re been n o ted i n p a r a gr a p h 2 7 W hen

,
.
,

h o wever the fe m a le ne c k i s bent t h ere o c cur s gener a lly a

, ,

swell i n g i n the o utli ne ( F i g 7 0 A ) A b.o ve the,

s welling .

the l i ne retu rn s e m ph ati c a lly t o i ts l o w p o si ti o n a t t h e

s p i ne o f t h e o c c i put B T h i s v a r i a ti o n o f t h e cu rve o f
( ) .

the b a ck o f t h e neck i n w o m en i s a gre a t a dd i ti o n to

i ts gr a ceful ne ss .
 10 8 F IGU RE D R A WI N G A ND COM POSI T IO N

35 . C e rt a i n o t he r D e ta il s of th e Ne ck .

IT need o n ly be m enti o ned th at the extern a l j ug u l a r

vei n c r o sse s t h e s tern o m a st o id a t a b o ut the m iddle o f
-

i ts c o ur se c o m ing fr o m bene a th the a ngle o f the j a w

,
.

( Fig 7 0
. C ) ,
.

The Pl a tysi n a My oides (D ) i s a sk i n m u scle c o vering the

wh o le o f the fro nt o f the ne c k a n d re a c hing up the fa c e ,

a s high a s the m o uth a n d c heek It s extent i s re m a rk a bly .

FIG .
70 .
—S o me D etai l s o f th e Neck .

s i m il a r to th a t o f the ca rn a i l o r c a p m a i l ( E) w o rn in t h e
, ,

fifteenth century The fa sc i c uli o r fi bre s o f t h e m u sc le ,

.
,

r a di a te fro m the regi o n o f the m o uth so m e g o ing a l m o st ,

i m m edi a tely b ac k w a rd a n d a ssi sting i n the expre ssi o n

,

o f l a ughter the re s t s pre a d o u t o ver the ne c k t o w a rd s t h e

,

c o ll a r b o ne
-
It i s a m u s c le o f very little a c c o unt a n d
.
,

p o ssibly o f m o s t u se i n m a king ugly fa ce s a fte r the ,

m a n ner o f a C hine s e b o gie a n d in shivering , .

3 6 . P ro p o rt io n s of the Ne c k and S h o u l de rs to

the Hea d .

T HE length o f the ne c k i n di agra m m atic fro nt v i ew i s ,

fro m the c hi n t o the he a d s o f the c o ll a r b o ne s three i n c he s ,

i n ma n ; i n w o m a n a little mo re O r fi nding a n e qu a l .
,
 T HE T R U NK

37 . D ra w i n g t he T ru n k .

T HE fi rs t m a rk s o n o ne s p a per i n dra wi ng a figu re a re

’

pr o b a bly a slight s tr o ke t o fi x the t o p o f the he a d a n o ther ,

fo r the gro un d a third fo r the c entre o f the figure a n d t w o

, ,

fa i n t line s t o indi c a te the p o s iti o n a n d o bliqu i ty o f the

sh o ulder s a n d w a i s t Then it i s perh a p s be st t o i nd i c a te
.

the bu lk o f the th o r a x a n d hip s a s i n Fig 2 0 A by a , .

, ,

—
l ine a t either s ide o f e a c h f0 u r li ne s i n a l l The se fo u r
, .

line s a ll o w n o t o nly the rel a tive p os i ti o n o f t h e t w o p a rts

t o be s ugge sted but the s e x a l so
,
F o r a m a n the c h e s t .
,

m u st be w i de a n d l o ng t h e h ip s n a rr o w a n d sh o rt ; fo r
,

a w o m a n the c he s t m u s t be n arr o w a n d sh o rt the hip s ,

l o ng a n d wi de ( C o m p a re A a n d B F i g
.
,
.

A fter t h e fo u r line s j u s t sp o ken of the he a d a n d neck ,

wil l be m a ssed i n if a fr o nt v i ew i s required a n d t h en the

-
,

s l a nti ng l in es o f the s h o ulder s p o i nting t o t h e c h i n,

t h en
a line fo r the c o ll a r b o ne s In a b a c k view o n e w o ul d
-
.

pro b a bly d ra w the s l a n ting line s o f the sh o ulder s a s i n B , ,

befo re the he a d .

The sh o ulders bre ast s a n d t h o ra c i c a rc h wil l t h en b e

, ,

s ugge s ted a s i n the di a gr a m a s well a s t h e c e n t ra l line

’

, ,

w h ich th o ugh o n t h e w h o l e a fl o w i ng c u rve in m o st

,
.
 TH E TR U NK III

p o s ture s m u s t be kept fa i rly s traig h t i n the c h e s t a n d the

, ,

c he s t p a r t o f the b a c k
-
.It s exten s i o n i n the glute a l c re a s e

FIG 7 2
. .

is genera lly str a i g h t and at a s l i g h t a ngle w i t h the l i ne

i t self
.

FIG .
73 .

We w i l l br i efly ex a m i ne a fe w typ i c a l p o si t i o n s a n d ,

re m i nd o ur selve s o f t h o se m a tter s w hi c h a re o f t h e gre a te s t

 F IGU RE D RA WI NG A ND Co MPO S ITIo N
i m p o rt a n c e Thu s we sh a ll briefly epit o m ize wh a t i s
.

expl a i ned a t le n gth i n s u c c eeding p a ra gr a ph s .

Fig 7 3 i s a m a le t o r so three qu a rter view W e n o ti c e

.
,
-
.

h o w the C he st di m i n i she s d o w n w a rd t o the w a i s t the ,

o utline o f t h e b a c k s ee n u n der the a rm c o ntributi ng very

, ,

l a rgely t o the effe c t a n d being it self a full C o nvex

,

c urve .

The c he s t i s s qu a re i n se c ti o n ( se e p a r a gr a ph
but the squ a rene ss c e a se s with the rib s The m iddle li ne .

F IG .
74 .

lie s i n a s light tre n c h o f very unequ a l c h a r a c ter O ften .

the edge o f the rib s pr oj e c t s so pro m i n e n tly a s t o pr o du c e

a re c edi n g s urfa c e fa irly fl a t run ning d o wn t o the m iddle
, ,

li n e a s i n d i c a ted by the sh a ding The m iddle line it self .

c o m e s s te a dily fo rw a rd fr o m the pit o f the ne c k t o the

pit o f the s t o m a c h where the bre a s t b o ne end s when it

,
-
,

fa ll s b a c k t o fo r m the n a rr o wne ss o f the w a i s t ( S e e

'

Fig 8 1 p a ge
.
,
Fr o m the wa i s t it ri se s a ga i n o ver
1 14 F IGU RE D RAWI NG A ND COM POSI T ION
th e line of the i l i a c crest ending the trunk bel o w a t t h e
,

side i s o bl i quely pl ac ed n o t h o riz o nt a lly

, , .

The sa m e V iew o f the fe m a le t o r so i s given i n Fig 7 4 . .

The che s t i s sm a ller in bulk the hi p s l a rger the w a i st

, ,

l o nger a n d m o re m o bile The S h a pe o f the bre a st di s

.
,

t i n c t i v e a s it i s i s le ss i m p o rt a nt to the gener a l a ppe a r a n c e

,

o f se x th a n the di fferen c e s j u st p o inted o u t t o whi c h m a y ,

be a dded the fo ll o wing The sh o ulder s a re m o re m ping

.
,

FIG .
76 .

and thei r c o n necti o n with the a rm m o re evident th a n i n

the m a le The delt o id a lth o u g h le ss m a rked in sh a pe i s
.
, ,

very full p a rti c ul a rly i n i t s l o wer p a rt a t the o uter side

, ,

o f the a rm The m u sc ul a r a n d fa tty fo ld bet w een the

.

bre a st a n d the a rm i s i m p o rt a nt i n a g o o d figu re The .

m u s c ul a r m ass a t the s ide o f the a b do m en the ex tern a l ,

obl i qu e d o e s n o t m a ke s o defi n ite a fo ld ; a n d the ili a c

,

c re s t a lth o ugh it S h o uld be repre s ent e d m u s t be a s deli ca tely

so a s p o ss ible .

In t h e b a ck v i ew ( F i g 75
. A a n
,
d B ) the bl a de b o ne s m a
y
-
 T HE T RU N K 1 15

be sugge sted by a twi c e curved li ne ; a s tra ighti sh li ne

-

m ay repre sent the sp i ne o f t h e bl a de b o ne run n i ng up t o -

the o uter end o f the sh o ulde r Bel o w a b o ve a n d between

.
, ,

the bl a de s a re nu m er o u s m in o r m a sse s o f m o dell i ng w hi c h ,

a re m o s t c le a rly expre ss ed w h en c ru sh ed by the bl a de s

a g a in s t t h e m i ddle line o r upw a rd o r d o wnw a rd

, W hen .

the a rm i s r a i sed t h e m u sc le s a re o f c o u r s e stretched o u t

a n d a ll o w t h e directi o n o f t h e r i b s be ne a t h t o S h o w
so m ew h a t ( A) .

The c hi ef c h a r a cter i st i c s o f t h e fo r m a re h o wever the

l o ng l i ne s fr o m the a rm p i t s w h ich c urve m o re a n d m o re
-
,

b a ck w a rd a s they de scend a n d then c o ntinue verti c a l ly t o

,

the il i a c cre st o r the r i b s j u st a b o ve T h e m u sc le s to

, .

wh i ch the se c o rre sp o n d a re the erector sp i n w a n d l a t i ss i in us

dors i . In t h e m a le the i r verti c a l m a sse s re m a i n wel l
defi ned up t o the m i dd le line In the fe m a le t h ere i s a
.

br o a d c o m p a r a t i vely v a c a nt sp a c e i n th a t regi o n T h e
, , .

so ftne ss a n d s i m p l i fic a ti o n so c h a ra cter i sti c o f t h e fe m a le

figure i s wel l seen i n the b a ck The sh o ulder s o r upper .
,

p a rt o f t h e b a ck a n d l o wer p a rt o f t h e neck a re wel l ,

r o u nded a n d fo r m p a rt o f a n exten sive surfa c e so ftly

, ,

r o u nded wh i c h re a che s d o wn t o the w a i st A n d a g a i n

,
.
,

fr o m t h e w a i st d o wnw a rd o ver t h e l o i n s a n d hip s i s a n o t h er

s i m pl i fic a ti o n o f the s a m e k i n d B o th the se a re sugge sted
.

in B .

It i s i n s u c h a tt i tude s a s F i g 7 6 t h a t the b o ny .

s tru c ture o f t h e trun k a ssert s i t sel f m o s t p a lp a bly The .

d r a wi ng w o uld be c o m m en ced by a l i ne a t eit h er s ide

o f the che st a n d h i p s a s i n t h e c a se s a b o ve but it i s
'

, ,

the line o f the t/zora ci c a rea w hi c h i ndic a te s t h e fo re

s h o rten i ng an d c o n sequently t h e p o se o f t h e figure .

F o r the th o r a ci c a rc h o r the l o wer p a rt o f i t i s the

, ,

ba se o f t h e che st . A b o ve t he co ll ar b o ne s are abl e to

,
-
 1 16 F IGU RE D RA WIN G A ND COMPOSI T ION
exhibit the i r gra ceful c urva ture a n d pr o vide the o utline , .

Bel o w the thigh s a ppe a r spli c ed i n t o the h a un c he s the

,

a bd o m en c o m ing d o wn between the m a n d the m ass ,

c o m p o sed o f t h e ex tern a l obl i que the i l i a c cres t a n d p a r t

'

o f the g l u tea l s en c l o s ing the m a t the o ut s ide .

3 8 . Th e B o n y M a ss of the unk
Tr — Th e Il ia c
C re st . T he S ac ru m .

T HE th o ra x i s the b a sket o f rib s t h e pe l vi s th e b o ny ,

b a si n o f the h au nche s supp o rting t h e b o nele ss fle shy m a ss

o f the a bd o m en It m ight be sa i d th a t the in s i de o f the
.

pelv i c b a sin bel o n g s t o the trunk the o ut side t o the t hi gh s , .

T h e i n si de a n d o ut side a re d i vided by a l ip o r edge w h i c h ,

t h u s m a rk s the l o wer extre m ity o f t h e trunk and t he

upper extre m ity o f the thigh s .

In side view t h e ili a c cre s t a ppr o xi m a te s t o tw o line s ,

o n e t o w a rd s the fr o nt o f the figure l o nger th a n the o ther

, , ,

a n d c o nt a in ing between the m a right a ngle pl a ced verti

c a lly ( Fig 7 7 B ) The end o f the l o nger line i s t h e

. .
,
.

S up eri or A n teri o r Sp i n ou s P rocess o r S pine the end o f t h e , ,

sh o rter the S up eri or P os teri or Sp i n e The j un c ti o n o f the .

t w o line s i s t h e highe st p o int o f t h e pelvi s but i t i s n o t ,

the ne a re st t o the spe c t a t o r a s he t a ke s a side view The .

ne a re st p o int w o uld be so m e l i ttle di st a n c e d o wn the

l o nger line .

”
In pl a n e a c h c re st i s a v a ri a ti o n o f the li ne o f be a uty

a n d g rac e
'

the s m a ller c urve o f which the hinder p a rt

, , ,

fi ts a g a i n st the sa cru m In the a rtifi c i a lly a rticul a ted

.

s kelet o n the c re st s a re j o i n ed t o the sa cru m by a b o lt .

Thi s m ec h a n i c a l c o ntriv a nce very w ell illu stra te s t he

:

ra p idity o f t he re tu rn c urve .
1 18 F IGU R E D RAWING A ND COMPOSI T ION
is very m a rked a n d m ay be s u m m ed u p a s fo ll o w s The
, .

fe m a le pelvi s i s deeper fro m fr o n t t o b a c k The m e a sure .

m ent fr o m s ide t o s ide i s the sa m e i n b o th but c o n s idering

the sh o rter s t a tu re o f the fe m a le the pelvi s i n th a t s e x ,

be co m e s rel a tively the wider The re m a rk a ble m a n ner .

i n whi c h the m a le pelvi s fa ll s b a c kw a rd a n d the fe m a le ,

fo rw a rd i s illu stra ted by the o blique li n e s C a n d E

,
‘

Fig 7 7 In the s a m e di a gr a m the c re st s a re d r a w n i n

. .

d a rker line s a n d it will be seen th a t the m a le i s i n side

,
‘

FIG .
78 .
—Th e L i ne o f D i visio n b et ween th e t ru n k
a n d t h e t h i gh s . A , p o st
.

B , Po up a rt s l ig a m en t D a n d F , t h o rac i c a rc h e s c a n d E,
'

sa p . sp i n e . . .

g ro rns .

view m o re a ngul a r a n d i n t h e b a ck v i ew r o under t h a n

,

the fe m a le whi c h a ppr o a c he s the h o r i z o nt a l p a rti c ul a rly

, ,

i n the b a c k view In Fig 7 8 t h e gr o i n s o f the a bd o m en

. .

m a y be c o m p a red T h e fe m a le i s sh a ll o wer a n d d o e s n o t
.
,

re a c h so fa r d o wn The gr o in s m ay a l so be c o m p a red
.

wit h the th o r a c i c a r c h e s a b o ve Thu s i n the m a le C a n d .

,

D a re s i m i l a r t h o ug h i nver sel y pl a ced ; i n the fe m a le

,

t h ere i s n o s i m il a rity between the sh a ll o w E a n d the

a ngu l a r F Fu rther t h e fe m a le sa cru m i s br o a der so th a t
.
, ,

the s uperi o r p o s te ri o r s pi ne s ( F ig 7 8 A) a re further a p a rt .

,
.
 THE TR UNK 1 19

Th e ru m it sel f i s a l so fl a tter le ss d i stu rbed by the

sa c ,

m u sc le s up o n i t (see p a r a gr a ph le ss o ver hu ng by -

the ili a c cre sts a n d c o n sequently ne a rer the su rfa c e whi c h

, ,

i t renders sm o o t h er ; a n d furt h er m o re se t a t a gre a ter

i n c lin a ti o n fr o m the vertic a l a n d t h u s i n c re a si ng the
,

a pp a ren t s ize o f th i s regi o n by exten d i ng the su r fa ce

up t o w a rd t h e w a i st A n d thi s gener a l i z i ng o f t h e fo r m
.

o f the l o wer p a rt o f t h e b ac k m ay be c o m p a red with

the gener a l i zing o f the u pper p a rt o f t h e fr o n t o f t h e
tru nk i n the sa m e se x where the c h e st a n d ne c k a re
,

u nited i n t o o n e surfa ce by t h e le ss pr o m i nence o f t h e

c o ll a r b o ne s
-
.

39 . The B o n y M a ss o f th e Tru nk—The Tho ra x .

THE t h o r a x i s gener a lly de sc r i bed a s a trunc a ted c o ne ,

m o re o v a l th a n r o un d i n pl a n In s tudy i ng the th o r a x
.

the m a le sh o uld per h a p s be t a ken a s t h e fe m a le i s t h e ,

sa m e with t h e a ngle s a n d peculi a r i tie s so ftened In .

di a gr a m 8 0 the t w o a re pl a c ed side by s i de
, .

C o n s ideri ng the th o r a x a s a tru nc a ted c o ne the c o ne ,

h a s c urved s ide s a n d i s per ha p s pretty ne a rly repre sented

,

by a S p a n i sh nu t A n d i f the v a riety fo u n d i n t h e sh a pe
.

o f S p a n i s h nut s be a l s o n o ted it will be s een to sugge st

,

the th o r a x i n the m a le a n d i n the fe m a le S o m e o f .

the se nut s a re s qu a re r th a n o thers a n d the m a le t h o r a x ,

( Fig .8 0 A, ) i s s qu a rer th a n the fe m a le ( )

D Fr o m the .

thi rd t o the tent h ri b the o u tline i s a l m o st a vertic a l

,

s tr a ight line .

In s ide view there i s a s i m il a r s m o o t h ne ss o f c urve

i n the fe m a le In the m a le the fi r s t rib d r o p s a t
”
.

c o n s ider a ble a ngle T o thi s s u c c eed s the hilt o r “

a .
~

u pper p a rt o f the bre a st b o ne ( s ternu m ) F le a v i ng t h e

-
,
120 FIG URE D RA WING A ND C O MPO SITIO N
pl a ne o f the fi r st rib a t m u c h the sa m e a ngle a s th a t
.

le ave s the h o riz o nt a l T h en the pl a ne o f the b o dy o f

.

the sternu m ( G) le ave s the pl a ne o f the hilt a t m u c h the

sa m e a ngle ; a g a in the pl a ne o f the xiph o id a ppend a ge
,

F IG .
79 .
—T h e Bo n y Mass o f th e T ru n k .

H
( ) ,a t the s a m e a ngle re a c he s the ver t i c a l ; a n d it m a y
,

even be sa id th a t the s l a nti n g b a c kwa rd o f the end s o f

the eighth ninth a n d tenth rib s i s a l so a t t h e s a m e
, , ,

a ngle The l o wer end o f the th o r a x i s h o riz o nt a l ,

the t w o l a st rib s the eleventh a n d t w elfth re a c hing the

, ,
12 2 FIG U RE D RA WING A ND COM POSI TION
fl o ating the eleventh a n d twelfth A true rib i s o n e whi c h
, .

h a s a c o st a l ca rtil a ge o f i t s o w n a l l the w a y t o t h e bre a st

,

b o ne The three fa l se rib s the eighth ni n th a n d tenth

.
, , , ,

h a ve c o st a l c a rtil a ge s but they h ave t o be c o nten t w ith

,

a tt a c h m ent t o th a t o f the seventh o r l a s t true ri b W hat .

i s i m p o rt a nt t o n o tice in thi s regi o n i s th a t the c a rtil a ge s

o f the s eventh eighth a n d ninth bulge o ut wa rd so m ewh a t
, , ,

a n d fo r m a di stin c t elev a ti o n j u st a b o ve the th o r a c i c a r c h ,

a l m o s t a s if the lip o f the a r c h turned o utw a rd as i n ,

F IG . 81 .

Fig 8 1 A a n d B With o u t thi s pr oj e c t i o n o r bulgi n g the

.
,
.
,

t o rso i n thi s regi o n l o o k s t a m e

, ,
.

The gre a te st proj e c ti o n fo rw a rd i s a t the c a rt i l age o f

th e s eventh rib .

There i s c o n sider a ble fl a tne ss b o t h o n the fro n t a n d

s ide s o f the th o r a x fl a tne ss w hi c h i s e m ph a sized when
, ,

the fle sh b eing a dded i t c a n be c a lled the c he st If in

,
.

a fro nt view o f the th o r a x a verti c a l line be dra wn ,

upw a rd s fo r the p o int o f the n inth rib thi s li n e will ,

re p re sent the p o siti o n o f di stin c t bending s o f the rib s

fr o m the s ide s r o und o n to the fr o nt ( C) Indeed when the .

No a h s a rk m a kers fl a tten Mr No a h s c h e st they sugge s t

’
-
.
’

,
 THE TR U NK 12 3

an an a t o m i c a l fa c t wh i c h t h e skelet o n o f the p a tr i a rc h a l
o ri gi n al w o uld h ave de m o n str a ted
.
A n d a g a in
. the ,

m o dern fl a t s hirt — fr o nt i s fa i rly h a r m o n i o u s with the b o ny

fa c t s bene a th it a n d the S a il o r s K n o t necktie n o t
,
“ ’ ”
u n like the bre a st b o ne wh i c h i t c o vers
-
.

If a s e c ti o n ( D ) o f the t h o r a x be t a ke n the fl a tne ss b o t h ,

o f the fro n t a n d s ide s will be d i stin c tly sh o wn a s a l so ,

w i l l the fa c t th a t the th o r a x IS s lightly w i der t h a n it i s

deep fro m fr o n t t o b a c k .

40 . B o n y F o rm s o f t he B a ck . T he Ve rte b ra l
Col u mn .

A G R EAT de a l c a n be sa i d a b o ut the vertebra l c o lu m n ,

but it i s pro b a ble th a t t h e dr a ug h t s m a n m ay ga ther a l l he

need s t o kn o w fr o m t h e d i a gr a m s w i t h o n e o r t w o w o rd s
,
.

If the sa cru m be o m itted a n d t h e m o v a ble p a rt o n ly

,

t h o ug h t o f the fo r m fr o m the s i de Vi e w w i ll be thr i ce

,

curved so m ew h a t a fter the m a n ner o f C up i d s b o w o r o f

,
’

a m o uth T h e l o wer p a rt fr o m t h e gre a te st pr oj e c t i o n

.
,

b a ckw a rd i s l o nger t h a n t h a t a b o ve a n d t h e cu rv a tu re
, ,

i s s tra ighte s t where the fo u r o r five l o we st rib s a re

a tt a ched .

Its un dul a ting sh a pe i s due t o the c o n st a nt a tte m pt

o f the c o lu m n t o get bene a th the m a sse s a n d thu s en su re ,

the ere c t p o sit i o n The c o lu m n m u st be s itu a ted so m e

.

wh a t a t the re a r o f the t h o r a x a n d t h e pelvi s in o rder t o ,

a ll o w the i ntern a l o rg a n s s u ffi c i ent s p a c e But i n b o th .

s i tu a t i o n s i t i s pl a c ed a sfa r fo rw a rd a s p o ss ible In the .

pelvi s i t i s repre sented by i t s i m m o v a ble p o rti o n the ,

sa c ru m whi ch i s pl a ced a t a c o n s ider a ble i n c l i n a ti o n a n d

, ,

s o re a c h e s well fo rw a rd a t i t s upper p a rt le a ve s ple nty o f

, ,
124 F IG U RE D R A WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

s p a c e befo re it a n d yet i s s u ffi c ientl y high a t the b a c k n o t

,

t o pr o du c e a s inking o r h o ll o w between the a dj a c ent il i a c

c re st s Indeed it IS n o t t o o m u c h t o say th a t a c r o ss t h i s
.

p a rt o f the b a c k there lie s a surfa ce s m o o thly c u rved i n

the dire c t i o n indic a ted by the d o tted line s i n t h e di agra m
( Fig . 8 3 A ) m
,
o re p,
a rti c ul a rly i n the fe m a le In t h e b ac k .

i t self there a re t w o m asse s o n e o n e i ther s ide o f t h e b ac k

,

b o ne a n d the se t w o m a sse s a re p ro duced by t h e r i b s

,

F IG 8 2. .
-
O u t1i n e o f th e V erteb ra l C ol u m n .

p a ssi ng b a c k w a rd fo r so m e di s t a n c e befo re they t a ke the i r

n o r m a l fo rwa rd c o urse ( Fig 8 3 B ) O r i t m a y be sa id
. .
,
.
,

th a t the b a c k b o ne t o get well under the we i ght i t h as

-
,

t o s upp o rt h o ld s a p o s iti o n a s fa r fo rw a rd i n t h e th o r a x
,

a s p o ssible a n d thu s a s i t were d ra gs the rib s i n so m e

i

, , ,

di st a n c e with it T h ere i s th erefo re fo r m ed a t ro u gh wi th

.

the sp i ne s o f th e b ac k b o ne pr oj ecting fro m i ts c entr a l

’

depth Th e p o int o n th e ri b Whe re i ts d irecti o n Ch a nge s

.
12 6 F IG U RE D RA W ING A ND CO MPO S ITIO N

bent b a ckw a rd with the fle sh between the m bulging up

,
.

The se re m a rk s a pply c h ie fl y t o t h e lu m b a r ( l o in ) a n d l o wer

d o r sal ( ba c k ) spi ne s .

4 1 . M o v e m e n ts o f th e B o ne s of th e Tru n k .

TH E wh o le o f the vertebr a l c o lu m n c a n ben d b ac kwa rd

an d fo rwa rd but different regi o n s h ave the p o wer in
,

different degree Perh a p s it i s su ffi c ien t t o t h e a rt i st t o

.

F IG . 84 .
-
' ‘
I h e B en di n g o f th e Ba c k . D e ta il s of Ve rteb rae.

re m e m ber m erely th a t in bending fo r w a rd the b a c k o r , ,

r a ther i ts m iddle a n d l o wer p a rt bend s m o st the l o i n s a n d , ,

n eck h a rdly a ppe a ring ben t a t a l l In bend i ng b a c kw a rd .

the reverse h o ld s g o o d the ne c k a n d the l o i n s do the ,

bending In bendi ng s idew ay s the l o i n s h ave pre c eden c e

.
,

i n twi st i ng the b a c k
,
.

The vertebra l c o lu m n a s a wh o le m a y be likened t o

a p o le o f ind i a rubber h a vi ng li m ited m o ve m ent i n a l l
-
,

dire c t i o n s Thi s i s due t o the el a sti c i n tervertebra l

.

c a rtil a ge s whi c h a re di sc s c o rre sp o ndi n g In S i ze

,
but n o t ,

i n th i c kne ss t o th e c entr a o r b o di es o f t he ve rtebr ae

, ,
 THE T R U NK 12 7

bet w een wh i c h t h ey a re s i tu a ted a s m o rt a r bet w ee n

bri c k s ( E) .

In the li m it a ti o n s o f m o ve m en t given a b o ve due a tten

ti o n h a s been p a id t o t h e i n c u m bra n c e o f the r i b s befo re ,

a nd s pin o u s pr o ce sse s behin d The c a ge o f r i b s i s n o t

.

rigid bu t a ll o w s s light c o m pre ssi o n a n d exp a n s i o n The

, .

b o dy m u st n o t be twi sted so m u c h a s t o m a ke t h e
s h o u lder s a t right a ngle s t o the h ip s .

4 2 . Th e E re c to r S p in ae an d S ac ro l u mb al is
-

M u sc l e s ,
and the i r Effe c t on th e S ac ru m .

T H ES E t w o m u scle s ru n fro m t h e sac ru m a n d t h e

a dj a c en t end o f t h e i l i a c c re st t o the r i b s a n d a re t h e
, ,

repre sent a t i ve s i n t h e l o i n s o f a gr o up o f m u scle s p a ssi ng

fro m the l o wer extre m i ty o f t h e vertebr a l c o lu m n up t o

F IG 8 5
. .
—
A an d B , tr
Effec t o f Erec o sp i n z’e . C L a teral vo l u m e i n th e F e ma l e .

the he a d T h e i r effect i s t o pr o du c e a m u scul a r c o lu m n

.

o n either s i de o f the b a ck b o ne whi c h g r e a tly strengt hen s

-

i n a ppe a ra nce th e reg i o n o f the l o i n s .

These mu scle s a re dee p be i n g c o vered by t h e L a tzss z m m

'

,
 12 8 F IG U RE D RA WING A ND CO MPO S ITIO N

dors z ( next p a r a gr a ph ) ; but they neverthele ss pr o vide

'

see

the s tro ng m a sse s sp o ken o f which a re c hiefly eviden t ,

when the b a c k i s bent b a c k w a rd .

It i s i m p o rt a nt t o n o ti c e th a t the a tt ac h m ent t o t h e
s a c ru m c o ver s the wh o le b o ne a n d therefo re t h e surfa ce
,

o f the s a c ru m be c o m e s m o delled int o t w o m a sse s with a

h o ll o w b etween in a c co rd a n c e with a l l the m u sc ul a r fo r m s

,

o f the b a c k ; a n d thi s d o uble m o dell i ng i s o b serv a ble in a

figure st a nding in a n o r m a l a ttitude .

In w o m en the sa c ru m i s ne a rer the surfa c e th a n in

m e n a ppe a ring a s a br o a der s m o o ther m a ss
,
In m e n it i s .
,

se t deeper the ili a c c re st s s l i ghtly o ver sh a d o w i t the glute a l

, ,

m asses further en c r o a c h i ng up o n i ts s ize .

In a previ o u s p a r agr a p h a ttenti o n h a s been c a lled t o

the s m o o thne ss o f the surfa c e s p a ssin g o ver the sa c ru m
fro m s ide to s ide It m a y here be further n o ted th a t i n
.

the ere c t p o siti o n when the figure s t a nd s up o n b o th feet

,

equ a lly the str a in o f the glute a l m u sc le s a n d o f the se n o w

,

u nder spe c i a l o b serv a ti o n i n terfere with the s m o o thne ss

,

s o m ewh a t But i f the figure st a nd up o n o n e fo o t o nly

. .
,

the m a ss bec o m e s very sm o o th p a rti c ul a rly i n the fe m a l e

, .

The studen t will n o t o m it t o re c o gnize the di m ple s

fo r m ed o n eit h er s ide o f the sa c ru m by the superi o r ,

p os t eri o r s pine s o f the ili a c c re st s— t w o di m ple s whi c h with ,

the n o t i c e a ble h o ll o w whi c h c o m m ence s the glute a l cre ase ,

fo r m a n a l m o st equil a ter a l tri a ngle .

43 . Th e L a t iss im u s D o rs i M u sc l e .

A MO NG the fa sh i o n s i n l a die s dre ss wh i c h h a ve h i s

’

t o ri c a l l y repe a ted the m selve s i s t h a t o f we a r i ng a sm a l l

,

s h a wl o ver the b a c k n o t o ver the sh o ulder s a n d s upp o rting

, ,

i t by th ro win g t h e fo rw a rd extre mit ie s o v er the a r ms .

 1
3 0 F IG U R E D RAWING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

fully t hi s a p o neur o t i c line c o nt i nue s i nt o the i li a c c re st ,

a n d so i nt o the o utl i ne o f t h e thigh The a n a t o m ic a l .

d i agra m sh o ws a sto uter a n d c o m pletely fle shy th o ng

‘

o f the m u s c le a t i t s o uter edge T hi s t h o ng i s o n e o f

.

fo u r o r five fo r m i ng t h e a nter i o r p a r t o f the m u scle t h e ,

o t h e rs a tt a c hi ng to rib s ( G The p ter i r p r

) o s o a
. t i s a s ,

F IG . 87 .
-
Effec t of L ati ssi mus D o rsi .

a s been sh o wn fl a t a n d sh eet like ; the a nter i o r p a rt

,
-

co n s i st s o f a nu m ber o f fi nger s o r th o n g s a n d o per a te s ,

m o st directly i n such a c t i o n s a s c h o p pi ng The th o ng .

whi c h re ac h e s t h e i l i a c cre st i s m o s t frequently i n ev i dence

B a n d E) be i ng p a rt i cul a rly s tr o ngly ma rked w h en
( ,
C
'
D , ,

th e a rm s a re h eld fo r w a rd n o t t h a t i t a ssi st s a t a l l i n
,
 THE TRU NK 13 1

t h a t o per a t i o n but bec a u se i t i s s tret c h ed fo rw a rd a n d

,

m a ke s a very n o tice a ble fo ld In t h e G reek v a se p a i n t

.

i ng s t h e side v i ew o f the a rm i f held fo r w a rd i s gener a lly

, , ,

c o ntinued a b o ve by a li ne repre sent i ng the i n ner b o rder

o f the tra peziu s a n d bel o w by a li ne repre senting t h e

,

l o nge st th o ng o f the gre a t d o r sa l (C ) In t hi s a ct i o n .

t h e l o ng t h o ng wra p s o ver t h e sh o rter o ne s a n d hi de s

t h e m If h o wever t h e a rm be h eld o u t s idew a y s a n d
.
, , ,

pull d o wnw a rd t h e se o t h er s w i ll be exp o sed fitt i ng i n

, ,

wit h s i m i l a r d i g i t a t i o n s fr o m t h e extern a l o bl i que m u scle

w hi c h a r i se s fr o m the ili a c cre st bel o w ( G) .

It m ig h t a l m o st be s a i d t h a t t h ere i s a tw i st in every
thi ng b o ne m u sc le o r tend o n i n the b o dy It i s sa fe st
, , , ,
.

cert a inly t o a ssu m e t h a t th i ng s a re n o t str ai g h t Thu s .

i t m u st n o t be t h o u gh t t h a t the l o ng t h o ng o f the d o rsa l

fi nd s i ts in sert i o n o n t he i l i a c c re s t i m m edi a tely u nder i t s
a tt a c h m ent t o t h e a rm If t hi s were so t h ere w o uld be
.
,

a s h a rp fle sh y a ngle fo r m ed by t hi s t h o ng fr o m t h e a rm t o ,

t h e cre st whenever the a rm w a s r a i sed s i dewa ys o r b a c k

,

w a rd s T h e t h o ng s c o u rse i s h o wever tw i s ted Viewed

.
’
.

fr o m befo re o n e m a y o nly see i ts upper p a rt a n d it i s ,

i ndeed sa fe st t o i m a g i ne th a t i t c o n c lude s a t t h e w a i st a s
the sm a ller th o ng s do .

T h i s a c c o rd s wit h t h e fa c t t h a t t h e m u scle i s m o st
v o lu m in o u s j u st u nder t h e a rm p i t fo r m i ng a m a ss whi c h
-
,

a dd s gre a tly t o t h e qu a lity o f be i n g w e l l fl esh e d a n d h er o i c

~

—
i n bu i ld m a rked L D i n di a gra m F .

T h e w a y i n w h ic h t h e m u scle a tt a c h e s t o the a rm
will be fo u nd tre a ted i n p a r a gra p h 5 6 p I , .
 13 2 FIG URE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

44 . The E x te rn a l O b l iq u e a n d Re ct u s A b do m i n is
M u sc l e s .

T H ES E m u scle s c o m plete the wa l l o f the a bd o m en ,

a n d a re c o ncerned i n dra wing t h e th o r a x do wn t o the

p e l v i s o r bend
,
.
i ng t he b a ck fo rw a rd a n d twi s t i ng the
trun k up o n i t sel f .

F IG . 88 .
-
Rec tus Ab do m i n i s, an d O bl iq uu s Ext ern us .

Re c t us a b do m i i tt
n s . A ac h m en s —
t P b i re t
u c c s and s y mph y si s —fifth
ri b , fi fth i xth
,
s , an d se v e th
n t l c rti l
cos a a ag e s, an d x i ph i d
o

a pp en da ge .

O b l iq uu s e x t er A tt
n us ch m e n t.s— B y di g itati on w h i c h i n t erdi g itate
a s,

w ith th o e o f th e l ti ssi m u s do r si an d t h e
s a errat u m agn u t s s s, o

lo w e t i
e g
s h t ri b — a teri o r h l f f ili c c re t a d th e ab do m i
s n a o l a s ,
n na

a p o n e ro i u s s .

T h e re c tu s i s n o t o nly d i v i de d vert i c ally i nto two

sym m etr i c a l h a lve s but i s a l so d i v i ded tra n sversely by
,

three o r fo ur s i m i l a r a p o neuro tic l ine s o n e a t the u m ,

b i l i cu s t w o a b o ve it a n d so m et i m e s a r u d i m ent a ry o n e
, ,

bel o w i t th e fle shy m asses b o u nded by t h e m be i ng very

,

di st i nctly seen .

T h e rectu s i s en cl o sed w i t hi n a n d c o vered by a n

1 34 F IG U RE D RA WING A ND CO MPO S ITIO N

co n i t
s s s of the erect o r spin ae a n d sa c ro lu m b a l i s with the -
,

l a ti ssi m u s d o r s i up o n the m a s expl a ined i n pa r agr a ph s

,

4 2 a n d 43
. The l o ng fle shy th o ng o f the l a ti s s i m u s p a s s e s

fro m the a rm pit d o wn t o the p o steri o r end o f the il i a c

-

c re st where it o utline s the m edi a l m a ss

,
T h e ili ac c re s t .

i s se en a s a v o lu m i n o u s curve up o n whi c h the e x t e i n a l '

o blique fi t s a n d fo r m s the s ide o f the a bd o m en while i t s

, ,

dig i t a ti o n s a b o ve m a ke a ser i e s o f l i ttle m o u nd s si m il a r

t o th o se o f the serr a tu s m a gnu s a n d ly i ng between the m ,

a n d the pr o m i nent edge o f the th o r a c i c a r c h .

F IG .
90 .
—Fi tti n g to ge th er o f th e T ru n k an d T h ig h .

Thro ugh o ut the figure it m a y be o b served h o w the

d i fferen t p a rt s ru n o n t o e a c h o ther a n d see m fitted ,

t o gether i n the m o st secure m a nner Ju st a s i n j o in ing .

t w o pie c e s o f w o o d t o gether a m o re s ecure j o i

,
n t i s effe c ted
i f the surfa c e o f c o nt ac t be d i a g o n a l a n d n o t i m m edi a tely
tr a n sver se ( Fig 9 0 C ) ; so a si m il a r a rr a nge m ent i s o b serv
.
,

a ble i n the c o n s tru c ti o n a s viewed extern

,
a lly o f the ,

hu m a n b o dy a n d p o ssibly o f every o rg a n ic structu re in

,

the w o rld .

In the s ide V iew o f the trunk thi s m o de o f fitt i ng

t o gether i s exe m plified ( Fig 9 0 B ) The a bd o m en run s
. .
,
.
 T HE T RU NK 135

d o wn j u st a s t h e b a ck o f t h e t hi g h run s up i nt o the c o rd
,

l i ke m a sse s o f t h e erect o r sp i n ae The l o nge r a n d fo rw a rd

.

line o f t h e i l i a c cre st a ssi st s by i ts i ncl i n a t i o n i n t h e

sa m e i de a T h e extern a l o bl i que i s t h u s di sti n c t l y w i th
'

.
,

the re st o f t h e a bd o m en i n fr o n t ,
.

In t h e a nt i que t h e extern a l o bl i que a lw a y s a ppe a r s

wel l devel o ped h a ng i ng so m ew h a t o ver t h e i l i a c cre st
,

( F i.g 9 1 ,A ) I
. n m o s t m o dern s a s every o n e kn o w s i t i s
, ,

d i sa pp o i nt i ngly m e a gre t h e cre st s n o t i n frequen tly m a k i ng

,

the gre a te st pr oj ect i o n i n t hi s reg i o n Even w h en i t i s .

t o ler a bly w ell devel o ped a n d sh o w s a c o nvex cu rve the

, ,

F IG 9 1
. . Effec t of th e E xt
ern al Obl i q ue .

cre st i s ev i den t bene a t h it It i s perh a p s wel l t o a lw a y s

.

expre ss t hi s b o ny ridge a n d n o t t o a tte m pt to hi de i t under

,

the extern a l o bl i que a s i f o n e t h ereby were keep i ng t o

,

the i de a l fo r m T h e G reek s kn e w a l l a b o ut t h e il i a c
.

c re s t
,
a n d s ugge sted i t even w h en t h ey m a de a gre a t
de a l o f t h e extern a l O bl i que .

In so me p o se s w h en the figure st a nd s up o n o n e le g
, ,

a n d r o ll s t h e tru n k o ver t h a t leg the o bl i que a ss u m e s a ,

v o lu m e s i m i l a r t o t h a t w hi c h 18 In so m a ny a nt i que s the
n o r m a l m a ss T h e o t h er o blique i s a t t h e t i m e stretc h ed
.

a n d the c re st a ssert s it sel f .

1 36 F IG URE D RAW ING A ND CO MPO S ITIO N

T h e centra l d i v i si o n o f the rectu s i s repl a c ed a t i t s

l o wer end by a s m a ll m u sc le pyr a m i d a li s whi c h a r i sing , , ,

fr o m the pubic b o ne s stretche s so m e di st a n c e up the

a po n
“ ” ,

euro t i c linea a lb a o r white line wh i c h fo r m s the, ,

.

c entr a l div i si o n Thi s little m u sc ul a r a dd i t i o n gre a tly

.

i m pr o ve s the l o wer p a rt o f the a bd o m en by neutra l i z i ng

the slight furr o w m a de by the w h ite line ( Fig . .

45 . O t h e r D e ta i l s of A b do m i n al F o rm .

IF aect i o n be t a ken o f t h e trunk say t h r o ug h t h e

s , ,

pect o r al a t I Fig 9 2 i t w i ll be so m ew h at a s sh o wn i n
, , .
,

the di agra m It w i ll be m o re o r le ss o bl o ng squ a re i n

.
,

fr o nt si nce t h e th o ra x it self a ppro ac h e s th i s sh ape a s h as

, ,

been sh o wn in p a ragr ap h 3 9 a n d si nce t h e v o lu m e o f ,

F IG 9 2
. .
-
S ec ti o n s o f th e Tru nk .

the pect o r a l a ssi st s by pro v i ding m o re c o rner t o t h e squ a re .

The b a c k c o rners a re sw o llen o u t by the l a t i ssi m u s d o rsi .

S o th a t the se c t i o n i s br o a dly spe a king a m o d i fied O bl o ng

, , .

The sect i o n o f the a bd o m en ( 2 ) i s quite a s deep fr o m

fro nt t o b a ck in the m a le i n pro p o rt i o n t o i ts w i dt h
, , ,

as the c h e s t T hu s i f the depth be re pre sented a s 2

.
,
1 38 F IG U RE D RA W ING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

No t hi ng i s m o reffen sive i n the figure th a n a b uge

o

s t o m ac h . Refine m ent ca n e a sily be a tt a ined by a dhering

t o the m u scul a r fo r m s a n d by keeping the a bd o m in a l m a ss
,

well with i n t h e gro i n Fl a tne ss i s h o wever a s o bj ect i o n

.
, ,

a ble i n th i s regi o n a s gr o ss fa tne ss The secret see m s to .

be th at t h e gre a te st pr o m i nen c e i s j u st bel o w a n d be side

the u m bili c u s ( Fig 9 3
. . In w o m en p a rti c ul a rly there
i s a n o tice a ble pr o m inence here but it i s o f re str i c ted
,

a re a ,
a n d th a t i s the i m p o rt a nt fa ct t o o b serve The .

l a ter a l li m it o f the re c tu s will a sse rt it self the extern a l ,

F IG .
94 .

o blique a l so a n d betwe e n a n d bel o w the m t h e slight

,

s urfa ce c o m pleting the m ass t o the gr o in Bel o w

the gr o i n i s t h e l ast fo ld o f the trunk with the l o wer ,

b o rder bec o m i ng a c re a se i n the thigh In the s i de

V iew the c hief pro m i nen c e O f the a bd o m en n a tur a lly i s
very wel l seen .

The gre a ter pr o p o rt i o n a l width o f the fe m a le p elvi s

give s thi s regi o n a n i ncre a sed fl a tne ss wh i c h i s further ,

a ug m ented by the fa ct th a t the il i a c c re st s pr oj ect further

fo rw a rd W hen the t o rso i s bent up o n it self t h e tra n sverse

.

d i vi si o n s o f the rectu s a ssert t h e m selve s a s c re a se s be tween

 THE TRU NK 1 39

the m u sc u l a r m a sse s ; the th o r a c i c a r c h a l so c o m e s i nt o

eviden c e expre ssing it sel f by the w a vy li ne o f the c o st a l
,

c a rtil a ge s o f the eighth n i nth a n d ten th rib s the fl o a ting

, ,

eleventh helping t o c a rry the l i ne r o und t o w a rd s t h e b a c k .

The extern a l o blique bulge s up b o ldly t aking pro b a bly ,

a n u ndul a t i ng c u rve where i t b o rder s a g a i n s t the a bd o m en .

Bel o w the u m bili c u s the a bd o m en i s gener a lly c le ar but ,

the sk i n so m eti m e s c re a se s ; the gr o i n will l ie between

the m a ss o f the a bd o m en a b o ve a n d the l a st fo ld bel o w ,

a s a dul l depre ss i o n .

In so m e c a se s t h e a bd o m en a ppe a r s t o h a ve a secti o n
so m ew h a t s qu a re pre s enting three s urfa c e s t w o o f whi c h ,

a ppe a r i n F i g .
9 4 B T h
, e a bd o
. m i n a l m a ss thu s i nd i
c a t e d i s li m i ted by t h e b o rder o f t h e th o r a c i c a r c h a n d

t h e extern a l O blique .

4 6 . The P ec to ra l M u sc l e s .

T IIE pect o r a l i s m i n o r i s a l m o s t ent i rely hi dden by t h e

pect o r a li s m aj o r a n d per h a p s i t o nly a ssert s i t sel f w h en
,

the o utw a rd b o rder o f the l a tter i s exp o sed by t hi cken ,

i ng th a t b o rder a n d prevent i ng a n y deep h o ll o w be h ind

,

i t ( Fig 9 5
. .

T h e fo r m o f the pe ct o r a l i s m aj o r m ay be g a t h ered fro m

the di a gra m It s a rra nge m ent i n bun dle s a ffe c t s extern a l
.

fo r m a s m a y be seen i n Fig 9 6 while the upper m o s t

’

.
, ,

bu ndle b a rely t o u c he s t h e delt o id p age 1 5 0 so th a t t h ere

, ,

i s a sl igh t c h a n nel between the m

~

T h e tw i sting o f t h e tend o n i s o f gre a t v a lue a rt i st i c a lly ,

a s it d o e s a w a y with t h e h o rr i b l y sh a rp a ngle which

w o uld be p re sent did t h e l o w e r fasc i culi o f the m u sc le
140 F IG U R E D RA W ING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

p ro ceed t o the l o wer end o f t h e i n sert i o n i n ste a d of

t o the upper L e t it be n o ted t h a t the l o wer p a rt

. of

t h e m u scle p a sse s u nder the up p er .

F IG 9 5
. .
—
Th e Pec to ral Muscl es .

Pe c t r i Mj r
o al s a o . Att ach m en s —
t Ap on euro si s
xtern al b l i que of e o

m u scl e f ab dom en fro n t

o f b o dy an d h i l t o f st ern um a d o n

a d i n n er h al f o f c o l l ar b o n e —
,

a dj ac en t c o stal ca rti l age s, n b i c i p ital -

g ro o e o f h um er
v us .

Pe ct o ral i s Mi o r ( 2 a n d
n F r on t o f th ird f rth an d fi fth ri b ,
ou ,
s

o ra c o i d p r o c e s o f cap l
c s s u a .

47 . The B rea st . .

T HE m a le bre ast t a ke s i ts fo r m fr o m t h e pect o r a l m u sc le

w i th the rud i m ent a ry gl a nd s a b o ut a n d bel o w t h e n i pple s ,

wh i c h c o nvert t h e rozm a zs/z l o wer c o rner o f t h e m u scle i nt o

’
'

a squ a re r sh a pe C o m p a re F i g s 9 6 a n d 9 5 F i g 9 6 C
. . . .
,

i s fro m a thin m o del a n d t h e s qu a rene ss i s l o st

, .

The l o wer a n d extern a l b o rders h ave c o n si derable

pro m i nen c e the extern a l being o f the t w o the m o re
,

pro n o unced In well devel o ped m en the extern a l b o rder

.
-
, ,

p a ssing up t o t h e a rm p i t i s a fo ld o f c o n si dera ble v o lu m e

-
, ,

be i ng a ug mented by the pe c t o ra l i s m i n o r bene a th it a n d ,

 FIG UR E D RA W ING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

In the fe m a le bre a st the fo r m s pro du c ed by the

m a m m a ry gl a nd s the bre a s t s pro per d o m in a te the gener a l
, ,

s h a pe. The pe c to ra l m u sc le s a re l o st Between the .

b re a st s i s a s l igh t i ndi c a ti o n o f the l o wer end o f the

s ternu m . The sp a c e a b o ve the m i s c le a rly m o delled fro m
the t o p o f the s h o ulder but i s i n t w o m asse s being
, ,

divided by a depre ssi o n c o rre sp o nding t o the s ternu m ,

o r r a ther t o the s ubcut a ne o u s p a rt o f th a t b o ne b e tween

the pe c t o ra l m u scle s The r i dge a t the j unct i o n o f the

.

F IG 9 7
. .

hilt a n d b o dy o f the sa m e b o ne w i ll o nly be a pp a ren t

when t h e s uperfi c i a l fa t with wh i c h e a c h well n o ur i sh ed -

wo m a n i s a ssu m ed t o be end o wed i s bel o w the st a nd a rd

,

qu a ntity Th i s i s due to t h e fa ct t h a t the b o ny a speritie s

.

a re so ftened i n the fe m ale sternu m a s thro ugh o ut the ,

wh o le figure .

There being c o n si dera ble sp a c e between the th o ra x

a n d the a rm b o ne In the fe m a le a di s tin c t h o ll o w m a
-
, y
be o b served between t h e che st a n d the sh o ulder T hi s .
 THE TR U NK 14 3

s p a c e a d m i t s a v o lu m i n o u s fo l d t o fo r m between the
bre a st a n d t h e a rm pit T hi s depre ss i o n bet w een the
-
.

c h est a n d s h o ulder ,
i n c o nj un c t i o n w i th c ert a in o ther
p e c uli a r i t i e s o f the fe m a le s kelet o n pr o duce s a n o
,
ther
genera l c h a ra cter i st i c o f the fe m a le figure T h e p ec u .

l i a ri t i e s o f t h e s kelet o n a re the se T h e bre a st b o ne i s

.
-

s h o rter pr o p o rt i o n a lly th a n i n t h e m a le the d i m i nut i o n ,

dra ggi ng the p i t o f t h e ne c k t h e c o ll a r b o ne s a n d t h e

,
-
,

fo rwa rd en d o f t h e fi rst p a ir o f rib s d o wn w h ile t h e '

p o s ter i o r end s Of the fi rs t r i b s re m a in a t t h e sa m e h e i ght

Up the ne c k a s in t h e m a le T h e re sul t i s t h a t fr o m
.

F IG 9 8
. .

the s l o p i ng line o f the tr a pez i u s i s a gentle fa ll d o wn

t h e l o wer p a rt o f the ne c k o ver t h e c o ll a r b o ne a l m o s t -

w i t h o ut a bre a k o f surfa ce a n d d o wn i n t h e sa m e gen tle

,

m a n ner o ver t h e b o so m a n d between t h e bre a st s In

‘

t h e m a le t h e fo r m i s br o ken by the c o ll a r b o ne w hi c h -
,

s t a nd s h i gh er a n d thu s pr o duce s t w o s u rfa ce s o n e be i ng

, ,

the h o r i z o nt a l p a r t o f the ne c k the o t h er the c h e st It

, .

i s t h u s th a t a m a n s b o so m bec o m e s u n su i ted t o l o w
’

necked c o stu m e In t h e fi fteen t h centu ry m en w o re w h a t

.

fo r m en m ay be c a lled l o w ne c k s but t h ey s t o pped a t ,

t h e c o ll a r b o ne
-
.
 144 F IG URE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

The h o ll o w w hi c h h as been p o inted o u t a s due t o

the di st a n c e bet w een the he a d o f the hu m eru s a n d
the th o ra x i n the fe m a le d i vide s the b o so m a n d bre a st
,

fro m the sh o ulder a n d the m ass o f t h e tr a peziu s T h e .

s h o ulder a n d tr a pez i u s t h u s br o o d fo rw a rd like t h e

w ing
o n a b i rd H ence the b i rd like a ppe a ra n c e o f pro te c t i o n
. -

in the bre ast o f a w o m a n In Fig 9 8 th i s bro o d i ng

. .

s h o ulder p i ece
-
i s c l o t h ed a nd thu s the m asse s a re
,

F IG 9 9 . .

e m ph asi zed T h e o utline o f t h e dra pery c o rre sp o nd s to

.

the i nner b o rder s o f the tr a pez i u s a n d delto i d m u scle s .

The t w o bre a s t s pr o per ( fe m a le) a re d i re c ted so m ew h a t

o utw a rd no t i m m ed i a tely fo rw a rd If a xi a l line s be '

, .

dr a wn thro ugh the m , they will in ee t a t a bo ut ri gh t

a ngle s.
( Fig . S o th a t when o n e bre a st i s d i re c ted

s tr a ig h t t o w a rd s the spe c t a t o r the o ther i s seen in pr o file

,

if t h e spectat o r be but a fo o t o r t w o a w a y ( Fig 9 7 B ) . .

,
.

The o utl i ne o f the bre a s t i s r o ug h ly spe a king a se m i

, ,
1 46 F IG UR E D RA WING A ND CO MPO S ITIO N

to the pit o f the neck T h e se c re a se s fa i rly str a i g h t i n

.
,

line help t o expre ss the so ftne ss o f t h i s p art o f t h e b o so m

, ,

but a re o f c o ur se o nly seen when the sh o ulder s a re dr awn

fo rwa rd The dr a ught sm a n s a i m m u st be t o repre sent
.
’
~

thi s fe a ture o f the trunk a s so ft dr o o p i ng very sligh tly , ,

a n d n o t t o o sp h eric a l Fr o m the fro nt Vi ew the nipple s

.

a re seen t o w a rd the o uter s ide o f the m ass The bre ast s .

sh o uld n o t m ee t but sh o uld h ave a so ftly defined spac e

,

bet we en the m .

4 8 . C o m p a ri so n o f the B o n es of th e Tru n k
in the Tw o S e x e s .

T HE th o r a x i s co m p a r a t i vely l a rger i n the m a le le ss ,

o vo i d i t s side s m o re vertic a l being i ndeed v i rtu a lly so

, ,

F IG . 101 —Th e T ru n ki n x
th e t wo S e es .

fro m t h e third t o t h e tenth r i b It i s o f gre a ter c a p ac i ty

.
,

h a v i ng a gre a ter w i dth i n the upper reg i o n a n d hen c e ,

le aving le ss sp a ce between i t self a n d the h e a d o f the

arm b o ne th a n i n t he fem a le
-
T hi s fact i s o f i m po r ta nce ;
.
 T HE T RU NK 147

the effec t o f the d i fference be i ng p o i nted o u t In t h e

p a ra gra ph o n t h e bre ast T h e pelv i s i s w i de r i n the
.

fe m a le.

The di fference between t h e S exe s i s per h ap s be st

illu str a ted by d raw i ng l i ne s t o uc hi ng t h e tro c h a nter s a n d
i l i a c cre st s In t h e fe m a le t hi s li ne w i l l sk i r t t h e t h o r a x
.

i n p a ssi ng upw a rd s a n d w i ll str i k e t h e h e a d at the

,

zygo m a In t h e m a le t h e l i n e w i ll cut t h r o ug h t h e
t h o r a x a n d the h e a d a n d m eet i ts fell o w fro m t h e o ther
,

s i de a t t h e s u m m i t o f t h e c ra n i u m T h u s t h e fe m a le
'

, ,

s kelet o n i s seen t o be pyr a m i d a l

. If o t h e r l i ne s be erected
.

vert i c a lly fro m t h e i l i ac cre st s t h e o n e i n t h e m a le w i ll

,

s kir t t h e t h o r a x o n i ts i n ner si de a n d t h e h e a d o f th e
,

a rm b o ne
- on i ts o ute r In t h e fe m a le t h e l i ne w i ll
.

e sc a pe t h e th o ra x a n d w i ll cu t t h r o ug h t he he a d o f
,

the h u meru s .

T h e a nnexed di agr am w i ll i llu str a te t h e a ppl i c a t i o n o f

the rule T h e t a l l pyr a m i d o f th e fe m a le ( 3 ) w i ll bec o m e
.

cu rved i n a cc o rd a nce w i t h t h e bend i ng i nev i t a bly pre sen t

i n a l l but d i a gra m m at i c p o se s w hi le fo r the m a le d o uble
, ,

curve s p r o duc i n g a bell sh ape (4) w i ll be serv i ce a ble

-
.

49 . The Wa ist .

T H ERE i s m o re sp a ce between t h e t h o r a x a n d pelv i s

i n a w o m a n ( B ) a n d t h erefo re t h ere i s m o re w a i st T h e
, .

w i dt h i s pr o p o rt i o n a lly t h e sa m e i n b o t h be i ng equ a l t o ,

t w i ce t h e d i st a nce fr o m the b o tt o m o f t h e c hi n t o the

l o wer b o rder o f t h e eyebr o w ; but a ll o w i ng fo r t h e gener a l
i nfer i o r i ty i n si z e o f t h e fe m ale t h e w a i st i n t h a t s i ze
,

i s s m a ller i n a n o r m a l fi gure t h a n i n t h e typ i c a l m an .

Th i s a b so lut e sm a llne ss i s ren de red mo re ev i d en t by

-
 148 F IG U RE D RAWING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

t h e fac t t h a t i n the typic a l w o m a n so m e i nc h e s sh o rter ,

i n st ature th a n the typic a l m a n the h ip s a n d il i ac s a re ,

n o t o nly pr o p o rt i o n a tely but a c tu a lly w i der T h u s the .

,

s m allne ss o f the fe m a le w a i st i s e m p h a si zed by the

c o ntra st o f t h e hip s bene a th T h e evil h abit o f t i ght
.

l a c i ng wh i le i t a ffe c t s th e figure s o f t h e w o m en o f t o day

,
-
,

m u st n o t be indulged i n by the w o m en o f o u r a rti sti c

fa n c y ; but it w o uld be o f c o u rse a b surd t o repre sent
,

”
th o se d augh ter s o f Eve w h o l a ce w i th t h e w a i st o f “
,

the Venu s o f M il o T i ght l a c ing m ay be fi r st c o u si n t o

.
-

C hine se fo o t sh o rtening t o the rep o rted cutt i ng o ff o f

-
,

F IG . 1 02 .

al l t o e s but the gre a t t o e a n d the fl a ttening o f t h e

,

fo re h e a d by so m e o ther enl i ghtened c o m m un i tie s A l l .

m ay be s tr i de s where Pr o vidence h a s deter m i ned t o

,

t a ke s tep s in the evo lut i o n o f t h e hu m a n s pecie s ; but

,

the genera l O pi n i o n o f a rt i st s h as pro n o unced a ga i n s t

the m a s i m pro ve m ent s If a n y o n e c a re s t o study a n
.

a rt o f the l a c ed nude let h i m bet a ke hi m sel f t o the

,

Br i ti sh Mu seu m a n d there ex a m ine the Ind i a n sculp

,

ture s It i s t o lera bly c ert a i n th a t he will prefer the

.

G reek .

Th ere IS neverthele ss b o th i n t h e ma l e a n d fe m a l e
,
I SO F IG U RE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

GREAT ER LE sea
T U B ERQS ITIES
'

K M IN

F IG . TO 3 .
-
Muscl es ab out th e sca p ul a .

I THE D ELTO ID
. MUS C LE .

A tt
ach m en s t -
Un der l ip o f sp i n e o f sc ap ul a , a n d o uter th ird o f c l av i cl e
del t i d i m p re i o
o ss n o n ou s t ide of h um e r us .

II THE S C A PULA R
. MU S C LES .

S up ra -
i
sp n a tus

t —S p r
.

A tt a ch m en s u a -
sp i n ou s fo ssa o f sc ap u a l —greater tub r it y
e os

of hu m er us .

In f r a S p i n at us
-
.

tta h m e t I er two th ird f i fra p i

A c n s -
nn -
s o n -
s n o us fo ssa — greater
t b er ity f h m er
u os o u us .

Te re m i r
s no .

Att h m t —At th
ac t si d f th tt
en s e o u er e o e a ac h men t o f t h e i n fra
a

Sp i tu —
gr e t r t
na ub r it
s y f h m er u a e e os o u s.
 THE TR UNK 15 1

Teres m aj o r
—
.

tt
A a ch m e n t s B el o w tt th e a a ch m e n s t of th e tr
e es m i r
no an d

i frn a - sp i n a tu s —b i i p it l gr
c a o ov e o f h um e r us .

III THE RHO MB O ID S A ND S ERRATUS

. MAG NUS .
~

Serr t m g
a us a n us

Upp er i gh t ri b —b e f
.

Atta m e t
h — c p
n sul e s as o sc a a .

Rh m b i d
o m j r o eu s a o .

Att h m e t Up p er fi e dor l p i e —b
ac n s- f c v sa s n s a se o s a p ul a f r o in t he
r t f th e p i t th e l w er gl
oo o s ne o o an e .

Rh omb i d mi r o e us no .

Att h m e t Lo w e t th ree er i c l
ac pi e
n s —b s c v a s n s ase of sca p ul a

b e th e i serti
a ov f th rh mb i de m j r n on o e o o us a o .

depre ssi o n r a t h er t h a n a s a r i d ge It i s sugge sted by .

s tr a i g h t l i ne s i n F i g 7 5 In d ra w i ng s furt h er a dv a nced . .

i t i s so m et i m e s sugge sted by t h e o utl i ne s o f t h e tr a pez i u s

a n d del t o i d a s i n F i g 1 0 4 B , .
, .

T h e b ase o f t h e sc a pul a i ts b o rder p a r a llel to t h e b a c k ,

b o ne t h a t i s reve a l s i t sel f u su a lly a s a d o uble curve a s i n

, ,

F i g 7 5 o r F i g 1 04 C D a n d E T h e l o wer cu rve bend s

.
, .
, , .

ro und a n d fo r m s t h e l o wer a ngle o f t h e bl a de ( B a n d D

) .

Un de r t h e a rm p i t t h ere a re t h re e r a d i a t i ng li ne s s h o wn
-
,

i n F i g 1 04 B T h e l o we st repre sent i ng t h e l o czsszmus

' '

.
, .
,

dorsi d o e s n o t t o uc h t h e bl a de w h ere a s t h e o t h er t w o
, ,

a r i se fro m i t T h ey repre sent t h e l o wer tere s m aj o r t h e

.
, , ,

upper tere s m i n o r a n d w h a t i s spec i a l ly re m a rk able a b o u t

, ,

t h e m i s t h a t m aj o r go e s t o t h e fro n t o f t h e a rm i n cl o se
,

c o m p a ny w i t h l a t i ssi m u s w hi le m i n o r go e s t o t h e b a ck ,
.

T h ey a re sep a r a te d by t h e tr i cep s m u scle a t t h e b a ck o f

t h e a rm T h e se l i ne s o f t h e t ere s w i ll be seen to be sl a nt
.
!

i ng o r o bl i quely pl a ced w i t h t h e re sul t t h a t t h e sh a rp a ngle

, ,

w hi c h w o uld o t h erw i se o ccur u nder th e a rm when i t i s

'

ra i sed o r c a rr i ed a t a l l a w a y fro m t h e b o dy i s filled

, ,
.

T h e del toi d S h o u ld a lw a y s be d r a wn w i th a d o uble c u rve ,

an d n o t left a s a b a ll a t t h e t o f the a rm It s b o r der

p o .
152 F IG URE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

ag a in st t h e pect o ra l o n the c h e st i s well m a rked o w i ng t o

, , ,

a s lig h t h o ll o w between the m Its h i nder b o rder 15 t o o

.

thi n i n i ts upper p a rt t o expre ss it self str o ngly ex c ept ,

when it i s i n a c ti o n a n d r a i sing the a rm b ac kwa rd s .

A b o ve the a rm p i t the hinder b o rder i s m o re v o lu m in o u s

-
,

but pre serve s a depre ssi o n between i t self a n d t h e tr i cep s o f

the a rm .

The sc a pul a i s a s it were s lung o ver the sh o ulders by

, ,

F IG . 1 04 .

the c o ll a r b o ne w hi c h thu s pro v i de s t h e o n ly b o ny

-
,

c o n nect i o n wit h the S kelet o n .

T h e a rt i c u l a t i o n between the cl av i c le a n d sternu m i s

so m o bile a s t o p o sse ss a l l the m o ve m ent s o f a b a ll a n d -

so c ket j o i nt . It wil l a ll o w s l i ght c ircu m du c ti o n s uch a s ,

the p o int o f o n e s pen m ake s i n writ i ng the letter O

’
,

S light r o t a t i o n up o n the a x i s o f the b o ne b u t c h i efly a

,

degree o f m o ve m ent up a n d d o wn a n d b a ckwa rd s a n d ,

fo rwa rd s .
1 54 F IG U RE D RA WING A ND C O MPO SITIO N

co n ne c t i o n it i s i ntere st i ng t o n o te h o w frequently i n G reek

w o rk s the p o s i t i o n i n whi c h t h e sh o ulders a re well b a ck ,

w i t h t h e elb o ws a t the s ide s a n d the h a nd s h eld a little

,

a w a y o cc ur s
, .

The upper p a r t o f the b a ck i s o f a l l t h e b o dy the p a r t

m o st li a ble t o c h a n ge a n d i t i s v i rtu a lly i m p o ssible t o l a y
,

do wn rule s g o vern i ng the nu m er o u s det a i l s w h i c h c o m e

a n d g o so re a dily .The spine a n d b ase o f t h e bl a de b o ne -

ne stle a m o ng a nu m ber o f subtly bulg i ng m a sse s so m eti m e s

very nu m ero u s so m et i m e s very few a n d due c h iefly t o the
, ,

F IG . 1 05 .

m u s cle s on t h e sc apul a the rh o m b o i d s between i t a n d the

,

b a c k b o ne a n d t h e tra pez i u s It w i ll be w h en t h e a r m s a re
,
.

br o ugh t fo rw a rd a n d t h e m u scle s a t t h e b ack a re stretc h ed

th a t the fo r m w i l l b e si m ple st ; m o st c o m plex when t h e
a r m s a n d s h o ulder s a re thr o wn b a ck In R a p h a el s dra w
’
.

ing s there a re genera lly a gre a t nu m ber o f m u sc ul a r

“ ”
kn o t s o n t h e b a ck a n d Mi c h ael A ngel o a n d C ell i n o
,

Were equ a lly fo n d o f the m T h e e ssent i a l s o f fo r m a re

.

h o wever th o se p o i nted o ut a b ove .

Pa rtly c o n nected w i t h t h e bl a de b o ne s i s t h e m o del lin g -

o f the b a c k a s S h o wn i n F i g 1 0 5
,
The fl a t decl i v i ty fr o m
. .

the bl a de to t h e b a ck b o n e i s b o t h ch a racte ri st i c a n d
-
 T HE T RU NK 155

be a ut i ful . L o wer
d o wn t h e b a c k be c o m e s div i ded a s i n B
, , ,

a n d a s a l so i n D a n d H F i g 1 04 i n to vert i c a l m asse s the

, .
, ,

o uter o f wh i c h a re pr o duced b y the l a t i ss i m u s d o r s i

'

5 1 . Th e P ro p o rt io n s o f t he Tru n k .

IT h a s befo re been sa i d t h a t the trunk i s d i v i si ble

i nt o t w o h a lve s a t t h e l o wer end o f t h e th o r a x In t h e
,
.

fe m a le i t i s a t t h e ex a c t end bu t i n t h e m a le i t i s r a t h er
'

a t t h e end o f the pr o m i nence o f t h e t h o r a x befo re at ,

t h e c a rt i l age o f t h e tent h r i b In t h e m a le t h e se h a lve s.

a re e a c h a b o ut 1 2 i nc h e s i n t h e fe m a le a b o u t 1 1
,

i nc h e s In t h e fe m a le the h a lf o f t h e th o r a x g i ve s the
.

p o si t i o n o f t h e n i pple s i n t h e m a le t h e l o wer b o rder o f

,

t h e pect o ra l s .

The pr o p o rt i o n s a re d i a gr a m m a t i c a l ly repre sented i n

Fig 1 9 p a ge 4 1 w hi ch w i ll i l lu s t ra te t h e re m a rk s i n
.
, ,

th i s p a r a gr a ph .

In t h e b a ck t h e fo ll o w i n g equ a l m e a su re m ent s ( 6
i n c he s) m ay be n o ted Fr o m t h e t o p o f the cr a n i u m t o
.
~

t h e su m m i t o f t h e vertebr a l c o lu m n t h en c e t o t h e t o p ,

o f t h e sc a pul a thence t o l o wer a ngle o f t h a t b o ne a n d

, ,

t h en t o the en d o f the th o ra x ( Fig 1 9 In the . .

fe m a le th e se m e a sure m ent s a re a b o ut i n ches .

T h e sc a pul a i s virtu a lly between t h e sa m e h o r i z o nt a l

p a r a llel s as t h e c o ll a r b o ne a n d n ipple s i n b o th se xe s
-
.

C o ntr a st i ng the m e a su re m en t s o f t h e tw o s exe s it ,

w i ll b e seen th a t the w i dt h o f t h e h i p s i s t h e sa m e i n
i n c h e s i n b o t h a lt h o u g h t h e w o m a n i s i n st a ture 6 3 5 —
,

i n c h e s an d t h e m a n 6 7
,
T h e w i dt h o f t h e t h o r a x
. ,

b o ne o n ly i s 1 1 57 i n c h e s i n m a n 9 i n w o m a n A cro ss
,
-

,
.

the sh o ulder s t o t h e a rt i cul a t i o n between the c o ll a r b o ne -

 1 56 F IG U R E D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

and the a c ro m i o n pro c e ss i s in m a n 1 2 i n c he s i n w o m a n ,

le ss The a c ro m i o n pro ce sse s will a dd a b o ut a n in c h

.

a t ea c h s i de .

The w a i st i s 8 to 9 5; in c he s i n w o m a n 1 0 i n c he s i n m a n
,

the hip s a c ro ss the tro c h a nters 1 3 in c he s i n b o th The .

fe m a le figure i s a l so very wide a cro ss the ili a being 1 2 ,

i n c he s t o 1 15 i n t h e m a le The gre a te st width o f b o th

.

fi gure s i s a cr o ss the t h igh s a l ittle bel o w the tr o ch a nters .

T a k i ng t h e centre o f the fe m a le figu re a s a t the level o f

the tr o c h a nter s we see t h a t fr o m the c entre d o wn t o
,

the t o p o f the p a tell a a n d a l so up t o the bre as t s a re

, ,

m e a su re m ent s equ a l t o t h a t a cr o ss the tr o c h a nters . A ga in ,

the gre a te st width o f the fe m a le i s o n e third the m e a sure-

m en t fr o m t h e gro und t o t h e w a i s t .

In the m a le the width o f t h e s h o ulder s i s s upp o rted by a

very si m il a r width i n the c he st a n d bre a st bu t i n the
fe m a le the c h e st a n d bre a st a re m u c h n a rro wer per m itt i ng ,

the a rm t o h a ng c l o ser t o the th o r a x a n d so the width

,

a c r o ss the delt o i d s i s in the fe m a le a b o ut 1 6 i nche s ,

a g a in s t 1 8 i n c he s i n the m a le It a l so a c c o unt s fo r t h e
.

“
bro o ding o f the sh o ulders o f the w o m a n s p o ken o f
o n p a ge 1 4 4 .

To the se c o n s i dera t i o n s h ave t o be a dded t h e fa c t t h a t

the fe m a le trun k i s pro p o rt i o n a lly l o nger t h a n the m a le .

Th i s i s very well de m o n stra ted by Fig 1 9 No I i n .

, .
,

wh i c h h a lf o f the o utli ne i s m a le a n d h a lf fe m a le the ,

u m b i l i cu s being t a ken a s the c o m m o n p o int fo r b o th .

By thi s it will be seen h o w the th o ra c e s c o rre sp o nd i n

lengt h t h e n i pple s even fa ll i ng o n t h e sa m e line The
,
.

m a le cl a vicle i s higher th a n the fe m a le a s i s the m a le ,

s u mm it o f the cr a niu m It i s i n the l o wer li m b th a t

.

t h e fe m a le bec o m e s the sh o rter .

T h e fe m a le t h o ra x i s n o t o nly n a rro wer i t i s sl i g h tly ,

 T HE A RM

5 2 . Th e F i rs t L i n es in a D raw i ng of t he A rm .

THE e a rl i e st ketc h o f the a rm m u st i nclude b o th the

s

S h o ulder a n d t h e h a nd p a rt i cul a rly t h e h a nd w h ich m o st

, ,

beg i nner s see m t o rega rd a s so m et hi ng qu i te d i fferent fro m

the a rm a n d w hi c h c an be a dded a t a n y t i m e T h a t thi s
, .

i s a gre a t m i st a ke a n y o n e w h o g i ve s t h e le ast c o n si der a

ti o n to the c o n struct i o n w i ll see at o nce .

T h e c o m m ence m en t o f t h e draw i ng w i ll c o n si st o f si m ple

l i ne s o n e i t h er si de o f th e l i m b It i s n o t w i se t o l i nger
.

up o n t h e det ai l s o f fo r m t i ll the w h o le a rm i s bu i lt up i n
,

s i m ple fashi o n a n d the pr o p o rt i o n a n d a c ti o n a re deter

,

m i ned by such m e a n s But the se fi r st l i ne s sh o uld be true

.

t o fo r m a n d t h e d r a ug h t sm a n m u st be c o nti nu a lly try i ng

,

t o c o m pre ss a s m uc h fa ct a s p o ssi ble i nt o si m ple a n d

rap i dly dr awn l i ne s .

D i fferen t v i ew s o f t h e a rm y i eld d i fferent o utl i ne s a n d ,

the va r i ety i s very gre a t but perh a p s Fig 1 06 su mm ar i ze s

,
.

t h e m o st frequen t p o sit i o n s The curve s b o und i ng the

.

fo r m o n e i ther si de a re gener a lly so m ew h a t p a ra llel but ,

so m e p os i t i o n s requ i re b o th o utl i ne s t o curve o utw a rd s a s ,

F Fig 1 0 6
,
. Wh en t h e cu rve s a re p a r a llel a s i n t h e o ther
.
,

ex a m ple s i n Fig 1 06 t h e c o nvex i ty i s b ac kw a rd i n th e

.
,
 T HE A RM 1
59
s i d e v i e w a s A C D a n d H In Vi ew s a ppro a c hi ng t h e fro n t
, , , .

a n d b a ck t h e p a r a llel cu rve s fo r the ( upper) a rm w i ll h a v e

,

t h e i r c o nvex i ty t o w a rd t h e fi gure a s E a n d G In t h e se
,
.

ex am ple s w i ll be n o ti c e d a sl a nt i ng l i ne fro m t h e a rm to
.

t h e elb o w w hi c h c o rre sp o nd s t o t h e m a ssi ng o f t h e b o ne s

,

o f t h e elb o w a s sh o wn i n F i g
,
10 8 In H F i g 10 6 t h e
. .
, .
,

w h o le a rm i s w i t hi n l i ne s c o nvex b ackw a rd B i s si m i l a r .
,

b ut w hi le t h e upper line i s S i ngle t h e l o wer i s d o uble ,

a n d t h u s ex re sse s by t h e a n gle fo r m ed t h e pr o j ect i o n o f

p
t h e elb o w .

F IG . 1 06 .

T h e fir st l i ne s o f t h e h a nd w i ll be a s i n A C D E a n d G , , , ,

a s tr a i g h t l i ne be i ng pl a ced fo r t h e b a ck o f t h e h a nd a n d ,

a gr a cefu l curve fo r the i ndex fi nger Befo re pro ceed i ng

.

furt h er w i t h t h e pra ct i c a l d r a w i ng i t w i l l be wel l t o re m i n d

,

o ur selve s o f t h e b o ne s a n d c hi ef m u scle s o f t h e a rm .

53 . Th e B o n e s o f t he Up p e r L i m b .

TH ES E h o w n i n t h e a cc o m p a ny i n g d i a gra ms No s
a re S
, .

1 0 7 to 1 0 9 A fe w c h a r a cter i st i c s w i ll need t o be p o i nted

.

o ut. T h e gre a ter tubero si ty o f t he h u m eru s h elp s t o

fo rm t h e uppe r b ulb o f th e m ass o f th e d elt o i d m u scl e
‘

.
1 60 F IG URE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

T h e sh a ft i s t o ler ably stra i ght an d end s i n t h e a rticul a r ,

s urfa c e s fo r the h i nge j o int o f the elb o w A bo ve the

-
.

j o i n t the b o ne i s very t h in be i ng h o ll o wed befo re a n d

,

a c 1P ITA L G Ro. m / E,

HU MERUS
‘

EP IC O NDY LO ID R 1 0 6

INT ER N CO N O YL ES EX T ERNA L

U LNA

RADIU S

RPUS

META C A RPU

PHA LA NGES

F IG . Io 7 .
—Th e L eft Arm . A, S up i na te ; B, Pro n a te .

be hi nd to a cc om m o d a te t h e o lecra n o n a n d c o ro n o id p ro
,

ce sse s o f the ul n a when they i n t h e re spect i ve a cti o n s o f

, ,

str a i ghten i ng o r extending

,
t h e fo re a rm a n d bending o r
,
-
,

flexing it up o n t h e a rm c o m e up a g a i n st the h u m eru s Were

, , .
162 F IG UR E D RAWING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

l o wer end i s th us sm oo thly curved In the sk elet o n th i s .

s m o o th c urve i s s uddenly br o ken by t h e o le c r a n o n pr o c e ss

but with the a dditi o n o f the m u sc le s a n d skin the bre a k ,

i s c o n s ider a bly le ssened .

Viewing the skelet o n o f the a rm a s a w h o le the fa c t ,

th a t a pp a rently the hu m eru s a n d uln a fo r m o n e di stin c t

p a rt a n d the ra diu s a n d h a nd a n o ther c a nn o t be o ver
, ,

l o o ked T h i s o blique fi tting t o gether o f the p a rt s Will

.

F IG . 1 09 .
—Th e El b ow j o i
-
nt .

A, Bac k vi e w of th e l e ft el b o w ,b en t ; B
S h o w i ng h o w th e o l ec ran o n g rip s th e
,

h u merus, an d th e r
c urva tu re o f th e l a t ter ; C , O u ter Vi e w , l eft el b o w , st a i g h ten ed ;

D, B k ac vi ew o f sa m e.

frequen tly be n oted i n a study o f t h e fi gu re but n o w here ,

i s it s o p a lp a ble a s i n the a rm .

The elb o w j o i nt depend s a l m o st ent i rely up o n the uln a

-
,

the l o wer end o f wh i c h w i ll be seen t o be very s i m il a r

t o the upper end o r he a d o f the r a diu s T h e se sm a ller .

end s o f the b o ne s h a ve l a tera l a r t i c ul a r surfa ce s which a re

c o n c erned i n the a c ti o n s o f pr o n a ti o n a n d sup i n a ti o n ,

w h i c h m ay be br i efly de scribed a s fo ll o ws The he a d .

o f the r a diu s re ma in s i n the sa m e p ositi o n thro ug h o ut

 T HE A RM 163

t h e a ct i o n s but rev o lve s T h e l o wer end o f th e r a diu s

,
.
,

dur i ng th i s rev o luti o n o f t h e h e a d w o rk s a g a in s t the

l o wer end o f the uln a wh i c h d o e s n o t p a rt i c i p a te further
,

i n the a c t i o n a n d so i s c a rr i e d h a lf w a y r o un d the uln a

,
-
,

o r a s m a y be sa i d o ver it
, ,
W h en t h e thu m b i s o ut side
.
,

the a rm i s i n the p o si ti o n o f s upin a ti o n ; when i t turn s

i n t o w a rd s the th i gh i t i s i n pr o n a ti o n
,
.

The pro n a te a rm i s m uch m o re ne a rly s tra i g h t th a n

the supin a te Thi s i s due t o the s light o bliquity a t
.

wh i c h the ul n a i s pl a c ed t o the hu m eru s a n o bliqu ity ,

de mo n s tra ted by d ra w i ng a li ne level wi th t h e gre a ter

tubero s i ty o f t h e h e a d o f t h e hu meru s a n d t h e extern a l
c o ndyle ; i t wil l t o u c h t h e o uter s i de o f the l o wer en d o f

the u ln a ( F i g
. . In s up i n a ti o n the r a d iu s i s t o the
o ut s ide o f th i s l i ne a n d thu s pr o duce s a n o btu s e a ngle wi th
,

the h u m eru s the extern a l ep i c o n dyl o i d ridge being i n

,
-

c o nti nu a t i o n wit h t h e l i ne o f the r a diu s a n d the a ngle ,

thu s o ccu r s a b o u t a th i rd o f the len gth upw a rd o f t h e , ,

hu m eru s Thi s i s w o rth o b serving a s the fi n a l m u sc ul a r

.
,

fo r m i s s ugge sted by i t .

If a l ine be d r a wn a s a x i s t o t h e h u m eru s i t will be ,

s een i n s upi n a t i o n t o be c o n s ider a bly t o the i n n er s i de

o f t h e wri s t ,
but i n pro n a ti o n t h e wri s t c o m e s up t o it .

Even i n pr o n a ti o n t h e n the a x i s o f th e fo re a rm i s n o t
,
-

quite i n l i n e w i th th a t o f the a rm but deflected a little ,

t o t h e o u tw a rd .

Pro n a t i o n i s a n a u x i l i a ry rol czczorz o f t h e a rm Ro t a ti o n

'

.
,

a s t h e w o rd i m plie s i s a m o v i ng r o un d up o n t h e a xi s
, If .

the t w o b o ne s o f the fo re a rm were rig i d the p a l m c o uld-

,

on ly be turned d o wnwa rd i f the elb o w j o i nt it s el f c o n -

t a i n e d t h e p o we r o f r o t a ti o n
, S u c h a c h a nge w o uld enti rely
.

de stro y t h e s trengt h o f the l i m b Pro h a t io n be i ng a kind .

o f r o t a ti o n i s n e a rly a l w a y s a c c o m p a n i ed b r o t a ti o n o f
_

y
 1 64 F IG UR E D RA W ING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

the h u m eru s whi c h i s o f c o ur se e asily perfo r m e d a t the

,

l o o se sh o ulder j o int S o th a t w hen the thu m b i s turned

-
.

o ver t o w a r d the b o dy pr o n a ted the elb w pr j e t the

( ) o o c s a t ,

s ide ,
o utw a rd ; a n d when the t h u m b i s ca rried b ac k
( s upin a te d) the elb, o w i s dr a wn in cl o se t o t h e trun k .

54 . Th e Tric e p s M u sc l e .

TH IS i m p o rt a nt m u sc le c o ver s the W h o le o f the b a c k

o f the a rm the det a i l s o f whi c h a re the det a il s o f i ts
,

fo r m a n d c o n stru c ti o n Its o ffi ce i s t o extend the fo re .

a rm , o n the a rm a n d fo r t h i s purp o se it i s a tt a c h ed
, to

the s tr o ng o le c ra n o n pr o c e ss o f the uln a Its a tt a c h m ent .

a l so t o t h e s c a pul a give s i t p o wer o f dra w i n g the a rm

t o w a rd s a n d beh i nd the trunk .

The fo r m o f t h e m u sc le m a y be g a t h ered fr o m the

a cc o m p a nying illu stra ti o n a n d o n ly a fe w w o rd s o f,

expl a n a t i o n w i ll be nece ssa ry .

In t h e fi r s t pl a c e the c o m m o n tend o n by w hi c h a l l
,

t h ree he ad s a re a tt a ched t o t h e o lecra n o n i s o f c o n sider able

length re a c hi ng ne a rly h a lf w ay between t h e o le c ra n o n
,
-

a n d t h e a cr o m i o n a s s h o wn in Fig 1 1 1 A O m i tting
,
.
, .

the j un c ti o n o f t hi s tend o n with the o lecr a n o n it h a s ,

three s i de s t w o very l o ng a n d vi rtu a lly p a ra llel ex

, ,

pre ssi ng t h e lengt h wh i le the th i rd whic h c o nne c t s t h e m

, ,

a t the t o p i s i n c l i ned d o wnw a rd s t o w a rd the o ut si de

,
.

T h e depre ss i o n due to thi s sh o rt sl a nt i ng b o rder i s

o n e o f the m o s t n o t ice a ble c h a r a c teri sti c s o f the m u scl e .

Wh en the m u sc le i s i n rep o se it d i e s a l m o st a way ,

and is m
”

o st ev i den t w h en t h e m u scle i s i n p o we rful

a ct i o n .

T h e tend o n fro m t hi s sl a nt i n g h o ll o w t o t h e o lec rano n “

166 F IG U R E D RA W ING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

Th e he a d i s the hig h er i n p o siti o n o f the t w o

ou ter

whi c h a ri se o nly fr o m t he b o ne But t hi s pre c eden c e .

i s wre st e d fr o m it by the m id d le he a d i n c o nju n c t i o n

w ith the inn er The se fo r m a m a ss whi c h o ver sh a d ows
’
.

the o uter a lth o ugh it i s the l a rge st o f the three ; Th e

,

m a s s thu s fo r m ed a s so on a s it e m erge s fr o m under the

,

delt o id spre a d s o u t t o ward the t runk a s i f it h a d need

Of the sp a ce pr o vided u nde r the a rm —
,

pit It w i ll be .

wr o ng therefo re t o d r aw the i ntern a l line o f the a rm ,

F IG . III .
-
Effec t of Tri cep s .
~

repre sen ting thi s m a ss fr o m the a rm pit to t h e c o ndyle

,
-
,

a s even a t o ler a bly s tr a ight lin e It m u s t p ress i n w a rd

‘

.
,

alm o st as i f i t were fo ll o w i ng the c o ur s e o f t h e l a ti ss i m u s

d o r si Then it m u st a s sudde nly retur n a n d with o n e

.
,

o r tw o S light r o u ndne sse s a rrive a t t he c o ndyle The .

o utline o f the o uter he a d i s very s i m il a r C o m m enci ng .

l o wer it p a sse s o utw a rd a n d then inw a rd A n d thu s the

,
.

tri c e p s t a ke s s o m ewh a t the fo r m Of a c o ffin if the ,

extre m e a ngul a rity o f th a t ugly p ie c e o f j o i nery Ca n be

h

fo rg o tten ( E) .

Th e o ut er he a d an d t h e i n ner m ass c a n h a rd l y b e
 T HE A RM 167

sa id toc o m m i n g l e Even w h en t h ey see m t o fo r m o n e

.

sm o o th s urfa ce it i s ev i de nt t h a t a degree o f p r
,
eceden c e
a tt a che s t o the i n ner p a rt In m u scul a r m e n t h er e
.

i s a di stinc t depre ssi o n between t h e m a n d the i nner ,

m ass i s S een t o gr o w int o t h e m idd le he a d w h ic h c a rr i e s

F IG . 1 12 .

it o n up u nder t h e delt o i d wh i c h i t so met i m es slig h tly

,

r a i se s The o uter h e a d fi n i sh ing i n fa ct as well a s i n

.
-

, , ,

a ppe a r a nce,
at t h e delt o i d b o rd er , shelve s d o wn a n d ‘

”
so a cc e n t s the gr o o ve between i t a n d th a t m u sc le
‘

The o uter h e a d w i th the h o ll o w bene a t h i t i s p e r h a p s

,
“
,

the m o st no tice able o f a l l t h e det a i l s o f t h e tricep s It .

16 8 F IG U RE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

pro duce s a bulg i ng obl i quel y pl a c ed S k i rt i ng the edge o f

, ,

the delt o i d a n d p assing fr o m the b ack t o t h e fr o nt o r

, ,

ra ther t o t h e s i de o f the a rm ,
.

A m u sc ul a r a rm i s in i t s sect i o n r o ug h ly tr i a ngul a r .

O n e s ide o f the tr i a ngle will fa ce t h e trun k be i ng ,

l i mited be hi n d by the m i ddle h e a d a n d befo re by t h e ,

su m m it o f the b i cep s ; o n e s i de will fa ce so m ew h a t b a ck

w a rd a n d extend fro m the m i ddle h e a d t o t h e o uter

,

h e a d w h ile t h e t hi rd s i de w i ll extend fro m the o uter

,

h e a d t o t h e b i c ep s The se t h ree s i de s a re sh o wn i n the

.

d i a gr a m s t h e o n e fa c i ng i nwa rd s i n Fig 1 1 4 t h e o n e
, .
,

b a ckwa rd s i n F i g 1 1 2 C a n d the o n e fo rw a rd s a n d
.
, ,

s idew a y s i n Fig 1 1 2 D A s reg a rd s the tr i cep s let i t

.
, .
,

be n o ted t h at t h o ugh it h as a s i de t o i t self t h e b ac k ,

w a rd o n e i t yet extend s so m e d i st a nce a cro ss the

,

i nw a rd o n e T h u s i t h as t w o surfa c e s d i v i ded by the

.
,

mi ddle h e ad .

55 . Th e B rach ial is A n t ic u s, C o ra co -
B rach ial is ,

an d B ic ep s C u b it i M u scl e s .

THE bra chi a l i s a nt i cu s so m ew h a t i n sh a p e l i ke a,

v cs zccz p i sczs a p o i nted o v a l l ie s bene a t h t h e b i cep s but

' ’

, , ,

a ppe a r s i n w h a t i n the l a st p a r agra p h a re de scr i bed

“

a s the s i de s o f t h e a rm l o o k i ng i nw a rd a n d fo rwa rd
S idew a y s It s fo r m i s n o t very di stinct i ve t h e b i cep s a n d
.
,

tr i cep s wh i c h it sep a r a te s h av i ng b o t h m o re c h a ra cte r

, ,
.

Neverthele ss i ts v o lu m e i s very i m p o rt a nt as t h e l o wer ,

.

p art o f the bicep s i s seld o m w i de en o ugh t o c o ver i t .

Reference to i t wi ll be fo und m a rked B A i n Fig s 1 1 5 .

and 12 2 .

In t h e l i v i ng m o del the b i cep s d o e s not S h o w th a t it

I7 O F IG U RE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

”
m u scle i s eng aged i n c o m p a ny with o t h er
i n fl e x io n ,
‘

o r,

m u sc le s fl e x o rs a n d exten so r s i s s tr a ined t o render th e

‘

, ,

a rm rigid the fibr o u s exp a n si o n o ver t h e fl ex Ors o f the

'

fo re a rm i s eviden t ( Fig s 1 1 4 B a n d 1 1 5 E )
-
. .
, , , .

The c o ra co bra c hi a li s Whi c h i s a pr o per addu c t o r

'

-
,

o f the a rm o c c u ie s a p o s iti o n between t h e b i cep s a n d

p ,

F IG . 1 14 .

tr i c ep s a n d pro c eed s up t o t h e a rm pit ; an d a ppe a r s

,
-

so m ew h a t s i m il a r in m a ss t o the i nner edge o f t h ebr a ch i a li s

a nti c u s wh i c h
,
l ike it is bet ween the tri c ep s a n d b icep s
, , ,

but o n the l o wer h a lf o f the in ner s ide The c o ra c o .

br a c hi a li s m ay be se en in Figs 1 1 4 A ,a n d 1 1 5 D E a n d F
.
, , ,
.
 T H E A RM

Of o f the M l
!

5 6 . T h e O rde r A rra n g e m e n t u sc e s

a bout th e A rm p i t -
.

T HE w a y i n w hi c h three mu sc le s o f the tru n k a ppr o a c h

a n d a tt a c h t h e m se lve s t o the a rm requ i re s sp e c i a l a t te n /

ti o n T h e se three a re tere s m aj o r l ati ssi m u s d o r si a n d

.
,
-
, ,

pe c t o r a li s maj o r The tere s c o m e s fro m t h e b a ck o f

.

F IG . 1 15 .

the sc a pul a t h e d o r sa l fr o m the i li a c c rest t he p ectora l

, ,

fro m the ch e st ,a n d they a re al l i nserted i nt o the hu meru s

!

i n a sm a l l a re a a b o ut the bicipit a l gr o o ve a gr oo ve On the ,

fr o nt o f t h e b o n e i n w h i c h the l o n g he a d o f t he bicep s ‘

pl a y s li ke a c o rd i n a pulley The o rder i n wh ic h t hese

,
. .

three m u scle s a re att a c hed i s e a sily re m e m b ered i f t h ei r

i niti a l s be t a k en a n d m a de in t o t h e w o rd PEL T ; th a t i st o
th t re ding the tt a ent s o n the h u m eru s fr o m
sa
y,
a a a c h m
the fro nt there i s t o the o ut side fi rst the pe c t o ral ne xt
, , ,

the l a ti ssi m u s o r do rsa l a n d l a st t he tere s

'
“

Le t it b e fu rther re mem bered th a t t h e l at is si m u s a n d

17 2 F IG URE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

tere s a re i nt i m ately a sso c i a t ed at t h e i r in sert i o n ; a n d

t h ey thu s fo r m a p a rty a s it were fro m the b a c k a s
, , ,

d i st i ngu i sh ed fr o m the repre sent a tive o f t h e fro n t o f

t h e b o dy the pect o r a l Between t h e se tw o m asse s p a ss
,
.

t h e b i c ep s a n d c o r a c o bra c hi a li s In dr a w i ng the a rm
-
.
'

then h a ving pl a ced the d o uble o utl i ne fo r t h e delt o id

, ,

o n e fo l l o w s fro m t h e in sert i o n fo r a l i ttl e d i st a nce i ts

, , ,

a scending a nteri o r b o rder a n d then t a ke s up the a x i ll a ry

,

o r a rm p i t b o rd e r o f t h e pect o r a l w hi c h c a rr i e s o n e o ve r ‘

-
,

t o the trunk Bene a t h th i s i s t h e l a rge bulk o f t h e b i c ep s

.
,

a n d c l o se t o i t i s t h e c o r a c o br a chi a l i s fo r the sh o r t h e a d
-
,

o f the bicep s a n d t h a t m u scle h a ve the sa m e i n serti o n .

Next t o the c o ra c o will c o m e a m a ss fo r the l a t i ssi m u s

a n d tere s a n d l a st the tr i c ep s o f the a rm
, .

L o o k i ng a t t h e m a tter O f the o rder o f a rr a nge m ent

o f the m u sc le s a b o ve the a rm p i t i n a n o ther w ay a n d
-
,

o m i tt i ng the delt o i d a n d t h e r o t a t o r m u scle s bene a th it

( s upr a s p
-
i n a t u s i n fr a s p,
i n-
a t u s a n d tere s, m i n o r ) i t w i ll ,

be fo und th a t t h e first syll able s re ad c o m m enc i ng at t h e ,

b a ck i n t hi s o rder
,

TRI ( tr i ceps ) TER ( tere s m aj o r) ; LA T ( l a t i ssi m u s) ;

C O R ( c o r a c o bra c hi a l i s) B I ( b i cep s) PEC ( pect o r a l )
-
.

If pu nn i ng be a ll o wed a n d the S c o tc h fo r c r o w (c o rbie )

,

be i m p o rted a n d l i ttle h eed be p a i d t o t h e sen se o f i t

, ,

a sentence i s fo r m ed

Try to let c o rb i e pe c k
w h i ch m ay nevert h ele ss be a n a i d t o m e m o ry .

B o t h t h e l ati ss i m u s a n d pect o r a l h ave sh o r t fl at tend o n s

tw i sted up o n the m selve s T h e effect o f th i s tw i st a p a rt
.
,

fr o m i t s m ec h a n i c a l a dv a nt age i s t o so ften the c o n nect i o n

,

w i t h the a rm m a k i ng a n upw a rd c urve a s seen very

, ,

p r o m i nently i n the pect o r a l b o rder o f the a rm

p i t -
.
1 74 F IG U RE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

EC R I.

EC R B

F IG . 1 17 .
—
T h Mus le c es o f th e Fo re - arm .
( o r EL D i n th i s dia g
F r
a m re ad EC D ) .

N
EX TE S O R , O R B AC K G RO U P .

S up i t rr d l g
na o a ii on us .

A tt h m t — U pp r p rt f p i
ac en s dy l i d ri dg f h m er
e a o e -
co n o e o u us

b f tyl i d p r
a se o s f r di o o c e ss o a us .

Ex t r rp i r di l i l gi r ( l g r xt
en so ca a a r f wri t
s onr di o on e e e n so o s on a us

id ) s e .

Att hm t —L w r p rt f p i
ac en s dy l i d ri dg
o f h m ru
e a o e -
co n o e o u e s ~

b fm t
a se o rp l b f fir t fi g r
e a ca a on e o s n e .

Ex t r rp i r di l i b i r ( h rt r x t r f w ri t
en s o ca a a s r di
rev o s o e e en so o s on a us

id ) s e .

Att h m t
ac — Ex t r l
en s dy l f h m ru —
b e naf I t rp l co n e o u e s a se o .
n e aca a

b f
on e o dfi g r s e co n n e .

Ex t r p l l i i ( x t r f t h th m b th r i
en so e s o c s e m b r)
e n so s o e u , ee n nu e .

-
A tt h m ac t — B k f th l
en s d r di —r p ti l y t th e
ac o e u na an a us es ec ve o

b f th th r
a se s o b f th th m b
e ee on e s o e u .

Ex t r m m i di git r m ( m m
e n so co un s xt r ffi g r ) o u co on e e n so o n e s

t —E t l o dyl f h m er S— b yf t t d t
.

Att h m
‘

ac en s x e rn a c n e o u u o u en on s o

th b k f th b
e ac f l t tw b
o f th fi g r
e a se s o as o o n es o e n e s:

Ext r m i i m i di giti ( x t
en so n r f th l ittl fi g r) e e n so o e e n e .

Att h m t ac — B y th e t
en s d mm t th xt f th en on co on o e e en sors o e

fi g r t th x t r l
n e s, dy l —b k f b
o e e Of l t t w b
e na con e ac o a se as o on e s

f l ittl fi g r
o e n e .
 TIIE A RM 17 5

Exten so r i di i
(nx t e n so r
c so f i n d e
e x fi n g )
e r .

D oe t pp e r o
s no t h e s rf c e
a a n u a .

Ex ten so r carp i ul ari s ( e x t en so r o f w ri st o ul na i d )

n n s e .

Attac h m e t s—Ex ter n al co n dy l e—b ac k f b a se o f fi fth

n “

o me t aca rp al

b on e .

A n c o n eu s .

A tt a c h m en s t —B k ac of th e e x tern al co n d y l e— o ter si de
u of ul n a

b el o w th e l ec r
o an o n p r o c e ss .

The fl e x o rs m a y be c o n si dered a s m a k i ng a m a ss so ft ,

a n d fle shy a b o ve w i t h o u t di s t i n c t m u sc ul a r m a rk i ng s
, .

It i s i ndeed perh a p s o nly a w a ste o f ti m e t o tr o uble

, ,

a bo u t the m i n det a il T h e s h a pe o f the m a ss kn o wn .

,

a n d the o n e o r t w o pr o m i nent tend o n s i n the wr i s t n o ted ,

there i s l i ttle t o be g a i ned by a study o f the m u sc le s

'

sep a r a tely Wi th t h e exten so r s h o wever the c a se i s

.
, ,

very d ifferent V i rtu a lly every m u sc le sh o w s ( F o r the

. .

effe c t o f the fl e x o rs see Fig .

The uln a fo r m s a n ex c ellen t b a si s up o n wh i c h t o

a rr a nge t h e m u scul a r m a rking o f the exten so r gro up .

A p o rt i o n o f i t i s s ubcut a ne o u s t h a t i s c l o se u nder , ,

the skin a n d thu s g i ve s a per m a nen t l i ne fr o m the elb o w

,

t o t h e l i ttle kn o b w hi ch ter m i n a te s t he b o ne bel o w a n d ,

w h i c h i s pl a i n ly t o be seen 0 11 the l ittle fi n ge r s ide o f the -

wri s t T h e l i ne wh i c h expre sse s th i s sub c ut a ne o u s p o rt i o n

.

i s a l so the edge o f the fl e x o r m a ss It i s a s lightly curved .

line a n d d o e s n o t en ti rely fo ll o w t h e sh a pe o f t h e uln a

, ,

whi c h i s s tr a i ghter The n e xt p o i nt t o m a rk w i ll be the

.

extern a l c o n dyle a l m o st c o vered by m u sc le a n d h a v i ng

, ,

i m m ed i a tely bel o w i t the h e a d o f t h e r a d i u s w h i c h , ,

a lth o ugh cr o ssed by the tend o n s o f t h e exten so r m uscle s ,

yet so m et i m e s sh o w s a s a sl i ght kn o b like pr oje c t i o n ( S ee .

Fig . Fr o m the extern a l c o ndyle r a di a te five o f the

s even m u scle s wh i c h p a ss d o wn the fo re a rm fr o m thi s -

regi o n t h e o t h er t w o sup i n a to r l o ngu s a n d exten so r c a rp i

,
17 6 F IG URE D RAWING A ND CO MPO S ITIO N

r d i l i l ng i o r c o m ing fr o m the ep i c o ndyl o i d ridge a bo ve

a a s o ,
-
.

It i s i m p o rt a n t to n o t i c e th a t the se t w o a re n o t a rra nged

a s l o ng i tudin a lly w i th the li m b a s t he o t h ers but a re ,

pl a c ed o bliquely a n d thu s p a ss fro m the b a ck to t h e

,

fro nt o f the a rm a n d c o n st i tute t h a t p o rt i o n o f t h e ex

,

ten so r gro up wh i c h i s fo und o n the fl ex o r si de H ence .

,

i n repre senting t h e se m u scul a r fo r m s by l i ne s a pro per ,

EX T C O N

F IG . 1 18 .

d i fference m u st b e m ade betwee n th o se fo r t h e tw o a n d

th o se fo r t h e five It m ay be n o ted t h a t t h e line o f the
.

exten so r c a rpi r a d i a li s l o ng i o r t h e l o wer o f t h e tw o i s

, ,

a l m o s t sy m m etr i c a lly pl a ced w i t h t h e l o we r b o rder o f

a n c o neu s ; t h e t wo b o rder s m a k i ng a n a ngle i nt o whi c h
the fo ur stra i gh te st e x ten so rs fit O ne o f t h e t h ree .

b orders o f a nc o neu s c o m e s up o n t h e l i ne ind i c a t i ng t h e

uln a w hi ch i t supersede s fo r i ts sh o r t exten t Fig 1 1 8
, , .
,

a n d render s a ngul a r .
17 8 FIG URE D RAWING A ND CO MPO S ITIO N

is d i rected fo rwa rd a little o f t h e inner side o f the uppe r

,

a rm i s seen a s i n F i g 1 06 ; o r in o t h e r w o rd s the re
, .
,

i s a sl i ght sugge st i o n o f c o nt i nuity between the bi c ep s

m ass a b o ve a n d t h e supin a t o r o r o uter m ass bel o w
, , , .

In dra w i ng a n y p a rt o f the figur e t h e fi rst t hi ng s t o ,

fi x up o n a n d l o c a te wi ll be such i nd i c a t i o n s o f b o ne a s
exi st o n the surfa c e By the se a l so pr o p o rt i o n i s be st
.

secu red In the a rm the p a rt a b o ve the elb o w th a t i s

.
, ,

MIO N
EA D 0 ; HUMER

F IG . 1 2 0.

there i s very little b o ne ex hi b i ted A b o ve t h e he a d o f .

,

the h u m eru s h as t o be t h o ught o f a s j u st under the

'

a c ro m i o n and ,
c o ntr i but i ng c o n s i der ably to the upp e r
bulb o f the delt o i d m a ss Bel o w i n al l pr o b ab i l i ty the
.
,

o lecr a n o n o r o n e o f t h e c o ndyle s o r a l l
,
t h ree w i ll be , ,

s een . If the fo re a rm be bent the c o ndyle s a n d o lecra n o n

-
,

will very l ikely S h o w a s a triple fo r m n o t unl i ke an i nverted

trefo i l In m o st c a se s the i ntern a l c o ndyle w i ll be the
.

l a nd m a rk l i m it i ng the i ntern a l line o f t h e a rm

,
.

ust as th i s i nte rn a l l i ne ha p p en s t o be l o n g extendi ng

J ,
 THE A RM 179

fr o m t h e a rm p i t t o t h e i ntern a l c o ndyle so t h e extern a l

-
,

l i ne i s sh o rt F o r t h e delt o i d re a c h e s ne a r l y ha lf w ay
-

-
.

d o wn the hu m eru s w hi le t h e sup i n a t o rs o f t h e fo re a rm

,
-

re a ch a t hi rd up i t so th a t bet w een t h e delt o i d a n d

,

the sup i n a t o r s t h ere i s very l i ttle sp ace a t a l l .

In t h e fo re a rm t h e ul n a a n d r a d iu s b o t h bec o m e ev i dent
'

-
,

the ul n a m o re c o m pletely th a n t h e r ad i u s It i s sub .

cut a ne o u s t h ro ug h o u t i t s length The student w i ll pro b ably

.

alre a dy h ave n o t i ced t h a t the uln a t a ke s o n e s ide o f t h e .

wri st t he r a d i u s the o ther a n d t h at t h e uln a bel o ng s t o the

, ,

l i ttle fi n ger the r a diu s t o t h e t h u m b Th e d i agra m m a t i c

,
.

p o si t i o n o f t h e a rm h a s t h e l i ttl e fi ng er a g a i n st t h e b o dy ,

the p a l m be i n g fo rw a rd t h e p o si t i o n w i t h t h e p a l m d o wn e

w a rd a n d the tku m o a ga In st t h e t hi g h i s h o wever m o re

n atu r a l T h e tw o p o si t i o n s h ave a lre a dy been de scr i bed
.

a s re spectively su p i n a t i o n a n d pr o n a t i o n Be fo re p ro .

c e e di n g w i t h h i s dr a w i ng o f t h e a rm the d ra ug h t sm a n ,

h a s t o de t er m i n e w h et h er it i s t o be pr o n a ted o r s up i n a ted .

T hi s settled h e c a n pr o ceed a n d he pr o ceed s a s fo l l o w s

, .

S upp o si ng t h e a rm t o be i n a si m ple n a tu r a l p o s i ti o n ,

pr o n ated t h e d ra w i n g w i ll be c o m m enced a s i n F i g 1 0 6 A
,
.
, ,

a n d c o nt i nued a s i n F i g 12 1 A T h e fo r m o f t h e elb o w
.
,
.

( )
0 w i ll be pl a ced a n d t h en t h e o t h er en d o f t h e uln a ( U
, )
a t t h e wr i st .T h en the s ubcut a ne o u s u ln a i t self w i ll be
i nd i c a ted by t h e li ne o f a n con eus (A) a n d t h e l o ng l i ne U , .

Bene at h t h e l i ne thu s put t o get h er w i l l be t w o c u rve s ( F)

repre sent i ng t h e fi ex ors a n d fo r m i n g o n e o f the o utl i ne s
‘

, .

No te t h a t the upper o f the se l i ne s d o e s n o t c o m m en c e a t

_

t h e pr oj ecti o n o f t h e o le c r a n o n but a l i ttle bel o w i t .

a n d a l so t h a t t h e l o wer d o e s n o t qu i te re a ch t o t h e w i st
r ‘
.

In the a r m s o f w o m en t h i s l ower l i n e ( F ) m u s t be fa irly full ,

a n d m u st creep a s l o w d o wn t o the wr i st a s p o ss ible The .

upper o utlin e o f th e fo re a rm i s defi n i tely d iv i ded i nt o t w o

-
180 F IG U R E D RA WING A ND CO MPO S IT IO N

p a rt s a t czéozzt tee m i ddl e The u pper p a rt repre sent s t he

, .
-

s upin a t o r m a ss sp a nn ing the elb o w j o int an d c o m m en c i ng -

a b o ut o n e third up the a rm
-
Thi s m a ss i s very i m p o rt a nt
.
,

an d m u st be t a ke n well up the a rm The l o wer p a rt o f .

the o utline o f the fo re a rm c o n s i st s c hiefly o f the l o wer end

-

o f the r a diu s b o ne but it i s sw o llen by the exten so r s o f the

,

t h u m b ( E Th ) whi c h p a ss o ver i t The wri st m u st On thi s

.
-
.

s i de h a ve a curved o utline W fo ll o wed by a very s lightly

( ) ,

F IG . 12 1 .

c o nvex line fo r t h e b a ck o f t h e h a nd a n d t h a t by a d o uble ,

line fo r t h e fi n ger A bo ve the delt o id ( D) m u s t fi rs t be

'

. ,

i ndic a ted a n d o n o n e s ide the b i cep s ( B) by a w a ved line

,
,

a nd o n the o ther the tr i c ep s ( )

T The o uter he
. a d o f the
tricep s m u st S h o w a s a pro m i nent a n d di st i n c tly o blique
m a ss ; a n d the l o wer p a rt o f t h e m u scle le a ding d o wn
to the elb o w m u s t b e c o nvex a n d ,the elb o w m u s t o nly
—
pr oj e c t bey o nd i t very slightly mo t at al l i f t h e a rm i s ben t .
182 F IG U RE D RAWING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

No 1 0 F i g 1 2 2 i s a s i m il a r view o f the a rm det a i led

.
,
.
, ,

furt h er a n d w i th t h e h a nd extended i n ste a d o f flexed In

, .

thi s i t m ay be seen a l so h o w th a t the tr i cep s c o n tinue s

d o wn i nt o the uln a o f the fo re a rm so th a t the wh o le -

left side in the di a gr a m i s c o n ne c ted T h e wrinkle a cr o ss .

the b a ck o f the wr i s t i s v a lu a ble as i t h elp s t o i nd i c a te

,

a t o n c e the fa ct o f the h a nd be i ng extended

A n o uter V iew o f t h e a rm n o t pr o n a ted w i ll be a s g i ven

, ,

i n Fig s 1 2 1 B a n d 1 2 2
.
, ,
the l a tter be i ng t h e m o re fo rcibly
extended Except i ng a t th e elb o w a n d t h en o nly s lightly
.
, ,

the ul n a w i ll n o t S h o w but t h e l o wer end o f the ra d i u s

will a ppe a r i n i t s pl a ce a t t h e wr i st t h e upper p a r t o f it ,

be i ng l o st bene a t h t h e exten so r s o f t h e sup i n a t o r m ass .

The l o wer en d o f the r a d i u s bec o m e s t h e o nly bo ne

vi si ble a n d a ppe a r s l o nger a n d br o a der t h a n the l o wer
,

end o f the uln a be i ng m o re o ver t o lera bly sh a rp It s fo r m

, .

m ay be g a thered fr o m the d i agr a m s The o utline s o f the .

fo re a rm a re pr o v i ded by the a sse m bl age o f m u scle s b o th

-

a t t h e fr o n t a n d b a ck The b a ck o utline i s m a inly due

.

h o wever t o th e ul n a the si m ple a n d h a rd sh ape o f w hi c h it

,

a l m o st ex a ctly repe a t s The fro nt o utli ne h a s the fle shy

.

bulging o f the fl ex o rs fo ll o wed by a S light h o ll o w i ng su c

, ,

c eede d a g a in by the full r o undne ss o f the wr i st ( F i g 12 1 B ) . .

,
.

The sup i n a t o r m a ss i s perh ap s t h e ch i ef det a il o f th i s Vi e w .

The o utl i ne o f the i n ner v i ew o f the a rm ( F i g 1 2 2 w i ll .

be t h e sa m e a s a n o uter Vi e w ( Fig 1 2 1 A) ex c ept i ng o nly .

, ,

t h a t t h e i ntern a l line s w i ll differ The b i cep s virtu a lly .

pr o v i de s a l l the fo r m a s h a s been de sc ribed p age 1 6 9 it

, ,

h as t w o tend o n s a t i t s l o wer end o r r a t h er a tend o n a n d

,

a n exp a n si o n The tend o n d i ve s d o wn bet w een the tw o

.

m a sse s i n t o w hi c h t h e fo re a rm i s r o ug h ly div i sible W

-
hi le ,

t h e e x p a n si o n spre a d s o ver t h e m a ss o f t h e fl ex o rs The .

l o wer end O f t h e r a d i u s w i l l be t h e o nly o th er cle a rly

 THE A RM 183

m arked det a i l o f t h e fo re a rm In the u pper a rm cora co

-
.

om cl t i czl i s w i ll a ppe a r be t ween t h e b i cep s a n d tr i c ep s u nder

’

t he arm p i t w h i le ora cfi i czl zis a n ti cus will sh o w a s a s light

-
,

m o u nd between t h e sa me m u scle s but j u st a b o ve t h e

‘

c o ndyle .
( S e e a l so F i g .

T h e m ost re m a rk a ble det a il s o f t h e a rm a re cert a i nly

the m asse s o f t h e tri cep s a n d s up i n a tor ( T a n d S Fig 1 2 1 , .
,

C) . They a re d i st i nctly o bliquely pl a ced w h ile t h e ex ten sors ,

( )
E o f t h e fo re a rm m eet the s up i n a t o r a t a c o n s i der a ble
-

a ngle ,
a n d a re tucked well i n a t t h e extern a l c o ndyle .

T h e del t o i d m u st a lw a y s h a ve a w aved o utline a s be i ng ,

d o uble i n c h a r a cter a n d n o t b a ll like In t h e fe m a le a rm -

.

( )
G t h e d o ubl i n g o f t h e delt o i d i s very n o tice a ble t h e l o wer ,

p a r t o r m ass o f i t be i ng very ful l a n d l o w d o wn The arm ,

.

”
a t t h e a rm p i t m u s t be kept n a rr o w i n t h e b a ck v i ew A A
‘

-
( ,

F i g 1 2 1 C)
.
, .

T h e fe m a le a rm ( G) i s w i de i n t h e upper p a rt a n d i ts ,

secti o n t h r o ug h o u t ro u nder t h a n a m a n s In t h e b ac k ’
.

o f t h e wr i s t i n b o th i t i s nece ssa ry t o expre ss t h e uln a l i ne

a n d kn o b a s i n G as s upp o rt i ng t h e h a nd
, ,
T h e b a ck v i ew .

o f t h e a rm F i g t h e b i cep c nt i nued n the

( ) h
‘

1 2 1 .D a s ,
s o o

fo r e a r m by t h e a p o neur o tic exp a n si o n a n d a l i ne p a r a lle l ,

to t h e b i cep s sep a r a t i ng i t fr o m t h e tr i cep s .

T h e ve i n s o f t h e a rm m u st n o t be o verl o o ked T h e i r .
“

ex a c t nu m ber a n d p o si t i o n i s n o t i m p o rt a nt a n d t h ey a re ,

d i v i s i ble r o ugh ly i nt o t w o gr o up s an o uter a n d a n i n ner

, , ,
.

B o t h gr o ups c o m m enc e i n t h e upper a r m a s si ngle ve i n s ‘ ‘

runn i ng l o ng i tud i n a lly d o wn t h e l i m b We h ave sp o ken .

a b o ve ,p a ge 1 6 8 o f t h e a rm be i ng i n sect i o n tr i a n gul a r
, ,

w i t h o n e s ur fa ce fl a t a g a i n st t h e trun k a n d t h e o t h er ,
‘

s urfa ce s d i rected o n e b a c kw a rd a n d o utw a rd t h e o t h er s i de ,

w a ys a n d forw a rd T h e a ngle between t h e i n ner s urfa c e

.

a g a i n s t t h e trunk a n d t h e s i de i s fo r m ed by t h e fr o n t o f
“

, ,
 1 84 .
F IG U RE D RAWING A ND CO MPO S ITIO N

—
the bicep s m u sc le a w i d e a ngle cert a i nly S o th a t while .

the f ron t o f the bicep s fo r m s the a ngle i ts s ide s bec o m e ,

p a r ts o f the o uter a n d i n ner s ide s o f the a rm No w it i s .

j u s t a t the j u n c ti o n o f the o uter side a n d fro n t o f the bi c ep s

th a t the o uter vei n o c curs ; a n d i ts effe c t i s t o a c c ent
the s urfa c e s sp o ken o f Th e in ner ve i n i s a b o ut m idwa y
.

a cr o ss th e in ner s urfa c e Of the a rm ; i n fa ct between the

bi c ep s a n d tricep s m u sc le s H a ving thu s a na tur a l h o ll o w

'

t o lie i n it i s n o t so evi den t a s the o uter vein w h i c h lie s

,

o n the b o dy o f the m u sc le .

The in ner vei n be c o m e s very pr o mi nen t a t the h o ll o w

“

o f the elb o w j o int where fo r a n i n c h o r le ss i t sh o ws

-
,

a s m ass ive in v o lu m e a n d b l ue In c o l o u r In t h e h o l l o w o f .

the j o i nt t w o br a n c he s a re sent o ff fro mb o th t h e i n ner a n d

o uter sy ste m s and ma ,
ke a n y di stin c t div i si o n i m p o ssible .

Nevert h ele ss a s a n a i d t o m e m o ry the fo ll o wing m a y be

, ,

t a ken a s the a rr a nge m e nt T h e in ner sy ste m fo ll o w s the

.

d i recti o n o f the apon eu rot i c exp a n s i on o f t h e bi c ep s fa lling ,

r o und the m a ss o f the fl e x o rs a s sh o wn i n Fig 1 2 1 F ,

.
,
.

T h e o uter gro up skirt s the s up i n a t o r m a ss ( Fig 1 2 1 .

,

i f t o a v o id c li m b i ng the ridge a n d p assi ng o ver the ,

exten so rs o f the thu mb re a che s the b a c k o f the wr i s t ,

w here i t de sc end s t o the b a c k o f the h a nd kee ping t o ,

t h e m i d dle Co u r s e The a rr a nge m ent i s h o wever very

.
, ,

v a ri a ble .

T h e c o m plexity o f the se ve i n s render s the m d i fficu l t t o

i ntr o du c e Their effe c t i s t o bre a k t h e fl o w i ng c u rve s
.

of t h e fo re arm a n d t o render p o l n n a l i ts s m oo th
'

-
,

s urfa c e s .

The wrin kle s o r c re a se s a re a lw ay s o f gre a t a ss i st

, ,

a nce . They h elp o n e to seize the c o nditi o n s an d fa c t s

o f t h e p ese Th o se o f the a rm m ay be c a p i tul a ted a s
. -

fo ll o w s
186 F IG URE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

i ts w i dt h T h e d i fferent b o ne s o f t h e c a rpu s ( wr i st) a l so

.

gl i de up o n o ne a no t h er so t h a t the w h o le reg i o n i s o n e
~

o f co m plete th o ug h l i m i ted m o bility .

F o r the de s igner i t i s s u ffi c i ent p erh a p s t o S pec i fy

O nly the fo ll o wing det a il s o f m o ve m ent

F IG . 12 3 .

T h e wr i s t m ay be bent si deway s (a dducted F i g 1 2 3 , .

,

G ) i n t h e sa m e pl a n e a s t h e fo re a rm t o a c o ns i der a ble
-
,

a ngl e a s i llu s tr a ted

, , but it c a n sc a rc ely be a bducted
( t h e t h u m b s ent t o w a rd s the a rm ) at a l l if kept i n
,
t h e
s a m e pl a ne a s t h e a rm A n d i n th i s m a tter o f a dduc ti o n
‘

a n d a bduct i o n o f t h e w ri s t th e l a w o f the a sso c i a t i o n

,

o f fl e x i o n with a dduct i o n a n d exten si o n w i t h a bduct i o n

h o ld s g o o d .

Ext en s i o n w i t h Slig h t a dduct i o n i s p o ssi ble a n d n o t i n

,

elega nt It i s seen i n t h e gest i cul a t i o n w hi c h so met i me s

.
 THE A RM 187

a c co m pa n i es a decl a ra t i o n , an d in so m e a tt i tude s of

p o i nt i ng .

A bduct i o n w i t h fle x i o n i s v i r t u a lly i m p o ssi ble a dduct i o n ,

be i n g ne a rly a lway s pre sen t .

In t h e a tt i tude o f t h e h a n d up o n t h e bre a st a dduct i o n , ,

J,
i s certa i nly bette r t h a n a bduct i o n K w hi c h l o o k s , ,

s tr a i ned In t h e se a tt i tude s t h e h a nd i s flexed up o n t h e

.

fo re a rm
-
.

T h e m o ve m ent s o f fle x io n a n d exten si o n o f t h e wr i st
a re i llu str a ted i n F i g 1 2 w ere t w ll be een
‘

h i i
’

3 D a n d E .
,
s ,

F IG . 124 .
—
Th B e o n es o f th e Wrist a n d o f t h e B od y o f th e Ha n d .

t h a t fl e x i o n g o e s a s fa r a s a r i g h t a n g l e e x ten si o n o nly
’

a b o u t 4 5 degree s .

It w i ll n o t be expected t h a t t h e fi n ger s w i l l fo ll o w t h e
curve o r d i rect i o n o f the wr i st ; t h ey a re o ften fo un d
“

c o ntra sted w i t h it i n a cc o rd a nce w i th t h a t p ri n c ip l e o f

‘

v a r i ety a n d a ltern a t i o n up o n w hi c h gr a ce depend s ( F i g . .

1 2 3 A a nd H )
,
T h u s wh i le t h e wr i st i s flexed the fi n ger s
.
, ,

o r t h e fi r st o r l o nge st b o ne s o f o n e o r m o re m a y be r a i sed
“

.
,

t h o u gh t h e t wo sh o rter j o i nt s o f t h e fi nger s may a l so be

flexed In th i s p o si t i o n t h e wr i st a ppe a r s stro ng a n d
.

well ro u nded a n d t h e curve i t c o m m ence s fl a tten s a l i ttle

-
, ,

but d o e s n o t c h a n ge t i ll i t a rr i ve s a t t h e knu c kle s If .

t h e perso n be b o ny t h e wr i st w i ll sh o w a s S l i ghtly fl a tten e d

,
188 F IG URE D RA WI NG A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

at hinder p a rt a n d t h e end
i ts , of the r a d i u s w i ll di spl a y
a s light kn o bb i ne ss .

60 . D e ta i l s of t he F o rm of th e Wris t .

T HE w ri s t h as a fr o nt a b ac k a n d t w o S ide s Eac h
, , .
‘

s ide i s fl a ttened the thu m b side by the S o m ewh a t

t ra p e z e fo rm s i de o f t h e thi c k end o f the r a d i u s the
“
,

o ther by the uln a b o ne a n d the tend o n o f the fl e x o r c a rpi

uln a ri s a tend o n whi c h n a tura lly sh o ws m o st when the

,

uln a s ide o f the wr i st i s flexed Between the tend o n a n d .

the uln a i s a sh a ll o w c o n ca ve h o ll o w whi c h run s b a c k ,

a n d gr a du a lly get s l o s t i n the li ne o n the uln a wh i c h

b o und s the m a ss o f the fl e x o rs The uln a pl a i nly .

reve a l s i ts dru m sti c k end Thi s uln a S ide fac e s s lightly

-
.

d o wnw a rd a n d i s i llu stra ted i n Fig 1 2 7

, . .

T h e r a diu s side i s n o t so di stinctly fl a t the t ra p ez efo rm ,

s ide o f the r a diu s being it self so m ewh a t r o unded a n d ,

u n supp o rted by s u c h a tend o n a s th a t o n the o ther s i de _

.

The tend o n s o f t w o o f the exten so rs o f the thu m b m o re

o r le ss Outline it bu t the y a re o nly evident between it
,

a n d the b a ll o f the thu m b (se e Fig 1 3 1 C) a n d do n o t .

, ,

t h erefo re a ffe c t t h e wri st i t self .

A n o t h er p o i n t o f c o ntras t bet w een the t w o S ide s a n d

‘

whi c h h as a lre a dy been sugge sted i s the s mall ne ss r o und

~

, ,

ne ss a n d pr o m inen c e o f the uln a en d i n c o m p a ri so n with

,

the l o nger fl a tter a n d le ss genera l ly pro m inent r a di a l end

, ,
.

A lte rn a ti o n i s a l so o b serv a ble i n t h e b o n es o f thi s regi o n

'

( Fig 1. 2 3 F ) The,
en d. o f the r adiu s c o m m ence s hig h er

up a n d fi ni she s l o wer d o wn th a n the end of

’

Between the se end s the b a c k o f the a rm i s fl a t ex c ept

!

when the wri st i s bent w hen it bec o m es so m e w h a t ’

r o unded .
19 0 F IG URE D RAWING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

the end s o f the a rm b o ne s a n d the c h a r a cter o f the se -

,

i s o f the ut m o st i m p o rt a n c e t o the dr a ught sm a n The .

wri st b o ne s the m selve s pr o vi de a s h a s been sa id the

-
, ,

a r c he d b a c k o f the wri st but wit h o ut pr o du c i ng a n y ,

s triking fe a ture s H o wever they a re n o t wh o lly hidden

.
, .

Thu s A Fig 1 2 5 i s th e side o f the wri st b o ne s a n d fo r m s

,
.
,
-
,

a little c o nne c ti o n between the a rm a n d the h a nd On .

the o ther side ( B) t h e wr i st b o ne s lie r a ther l o wer a n d a re

,
-
,

m o re o ver cr o ssed by o n e o f the exten so r p o lli c i s tend o n s .

Ju st a b o ve ( a t C ) the l a rger b o ne s o f the fi r st ro w ( see F i g s .

1 0 7 a n d 1 2 4 ) extend the m a ss o f t h e r a d i u s w i th w hi c h

they a rt i cul a te .

W h en the wr i st i s bent b a c k a s i n Fig 1 2 5 s o me , .

o f t h e b o ny fo r m s o f the wri st S h o w w i th c o n s i der a ble

d i stinctne ss In t h e di a gra m R m a rk s the end o f t h e

.
,

r a d i u s W t h e m ass o f the wri st T the be a d l i ke proj e c ti o n

, ,
-

o f t h e tr a pez i u m a n d P t h e s i m il a r but le ss i so l a ted m a ss

,

o f the p i si fo r m b o ne .

61 . The Ha n d .

W E h a ve p o inted out t h at the h a nd m u st be c o n si dered

a s a j o i nt o r se c ti o n o f th e a rm a n d n o t left t o be a dded ,

l a ter a s a triv i a l a ppend a ge In the fi rs t sketc h then .

,

i ts wh o le length m u st be sugge sted ; but n o t nece ssa rily

as i n Fi g 1 06 A . which i s very st i ff but ra ther a s i n
, , ,

Fig 1 2 1 A F o r i t i s very r
.
, . a rely th a t t h e fi nger s a re

stiffly c o ntinu o u s with the b o dy o f t h e h a nd We m ay .

indeed rega rd the ha n d a s c o m p o sed o f a so m ewh a t

fl a t a n d un c h a nging b o dy a n d a flexible m a ss Co m “
,

p o sed o f the fi nger s B oth t h e se p a rt s a re o f a b o ut th e

.

sa m e length .
 THE ARM 19 1

T h e b o dy o f th e h and i s fo ur si ded a n d n arro we r at t he

-
,

wr i st t h an at t he knuckle s S o t h at a fte r o ne h a s t raced

.

t h e l i n e s o f t h e fo r e a r m an d h a s settled up o n t h e en d s o f
th e ul n a a n d r ad i u s a n d t h en n a rr o wed i n a l i ttle bene a t h
,

t h e m to sugge st t h e wr i st b o ne s o n e c a rr i e s t w o d i vergent
-
,

F IG . 12 6 .

line s d o wnw a rd fo r the b o dy o f t h e h a nd a fter w h i c h w i ll

,

fo ll o w t h e fi ngers The b o dy o f t h e h a n d pr esent s fo ur

subj ect s fo r s tudy —
.

, t h e p a l m the b a ck t h e t h u m b ba ll
, ,
-
,

a n d th e l i ttle fi n ge r b a l l
-
.

T h e ch i ef c h a racter i st i c s o f the b a c k a re t h e c o nvergent

 19 2 F IG U RE D RA WING A ND CO MPO S ITIO N
'

t e nd o n s o f ex ten sor cont ni a n i s digi toru m which a re suggested ,

on the b a ck s o f gl o ve s a n d whi c h the m selve s s u gges t

,

the m et ac a rp a l b o ne s bene a t h t he m th o ugh t he b o n es

'

do n o t c o nverge so r a pidly Between an d cr os si ng the se

.

tend o n s a re s e v er a l vein s ( Fig . .

The p a l m a r s urfac e d ivide s it self int o three p a rt s—a

b a se fo r the fo u r fi ngers the b a ll o f the thu m b a n d
, ,

the b a l l o f the l i ttle fi n ger si de S e e Figs 1 2 3 1 2 7

-
. .
, ,

an d 13 1 .

The b a ll o f the thu m b i s defi ned by a cre a se o r line , ,

t o w hi ch the thu m b se a m o f a gl o ve c o rre sp o nd s

-
Wh en .

the thu m b i s dra wn o ve r the p a l m the b a ll bec o m e s a ,

thi c k m ass a n d a fo ld between the thu m b a n d the p a l m

, .

Thu s c ru shed up the b a ll pre sent s a n o utline u ndul ated

, ,

but a ppro a c hing the s tra i ght .

The b a se up o n whi c h t h e fi nger s st a n d i s p a rt i ti o ned

o ff fr o m the re s t o f the p a l m by t w o line s o n e o ver t h e ,

thu m b b a ll the o ther under the three o uter fi ngers

-
, .

Thi s b a se i n a c c o rd a n c e with the gener a l a rched

,

c h a r a cter o f the h a nd a n d wri st i s l o wer i n the m iddle so , ,

th a t excep t when the p a l m i s stret c h ed wide o p en ; the

,

p a rt s bel o w the fi r st a n d fo urth fi nger s sep a r a te fr o m the

b a se a n d fo r m sh a pe s so m ewh a t squ a re The se a re n o t
,
.

o f c o ur se repre sented by rigid line s .

No r i s the b a ll o f the l i ttle fi n ge r si de but by a nu m ber

-
,

of bro ken cre ase s r a di a ti ng fro m the n a rr o w sp a ce

between the thu m b b a ll a n d t h e fi n ge r b a se T h e t w o b a ll s
- -
.

m eet a t the wri st by s tr o ngly curved line s wh i c h fo r m a -

,

p o int running up i nt o the p al m Bene a th a n d o n the .

,

thu m b si de o f thi s vertex i s a well rounded sm a ll b o ny

,
-
, ,

pro m i nence fr o m which o n e o f the pr o m inent t end o n s o f

,

the wri st p a sse s t o t h e a rm ; be side i t a n o ther tend o n

c o me s fr o m t h e regi o n o f t h e vertex i t sel f O n e i th er .
19 4 F IG URE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

fi ngers a re pl a c ed It sh o w s t h a t t h e fi ngers m u st n o t be
.

dra wn p a ra llel but be c o m i ng regul a rly m o re c urved in

,

a c c o rd a nce w i th t h e fo re sh o rten i ng s h o wn The a ppli ca .

ti o n o f thi s i s s h o wn in 0 w h i c h i s i ntended a l so t o ,

epit o m i ze i n a n ex a gger a ted m a nner the fo r m s o f the

, ,

wri s t a n d h a nd a n d t o i llu str a te the c o nc a ve c h a r a cte r

,

o f the sever a l j o int s o f the fi nger s

“
.

62 . The Fo rm o f t he F i n ge rs .

EA C H t h e fi ngers h a s t h ree b o ne s p h al a nge s wit h

of , ,

a l so a m et a c a rp a l b o ne w hi c h bec o m e s p a r t o f the b o dy
,

o f the h a nd T h e se fo u r b o ne s a re a l l m u c h a l i ke a n d
.
,

a ppe a r a s i n regul a r s ucce ssi o n T h e sh a ft o f t h e m et a

.

c a rp a l i s v i rtu a lly r o und i n sect i o n while t h e sh a ft s o f ,

t h e ph a l a nge s a re fl a ttened u nderne a th but ret a i n the i r

r o undne ss a b o ve ( Fig The m et a c a rp a l i s s tra ight
. .
,

the ph a l a nge s ben t d o wnw a rd s The fingers a re ra rely .

,

i f ever qu i te str aig h t bei n g gener a lly slig h tly flexed

, , .

T h e th i rd p h a l a nx turn s up t o supp o r t the n a il a s th o ugh ,

n a ture c ou l d n o t per m it a c urve to r em a in w i th o ut a lter

'

n at io n
. T hi s bending o f the t hi rd ph a l a n x i s p ecul i a rly
gra ceful C o m p a re Fig 1 2 6 , M
. . .

The end s o f the ph a l a nge s a re w i der t h a n t h e sh a ft s ,

em p h a sizi ng the tenden c y t o w a rd fl a t n e ss sugge st ed by

’

the under s ide o f t h e b o ne s They a re al so deeper th a n .

t h e s h a ft s a n d pr o duce a d o uble b o ny pr o m i nence It

!

.
,

i s t h e t o p o f the l o wer end th a t m a ke s thi s pr o m inen c e .

T h e l o wer end o f t h e m et a c a rp a l a l so d o mi na te s the fo r m '

i n i ts re gi o n It i s l a rge , a n d a ppr o a c h e s a b a ll sh a pe
.
-
,

a n d c o n sequently sh o w s o n the knu c kle s a s a s i n gle b u t

‘

r o under e mi ne nce (Fig . .

 TH E A RM [9 5
In dra w ing a finge r o n e m a y fi rs t sugge st the three
”
j o int s a s they a re c o m m o nly c a l led a s a t B Fig 1 2 9
,
,

, .
, ,

lett i ng t h e l a st o n e tu rn up a l ittle Then a t the t o p .

,

o n e m a y a dd t h e l a rge s i ngle m a ss fo r t h e end o f the

m et a c a rp a l then a t t h e t w o o t h er j o In tS t h e d o uble fo r m
, ,

o f t h e end s o f t h e ph a l a nge s a n d fi n a lly the n a i l dire c ted

,

o utw a rd a very little A further S light det a i l h a s t o be

.

n o ted The t w o pro m i nence s o n th e fi n ger j o i nt b o t h

. -

bel o ng a s h a s been sa id t o t h e upper s i de o f the l o wer

, , .

end o f t h e o n e b o ne T hi s upper s i de i s n a rro wer th a n the

.

F IG . 12 8 .
—Ph al a n ges o f 9 . r
F i n ge an d Th umb .

l o wer a n d t h ere fo re t h e se t wo pro m i ne nc es do no t c o ver

,

t h e w h o le w i dth o f t h e fi n ger A ga i n t h e l o we r s i d e o f .
,
. -

the upper end o f th e o t h er b o ne t h e sec o nd p h a l a n x , ,

i s p o ss i bly a tr i fl e w i der t h a n t h e l o wer s i de o f t h e fi r s t

p h a l an x S o t h a t bel o w a n d s l i g h tly t o the fro nt o f t h e
.

t wo e m i nence s i s a su gge st i o n o f b o ne e x pre ssi ng t he

‘

full w i d th T hi s i s i n di c a ted i n Fig 1 2 9 A

. .
, .

T h e fi nge rs be a r n o m u scle s g i v i n g a tt ac h m en t o nly ,

t o t h e t e nd o n o f the m u scle s w hi c h m o ve t h e m a n d ,

w hi c h a re pl a ced i n t h e h a n d a n d a rm T h e Cl o t hi n g .
19 6 F IG UR E D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

of the finger s i s due then t o t h e skin a n d t h e fa t a n d ,

fas c i a bene a t h it .

T h e fa tne ss i ncre ase s the bulk o f the sh a ft s o f the

ph a l a nge s n o t o f the j o int s a n d give s very m uch the
, , .

effe c t o f a l ayer o f m u sc le between t he j o int s Pa r .

t i c u l a rl y i n the fi nger s o f w o m en i s thi s t o be o b served .

O m i tt i ng t h i s fa tten i ng the finger a ppe a r s wide st a t the

,

j o int between the fi rs t a n d sec o nd ph a l a nge s a n d a s i f ,

di m in i shi ng a s it a ppr o a c he s the h a nd T hi s i s bec a u se .

t h e upper end o f the fi r st p h a l a nx i s h i dden a gai n st the

l a rge knu c kle s o f the m eta c a r p a l which see m s t o bel o ng
,

t o t h e h a nd r a t h er th a n to the fi nger s .

Th e det a i l s o f fo r m supplied by t h e s k i n w i th i ts ,

thicken i ng o f fa t a n d fa sc i a a re a s fo ll o w s Up o n a l l
, .

the ph a l a nge s a t the b a c k th a t i s there i s a fle shy

, ,

c o nfi r m a ti o n of the l o ng i tud i n a l curve a n d tra n sver se ,

r o und ne ss o f the b o ne s O ver the j o i nt s the ski n i s

.

t h inner a n d wrinkled wit h a nu m ber o f sm a ll c re ase s

,

fo r m i ng r o u ghly a n o v a l tr a n sver sely pl a ced T h e se a re

, .
,

o f c o ur se ,
c hi efly s een w h en t h e finger s a re s tr a ig h te n ed ,

a n d a re m o re m a rked a t t h e fir s t j o i nt th a n a t t h e s ec o nd .

T a k i ng t h e finger stra i ghtened a n d i n si de Vi ew the , ,

o utline bec o me s a s ucce ssi o n o f S l o w gentle c urve s o ver

t h e sh a ft s a n d r a p i d pu c ker s o ver the c re ase s a t t h e firs t

j o i nt a n d a sugge st i o n o f t h e sa m e o ver the sec o nd ( E)
,
.

O n t h e u nder si de t h e o utli ne i s ro unde s t u nder the

o uter end o f the fi r s t ph a l a nx h a s a sugge s ti o n o f d o uble
,

c urv a ture under the S e c o nd a n d i s p a lp a bly d o uble under

,

t h e l ast It i s perh ap s sa fe t o be guided by t h e o l d

.

Frenc h m o tt o m o re th a n le ss a n d let t h e fo r m flu c tu a te
,
“
,

m o re ra t h er t h a n le ss Th e fl o w i ng d o uble o r treble line

”
.

o f the b a d peri o d w i t h i ts fl a t n esses d o e s n o t ill suit

“
, ,

the under s ide o f the fi ngers ( S ee p a r agra ph .

19 8 F IG U RE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

T h e u nde r side i s like the b o ne s fl a ttened t h o ugh , ,

the o uter end o f the third a n d se co nd ph a l a nge s i s

r o unded co n sider a bly The fi nger s m ay with a dva nt a ge
.

be c o n sidered squ a re i n se c ti o n so th a t even the t o p s

,

F IG . T o
3 .
-
F e m al e Han d .

a re fl a tten e d ( S e e Fig 1 2 5
. . W ith a pex a t the r o o t
of the fi nger a tri a ngul a r m ass stretche s up t o the
,

o ut s ide o f the fi r st j o int being h o ll o wed a n d c ri nkled

,

s m
o ew h a t d w
o n i t s centre F
( gi 1 2
.
9 C ) F ro.m t he ,
.
 T HE A RM 19 9

j o i nt a S i m i l a r bro a d tr i a ngul a r p i ece see m s to st art b ut ,

die s i nt o a r o unded m a ss befo re t h e sec o nd j o i nt T h e n .

'

aga i n at the sec o nd j o i n t a fl a tne ss c o m m ence s b u t ,

so o ner g i ve s w a y t o t h e r o und fo r m s O f w hi ch the re are ,

tw o .

In t h e ben t fi nge r exten ded o n t h e h a n d ( F) t h e tr i

, ,

a ngul a r p i ece j u st s p o ken o f a ppe a r s s tr o ngly m a rked ,

a n d i f t h e fi ng er s o n eit h er side h e flex ed i t w i ll be ,

a c centu a ted by a fo ld o n e i t h er s i de In a l l s uc h p o si t i o n s
.

the se tw o fo r m s w i ll be seen t h e tr i a ngul a r p i ece per h aps

,

i n pr o fi le a s a t J t h e cre ase by a so fter di a go n a l lin e

, , .

S o m e o f t h e v a ri a t i o n s t o w hi c h t h e se cre a se s are
subj ect a re i llu str a ted i n F i g 1 2 9 a n d a s every o ne s ’
.
,

h a nd s a re a v ail a ble fo r exper i m en t there i s n o need to

e nter i nt o a de s cr i pt i o n o f t h e c h a nge s .

Th e ten d o n s o f t h e exten so r c o m m u n i s d i g i t o ru m sh o w
d o wn t h e b ack o f t h e h a nd spre a d i ng o u t fr o m a p o si ti o n
,

o n the wr i st a little t o t h e ul n a s i de T h ey p ass o ver t h e .

knuckle s a n d get l o st o n t h e fi r st p h a l a n x They c o nt i n ue

,
.
,

h o wever t o t h e t hi rd splitt i ng a s t h ey a ppr o ach t h e fi rst

, ,

j o i nt a n d t h u s c o n tribute a degree o f the fl a tne ss o b serv

,

a ble bel o w t h e fi r s t j o i nt The se tend o n s a ppe a r t o h o l d

.

t h e fi nger o n v e ry m u ch i n the sa m e w a y a s t h e fi n ger

,
‘

s t a ll o f d o m e s tic s urgery ( D ) The fo r m o f t h e fi nger st a ll

.
-

i s a l so m a i nt a i n ed i n t h e w a y i n w hi ch t h e fi nge r c o nt i n ue s
up the b a ck o f the h a nd the c h a n nel s between t h e knuckle s
,

be i ng very n o tice a ble a n d m uc h bel o ved by dr aug h t sm en

of
“
terr o r a n d w o nder ” .

T h e tend o n of the spe c i a l exte n so r o f t h e l i ttle fi n ge r -

ma y re a d i ly be o b served c l o se t o t h e tend o n fo r t h i s fi n ger

,

fro m the exten so r c o m m un i s digit o ru m ( L ) T h e S pe c i a l .

o n e fo r the index fi n g e r i s h a rdly percept i ble

“

-
.

T h e fi n ger s a re o f d i fferent lengt h s a n d set u po n a ,

2 00 F IG URE D RA W ING A ND CO MPO S ITIO N

curved b o rder o f t h e p a l m wh i c h in so m e per so n s i s le ss

,

curved th an i n o thers so t h at so m e per so n s h a nd s a re

,
’

s quare a n d o t h er s o v o id
, .

63 . Th e Th u m b .

THE thu mb c o n si st s o f o nly t w o ph a l a nge s wh i ch a re ,

s i m il a r t o th o se o f the finger s ( F i g C a lling the tw o

”
.

p a rt s o f t h e t h u m b j o i nt s we n o t i ce th a t the end j o int i s

“
,

c o nvex in o utline t h e fi r st j o i nt c o nc a ve so th a t D Fig 1 3 1

, , , .

w i ll ep i t o m ize t h e S h ape if the b a sa l j o i nt be in c luded

,

a s p a rt o f the t h u m b a s per h a p s i s be s t
,
The end j o int .

o n i ts p a l m a r surfa ce a ppe a r s h e a rt sh a ped ( F while the

) -
,

fi r st j o int h a s the sa m e tri a ngul a r a rr a nge m en t t h at w a s

n o ticed i n t h e fi r st j o i nt o f the finger s O n the o uter s ide .

( )
E ,
the fi r s t j o i nt a ppe a r s s qu a re i n s ect i o n t h e s qu a rene s s ,

be i ng due t o o n e o f the exten so r tend o n s whi c h a tt a che s

t o the b a se o f the s ec o nd ph a l a nx a n d sh o w s very ,

d i st i nctly so m eti m e s a s i n F i g 1 2 5 ( I)
, . .

Vie wed fro m a b o ve the sec o nd ph a l a nx h as a so m ewh a t

,

o v o i d fo r m succeeded i n the fi r s t ph a
,
l a nx by c o ntra sting
c o n c ave l i ne s In side v i e w t h e chief differen c e to n o te i s
.

t h a t u nder t h e end ph al a n x the t i p i s n o t so bulky a s the

r o l l o r m ass beh i nd i t whi c h i s b o th deeper a n d bro a der
,

t h a n i n t h e fi ngers T h e n a i l i s d i rected upw a rd a l ittle

.

m o re t h an i n t h e fi ngers .

Tw o o f t h e three tend o n s o f the t h ree exten so r s o f

the thu m b gener a lly S h o w between the b a ll o f the thu m b
a n d t h e end o f t h e r a d i u s The o n e t o wa rd s the m iddle
.

o f the h a nd the exten so r s ecundu s i n t e rn o di i p o lli c i s g o e s

, ,

t o the b a se o f the se c o nd ph a l anx It i s therefo re very

.
, ,

pl a inly seen d o wn a s far a s the thu m b j o i nt dur i ng stro n g -

,
2 02 F IG URE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

a b so l ute end o f the trunk a s i s a l so sh o wn in t h e d i agra m

,

referred t o The end o f t h e fi nger s fa ll s t o a b o ut h a lf

. ,

w ay between the t rocna n ter a n d the he a d o f t h e fi bul a .

T h e w ri s t i s c o n sidera bly b el o w the tro ch a nter i n m an ,

but o n ly j u st bel o w it i n w o ma n ; so th a t i n rel ati o n to

t h e trunk a n d hip the fe m a le a rm see m s S h o rt c o mp ared
wit h the m a le A n d und o ubtedly i n rel a t i o n to the tru nk
.

a n d hi p the fe m a le a rm i s sh o rt fo r the b o dy i n t h a t se x
,

i s l o nger i n pro p o rti o n to the t o t a l height t h a n in t h e

m a le . T a k i ng the m e a sure m ent fro m the t o p o f t h e
sh o ulder t o the l o wer b o rder o f the tr o ch a nter it i s o n e ,

third o f the wh o le he i ght in w o m a n but le ss t h a n a t hi rd ,

i n m a n being 2 1 i n c he s i n m a n a n d ne a rly 2 1 i n w o m a n
, .

A n d the fa ct th a t the glute a l m ass i s l o wer i n the fe m a le

( c o m p a re 3 a n d 4 Fig , .a l s o render s the b o dy a n d

h ip i n th a t se x l o nger ; so t h at a s fa r a s c o ntra st go e s
, ,

t h e fe m a le a rm a ppe a rs sh o rt .

If t h e h a nd s a re fo lded befo re the figure t h ey w i ll j u st

c o ver t h e centre o f the b o dy .

The pro p o rt i o n s o f the different p a rt s o f t h e a rm to

o n e a n o ther a re n o t e a sy t o s eize The b o ne length s a re
.
-

a b o ut 1 3 inche s fo r the hu m eru s 9 fo r t h e r a d iu s a n d

, ,

7 fo r the wr i s t a n d h a nd In the
. fe m a le a b o ut 1 1 8
3 23
1
,

a n d 7 i nche s If a n i n c h be a dded fo r the a cr o m i o n

.
,

i t g i ve s t h e upper p a rt a m e asure m ent o f 1 4 a n d 1 3

re spect i vely B u t t h e se m e a su re m ent s a re very v a ri able
. .

T h e length s o f the fe m ale ra d i u s a n d wr i st a n d h a nd

be a r the sa m e pr o p o rt i o n t o the w h o le figure a s i n t h e
m a le but the fe m a le hu m eru s i s ne a rly h a l f a n i n c h sh o rter
,

th a n the m a le a p a rt fro m the d i m inuti o n due t o le sser

,

s t a ture . W e h a ve given the length o f the r a diu s a s th a t

o f the fo re a rm bec a u se the uln a o verl ap s the h u m eru s
-

so mew ha t . It s length i s 1 0 3 i nche s ,

 T HE A R M 2 03

The he a d o f t h e hu m eru s being l o st u n der t he delt o i d ,

the a cr o m i o n pr o c e ss o f the sh o ulder bec o m e s the upper

m o st p o i nt o f the a rm T h e l o wer end o f t h e hu m eru s
.

i s indic a ted o n the o uter s i de by t h e extern a l c o ndyle o r ,

m o re e x a ctly by the sp a ce bet w een i t a n d the he a d o f

t h e r a d i u s ( Fig an d o n
. the i n ner by the i n n er
condyle ,
th o ug h i t s pr o m i nence i s so m e little di st a n c e
a b o ve the end o f the b o ne ( se e Fig In the di a gr a m .

a b o ve there w i ll be s een a d o tt e d l i ne a cr o s s the elb o w .

Thi s d o tted line run s fro m the o lecr a n o n be h i nd t o the ,

F IG . 1 32 .
—Th Pr e o p ort ion s o f t h e A rm a n d Han d .

in n er side o f t h e j o i nt d i st i nctly m a rked by a l a rge blue

,

vei n ; a n d m o re o ver i s n o t a t r i g h t a ngle s to t h e direc ti o n

, ,
-

o f t h e h u m eru s but i s hi g h er i n fr o nt even i n t h e s tr a i ght

,

a rm . O n e i t h er si de o f t hi s d o tted line o n t h e o ut side , ,

o ccurs the extern a l c o n dyle ab o ve a n d t h e h e a d o f t h e ,

r a d i u s bel o w Fro m the m e asure m ent s we m ay deduce

.

t h e fa ct s t h a t t h e r a d i u s i s i n lengt h a b o ut t w o th i rd s o f -

t h e upper a rm ( i nclud i ng t h e a cr o m i o n ) ; th a t t h e uln a

i s t o t h e upper a rm a s 3 t o 4 ; th a t t h e h a nd a n d
wr i st a re t o t h e r a diu s a s 5 t o 6 o r as 5 t o 7 t o the u ln a ,
.

As a pr a ct i c a l rule o n e m ay so m eti m e s t ake t h e d ist anc e

,
2 04 F IG U RE D RA W ING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

fr o m the a rm pit t o the elb o w j o int a s eq u a l t o the fo re

- -

a rm then h a lv i ng the fo re a rm m ay find a n a ppr o xi m a te

,
-

li m it fo r the supin a t o r m a ss a n d then t h e b a ck o f the ,

h a nd a s ne a rly equ a l to o n e o f t h e se h a lve s a n d the fi n ger s ,

a s equ a l t o it .

— “

The h a nd a n d wri st 7 5 in che s a re well kn o wn a s being

, ,

equ a l t o the fa c e The wh o le Index fi n ge r i s a b o ut h a lf

.
-

the h a nd a n d wri st t o gether a n d the t w o s m al l j o i nt s ,

o f th a t fi nger a re t o gether equ a l t o t h e l o nge st The .

t w o s m a ll j o i nt s a re a l so equ a l in length t o the n o se 2 ,

i nche s The pr o p o rti o n s m u st be t a ken with the finger s

.

bent a s t h e knu c kle s a re c o u nted with t h e p a rt s o n either

,

s i de o f the m F o r the h a nd a n d wr i st a re n o t 8 i n c he s
.

l o ng In the fe m a le the fi nger s a re c o m p a ra tively l o nger

.
,

the h a nd n a rro wer a n d the wri st b o ne s s m a ller

,
-
.

W hen the a rm i s h a nging by the s ide the fi n ge r t i p -

re a che s h a lf w ay d o wn t h e t h igh i n m a n n o t so fa r i n
-
,

w o m a n Thi s differen c e i s due t o t h e gre a ter lengt h o f

.

t h e fe ma le trunk a n d a l so to the fa ct th a t t h e fi r st b o ne
,

o f b o th the upper a n d l o wer l i m b s i s s h o rter in w o m en

a n d children th a n i n m e n “ In b o th m a l e a n d fe m a le
the m iddle o f the fi ngers i s h a lf w ay fro m the t o p o f the -

a cr o m i o n t o t h e gr o und a di st a nce o f a b o ut 5 0 i n c he s in
,

w o m a n a n d 5 4 i n c he s i n m a n ; while the elb o w j o int i s a t -

a b o ut a qu a rter o f the di st a nce d o wn In the figure .

s t a nding a t e a s e n o t ere c t
,
the l a rge kn uckle o r the tip
,

o f the fi nger t a ke s t h e c entr a l p o s it i o n a cc o rding a s the ,

sh o ulder 15 d o wn o r up .
 2 06 F IG U RE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

pro ce ss t h at befo re be i ng ca lled a nter i o r a n d th a t beh i nd

, ,

p o ster i o r Bene a th t h e se a re t w o o ther spine s so th a t t h ere

.
,

a re i n fer i o r a n d s uperi o r spine s b o th befo re a n d behind

, .

T h e l o wer p a rt o f the pelvi s bel o w t h e a cet a bulu m, ,

c o n si st s o f the l o wer h a lve s o f the i nn o m i n a te a n d ,

c o m pr i se s the t w o pube s a n d t h e t w o i sc hi a The se t w o .

h a lve s pl a c ed a t a n a ngle t o o n e a n o ther m eet a t the

, ,

sy m p h y s i s between t h e t w o pube s wh i le the i sc hi a a t t h eir

,

l o we s t p o i n t s a re so m e d i st a nce a p a r t The se l o we s t .

p o int s o f the i sch i a a re t h e b o ne s up o n whi c h o n e s i t s .

Be si de the i l i a c cre st s a n d the b a ck o f the sa c ru m the ,

o nly p a rt o f t h e pelv i s ev i dent o n t h e s u r fa ce a n d then ,

o nly in a very i ndirect w a i a p rt o f the pube s o n e i ther

y s a ,

s ide o f the sy m phy s i s To thi s Po up a rt s lig a m en t fro m

’
.

the superi o r a nter i o r spine s o f the ili a c a tt ac h e s, a n d ,

fo r m s t h e gro i n giv i ng the s tro ng r o und c urve wh i c h l i m i ts

,

t h e a bd o m en bel o w .

In the m a le th e gr o i n keep s well d o wn t o t h e pube s ,

but i n the fe m a le i t i s c o n si dera bly a b o ve so th a t t he ,

l a st fo ld o f th e trunk i n t h a t se x i s deep .
’

T h e fe m ur o r thig h b o ne a n swers to the h u m eru s o f

,
-
,

the a rm Its a rt i c ul a r surfa ce is a m u c h m o re Co m plete

.

b a ll a n d the a c et a bulu m i nt o w h ic h i t fi ts i s a m u c h m o re
,

c o m plete so cket T h u s e m bedded i ts r a nge o f ac ti o n i s

.
,

m o re l i m i ted th a n i s th a t o f the h u m eru s th o ugh i n ,

so m e degree t o c o unter a ct t hi s defi c i ency i t h a s a l o nge r

n eck,
wit h o ut whi c h it w o uld be v i rtu a lly i m p o ssible fo r
the thigh s t o be cr o ssed .

A t the p a rt w h ere the ne c k j o i n s o n t o t h e sh a ft there

‘

a re t w o pr o m i nence s the gre a ter a n d le sser tr o ch a nter s

, ,

wh i ch c o rre sp o nd t o the tuber o si tie s o f the hu m eru s .

Fro m the tro ch a nters the s h a ft s return t o t h e m i ddle

o f the figure S o th a t the knee s a r e c l o se t o gether a n d
‘
-

, ,
 THE LO WER L I MB 2 07

the tw o t hi g h b o ne s fo r m a n i nverted i so s cele s tr i a ngle

-
,

wh ich i n a g o o d figu re i s a l m o st ent i rely filled up by the

a dduct o r m u sc le s o f t h e t hi g h s .

GREAT ER TRO C HAN

Le ss e e T R O C HA NT E

INI E RNA L
C O ND Y L E
EX TERNA L

INT TUB E UBE

RQS ‘
V
T U B ERC L E
.
.

T I6 1A F IB U LA

F IG . I
33.
—Th e Bo n es o f th e Low er L im b .

A d r a ugh tsm a n m u st cert a i n ly kn o w t h e b o ne s a n d ,

be a ble t o dr a w t h e m w i t h c o n si der a ble a ccura c y fr o m ,

m e m o ry e spec i a l ly i f h e h as to w o rk w i t h o ut a m o del
, .
 2 08 F IG URE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

Of t h e upper p a r t o f the fe m ur o nly the trocna n ter

reve a l s it sel f u p o n t h e surfa ce but i ts so l i t a rine ss i s ,

b a l a nced by i ts i m p o rt a n c e .

The l o wer end o f t h e fe m ur c o ntribute s very l a rgely

t o the fo r m o f the knee a lth o ugh i t sh o w s it self but
,

r a rely . Its s h a pe m a y be g a thered fr o m Fig s 1 3 3 .

an d 14 1 .

T h e t i b i a h a s tw o bro a d end s c o n ne c ted by a sh a ft

tr i a ngul a r i n se c t i o n O f t h e three s ide s o f the sh a ft
.
,

o n e i s d i re c ted i m m edi a tely b a c kw a rd o n e t o eit h er s i de , .

There i s thu s a r i dge i n fro nt between the tw o s ide ,

s urfa c e s wh i c h i s c a lled t h e c re s t
, It i s re m a rk a bly sh a rp
.
,

a n d r i s i ng to t h e sk in fo r m s the e a si ly felt a n d d a m a ged , ,

s hin .

A b o ve a n d bel o w the c re s t exp a nd s i nt o tr i a ngul a r

,

surfa c e s a ppr o a c hi ng
, t h e fl a t a n d for m i ng the fro n t
,

o f the t wo end s .

J u st w h ere the cre st exp a nd s to fo r m t h e upper tri a ngle

i s a r o ug h e m inence the tubercle t o w hi c h t h e l i g a m en t
, ,

o f t h e p a tell a o r o n e m ight a l m o s t say o f the tr i c e p s o f

,

the t h igh i s a tt a c h ed A b o ve t h e tu bercle the surfa ce b e

,
.

c o m e s br o a der a n d fa irly fl a t The surfa ce s o n e i t h er si de

.

o f t h e cre st fo ll o w i t s c o ur se up t h e s i de s o f t h e tr i a ngle ,

t o w hi c h they a dd bevelled s i de s a s i t were a s if thi s , ,

upper end o f t h e tib i a were h a lf a hex ag o n i n sect i o n .

But a t t h e fibul a o r o uter side i s a defin i te fl a tne ss w h ile

, , ,

o n the i nner s i de t h e i ntern a l edge o f t h e tr i a ngul a r sh a ft

send s up a gra cefully a rc h ed bra c ket a l m o st a true ,

s e m i c ir c le in pl a n a n d extending fr o m the fl a t tr i a n gul a r

“

-
,

s urfa ce o n t h e fr o nt t o the m i ddle o f the b a ck

,
Thi s i s .

the i ntern a l tuber o sity a n d i s sh o wn i n Fig I3 3 A

,
.
, .

Vi ewed fro m a b o ve the upp er end o f the t i bi a a pp ea r s

,

k i dney sh a ped t h e d o uble curve o f t h e o utl i ne be i ng behind

-
,
.
 2 10 F IG URE D RAWING A ND CO MPO S ITIO N

66 . T h e M u sc l e s o f t he Lo w e r L im b .

Te wo

ENS O

I NT

Pec T INe u S

SO L EU S

A NN-C
ANKLE

Te u o o

F IG . I3 4 .
-
The Muscl es o f th e L o wer Li m b .

I THE G LUTEA L
. MUS C LES .

Gl u te us i
m ax m us .

A tt t —L w er b rd r f
ach m en s o o e o r
sac u m yx an d adj acen t
a n d c o cc

p rti
o f l
on o —
i i m Upp r p rt
u e a ,
ov er th e troch an t er t o t h e fa sc i a
of t h th i gh
e L w er p rt b
. o a ,
a ck o f t h e th i gh b o e b el ow th e
-
n

t och ter
r an .
 T HE L O WER L IM B 2 11

Gl u te us m ed i u s.

A tt t —Up p er p rt f ter rfa e of i l i m

ach m en s ter s rf a o ou su c u -
ou u a ce

f gr ater tr h a t r
o e oc n e .

Gl u te m i i m (
us e l ed b
n e th th te r d gl t m edi )
us co n c a en a e n so an u eus

Att h m e t —
us

f i l i um —
.

ac T w er p rt f t r rf
n s fr t o a o ou e su a ce o on of

g re t r tr h tr
a e oc an e .

Ten so r gi f m ri (ti gh te er f h th f th i gh )
va n ae e o s n o s ea o
—
.

Att h me t
ac S p ri r teri r p i a d
n s b h i d it f i — u e o an o s n e, n e n ,
asc a of

t h e th i gh .

S em m embi -
r a n o su s

t —B k
.

A tt a ch m en s ac of t ub e o s r it y of i sch um -i b a ck of i nter n al

tu b er it y f ti b i
os o a .

S em i t en di n o su s
-
.

A ach m en s —B a ck
tt t of t ub e o s r it y of i sch u m i —i n n er si de of fro t n

of ti b i a .

B i c ep s c u r ri s
—
.

—
Attach m en t s Lo n g k of tub ero sity of h ea d, b a c i sch i u m short
h ea d l o w er t w o th ir ds o f b a c k o f sh a ft o f fem u r
-
do w n t o t h e
—
,

e x t er n al c on dy l e h ea d o f t h e fi b u l a .

III S A RTO R IU S
. A ND TE NSO R .

Sa rt ri
o us

i —I
.

Att a c h m en t s —S u p eri o r an e t ri r o sp n e nn e r i de s of r t
f on of

t b i i a .

IV . T HE TR IC EPS C R U R IS .

Atta h m en t c — V st e xter
s — O t er S i de o f b a ck
s a f fem r
u n us u o u

b y t h e c o m m o t en d t o t h e p t el l a n on a

C r r e —Upp er p art o f fr t f fem r —

.

u us b y t h e c o mm on te d n on o u n o

t t h e p tel l a
o a

V a t i ter —I er i de f b k f fem r—b y th e c m m o n

.

s us n nu s nn s o ac o u o

te d t th e p atel l
n on o a .

Rec t — B y tw o te d
us t t eri r i f ri r p i e of p el i a d n o n s, o an o n e o s n v s, n

ab o e t h e a et b l m — b y th e c o mm
v te d
c t o th e p at el l a
a u u on n on .

V . T HE A D D UC E NT F L EX O RS .

Pec ti n eu s
—
.

Atta chm en t P b es an d p art f i l i o p e ti e l l i e ab e it

s u o -
c n a n ov

B eh i d l esser tr o ch a te r
n t h e h aft o f t h e fem r n ,
on S u .

A dd ct o r l
u g s on u .

Atta h m e t —B y c arr w t e d n t p
n s b e s m i ddl e t h ir d a n o n o o u -

b k f h ft f fem u r
ac o s a o .
2 12 F IG U R E D RA W ING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

G r il i
ac s

A tt h m t —P b
.

ac th p rt ( r m )
en s u e s, on e a a us de sc en d i ng to th e
i h i m —I r i d f fr t f ti b i
sc u nne s e o on o a .

A dd t r m g
uc o O t r b rd r f i h i m —w h
a nus . u e o e o sc u ol e l en g h t of b ac k of

h ft f f m r
s a o e u .

V I G A S TR O C EMIU S
. N A ND S O L EU S .

G as tr oc n em i u s ( do u b l e e cep x ti t n en do n )
t —B y tw r—b k
.

A tt a ch m en s o h ea ds to b a c k of co n d y l es o f fem u ac

o f o s ca c s l i b y th t e en do A ch l l i i s .

S o l eu s .

A tt a c h m en s t —B a c k
f of h ea d of fib ul a , an d pa rt of th e u p pe r
fo u rth of bo th ti b i a an d fi b ul a —B ac k of O S cal c s i .

V II O UTER . V IEW OF LEG .

Pe r o n eu s l on gu s
t —H
.

A tt ach m en s e ad an d u p p e rh al f o f o u e tr su rf a ce o f fi b ul a o r
e one r — Un der S i de o f b a se o f m e ttr a a sal o f gr t t ea oe
p
-
.

Pe r o n eu s b re iv s

t —O t r i d f fi b l
.

A tt ac h m en s u e s e o u a b el o w p e r o n eu s l on g u s
T b r it y f fi fth m t t r l b
u e os o e a a sa one .

P r e
e on t rti us e us .

A tt h m t —
ac L w t f rth ien s r o es ou nne su rfac e of fib ul a , fa c i ng th e
ti b i —T p f b af fi fth m t t r
o o ase o e a a sal b on e .

V III . F RO N T VIEW OF LEG .

Tbi i li a s an ti cu s .

Att a ch m e n s t —U p pe h l f f t r rf f i g fi b l
r a o ou e su a c e, ac n u a, o f ti b i a,

u
p to th xter l t b r it y —
e e U d r id
na f fir t u e os n e s e o s c un ei form

an d fi rst m et a ta rsal
'

Ex ten so r p ro p ri u s p o l l i c i s ( p ro p er e x te n so r of gr t t )ea -
oe .

—
Atta ch m en t s Mi ddl e po rti on o f i nne r su rf e f fi b
ac o ul a -
b a se of

l as t ph
x f gr e a t t o e
al an o -
.

Ex t e so r l gu s di git or m (l o g e x t e so r o f t o e )
n on u n n s .

a —
Att c h m e t s U p p er p rt f in er rfac e f fi b ul a a a o nn su o nd e xtern al
t b ero sit y o f ti b i a —l a st p h al n ges f fo ur ter to e
u a o ou s .

T h e fo ll o wing a re hidden bene ath the g a stro cne m iu s

a n d so leu s The i r tend o n s p a ss behind the i n ner a nkle
. .

O f their b o die s a few in c he s o f fl e x o r digit o ru m o nly

, , ,

a ppe a r a b o ve the i nner a nkle between the tibi a a n d t h e

so leu s but gre a tly enr i c hi n g the fo r m

, .
2 14 F IG U R E D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

T h e ten sor f a sci a a r i se s fr o m the s uperi o r a nter i o r

s p i ne ,
a s well a s fr o m beh i nd it A t the spine it i s i n
.

cl o se c o n ne c ti o n with the sa rto riu s m u sc le whi c h p a sse s ,

t o the i nner s i de o f the th i gh a n d thu s m a ke s w ith the

,

ten so r a n inverted V ( Fig . The tw o m u scle s pre

.

s ent a very c o nvenien t s t a rt p o i nt fo r t h e s tudy o f t h e

m u scle s o f the t h igh .

T h e sa rtori us fo r m s a n i mp o rt a n t a n d be a ut i ful line

d i v i d i ng the exten so r m u sc les o n the fro nt o f t h e t hi gh
fr o m the a ddu c t o rs a t the i n ner si de o f it It s h o w s .

m o s t when i n a ct i o n in d r a wing t h e heel up t o t h e

,

knee i t s Upper m o st p a rt a ppe a ring as a pro m i nent stro ng

,

c o r d i ts m i ddle a n d l o wer a s a depre ssi o n

, .

T h e t ri cep s exten so r o f t h e th i gh c o n si st s o f re c tu s
fe m o r i s v a stu s externu s a n d v astu s i nternu s the upper
, , ,

p a rt o f w hi ch h i dden u nder t h e re c tu s i s c a lled c rureu s

, , ,

a n d i s so m eti m e s c o n s idered a s a sep a r a te fo urth he a d .

T h e p atell a i s a m o v a ble ful c ru m by m e a n s o f wh i c h

t h e tricep s g a i n s gre a ter p o wer in i ts a c ti o n up o n t h e
tib i a o r leg b o ne The tend o n th a t c o nne c t s th e p a tell a
,
-
.

with t h e tib i a bel o ng s then t o the tri c ep s a n d i t i s better ,

t o c o n si der the m u s c le s a s in se rted i nt o t h e tibi a .

The tend o n s a n d a p o neur o se s o f th e tricep s a ffe c t t h e

fo r m so m ewh at T h u s the v a stu s externu s i s a tt ac hed
.

t o the fe m u r by a n exten si ve a p o neur o si s wh i c h co ver s

i ts upper three fo u rth s a n d render s the surfa c e t i g h t

-
,

a n d s ti ff .The v a stu s i nternu s o n the o ther h a nd h a s

, ,

no s uch a p o neur o s i s up o n it a n d it i s there fo re m o re

,

fles hy o r fl a bby The tend o n o f o r i gin o f the re c tu s

.

a l so c o m e s U p o n the fro nt o f the m u scle a n d help s to keep ,

i t d o wn between the ten so r a n d sa rt o r i u s th a n whi c h it ,

i s o r i gin a lly pl a ced l o wer by being a tt a c h ed to t h e i n fer i o r

i n ste a d o f the super i o r sp i ne o f the il i u m .
 THE L O WER L IM B 2 15

Bel o w a l l t h e se m u scle s m ee t up o n a c o m m o n tend o n

, ,

t a k i ng h o wever d i fferen t side s o f i t T h e i nternu s cr o wd s

.

d o wn up o n the p a tell a t h e externu s a n d rectu s n o t re a ch

,

i n g d o wn so fa r a n d i n a ct i o n ret i r i ng even furt h er up

,
.

It w i ll pr o b a bly be fo u nd t h a t the sup erfici a l m u scle s

fr o m v astu s i nternu s ro u nd t h e i n ner s i de o f t h e t h igh
t o v a stu s ex tern u s o r t h e fl e x o r a dduc to r m
,
-
a ss will be ,

be st re m e m bered i n t h e i r pr o per a rr a n ge m ent by c l a ssi

fy i n g t h e m a c c o rd i ng t o t h e i r de st i n a t i o n s T h u s there .

i s a gro up c o m i ng r o und t h e i n s i de o f t h e knee a n d ,

so m ew h a t t o t h e fro n t o f t h e tib i a bel o w i t ; a n o t h er

gro up fi nd th e Ir In sert i o n s o n t h e t h i g h b o ne ; a n d a -

t hi rd a n d l a s t a t the b a ck o f t h e knee .

The gr o up t h a t c o m e s to t h e fr o nt o f t h e knee co m
pr i se s
S a rt o r i u s ,

G ra c Il i s,
S e m i Te n di n o su s
-
,

pl a c i ng t h e m
-
i n t h e o rder o f t h e i r i n sert i o n s fr o m
knee d o wnw a rd s .

T h e gr o up at t h e b a ck t h e knee j o i n t
of -

S e m I m e m br a n o s u s
-
,

B i cep s crur i s
—B i cep s be i ng a t th e o utsi de
,
'

T h o se a tt a c hi ng to t h e sh a ft o f t h e fe m ur a re
A dduct o r m a gnu s ,

l o ngu s ,

brev i s ,

Pect i neu s ,

o f w hi c h brev i s i s deep .

B ut w hi le t hi s cl a ssi fic a t i o n m ay be o f a ssi st a nce i n

re m e m ber i ng t h e a rr a nge men t o f t h e m u scle s i t i s o f ,

l i ttle use a rt i st i c a lly ; fo r th e i n ner si de a n d b a ck o f t h e

2 16 F IG U RE D RAWING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

th i g h a re v i rtu a lly o n e well ro unded fle shy m a ss with -

,

h a rdly a n y o r o nly very subtle fe a ture s O r r ather

,
.
,
.

th ere a re t w o m asse s the o n e j u st s p o ken o f be i ng t h e

,

m o re i m p o rt a nt a n d there being a n o ther fo r m ed by the

,

l o wer p a rt s o f severa l m uscl es a n d sh o w i ng pr o m i nently ,

a t the b a ck a n d inner s ide o f the knee a n d t h ig h t o get h er .

( S e e F i g . 1 4 0 ,

O f the tend o n s it i s need ful o nly t o spe c i fy t h e tend o n

,

o f o rigin o f t h e a ddu c t o r l o ngu s a g a i n s t the pube s w hi c h ,

i s n a rr o w a n d sh o w s c le a rly a n d the tend o n s o f in sert i o n ,

o f the b i cep s sem i m e m bra n o su s a n d se m i t en di n o sus

,
-
,
-
.

T he se a re situ a ted o n the o ut si de o f the m u scle s a n d ,

therefo re even in well fl esh e d per so n s sh o w a s d e fin i te -

i n the sa m e w a y a s the tend o n s o f the

s tern o m a st o i d s i n t h e neck
-
a n d t h e n o nly when the knee

i s bent .

T h e a dduct o r m agnu s i s a l m o st a l l c o nce a led while ,

the se m i m e m bra n osu s n o t o nly m a n age s to hide it self

-

fo r m o st o f i ts c o u r se but i n sp i te o f i ts t end o n be i ng
,

pl a c ed further b a c k th a n th a t o f the se m i t en di n o su s it -
,

a ll o w s th a t m u sc le t o a ppe a r a t the b a ck o f the t h igh

i n c l o se c o m p a ny with the bi c ep s .

The d i v i si o n bet w een the bicep s a n d se m i t en di n o su s

,
-

S h o w s but very s lightly i ndeed a n d i s v i rtu a lly neutr a l i zed ,

by the ski n a n d fa t a b o ve so t h a t i t m ay be di s ,
-

reg a rded .

The m u sc le s o f the leg a re per h a p s the e a sie st o f a l l

t o re m e m ber They a rr a nged the m selve s i n gro up s o f
.

three e a c h ; thu s c o unting the ga stro c ne m iu s a s t w o o n

, ,

a c c o un t o f i t s d o uble c h a r a c ter there a re three beh i nd , ,

the so leu s being the thi rd There a re three fl ex o rs (deep .

p o steri o r gro up ) tibi a li s p o sticu s fl ex o r d i g i t o ru m a n d

, , ,

fl e x o r p o ll i c i s Thre e o uter o r pero ne a l pe ron eu s l o ngu s

.
, ,
 F IG U RE D RAWING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N
'

to creep d o wn c l o se up o n the a nkle The tend o n o f the .

c a lf p a ssi ng o ver t h e so leu s renders it fl a tter in the m iddle ,

the l o wer p a rt o f t h e ga str o cne m iu s n a rr o wer th a n it , ,

reve a l s i ts sh a pe up o n i t a s i n Fig 1 3 9 C The o uter , .

, .

gr o up per o neu s l o n gu s b re v i u s a n d tert i u s t a ke thei r

, , , ,

n a m e s fr o m
p ron e t h e G reek fo r the fibul a b o ne fr o m
'

e ,

whi c h they a ri se They o c cupy o nly a n a rro w strip o n

.

the o uter S ide o f t h e leg co rre sp o nding i n fa c t t o the ,

fibul a b o n e Their tend o n s so m eti m e s give student s a

.

l i ttle tr o uble bec a u se o f the extra o rd i n a ry c o ur se o f t h a t

,

o f per o neu s l o ng u s It p a sse s be h ind the extern a l a nkle

.
,

a n d un der the fo o t to the b a se o f the m et a t a rsa l b o ne

o f t h e gre a t t o e
-
B u t it i s n o t di ffi c ult t o re m e m ber whi c h
.

m u sc l e d o e s th i s if i t m erely be n o ted th a t it m u st h a ve
,

a very l o ng tend o n i ndeed a n d t h e n a m e per o neu s l on us ,g

tell s us a t o n c e .

Per o neu s brev i s a n d tert i u s a re very si m i l a r th a t i s , ,

t h ey b o th go to the m et a t a rsa l b o ne o f the little to e -

,

brevi s p assi ng behind the a nkle tertiu s c o m i ng d o wn ,

befo re .

Per o neu s tertiu s i s so m et i m e s cl assed w i t h the a nteri o r

—
gr o up t i b i a li s a n ti c u s exten so r dig i t o ru m a n d exten so r
, ,

p o ll i c i s O f th ese t h e fi r st t w o a re very i m p o rt a nt their

.
,

fo r m s sh o w very d i stin c tly a n d the i r dire c ti o n i s o blique, ,

fro m t h e o uter s ide o f the knee The exten so r p o lli c i s .

c o m e s o u t fro m between the i r l o w er end s .

T a king the t w o a nkle s a s the li m it s o f the fro nt t h ere ,

a re between the m fo ur tend o n s o n e o n e i t h er s i de g o ing ,

t o the t a r s u s o r m et a t a r s u s n o t t o the t o e s th a t i s while

, , ,

between the m c o m e d o wn the tend o n s o f t h e exten so r s

o f the s m a ller t o e s a n d o f the gre a t t o e ,
The tend o n -
.

fo r the s m a ller t o e s a l m o st i m m ed i a tely s plit s int o four .

A S t o the o rder o f a rra nge m ent t h e pero neu s tert i u s i s ,

 T H E L O VVER L IM B 2 19

o f co ur se on the fi bul a s i de a n d t h e exten so r o f the gre a t

,

to e on t he i n ner S i de o f t h a t o f th e fi nger s o r s m a ller t o e s , .

68 . The Hip .

THE pelv i s i s the b o ny b asi n o f t h e hi p It expre sse s .

i t sel f i n ex tern a l fo r m o nly i n the i l i a c cre st a n d t h e

s a c ru m T h e le a f like sa c rti m IS h eld be t ween t h e t w o
.
-

i l i a t h e up per b o rder s o r c re st s o f w hi ch a re so m ew h a t
,

i n c o nt i nu a t i o n w i t h i ts S i de s a n d fo r m a b o ny li ne o n
,

t h e b ac k a n d s i de s o f the figu re s ep a r a t i ng t h e tru nk ,

fr o m t h e th igh s a n d be i ng i n s h ape s i m i l a r to a lette r

,

M dr awn w i t h t h e o uter li ne s very sl a nti ng

,
It i s .

i m p o rt a n t to re c o gn i ze t hi s zigz ag c o u r se o f the b o ny
l i ne T h e l o wer p a rt o f t h e c e n tra l o r de sce n d i ng a ngle
.

o f th e M c o rre sp o nd s w i t h the sa cr u m Tw o d i m ple s .

( F i g . repre s en ti ng t h e p os t er i o r s p i ne s ter m i n a ti ng ,

t h e c re sts beh ind m a rk t h e l a ter a l extent a s see n o n the

, ,

s u rfac e o f t h e sa cru m a n d a re furt h er a p a r t i n t h e fe m a le

, ,
.

T h e t w o upper a ngle s o f t h e M a re pro v i ded by t h e i l i a c

c re st s Fig re i n b t h exe s s o ft ened w ay
( . b u t a o s a

c o n sider a bly the cre s t h av i ng i n t h e fe ma le o nly a l o w

,

a n d gentle curv a ture w i th a degree o f t h e a ngul a ri t y

,

h ere s ugge sted .

Bel o w t h e b o ny l ine j u st tr a ced a n d c o nverg i ng up o n ,

the tr o c h a nter i n a r a di a l m a nner a re t h e sever a l m u scle s ,

o f the glute a l gr o up fo r m i ng t h e m o s t n o t i ce a ble fe a ture

,

o f t h e b a c k v i ew A b o ve the b o ny li ne a re th e sa c r o
.

lu m b a l i s m u scle s up o n t h e sacru m a n d t h e extern a l o bl i que ,

o r the m a ss w h i c h m a y be n a m ed fr o m it a b o ve t h e cre s t , ,

a n d s tret c hi n g up t o t h e w a i s t .

T h e i m p o rt a nce o f t h e cre st s as det a i l s o f fo r m c a n n o t

2 20 F IG URE D RAW ING AND C O MPO S ITIO N

b ut be app a rent ; i n m a le figure s they a re gener a lly very

evident a n d see m t o pl a ce a n up wa rd l i m it t o the thigh
,

u nlikely t o be l o s t III fe m a le figure s o n the c o ntr a ry

.
, ,

the cre st s a re o ften t o o subtly reve a led t o be dr awn with

pre c i si o n a n d the thigh a n d hip m a y be sa id t o c o nt i nue
,

u p to t h e w a i s t In a m a le figure o u r a ttenti o n will fasten

.

up o n the cre st s a n d the t ro ch a nters bene a th the m but ,

’

in a fe m a le we sh a ll pr o b ably dra w a b o ld c u rve fro m the

!

w a i st r o und t o the knee ( Fi g 1 3 5 B ) B u t a l th o ugh

. .
, .

t h e cre st in the fe m a le i s thu s l o st wit hin t h e fo r m i ts

'

i n fluen c e is very gre a t It i s ac ro ss the il i a th a t the

.

F IG . 135 .

fe m a le i s so d i st i nctly w i der t h a n t h e m a le The m e asure .

m ent a c r o ss the tr o c h a nter s i s s lightly gre a ter i n a w o m a n

three o r fo u r i nc h e s sh o r ter i n st a ture th a n a m a n H er .

gre a te st width i s h o wever l o wer t ha n the tr o ch a nters

, , ,

being bel o w t h e h o ri z o nt a l glute a l cre as e ( F ig 1 3 5 A ) ; i n ,

the m a le th i s a u gm ent a ti o n o f widt h i s n o t so pro n o unced .

But it i s the gre at width a t t h e il i a fo ll o wed j u st a b o ve ,

by the r a pid di m inuti o n t o a n equ a lly n a rro w w a i st th a t ,

g ive s t hi s regi o n i n w o m en i t s di s tinctly fe m i nine a pp ea r

a

a nce . Indeed o n e m ight s a y th a t t h e p roj e c t i n g i l i u m

, ,

i n t h e fe m a le m a ke s a k i nd o f S helf a nd thi s d e scripti o n

,
 F IG URE D RA WING A ND CO MPO S ITIO N

When the fe m a le figure i s a t a l l be nt b a ck w a rd , a s i n

Figs 1 3 5 C a n d 1 3 6 D the m a ss a b o ve the c re st bec o m e s

.
, , , ,

bulged o utwa rd a n d c o nsequently the c re st i t self bec o m e s

,

sugge sted a s a depre ssi o n o r cre a se , .

T h e sa cru m i s n o t fl a t but sl i ghtly c o nvex fro m ab ove , ,

d o wnwa rd s a n d t h e m u scul ar m asse s up o n it expre ss

,

t h e m selve s thr o ug h o u t i t s lengt h w i t h t h e slight c h a nnel ,

between the m w hi c h c o ntinue s r i ght up t o t h e h e ad In

, .

w o m en t h e se fo r m s a re m o re delic a te t h a n i n m en a lt h o ugh ,

t he sa cru m i s w i der .

The fl a tne ss a t the b a ck o f the fe m a le hip s extend i ng ,

up t o t h e w a i st h as been a lluded to o n p age 1 1 9 a n d

, ,

i llu stra ted i n Fig 9 3 . .

T h e l o wer p art o f the glute a l m a ss pr ov i ded by g l u teu s ,

m ax i m us proj e c t s b a c k wa rd a little m o re th a n t h a t p a rt
,

o f th e g l u t ea l s whi c h a scend s i nt o the upper a ngle of

the M S o th a t fro m the hi ghe st p o i nt o f th a t a ngle

.

d o wn the wh o le ex tent o f the m ass i s n o t a cle a r s i m ple

c urve but a d o uble o n e a s S h o wn in t h e pr o fi le ( Fig
, , . .

1 36 B )
,
.It w o uld be s i m ple s t i n th a t o f the free leg o f
Fig 1 3 6 C a n d m o st pr o n o uncedly d o ubled i n t h e s t a nd i ng
.
, ,

leg o f t h at d i agra m .

When t h e glutei a re eng a ged i n a bduct i ng a deep ,

s i nking i s n o tice a ble a b o ve the tr o c h a nter a n swer i ng t o t h e ,

ter m in a t i o n o f the i r fle shy fibre s a n d the c o m m ence m en t ,

o f the i r tend o n o r a p o neur o s i s Thi s si nk i ng a c c ent s the.

fl a tne ss o f the s ide o f the h inder p a rt o f the m a ss The .

hinder p a rt i s n a rro wer fro m s ide t o si de th a n a c r o ss the

ten so r s wh i c h o c c upy the fo re p a rt ( F i g 1 3 7 A ) Thu s . .
,
.

i s c o m pleted th a t a lter n a t i o n sp o ken o f o n p a ge 1 3 7 c o n ,

cern i ng the w i dth o f the trunk a b o ve a n d bel o w It .

Wa s there sa i d th a t a b o ve the gre a ter w i dth i n the ,

reg i o n o f t h e c h e st w a s at t h e b a ck a n d pr o v i ded by t h e ,
 T HE L O WER L IME 2 2 3

l a t i ssi m u s d o r si w h ile bel o w it w a s befo re

, S o th at .

d escend i ng a step l o wer to t h e h ip s t h e c o ntr a st i s even

gre a ter t h e n a rr o w p a rt behind be i ng p a lp a bly n a rr o wer
, ,

w hi le there i s a cro ss the fr o n t o f t h e m i ddle o f t h e figure

a fl a tne ss m o re n e a rly S i m il a r t o th a t a t the b a ck o f t h e

sh o ulder s th a n th a t pro vided by t h e abd o m en T h i s .

fl a tne ss a cro ss t h e fr o nt o f t h e m i ddle i s m o re pr o n o u nced

i n w o m en .

T h en a ga in the r o unded fo r m s a t t h e b a ck m u st n o t
,

be d r a wn c i r c u l a rb u t i rregul a rly o v o i d so m et i m e s squ a r i sh

, , ,

a s in Fig I 3 6 C so m et i m e s w i t h a d o uble l i ne
.
, , .

F IG . 1 37 .

A cc o rd i ng to the p o si ti o n so i s thi s hi nder p a r t sh o rter

,

o r l o nger .T h u s w i th the st a nd i ng leg i t i s gener a lly

, ,

s h o rt
,
s qu a re a n d h a s a n o t a ble c re a se o r t wo bel o w i t
, ,

c re a se s whi c h i n d i c a te t h e bicep s m a ss a t t h e b a ck o f t h e

thig h a m ass which d o e s n o t ent i rely exten d a cr o ss t o

,

the o utw a rd W ith t h e free leg the hi nder m a ss i s

.

gener a lly l o nger a n d m o re fl a bby But i f t h e free leg

, .

i s a t a l l exten ded o r a bducted t h e glutei w i ll g a t h er

, ,

i nt o a h a rd m ass .

T h e m u sc le s fo r m i ng t h e glute a l gro up c o rre sp o nd to

the delt o id o f t h e a rm a n d a re a bduct o rs o f the t h i gh
, .

U nl i ke t h e delt o id t h ey do n o t m as k t h e b o ne they o pera te

u po n but t h ere i s nevert h el ess c o n si der abl e s i m i l a rity i n
,
 2 24 F IG U RE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N
‘

fo r m T h e delt o i d ga thers i ts bundle s t o gether an d plu nge s

.

d o wn t o the b o ne between the bicep s a n d tri c ep s S o .

a l m o st ex a ctly d o e s the glute a l gr o up fo r there i s a bicep s ,

a n d tri c ep s o f the thigh a n d it i s between the se th a t

,

gluteu s m a xi m u s re a che s the b o ne The o uter c o rner o f .

the pro m inent h i nder m ass whi c h i s c o m m o nly rega rded ,

a s very c ir c ul a r c reep s d o wn then , a s indi c a ted in Fig , .

1 39 B a n d le ss e m ph a tic a lly in Fig 1 3 6 C The inner

, , .
, .

c o rner t o o m u s t be kept r a ther s qu a re fo r the t w o m a ss e s

, , ,

lie c l o se t o gether a s m ay b e be st seen i n Figs 1 3 5 B a n d

,
'

.
, ,

1 36, C a nd D .

In Ren a i ssa nce ti m e s the se p a rt s were genera lly dra wn

w i th full str o ng c ur ve s but in t h e peri o d when fl a b b i n ess
w a s the fa shi o n a n d the fle sh l o o k s a s i f it w o uld s t a y in
,

a n y fo r m i nt o whi c h i t w a s pu shed the o utline w a s m u c h ,

s qu a rer so m ewh a t a s i n Fig 1 3 8

,
. .

The m a ss pr o du c ed by the pr oj ecting tr o ch a nter i s

s tr o nger a n d m o re evident i n w o m en ( Fig 1 3 5 C and D ) .
,

th a n i n m e n The tr o c h a nter genera lly sh o ws a s if divided

.

vertic a lly by a subtle depre ssi o n an d n o t a s a p o rti o n o f ,

a s phere .

69 . T he T h igh .

IF we epit o m ize the e ssenti a l c h a r a cteri stic s o f a thigh

they will a ppe a r a s i n A a n d B Fig 1 3 7 We h ave been
_
,
. .

s e a k In g c o n s ider a bly i n t h e l as t p a r a gr a p h
p , o f t h e c re st ,

o f the iliu m It a ppe a r s n o w a s supp o rting by i t s fr o n t

.

end o r superi o r a nteri o r spine t w o m u sc l es w h ich a re very

'

, ,

i m p o rt a nt a s reg a rd s the fo r m o f t h e thig h The se a re .

the Ten so r fa sc i ae T a n d S a rt o r i u s S Ten so r i s o n e o f

, , , .

t h e glute a l gr o up a n d c o rre s
po nd
,
s very fa irly t o
p a rt of
 F IG URE D RAW ING A ND CO MPO S ITIO N

on t h e i nner s ide B where o ther tend o ns c o m e d o wn i n

, ,

m uch t h e sa m e m a n ner ( S
. e e Fig 1 3 9 B a n d C.
) , .

O u r next c h a r a cteri s t i c fo r m i s the a ddu c t o r m ass a s

epit o m i zed i n B It co n si st s o f a ddu c t o rs a dducent fl e x o rs
.
,
-
,

a n d fl e x o rs but the subd i v i si o n int o s ep a r a te m u sc le s i s

,

so i ndefi nite a s t o sm o o then a l l o f the m t o gether i nt o a

fa irly full m ass whi c h i s ne a rly a lwa y s r o und i n secti o n

,

i n i ts hi nder p a rt but squ a re sect i o ned i n i ts fro nt p o rt i o n

,
-

F IG . 139 .

w h en a dductor l ong us i s a t a l l ev i dent a s in Fig 1 3 9 D , , .

The tend o n O f thi s m u scle i s the o nly o n e th a t sh o ws

it self a t the upper p a rt ag a i n st the pube s a n d i s sugge sted ,

i n t h e d i agra m s .

T h e m ass o f t h e a dduct o rs a s g i ven i n F i g 1 3 8 B

, .
, ,

i s d i a gr a m m a tic a n d n o t c o m pletely a ccura te

, The .

a dduct o r s the m selve s a re i n serted i nt o the fe m ur where a s ,

i n t h e d i agr a m a n i n sert i o n i nt o the tibi a o nly i s sh o wn .

2 2 8 F IG U RE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

Thi s is bec a u se it i s the m o re i m p o rt a n t o r r a t h e r t h ey ,

a re ,
fo r t h ere a re t h ree m u sc le s i n serted s ide by s ide .

Their n a m e s re a ding d o wnw a rd s fr o m the knee a re

, ,

S a rt o r i u s G r a cili s a n d S e m i Te n di n o su s
, ,
-
.

W h a t i s p a rti c ul a rly i m p o rt a nt to n o tice i s th a t t h ere

i s a c o nvex c urve a r o und the m a i n b o dy o f the a ddu c t o r s ,

then a c o nc avity a n d then a n o ther c o nvex i ty w hi c h wr a p s

,

r o und t h e knee a n d i nclude s the in ner si de o f the he a d

o f the t i bi a in t h e t hi gh A n d thi s o utl i ne run s o n d o wn
.

the tib i a b o ne to the i nner a nkle .

If w e turn t o a b a c k view o f a st a nd i ng leg w e sh a ll see

a s i m il a r duplic a t i o n o f fo r m i n the m o delling Fig 1 40 . .
,

No 4 w i ll illu stra te t h e m a tter O n the i nner side a b o ve

.
, .

the knee i s a pro m i nent m a ss o f m o dell i ng with a l a rger ,

m ass pl a ced o bliquely a b o ve it fo r m ed o f t h e upper p a rt

,

o f the a dduct o r s a n d fi e x o rs fu sed w i t h t h e bi c ep s .

T h e fr o nt o f the thig h i s c o vered by the tri c ep s t h e ,

det a i l s o f whi c h a re the det a i l s a l so o f the a ppe a r a nce o f

the li m b .

A c o m p a r i so n o f t h e fr o n t a n d b a ck o f t h e t h ig h w i ll
sh o w t h a t t h e exten so r s o f t h e fr o n t a re pl a ced at a
d ifferent incl i n at i o n fr o m t h e fl e x o rs a t the b a ck The .

exten so rs p a ss fro m the o ut side o f t h e fi gure to t h e knee ;

,

the fl e x o rs fro m the i n si de a s if a s in trut h i s t h e fact

, , , ,

t h e glute a l m a ss h ad t o o v e r c ap t h e i r o r i gin s
-
.

The t h igh i s seen a t i t s w i de st w h en i t i s ro t a ted o ut

w a rd a little a n d t h e m a ss o f the a dd uct o r s c o mb i ne s
,

with the exten so r s o f t h e fro nt i n o n e bro ad r a t h er ,

fl a t surfa ce T hi s i s p a r ti cul a rly t o be seen i n t h e

“

,
.

free leg w h en t h e t w o a re cro ssed ; t h e st a nd i ng leg

a ppe a r i ng dr a wn a n d t i g h tened wi t h t h e a dduct o r m a ss
,

r a i sed bulged a n d app a re n tly sm a ll the l i ne o f t h e sa r

, , ,

t o ri n s tightened a s well a s t h e s i de o f the t h igh where

, ,
2 30 F IG UR E D RA WING A ND CO MPO S ITIO N

but bec o m e s l o st , as i t p asse s o utwa rd ; the cre ase s t a ke

a d o wnw a rd direct i o n fr o m the m i ddle l i ne .

It n o t un freque n tly h a ppen s i n the b o dy t h a t fo r m s

w i ll a ppe a r o n the su rfa c e o f m u sc le s ex a c tly t h e o pp o site
o f the d i rect i o n o f the m u scle s the m selve s Th i s is due .

t o tr a n sver se m a ss ing o f the i r fle shy p a rt s a n d t o tr a n s ,

ve r se cre a si ng The l o ngitudin a l p o sit i o n O f the b i c ep s

.

an d se m i t e n di n o sus a t the
-
b ack o f t h e thigh i s very
ev i d ent o n the extern a l fo r m a s a l so i s the fa ct th a t ,

the ir o rig i n i s t o w a rd s t h e in ner si de u nder the gluteu s ;

b u t th ere neverthele ss a ppe a rs a tr a n sver se m ass fle sh y , ,

well r ounded a n d h av i ng n o tra ce o f the vert i c a l d i v i si o n

-
,

b etw een the bicep s a n d se m i ten di n o su s It i s m o re ev i den t -

.

i n wo m e n a n d m ay be sugge sted by well r o unded cu rve s

,
-
,

a s i n the d i a gr a m Indeed o n e n o t a ble d i st in c t i o n be t w een

.

t h e m a le a n d fe m a le figure s i s th a t th e fo r m er h a s
‘

ener a lly l ong z l u dz n a ! m u sc ul a r m a rk i ng s t h e l a tte r tr a n s

' ’

g ,
,

ver se m o delling as sh o wn i n F i g 1 40 ,
. .

The tend o n s o f the b i cep s a n d se m i m e m bra n o su s

'

o ccurr i ng o n the o ut s i de o f the m u sc l e s sh o w a s s h a rp

c ord s si m i l a r to th a t Of the stern o m ast o i d o f the neck

,
.

A n d s i m il a r t o th o se o f the ne c k they o ften glide i nt o ,

the fle shy m a ss o f the thigh wit h a s l i ttle bre a king o f

t he s mo ot h surfa c e .

7 0 . T he K n e e .

p atell a i s the m ost no ti c e a ble det a il (A F i g

,

THE
’

.
,
”
It is c o n nected b el ow b y a tend o n ( B ) t o the tuber c le
o f t h e tib i a wh i c h a l so sh o ws a n d fo r m s t h e l o we st
, ,
l ' t

p a rt o f t he k n ee O n e i th e r side o f the tend o n the

' '

tu ber osi t i e s o f th e t i bi a appe a r ; th a t o n t h e i n n er s ide

 THE LO WER L IMB 2 3I

( )
D pre s ent i n g a br o a d c urved s u rfa ce c o n t i nu i ng d o wn

w a rd s i nt o t h e sh i n an d a b o ve blended w i t h t h e i ntern a l
,

c o n dyle ( E) o f t h e fe m ur by t h e tend o ns o f t h e sart o r ius

gra c i l i s an d s e m i t e n di n o su s m u s cle s w hi c h p ass o ve r
-
,

t h e m T h e o uter tuber o si ty ( F ) a ppe a r s a s a sm a l l r o u nd i sh

.

pro m i nen c e n o t d i ssi m i l a r fr o m the h e a d o f the fi bul a

,

( )
G beh i nd a n d s l i g h tly bel o w i t Between t h e s e t w o .

c o m e s d o wn t h e tend o n o f the fa sci a o f the th i gh ( H ) o ve r

t h e j o int w hi ch i t m a y be n o t i ced see m s t o h o ld up

, , ,

FEMu R

TUB ERCL

F IG . I
4I .
—Th e Bo n es of th e K n ee . A an d B , r
o u te vie ws ; C, r
i nn e ,

the m u sc ul a r fo r ms o f t h e leg ( J ) w hi le o n t o the fibul a , , ,

c o m e s d o wn t h e tend o n o f the b i cep s m u scle F ro m

bel o w t h e tuber osi ty ( F ) the tib i a l i s a nt i c u s a n d exten so r
,

l o ngu s dig i t o r i u m ped i s (J ) st a rt d o wn t h e l egi n a n O bl i que

d i rect i on
'

A b o ve t h e p a tell a i s the tend o n ( K) o f the tr i cep s ,

sh o rt o n i t s i n ner s i de o ften a ppe a r i ng very l o ng i n i t s

,

o uter ,
thr o w i ng a s i t were t h e m a ss o f the v a stu s ex
, ,

t e rn u s ( L ) high up Va stu s i nternu s ( M) c r o wd s d o w n

.

up o n t h e p a tell a .
2 F IG URE D R AW ING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N
3 2

Very i mp o rt a nt a re t h e fa t ty m a sse s ( N an d 0 ) du e to
, _

the syn o vi al m em br a ne a n d a p p e a r i ng a b o v e a n d bene at h

,

t h e p a tell a o n ei t he r si de o f the tend o n s Whi c h ho wever ,

b ec o m e e m bedded within the m an d o b scured f The i r b u l k .

18 In c re a sed by the skin ; a n d i n w o men t h e fa tn e ss Of

th i s regi o n i n the st a nd i ng figure i s very n o ti cea b l e ,

while even the bent knee in th a t sex i s so ft and sm o o t h

°
“

”
Th e fe m a l e knee i s i n fa c t Wider a n d m u c h le ss b o ny
, ,

th a n the m a le a n d be h ind the m asse at th e l ower end

, ,
s ‘

FIG ; I4 2 .
—Th e D etail s o f th e K nee

of t h igh are re mark ably pro m i nent ter mi n a t i ng ,

a bru ptly a s s h o wn i n Fig I 3 5 A Thi s p ro m i nence l S

‘

. .
,

pr o b a bly due t o the m ascul a r fi b res c re ep i ng furth er d o wn

’

t h e tend o n s i n the fe m a le ,

The fa tty m a sse s ev i den t in t h e str a i ght ene d l i m b

,

d i sappe a r wi th exten si o n —eo mp a re No sx i an d I B

,
‘

a
, ,

Fi g
‘

1 0
.
4 .
2 34 F IG URE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N
“

o uter gro up i n the leg i s pr ec i sely s i m il a r O n the o uter .

s ide o f t h e knee i s t h e e x t e rn a l tube ro s i ty O f t h e tibi a

,

a n d beh i nd a n d s l i ghtly bel o w i t i s the h e a d o f the fibul a .

( Fig . T h e se a re the b o ny pr o m i nence s fr o m whi c h

the m u scle s r a di a te O n e c a n n o t o m it to n o ti c e h o w the

.

extern a l tubero sity see m s butt o n like to h o ld b ac k the

,
-
,

tend in o u s fo r m s d esc ending fro m the th igh Fro m thi s .

p o si ti o n t h ree l o ng m u sc le s c o m e do wn tib i a l i s a nt i c u s
, ,

F IG . 14
3 .

exten so r l o n gu s d i git o ru m a n d pero neu s l o ngu s The

, .

o bliqu i ty o f the fi r s t t w o i s very i m p o rt a nt In Fig 1 3 9 D . .

, ,

it i s seen t o be fa irly p a ra llel t o th e O blique sa rt o riu s o f

t h e thigh .

Bel o w t h ree sh o rter m u sc le s a re spliced up i nt o the se

,

l o ng o ne s a n d m a y be re a dily fo ll o wed i n the di agram

, .

O f the m pero neu s tert i u s i s t h e m o st i m p o rt a nt be c a u se ,

it c o rrect s th a t i n sip i d curva tu re wh i ch w o uld o therwi se b e

sugge st ed a nd w hi c h i s asso c i a ted wit h c h a ir leg s
, .
 THE LO W ER L IM B 2 35

The tend o n s o f t i bi a l i s a n t i cu s a n d exten so r digit o ru m

sh o w very pr o m i nently w h en i n a c t i o n p a rt i cul a rl when
y ,

t he fo o t i s fl exed o n the leg ben t up t h a t i s a s whe n , , ,

o n e s t a m p s the heel o n t h e gr o u nd .

A s t o the m o dell i ng o f t h e leg the sect i o n a t the ,

w i de st p a rt i s r o ughly tr i a ngu l a r The o uter su rfa c e .

c o m pr i se s the m u scle s j u st sp o ken o f a n d end s up o n ,

t h e o ute r belly o f the g astr o cne m i u s T h e per o nei o c c upy .

a l o ng n a rr o w s trip o ver t h e fibul a a n d re a d i ly re m e m ,

bered a s sugge sting t h e str i pe o n a so ld i er s tro u ser s ’

T h e p o ster i o r surfa ce c o n si st s o f the b ack O f t h e

g a str o cne m i u s wit h t h e so leu s bene a th i t T h e ga st ro c n e
,
.

m i u s being t w o bel l i ed i s c o n sequently r a ther fl a t behind

-
.

T h e fl a tten i ng i s h o wever e m p h a si z ed by t h e a p o neu ro s e s

, ,

a t the b a ck o f the se bell i e s a s i n F i g 1 3 9 C In t h e

, .
, .

c entre ,
between t h e se a p o neur o se s a n d p a ssi n g o ve r the ,

ba ck o f t h e knee a re tw o r o pe s o f m u scle
,
.

T h e m ass o f t h e so leu s i s fl a ttened i n i ts upper p a rt

by t h e tend o n o f t h e ga str o c ne mi u s p a ssi n g o ver i t .

T h e se det a i l s o f fo r m a re o f c o u rse seen i n exten s i o n

o f t h e fo o t ; i n the n o r m a l p o s i t i o n s they a re so ftened

a l m o s t aw a y .
( S e e F i g s 1 39 C .a n d 1 4 0 N, O , ,
.

T h e i ntern a l su rfa ce c o n si st i n g o f t h e sm o o t h sub

,

c ut a ne o u s p o r t i o n o f the tib i a t h e well r o u nded b o rder o f

,
-

t h e gast ro cne m i u s a n d t h e side o f the so le u s i s t h e m o st

, ,

h ea vIIy m o delled o f t h e three ( F i g 3 9, )

i

1 D. . .

T h e t w o s i de s o f the leg a re n o t sy m m etric a l with

o n e a n ot h er In t h e a cc o m p a n yi n g di a gra m ( F i g 1 44 A )
'

. .
, ,

the sl a n ting l i ne s Ind i c a te t h a t t h e knee c o m e s l o wer d o wn

o n the i n ner s i de t h a t the i n ner he a d o f the c a lf i s l o wer
, ,

t h a t o f wh a t i s seen o f the so leu s the i nner c urve i s s m a ller

' ’

but higher a n d th a t the i n ner a n kle i s t h e h ig h er

, .

A s re ga rd s t h e curve s t h o se o n t h e i n n er side a re
,
2 3 6 F IG URE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

ro under th an t h o se o n the o uter but t h e fi rst p art o f

,

the c a lf o n b o th s i de s i s ra t h er fl a t .

A si m il a r fl a tne ss o n the c a lf i s seen i n t h e Si de v i ew B , ,

a n d behind the knee in th e sa m e the centr a l r o l l pr o vided

by the t w o g a stro c ne m i i a n d wh i c h fo r m s a fe ature o f

,

the b a ck View o f the knee when extended .

By the side Vi ew a l so it m ay b e seen h o w the knee

de scend s m uc h l o wer befo r e t h a n b eh i n d a n d h o w the
'

,
.

F IG . 1 44.

curve up fr o m the fo o t o ver t h e a nkle c o m es h i gher u p

th e shi n t h a n d o e s the o n e from t h e h eel up t h e b ack
. ‘

o f t h e leg . Between t h e se o n the fro nt i s the c o nvex

,

curve o f t h e cre s t o f the t i b i a between i t s t w o c o nc avit i e s

a b o ve a n d bel o w . It i s i ntere st i ng t o n o te th a t the
sl a nting l i ne s i n t hi s d i a gr a m c o rre sp o nd t o t he l i m i ts

o f t h e breeche s a n d b o o t s o f the R o m a n s .

The knee m u st a lw a y s be expre ssed by c o nvex curve s

of i t s o w n a n d n o t reg a rded a s m erely the j uncti o n
,

between the t h igh a n d leg .

2 3 8 F IG URE D RA WING A ND CO MPO S ITIO N

The br a c ket o f the o s c a l c i s s upp o rt s the a str a g a lu s

o r t a lu s wh i c h
, proj e c ting fo r w a rd supp o rt s the sca ph o id
, , ,

wh i c h it self a rti c ul a te s with the th ree c uneifo r m e ac h ,

fo r m i ng a b ase fo r o n e o f the fi rs t m et a t a r sa l b o ne s .

But while the se t w o syste m s a re very c o m plete i n

the m selve s they h a r m o nize with o n e a n o ther a n d a rti c ul a te
,

where they m eet .

Tr a n sverse s ecti o n s befo re the a nkle y i eld t h e fa c t s

th a t t h e t w o sy ste m s do n o t fo r m o n e c le a r surfa ce till
t h e cub o i d a nd c uneifo r m b o ne s a re re a c h ed O f t h ese .
,

the m i ddle c uneifo r m i s the hi ghe st t h e surfa ce fa ll ,

ing s l o wly by a gentle curve o ver t h e third c une i fo r m

a n d t h e c ub o id a n d t o w a rd t h e gre a t t o e s i de by a very
,
-

m u c h m o re p rec ip r t o u s c o ur se o ver the fi r s t c u nei fo r m

'

which pre sen t s a r a the r deep fa ce Indeed i t i s n o

ex a gger a ti o n o f fa c t t o say t h e surfa ce s declin i ng e i ther
Wa y fro m the m i ddle c u neifo r m a re a t ri ght a ngle s t o
“

e a c h o ther ( Fig 1 4 5 B )
. .
, .

Between thi s ro w o f cune i fo r m s a n d c ub o i d a n d t h e

a nkle ,
the h a r m o ny o f s urfa c e i s n o t c o ntinued the o uter ,

sy s te m lyi ng l o w c o m p a red with the i nner w hi c h co n ,

t i n u es t o r i se The b o ne be hi nd the c une i fo r m s i s the

.

s c a ph o id Fro m a b o ve i t a p p e a rs a s a p a ra llel o piped ; a

.

br i c k sh ape with the end de c l i ned o utw a rd a c c o rding to

-
,

the de c livity seen i n the o ther b o ne s while i t s l o ng si de ,

a gree s w i th the fi r st cuneifo r m a n d p o int s i nw a rd Be hi nd .

the sc a p h o i d i s t h e he ad o r fo rw a rd p a rt o f the a stra g a lu s .

T h e e ffe c t o f the se p a rt i cul a rs i s t o c o n fine the r i sin g

: .

a r c h O f the i n step t o the i n ner b o rder ; the fo o t m u s t

t h erefo re be kept depre ssed a l i ttle i n fr o nt o f the extern a l
a nkle .

Th e fo rwa rd po r ti o n o f the fo o t i s ch a r a cter iz ed by the

gre a t s tre n gth o f the gre a t to e a n d i t s met a t a rs a l b o n e
-
, ,
 T HE L O W ER L IM B 2 39

by t h e sm a llne ss o f t h e ph a l a nge s o f the fo u r o uter t o e s ,

a n d by the gre a t pr o tuber a nce a t t h e b a se o f t h e fi fth

m et a t a r sa l. T a k i ng t hi s gre a t pr o tuber a n ce i nt o c o n
s i der a ti o n t h e five t o e s m a ke w i th the i r m et a t a rsa l b o ne s
, , ,

a fa i rly p a ra llel m a ss w h en seen fro m a b ove In t h e

,
.

s ide v i ew there i s a degree o f c o nvergen ce t o w a rd t h e t o e s ,

o w i ng t o the h eight o f t h e i n step but even then the ,

F IG . 1 46 .

p a r a l lel c h a ra cter s o f t h e t w o b o rder s i s n o t w h o lly l o st ,

a n d a lt h o ug h r a t h er grue so m e a n d un ple a sa nt i s fr eque ntly

F i g 1 46 J W
,

t o be seen i n Mi c h a el A ngel o s d r a w i ng s ill

’
. .
, ,

i llu stra te the m a tter a s well a s a n o t h er pecul i a rity o f so m e

,

o f t h e m a s t e r s dr a w i ng s
’
Th i s i s t h e h o l l o w i n t h e a nkle
.
,

a t t h e t o p o f t h e i n s tep .
( C o m p a re F i g 1 4 5 A ) .
,
.

T h e u ndersi de o f t h e fo o t sh o w s d i st i nctly t h e tw o
sys te m s s p o ken o f a b o ve T h ere thu s a ppe a r s a h o ll o w
.

o r v a lley betw e en the m see F ig the o n e sy st e m

( .
,
2 40 F IG URE D RA WI NG A ND C O MPO SITIO N
_
“

i n c lud i ng the gre a t a n d t w o a dj o ining t o e s ma ke s i ts

“

w ay d o wn t o w a rd a n d die s t i bi a ; the Ot h er
, -
,

i ncludin g t he t w o o uter t o e s a n d t he heel i s re n dered ,

,

—
m o re di s tin c t by a jrnu scl e a b duct o r m i n i m i d igiti pe di s
f

,
.

whi c h p asse s fro m th e o s ca l c i s t o the base o f the li ttle

‘

to e .A si m i l a r; m u sc le a bduct or p o lli ci s p edi s pa sses fr om

, ,

the o s c a l c i s t o the b a se o f t h e fi rst p h a l a nx of t h e gre a t

‘
‘ ‘

t o e thu s bridging t h e v a lle y i n the so le a n d rend e ring

, ,

t h e t w o s ide s m u c h m o re a l i k e
'

Th i s m u sc le i s perh a p s the o nly o n e t h a t need be

m ent i o n ed a n d i t o n ly bec a u se it fill s up to so m e exten t
,

wh a t w o u ld o therw rse be a very deep h o ll o w unde r t h e

i nner a nkle .

Be si de the tend o n s w hi c h c o m e d o wn fro m t h e l eg ,

t h ere are n o o t h er s t h a t a ssert the m selves except i ng ,

per h ap s t h e tend o n s o f exten so r brev i s d i g i to ru m T hi s .

m u scle ar i se s under t h e extern a l a nkle a n d send s fo rw a rd ,

fo ur t end o n s w hi c h a rr i ve a t the b ase s o f t h e gre at an d

nex t t h ree t o e s be si de a n d c o n n ecti n g w i th t h e tend o n s
,

o f t h e l o ng exten so r whi c h c o m e s d own fro m t h e leg

,
.

T h e tend o n s o f the sh o r t exten so r t h u s m a ke a s ma ll

a ngle w i t h t h o se o f the l o ng exten so r .

V i ewed fr o m a b o ve t h e i n ner b o rder o f t h e skelet o n

,

o f t h e fo o t a ppe a r s a s t w o c o nvex cur ve s e a c h o ccupy i ng ,

a bo ut o ne h a l f t h e le ngth Th e hi nder curve repre sents

-
.
-(

th e t a rsu s i a n d heel t h e fo re the gre a t t o e a n d i ts

,
-

met at arsa l b On e Th u s t h e ba ll o f the gre at to é a t the

a
-
,
~

j un c ti o n Of th e m et ata r sal a nd fi rSt p h a l a n x i s th ro w n

‘ '

‘ '

ut r
O wa d; Th e p n i c h i ng; t o gether Of th e t o e s In m o dern ‘
'

b o o t s m ak e i t proj ect even m Ore x

u

T h ei c o n stri c t i on o f t he o uter Si de Occu r s fu

“

. rt h er b a c k ,

j u st b eh i nd the tuber osi ty o f th e fi fth m et a ta r sa l

'

B ot h the i nt ern al a n d e x tern a l a n kl es a re l o n ge r

“

J ,
2 42 F IG U RE D RAWING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

v i ew w i ll be well r o unded a n d w i l l die aw ay i n fr o nt o f

~
,

t h e s m a ller t o e s .

In t h e o uter v i e w t h e i n step will fi t so m e w h a t buttre ss ,

l i ke d o wn up o n the h o riz o nt a l sy ste m o f t h e foo t The

,
'

h eel o cc u p i e s a b o ut o n e t h ird o f the t o t a l length ce a sing

-
,

a l i ttl e b e fo re the extern a l a nkle If we dr a w a l i ne d o wn .

‘

fro m t h e a nkle t o thi s p o i nt i t m a rk s a n i m p o rt a nt divi si o n ,

fo r o n b o t h si de s o f i t the b o rder d i verg es o utw a rd so

“
,

t h a t the heel a n d t h e l i ttle t o e b a ll encl o se a very l a rge - -

a ngle a n d t h e heel o f D i s t h u s turn i ng o utw a rd t o fa ce

,

t h e spect a t o r Bel o w t h e a nkle i n t hi s di agra m i s a sm a ll

.

str o ke c o rre sp o nd i ng In p o si t i o n t o the te n d o n o f p eroneus

brev i s O n t h e fr o nt i s p eroneus fer1574 s
.
/
.

H av i ng dr awn t h e h eel squ a rely a n d m a rked th e d i v i si o n

, ,

sp o ken o f a full curve m ay be dr a wn a l l r o u n d the b a ll

,

o f the l i ttle t oe a n d the s m a ll t o e s m a ssing t h e m t o

-
,
get h er , .

T h e b a ll o f t h e little to e m u st bulge o u t so ftly a n d m u st

-
,

be o f su ffic i en t v o lu m e t o sugge st a sixth t o e n o t yet fully ,

devel o ped In N i t i s g i ven i n a n ex aggerated fo r m a n d

.
,

a s i f squ a sh ed fr o m u nder t h e fo o t by t h e pre ssure up o n

it It s o utl i ne i s a subtle but n o t a si ngle curve a n d

.
, , ,

”
the l ittle t oe o ccur s h i gh up o n i t t h e b a ll i ntervening
-
,

so m ew h a t between i t a n d t h e gr o u nd In such v i ew s a s .

M the b a ll will m a ke the o utline n o t t h e little t o e a nd -

,

c a re m u st be t a ken neve r t o let t h e l i ttle t o e o r l i ttle -

,

finger m a ke a str a ight line w i th t h e o uter b o rder

,
.

The pr o p o rt i o n s o f the Inner side o f t h e fo o t a re sh o wn

i n L o n e third i s o ccupied by the heel the a rch an d t h e
,
-
, , ,

gre at t o e with i ts b a ll
-
.

A Vi ew su ch a s K i s gener a lly m a ssed a s in 0 but c a re

, , ,

m u st be t a ken n o t t o fa ll int o t h e err o r o f fi lling a l l the

a ngle o n the right with t o e s They sh o uld n o t proj ec t .

furthe r i nt o it th a n th e d o tte d l i n e In e a rly G o th ic .

 T HE L O WER L IM B 2 43

dr a wing s t h e t o e s a re S h o rn o ff a s i t were at a n a ngle , , ,

as i n M .

If the de si gner i s a t a l o ss fo r a m o del fo r a fo o t he ,

m ay t a ke a sh o e o r b o o t w hi c h h a s underg o ne so m e
we a r an d h e wi l l fi nd i t so m e a ssi st a nce
,
.

D r aw i ng s o f feet i n st o c k i ng s a re u seful a s t h ey g i v e
’

t h e gener a l sh a pe o f the fo o t .

T h e b o ne s o f t h e m i dd le t o e s a ppe a r i n t h e a rt i cul a ted

s ke l et o n pr oj ect i ng str a i g h t fo r w a rd i n c o nt i nu at i o n o f
t h e line o f t h e i r m et at a rsa l s In m o st c ase s in life h o w .
,

ever t h ey a re m o re o r le ss flexed bent so t h a t the i r j o i nt s

, ,

pr oj ec t upw a rd s O n e need s t o kn o w t h e b o ne s o f t h e
.

t o e s j u st a s m u c h a s th o se o f the fi n gers t o w hi c h t h ey ,

a re s i m i l a r The se c o nd a n d thi rd p h al a nge s a re c o m

.
!

p a r a t i v e l y m uch s h o rter a n d wider T h e fi r st p h a l a.n x

be i ng ne a rly a lw a y s turned upw a rd a l i ttle the exten so r ,

ten d o n o n the t o p i s ev i dent a n d bec o m e s p a rt o f t h e ,

t o e fo r m a n d t h e o utl i ne gener a lly beg i n s w i t h t h e tend o n

-
, .

T h e se exten so r tend o n s a tt a c h to the b ase o f t h e secon d

ph a l a n x a n d t h u s t h e lengt h o f t h e fi r st p h al a n x bec o m es
,

very m uc h d i m i n i sh ed .

The t h ree m i ddle t o e s t h erefo re pre sen t e a ch t h ree

, ,

upper su rfa ce s sep a r a ted by t w o knuckle s Very o ften

, .
,

h o wever the tw o l a st j o int s a re a l m o st str a i ght w i th o n e

,

a n o t h er a n d so o nly the upper

,
knu c kle p r oj e c t s Thi s .

yield s s u c h fo r m s a s a re u sed i n F i g 1 4 6 B D a n d K
.

.
, , , .

The little t o e a lth o ug h a l so o f three b o ne s s h o w s i t s

-
, ,

c o n struct i o n le ss Cle a rly a n d very o ften a ppe a r s a s m erely

,

a n o v o i d m ass pebble like w i t h a s l i gh t pr oj e c t i ng n a il

,
-
,

befo re a n d a c o n c a ve ten d o n be hi nd
,
.

Th e s m a ller t o e s l i ke t h e fi n ger s h a ve the i r pulpy

e n d s a t the o uter end o f t h e l a st p h a l a nx a lt h o ugh t h e ,

r te t pt h i t u i te t h e end e
i

g e a s d e o f i s n ot
q a t In t h e g r a t . ‘
o
2 44 F IG U RE D RAWING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

t oe a s in t h u m b the m a ss i s dr i ve n further b ac k a n d
th e ,

i s very m u c h l a rger The u nder s ide o f t h e gre a t to e i s

.
-

even m o re he a rt Sh aped th a n the under si de o f t h e t h u mb

-
.

A s i n t h e t h u m b the fi rSt ph a l a nx be co m e s a m ere neck

,

between the b a ll a n d t h e l a rge m ass o f th e sec o nd ph al a n x

‘

The b a ll i s deep b ein g enl a rged by t w o se sa m o id b o ne s

”
,

under the a nteri o r end o f the m et at a r sa l

‘

The little to e c o rre sp o nd s i n t w o p a rt i c ul a rs t o the

-

l i ttl e fi n ge rs—i t 1s dr a wn b ack b ent so mewh at m o re t h an

-.
‘

F IG . 1 47 .

the o t he r t o e s a n d it i s m o re o bl i quely pl aced t h a t i s it

, ,

tend s t o sh o w i ts i n ner b o rder A t the side o f i t as t o .

, ,

so m e extent a n exten s i o n o f the fle shy m a ss w hi ch c o ver s

!

i t s m et at a r sa l a t the o ut side i s a fa tty pr o m i nen c e w hi ch

, ,

l o o k s like a sixth t o e n o t yet end o wed w i t h a sep arate

exi sten c e .

C o n sidered t o gethe r the fo ur sm a ller t o e s re se m ble

,

the fi n gers i n t h e i r knu c kle s be i ng sep a r a ted a n d their ,

tip s t o gether a n d they c o ntr ast with the gre a t to e i h

,
-
-

m aki ng a c o n ve x m ass fo rw a rd wh i le i t m a ke s a c o n c a ve
, .
2 46 F IG URE D RAWING A ND CO MPO S ITIO N

of th i s reg i o n c o upled with th a t fa c t c o ncerning the

,

m u scul a r fo r m s o f w o m en whi c h h a s bee n a lluded t o m o re

t h a n o n c e Thi s i s the sh o r t ne ss o f the fe m a le tend o n s
.
,

o r the creeping o f the m u s cul a r fibre s d o wn the tend o n s .

To the sa m e c a u se i s due the fa tten i ng o f the l o wer p art

o f the fe m a le c l o se d o wn up o n the a nkle
,
T h e fa
-
tne ss
.

o f t h e fe m a le k nee i s evident even i n the s itt i ng figure .

In the m a le b o th the knee a n d a nkle a re b o ny a n d the ,

F IG . 1 48 .

tend o n s m o re exp o sed a n d i nclined t o str i ng i ne ss The .

m a le knee i s le ss in width th a n the c a lf .

The di agr a m here g i ven w ill a ssi st t h e c o m p a ri so n o f

t h e t w o sexe s The m o st r em a rk a ble differen c e s a re the
.

fo ll o w ing The sh a pe s o f D a n d E a n d the rel a t i o n between

.

t h e m the length o f F a n d h o w in the fe m a le it m a ke s a n

, ,

o btu s e a ngle with G so th a t in

,
t h e m a le F a n d G a re
a l m o st o n e but di stinctly sep a r a te in the fe m a le
,
.

T h e b a ck o f the knee ( H ) m u st be co nvex i n b o th .

T h e Calf fo r m s (J a n d K ) m u st be m o re Z i gz ag i n th e i m a l e
-
,

( )
0 m o re pr o m inent i n the fe m a le a n d ( )
Q c o nvex
,
i n b o t h .
 THE L O WER L IME 2 47

-
T h e c rease s i n t h e l i m b a re very u seful in e x pre ssi ng t h e
d i rect i o n fo rw a rd s t o w a rd s t h e spect a t o r o r b a ckwa rd s ,

a w a y fro m hi m j u st as tr a n sver s e s tr i pe s like th o se o n t h e

'

, ,

s to ek i n gs o f fo o tb a l l p l a yer s a re T h e c rease s be l o w t h e
!

, ,

glute i a t the b a ck a n d t h o se be hi n d t h e a n kle a n d i n the

,

so le a re i n thi s w a y very helpful ;

“

,
“

Reference h as been befo re made to the j o in i ng by a n

o bl i que l i ne o f o n e p a rt o f the leg w i t h a n o t he r Th e
'

c o n nect i o n between t h e thigh a n d leg requ i re s h o wever , ,

a n o t h er w o rd o r t w o T h e t hi g h o verh a ng s t he leg ; o r
.

i n o t h er w o rd s the leg c o m e s fr o m th e hi nder p a rt o f

,
”
t h e t h i gh O n e m i g h t go so far a s t o sa y t h a t a l i ne
'

d o wn t h e m i ddle o f t h e thigh w i ll g i ve the fro n t o u t l i n e

‘

o f th e C m p re Fig 1 4 8 R U V W a n d n otice h o w
l g
e o .a .
, , , , ,

i n U wh i c h i s avery frequently u sed v i ew o f the li m b the

, ,

i nner c a lf a n d a n kle o c c u r a s pr oj ect i o n s up o n thi s m ed i a l

l i ne T h e rule a ppl i e s le ss to t h e fro n t vie w (W) but even
.
'

t h ere i s o f v a lue No te the O bl i qu i ty o f t h e knee In a l l

.
“

t h e se ex a m ple s .

We h a ve seen b efo re h o w the t hi g h i n c lude s t h e knee .

T h e i nclu si o n i s very p a lp a ble i n t h e i nner v i ew T he

Co nnecti o n o f t h eu pper p art o f t h e t i b i a a n d t he knee wi t h
t h e t hi gh i s a l so very i m p ort a n t ( T) t h e k nee be i ng spliced
-

d o wn i nt o t h e l e g T h e studen t c a n n o t fa i l t o n o t i ce
.
-

h o w i n b o t h t h e knee a n d elb o w the b o ne pr oj ect s a s i t ,

were t h r o ug h t h e fle sh a s i f fl esh i l y spe a k i ng t h e figu re

, , , ,

were a lw ay s o u t a t elb o w s
‘

T h e tib i a i s t wi st ed Up o n i t self so t h a t i n t h e n o r m a l ,

s t a nd i ng p o s i t i o n the heel s being t o get h er the t o e s a re

, ,
-

so m e d i st a nce a p a r t T h e fee t a re thu s n o t p a r a llel to

.
-

o n e a n o ther b U t a t a n a n gl e o f a
’

b o ut 4 5 degree s If
i
‘ ‘

, .

t h e t o e s a nd p l ac ed t o get h er t h e t hi g h will be ,

ro t a ted i nw a rd a little .
2 48 F IG URE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

In t h e se a ted figure the a ngle between the fee t i s m uch

le ss a n d the t o e s a n d heel s m ay be t o gether o r the t o e s
, ,

m ay be even cl o ser t o gether th a n t h e heel s with o ut a n y ,

di sc o m fo rt Thi s c o rrecti o n o f the per m a nen t o u t turning

.
-

o f the fo o t i s due t o r o t a ti o n inw a rd s o f t h e t i b i a a n a c t i o n ,

o nly p o ss ible when t h e knee i s bent .

The knee j o i nt i s a hi nge o f gre a t r a nge b a c kw a rd

-
,

fl e x i o n but very sl i ght r a nge fo r w a rd exten s i o n

, Thi s , .

e x tre m e exten si o n i s be st o r perh ap s o nl y seen i n the

,

s t a nd i n leg f figure s t a nding a t e as e

g o a .

The a nkle j o In t i n c luding the j o i nt s between the l a rger

-
,

b o ne s o f the fo o t i s a h inge j o i nt c o m bined with v a r i o u s

,
-
,

subtle m o ve m ent s o f whi c h the m o st p a lp a ble a re the

,

turn i ng i nw a rd a n d o utw a rd o f t h e so le The o uter a n d .

in ner b o rder s o f the fo o t c a n t h u s be pl a ced up o n the

gro und w i th o ut the leg o r thigh be i ng c h a nged in p o sit i o n .

In s tretch i ng the leg s a n d feet o u t t o t h e i r gre a te st exten t

the feet tend t o c r o ss a n d the so le s bec o m e i nverted o r
, ,

turned t o w a rd o n e a n o ther .

T h e fe m a le fo o t i s pro p o rt i o n a lly sm aller t h a n t h e m a le ,

a fter a ll o wi ng fo r d i fferen c e o f s t a ture .

T h e knee j o i nt o c cur s a t j u st ab o ut t h e h a lf o f t h e lengt h

-

o f the l o wer l i m b fr o m t h e t o p o f t h e h e a d o f t h e fe m ur t o

t h e gro u nd T h e h e a d o f t h e fibul a i s a t a qu arter t h e

.

h e i ght o f t h e figure .

The t o p o f the fo o t i s a b o ut h a lf t h e length fr o m

t h e fro nt o f t h e a nkle j o i n t t o the tubercle o f t h e tibi a
-
,

i n t h e fe m ale ( F i g 1 4 8 R) ; i n t h e m a le tw i ce t h e fo o t
.
,

fr o n t m ay re a ch a s h i gh a s the knee c a p -
.

In t h e fe m a le t h e t hi g h b o ne s a re n o t o nly sh o rter but

-

mo re o bl i quely pl a ced be i ng sep a r a ted a b o ve by a w i der

,

pel vi s The a ngle t h ey m a ke w ith the t i b i as i s t herefo re

.

m o re defi n i te o r le ss t h a n i n t h e m a le
,
.
 D RA P E RY

75 . P o i n ts and Surfa ce s of S u p p o rt .

IT i s nece ssa ry fi r st t o fix t h e p o int s o f supp o rt a n d ,

t h e se w i ll be fo und to be o f tw o k i n ds p ri n c i p a l a n d
'

,
'

sec o nd a ry
. A pr i nc i p a l supp o rt i s o n e fr o m wh i c h the

1 49 .
—P i
o n ts a n d S urfaces of S usp en sio n .

dra pery defi nitely h a ng s a s a sh o ulder ; a sec o nd a ry

,
“

s upp o rt i s o n e pr o du c ed by a n e m inence o f the b o dy

ri si ng so fa r a s t o pu sh the dra pery o u t a little .
 DRA PER Y 2 5 1

T h ere i s re a so n t o bel i eve th a t the G o thi c a rt ist s

defi ned t h e a re a s o f supp o rt by enc i rcling t h e m as i s ,

d o ne i n B A n y su rfa c e w hi c h assert s i t self a m o ng the

.

dr a pery w hether a s a pri m a ry o r a sec o nd a ry supp o rt

, ,

s h o uld be o utlined i n thi s w a The a re a s t h u s defined

y .

bec o m e t h e o nly p a r ts o f t h e figure w hi c h S h o w t h e

o t h er l i m b s m a y be t hi n w i re s fo r a l l t h e d i fference they

m a ke to t h e effec t o f t h e d r a pery .

If the dr a pery i s d r a wn upw a rd i n ste a d o f be i ng a ll o wed

,

t o fa ll the s urfa ce s o f supp o r t w i ll o f c o u r se be o n t h e

“

under si de s o f t he m asse s o f th e figu re (a s D F i g

,
, .
2 5 2 F IG U RE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

T h e nu m ber o f the fo ld s depend s up o n the m eth o d

o f arr a nge m ent the kind o f su p p o rt s b u t c hi efly up o n
, ,
'

the texture o f the fa bri c A st i ff o r t h ick C l o th w i l l .

o f c o ur se g ive br o a der m asse s a n d duller a n d fewer fo ld s , ,

t h a n a ligh t silk o r c o tt o n .

The fo ll o w i ng det a il s o f fo ld s m u st n o w be n o ted In .

F ig 1 5 0 i t will be seen t h a t t h e depth A A i s le ss t h a n

.

t h e depth B B a lt h o ugh t h ey a re a c tu a lly equ a l w h en

,

the c l o th i s spre a d o u t The weig h t o f the fe s t o o ned

.

p a r t c o m pel s i t to fo ld up o n it sel f a n d so the edge (A ,

i n the ex a m ple ) c o m e s fo rwa rd m a king a c o ne like piece ,

-

runn i ng b a c kwa rd a n d d o wnw a rd till i t m eet s a n o t h er ,

upl i fting s urfa ce o f the cl o th ( C ) Thu s there i s a zigz a g .

a rr a nge m ent fo r m ed w hi c h be c o m e s le ss a ngul a r a s it

,

de scend s W h i le the fo ld s bec o m e deepe r a n d m o re o v o i d

, ,

o r p o i nted ( D ) .

A l l fo ld s except t h o se a t t h e edge s o f t h e m a ter i a l

, ,

h ave a n u pper o r c o n c ave p i e c e a n d a l o w er o r c o nvex ,

p i ece c o n ne c ted in fro nt by a co rd l i ke edge The

,
-
.

upper p i e c e h as the sa m e bulk a s the l o wer but ,

le ss sp ace a n d t h erefo re i s o bliged t o cr i nkle o r fo ld

, ,

up o n it self O ften t h i s s ub o rd i n ate fo ld i ng a ffe c t s the

.

l o wer p a rt o f t h e fo ld m a king i t a l so a ngul a r a s F

, , ,

Fig 1 5 0 . .

M o re frequently i n ste a d o f the fo ld s be i ng c o nt i nu o u s

,

fro m o n e p o i n t o f S upp o rt to the o t h er there a re t w o ,

d i st i nct a rr a nge m ent s o n e fro m e a c h p o i n t a n d the fo ld s

, ,

o f o n e m eet the i r o pp o nent s a t a n a ngle ( E Fig dy i n g ,

.

a w a y a s they do so o r r a pidly ter m in a ting a

,
n d n o t a sc end ,

ing bene ath the o ther fo ld s t o the c o ntr a ry p o i nt W hen .

the dr a pery i s full h o w ever t h e o pp o sing syste m s i nter

, ,

m ingle a s i s i llu s tr a ted i n G H 1 a n d J

,
In G i s a , , ,
.

sy ste m fr o m t h e left In H t h e r ight c o rner i s pl a c ed

.
2 54 F IG U R E D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

w i ll d i v i de i nt o t w o or t h ree as i t de sc end s bec au se it ,

i s pu sh ed up by a sec o nd a ry s upp o r t They m ay be . .

1“
13 C ENTU R
Y

F IG .

A an d P fro m t hi rteen th- cen t r

. uy stai n ed g l ass C fro m an ea rl
,
y ixt
s een t h

cen tu r ym a n u scrip t in th e B ri ti sh Mu seu m .

m a n aged thu s : L et the tw o line s in say a pen dr awi ng

, ,
-
,

repre sent i ng t h e two s ide s of a c o rd d i verge a s they

,
 D RAPER Y 2 55
de scend ( F i g 1 5 1 A A ) In deed t h e d rapery w i l l l o o k
. .
, .
,

very p o o r i f t h ey do n o t .

T h en e a c h l i ne m ay b e c o n si d ered a s t h e o ute r si de
o f tw o c o rd s w hi ch u n i te a s t h ey c o nverge (A) In
, .

o l d gl a ss p a i nt i ng s t hi s i s gener a lly repre sented a s a t B

-
.

O r i n ste a d o f keep i n g t h e a dded l i ne s p a r a llel ( a s i n

A an d B ) t h ey m ay d i verge a s d i d t h e o r i g i n a l p a i r t h u s
, , ,

m a k i ng ro o m fo r o t h er s between t h e m ( a s i n C ) A n d the .

pro ce ss m ay go o n st i ll furt h er ( a s i n D ) In E t h e l o o p s .

a re ex a g ger a ted a s i n t h e dra w In gs o f L uc as C r a n a c h

,

an d A lber t D ii re r D ure r s d r a pery sh o uld be stud i ed

'
’
.

c a refully m an nered a s i t i s
,
It i s very s tr o ng full o f . .
,
-

m odel l i n g a n d h a s t h e deta i l s a lw a y s c a re ful l y w o rked

'
“
-

,
i

T h e dra p e ry t a k e s t h e fo r m o f c o r d s w h en i t i s
‘

o ut.
'

dr awn c l o sel y u p o n t h e b o dy so t h a t i t c a n n o t fa ll i nt o
fi ,

l a rge ma sses the bro ad s urfa ce s between the c o rd s being

,

p r o d uced by t h e m asse s o f t h e figure

( F i g B ) . . .

Wh en th e d rapery dep a rt s fro m the co rd l i ke a n d -

,

exp a nd s i nt o surfa ce s the su m m i t s a re t h e edge s o f the ,

su rfa ce s. In F i g I 5 3 the t w o k i nd s m ay be c o m p a red

. .

77 . V a ri o u s K i n ds Of D ra p e ry .

T E H f rm o the fo ld a n d the gener a l c h a r a cter o f t he

of ,

d r a pery will dep e n d up o n t h e k i n d o f m a ter i a l u sed

, ,

the syste m o n wh i c h i t i s m a de up i nt o ga r m ent s a n d the ,

length o f t i me they a re w o rn A l l the se m atters m u st be .

stud i ed i n t h e dr a pery i t self a n d i t i s i dle t O a t t e m t

'

p ,

expl a n ati o n s o f t h e m .

But a lt h o ugh o n e h es i t ate s t o say so t h ere i s a de ,

s i gner s d r a pery b a se d u o n l a w s w hi c h every o n e m u t

p s

a dm it a re whi c h a re i na d e q u a te t o th e p rod uct i o n . -

2 5 6 F IG U RE D RA W ING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

of the Co m ple x for m s o f n ature A l l de si gne rs w i ll fr ankly

.

a d m i t th i s b u t wil l h a ve a s u fficient excu se

, .

Every o n e Wh o i s a t al l ac qu a inted wit h t he h i s t o ry o f

“

A rt kn o w s t h a t o nl y o cc a si o n a lly do we m eet with a b so

l u t e l y re a l dr a pery in o l d w o rk W e m i gh t a l mo st say
.

th a t wh enever th e fo r m o r c h a ra cter o f the dra pery re v e al s

the h a nd o f a p a rt i cul a r m aster o r the style of a p a rticul a r
,

peri o d i t m u st be to so m e exten t c o nvent i o n a l A n d t h i s

,
’

i s o nly wh a t w e m ig h t e x p ec t w h e n we c o n sider th a t
'

a l m o st a lwa y s t h e o l d m a ster s wer e h o tl y pursuing so m e

ide a the ex pre ssi o n o f wh i c h a n d n o t m ere l i kene ss o f

, ,

det a il w a s the a i m a nd en d o f t h ei r l a b o u r
'

.
,

It may b e t h at the d r a per i e s Of t h e e a rl y per i o d s [ am

ab o u t to m en ti o n Were p o rtr ai t s o f t h e a ctu a l cl o t hi ng o f

the ti m e ; they cert a i nly were t o a gre at extent but w h en ,

the que st i o n o f det ai led fo r m a r i se s it w o uld be di ffi c ult t o

deny t h a t the m et h o d em pl o yed w a s m ere p o rtr a i ture .

T h e c o stu m e s o f th ose e a rly peri o d s were fav oura ble t o

the study o f t h e l aw s o f d r a pery a n d we sh all see i n the
, ,

br i efe st p o ss ible s urvey of th e succe ssive style s the gr o w ,

i n g c o m plex i ty o f c o stu m e a cc o m p a nied by cl o ser re se a rc h

i nt o t h e l aw s t h e mselve s .

In t h e G reek v as e p a i nt i ng s t h e dr a pery i s gener a lly

repre sented by l i ne s r a d i a t i ng fro m t h e p o int s o f supp o rt ,

s o m et i m e s h a ng i ng fe st o o n l i ke som et i m e s a ppr o a c h ing

‘
-
,

o n e a n o t h er fr o m o pp o si te sy s te m s a n d ter m in a t i ng i n
,

h oo k s O n t h e fe m a le figu re s t w o ki nd s o f m a teri a l a re
.

gener a lly expre ssed o n e h a v i ng l o ng fo ld s few i n nu m ber

, ,

a n d repre sented by single lin e s r ather pure i n curve , ,

a n o t h er h av i ng m a ny fo ld s repre sented by i rr egul a rly

w a ved l i ne s m o re p a ra llel i n di recti o n The o utline s o f .

the figure a re r a rel y d i sturbed by the fo ld s whi c h p a ss

r o un d t h e m T h e fo ld s o ft en m ake a ngle s w i t h the
.
2 5 8 F IG U RE D RA WING A ND CO MPO S ITION

dev el o ped But the s tyle re m a i n s e ssenti a lly si m ple the

.
,

fe st o o n line s a re e i t h er curve s o f c o n si der a ble purity o r ,

a re V sh a ped
-
( Fig
. s 1 a n d . I f o n e m a y so s p e a k ,

thi s dignified a n d u n w o rldly kind o f dra pery h as be en

u sed by S i r E Burne J o ne s i n h i s n o bl e a n d be a ut i ful
.
-

D i e s D o m i n i a n d Re s u rrecti o n
’ ’
.

T h e fo urteent h cen t ury bring s u s the a ngul a r fo ld a n d

gre at er a ttenti o n t o the recedi ng fl a nk s The devel o p m en t .

F IG . 155 .

co nt i nued to the en d o f the G o thic per i o d D urer being ,

o n e o f the l ast m a ster s o f the style His dr a pery i s .

,

h o wever m o re a ngul a r t h a n a gre a t de a l o f th a t pro duced

—
,

a t o r befo re h i s ti m e p a rticul a rly i n sculpture .

In t h e Ren a i ssa nce per i o d a ngul a r i ty s urv i ve s in the

,

d r apery o f Ma ntegn a wh o se style see m s t o b e so m ewh a t

,

fo ll o wed in S i r E Burne J o ne s s W heel o f F o rtune We

.
‘ -
’
.
’

will o nly n o t i ce h o wever o n e o r t wo o f the m o re re m a rk

, ,

a ble s tyle s a s we m u st br i ng t hi s s ur vey t o a cl o se

,
.
 D RA PER Y A
2 59

The fo ll o wer s o f R a ph a el devel o ped pipe l ike Style

'

- a -
,

wh i c h i f n o t a bu sed i s very service a ble Pi pe s o r c o rd s

,
-

, .

o f d r a pery r a d i a te fro m t h e p o i nt s o f s upp o rt a n d c l a sp

-

t h e fi gu re reduc i ng t h e reced i ng su rface s t o a m i n i m u m

, ,

a n d exp o sing the fig u re bet w een the m a s i f the m a teri a l

were d a m p a n d c o n sequently c lung t o t h e fo r m Fig

, . .

1 54,
B i s de s ig n ed in thi s m a n ner T h e m o st typ i c a l -
.

ex a m ple s a re t o be fo und o n U rb i n o pl a te s o r Ma rc

F IG . I5 6 .

A n to n i o engr v i ng T h e hi ef fa ult s a s a —
rule a re a n
”
’
s a s . c

i n si p i d si m pl i c i ty i n t h e curv a ture o f t h e p i p es o r “
, ,

s h a l l we sa y i n d i a r ubber tube s a n a b sence o f re a l fo r m

,
-
,

i n t h e l o o p s a n d the a pp a ren t d a m pne ss o f the m a teri a l

, .

Never th ele ss it i s a g o o d s tyle t o c o m m ence the s tudy o f

fo r m a n d fo ld i n a n d n eed n o t nece ssa r i ly h a ve t h e fa ult s
,

n a m ed S o m e o f Mr Wa lter C r a n e s de si gn s a re i n a
. .
’

s tyle very s i m i l a r .

T h e l a st style o r pecul i a r i ty we sh a l l n a m e i s t h at w hi c h
, ,

m ay be d a ted per h a p s fr o m Tit i a n It i s a b o u t h i s t i m e .

th a t d ra pery begi n s t o be repre sented f or i ts ow n sa ke ;

2 60 F IG URE D RAWING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

hi t h ert o i t h ad b een m erely a n adj u n ct to t h e figure T h e .

l a ws w e ha ve been ex a m i n i ng requ i re a figure o r so m ethi ng

t o h o ld t h e dr a pery up o r a br e eze t o c a rry i t o ut int o t h e
,

a i r but n o w a lth o ugh i t i s s upp o rted o r bl o wn o u t a n d

, , ,

perfo rce m u st t a ke cer t ai n fo r m s it yet h as i t self so m et h ing

,

t o do i n t h e m ak i n g o f fo ld s T h r o w a piece o f dr apery
.

d o wn up o n t h e fl o or a n d i t w i ll t a ke fo ld s it self i t wil l ,

pr o v i de p o i nt s o f supp o rt fo r it self a n d i n gre at nu m bers

,

to o. A n d t o get r i d o f t h e se fo ld s i n h erent i n t h e n a ture

o f dr a pery w e h a ve t o we i g h t it by d a m p i ng o r assu m e
, ,

i t bl o wn by very v i o lent gu st s o f wind Wh en the .

drapery i s n o t th us s i m pl i fied t h e li n e s o f the l a rge fo ld s

sh a ke o r w a ve i rregul a rly ; a n d there a re t ra n sverse
cre ase s o r sugge sti o n s o f s uch fro m fo ld t o fo ld T h en
,
.

i f a n y ligh t i s expre ssed o n t h e fo ld s it w i ll n o t p ass

regul a rly d o wn t h e pipe but w i ll z i gz ag i n a n i rregul a r
,

m a n ner fr o m si de t o s ide T h e se sugge st i o n s a re al l o f

.

v a l ue but t h ey m u st n o t be c a rr i ed to o far as they eluc i d a te

, ,

n o th i ng b u t the d r a pe ry F i g 1 5 5 i s a l so i n th i s m a nner
. . .

It re a c h ed i t s l o we s t dept h o f t a wdry ex agger a t i o n a b o ut

1 7 50 . T h e L e Brun Fig 1 7 6 fa l l s withi n i ts gra sp Fig
,
.
,
. .

1 5 6 w i ll perh a p s expl a in i t self .

2 62 F IG U RE D RAW ING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

h is w o rk h i msel f In the c ase o f n a tur a l c o m p o si t i o n

.
,

the a rti st h a s to sele c t h i s p o in t o f view a n d o n e o f the

,

nu m er o u s m o m ent a ry gro upings whi ch pre sent the m selve s ,

a n d i s t h u s hi m self re sp o n s ible .

There a re o t h er re aso n s fo r c o m p o siti o n th a n th at o f

m a k i ng the subj ect fi t a given sp a ce fo r i n a pi c ture the
,

s p a ce r a t h er fi t s the s ubj e c t th a n o ther w i s e In dec o r a t i ve

.

a rt the a rti st i s b o und t o a c ert a in sp a c e But t h e c h ief

.

funct i o n o f c o m p o si t i o n i s t o pl ace the s ubj e c t pr o perly

befo re the spe c t a t o r so t h a t h is a ttent i o n i s n o t held by
,

so m e un i m p o rta nt p o i nt a n d the re a l subj ect m i ssed

, .

Th i s c o ncentr a t i o n o f a ttent i o n o n t h e m a i n fe a ture o f the

wo rk i s the on ly re aso n fo r e m pl o y i ng c o m p o siti o n when ,

o rn a m ent a l o r dec o r a t i ve effect i s n o t a l so so ught a fter .

In de c o ra tive a rt t h e m a tter i s d i fferent T h e c o m p o si

.

ti o n m u st be a be a ut i ful p a ttern as well a s a cle a r exp o si t i o n

o f t h e subj ect .

T h e l a w s o f c o m p o si ti o n a re b ased up o n t h e fo ll o w i n g
fa ct s
T h e pro nene ss o f the eye t o c o nnec t si m i l a r t hi ng s a n d ,

t o p a ss fr o m o n e t o a no ther The S i m pl i c i ty a n d U nity

.

p r o duced by s i m il a r i ty The
. h a bit o f the eye t o fo ll o w t h e

c o ur se o f l i ne s The l a w s o f phy sic a l st a b i lity y i elding the

.
,

uprigh t a n d h o riz o nt a l line s a n d t h e tr i a ngle ; a n d a l so t h e

l a w o f equ a l l a tera l exp a n si o n re s ulting i n sy m m etry
, ,

b a l a nce a n d equ ilibri u m The i n ab i lity o f the eye t o p a ss

, .

a cr o ss l i ne s ,
e spe c i a lly i f d o ubled o r further m ultiplied
,
.

The fa ct o f si m i l a rity o f a ppe a r a n c e den o ting si m il a rity o f

c o nd i ti o n s
.
 C O MPO S ITIO N 263

79 . T h e S i n gl e F igu re i n a S p ace .

IF t h e figu re i s l a rge a n d o ccup i e s a c o n si dera ble p o rt i o n

,

o f the s p a ce i t s l i ne s m ust be c a refully c o n s i dered i n

,

rel at i o n t o t h e b o rder l i ne s fo r t h e se w i l l fo rce t h e m selve s

-
,

up o n t h e a ttent i o n If the figu re i s sm a ll a n d o ccup i e s

.
,

o nly t h e m iddle o f the p a nel t h e b o rder l i ne s be i n d i t n t

g s a-
,

F IG . 1 57 .
-
A tt i tudes f rom Na ture su rrou n ded by su i ta b l e sh a p es.

w i ll n o t i n terfe re a n d i n a l l pr o b a bil i ty so m e li ne s o f b ack

,

gr o u nd w i ll o ccur between t h e m a n d t h e figu re w h ich wi l l ,

e st a bl i sh so m e so r t o f h a r m o ny even i f i t were o rig i n a lly

,

l a cking .

S o m e sp a ce s a re p a rt i cul a rly d i fficul t t o fi ll w i t h l a rge

s i ngle figu re s a squ a re be i ng very u n acc o m m o d a t i ng
, .

The d a nger o f t h e de s ign sh o w i ng t h at t h e figure h a s

been t o rtu red i nt o a p o si t i o n sh o uld o f i t self deter o n e
,

fro m pl a ci ng m uch i m p o rt a nce o n t h e so lut i o n o f t h e se

 F IG U RE D RAW ING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N
‘
2 64

pr o ble m s fo r t h e h u m a n figure i s the l a st t h ing t h at sh o uld

,

be c o nvent i o n a lized o r l n rn ed l o ag ree w z fn c o nditi o n s If

’

, .

i t i s kn o wn th a t th e fi g u res wil l be required t o cl o sely fill

‘

their sp ac e s thea wkwa r d sh a pe s m ay be a v o ided in pl a n

,

n ing o r c i r c le s m ay be pl ac ed i n t h e squ a re s a n d o v a l s o r
,
.

ve s i c ae p i sc i s in o bl o ng s .

F IG . 158 .

T h e figure m u st a t al l c o st s be sa ved fro m degr a d a t i o n

t o the level o f a c a nthu s fo l i a ge M a ny a ttitude s h o wever
.
, ,

y i eld m ass li ne s w hi ch c o rre sp o n d t o frequently u sed p a nel

- -

s h a pe s .C a re m u st be t a ke n t h a t the h e a d is never so
pl ac ed a s t o a ppea r a s i f p urp o sely held d o wn by i ts
o wner t o a v o i d bu m p i ng a g a i n st the b o rder It i s bette r
.
2 66 F IG UR E D RA WING A ND C O MPO S IT IO N

so me bj ec t o f i m p o rt a nce pl aced where the cro ss i s in the

o

di a gra m t o b a l a nce the c o m p o s i ti o n .

T h e sh a pe o f a gr o up will be deter m ined by v a r i o u s

circu m st a n c e s in c i dent a l t o the a c ti o n o f the figure s but ,

the m o st gener a lly u sed a re the tri a ngul a r ( Fig the .

vertic a l a n d h o ri z o nt a l o v a l s ( F i g s 1 6 1 a n d
. the pe a r
s h a ped a n d t h e pent a g o n a l
,
T h e se fo r ms a re in ac c o rd a nce
.

wit h t he l aws o f st a b i l i ty a n d the rule t h a t t h e m o st

,

i m p o rt a nt p a r t i s gener a lly a t the t o p —a rule w hi ch i m plie s

s ub o rdin a t i o n S y m m etry w i ll ex i st where t h ere i s equ a lity
.

o f a cti o n .

F IG . 159 . F IG . 1 60 .

W i t hi n t h e gro up t h e line s o f the figure s w i l l fa ll i nt o a

h a r mo n i o u s a rra nge m ent ra d i a ting t a ngenti a lly w i t h o n e
a n o t h er o r fr o m the chief p o i nt s o f intere st i n t h e gr o up
,

( Fig . T h e re sult i s a l i ne a r d a nce fr o m p o in t t o p o i nt ,

in c luding a n d e m bra cing a l l the figure s T hi s h a r m o n i ou s .

rel a ti o n o f line t o li n e i s be st secured by w o rk i ng a t t he

sa m e ti m e up o n a l l th ose whi c h we t h in k sh o uld be
c o n nected The h a nd be i ng a s i t were ful l o f a curve i t
.

h a s j u s t dr awn will c a rry so m e o f i t i nt o t h e next l i ne a n d

, ,

so the unity o f t h e wh o le will be e s t a bl i sh ed .

Pa r a lleli sm i s a m e a n s o f pr o du c i ng h a r m o ny but a l so o f ,

m i m i c ry a n d c o n sequently we r a rely i f ever see i t a m o ng

,
 CO MPO S ITIO N 2 67

t h e line s o f a gro up o r o f a w h o le c o m p o si t i o n Excepti o n

, .

m u st h o wever be m a de i n fav o ur o f t h e vertic a l a n d

, ,

h o r i z o nt a l line s w hi c h h ave a n a rc hi tectura l s i g n i fic a nce

, ,

a n d a dd to t h e s t a b i lity o f the d e sign .

L i ne s to be r a d i a t i ng need n o t n ece ssa r i ly be tr a ced

rig h t to a p o i nt o f c o nt a c t a s so m et i m e s t h ey bec o m e
,

p a r a llel a n d w o uld ne v er m eet But i t i s n o t nece ssa ry .

t h a t eit h er t hi s regi o n o f p a ra llel i s m o r the p o i n t o f co n

t act sh o uld be w i th i n t h e de sign T h e eye w i ll be dra wn .

F IG . 161 . F IG . 1 62 .

t o w a rd t h e c o nclu si o n o f t h e sy ste m but the a ttent i o n ,

m a y be turned by a l i ne c r o ssi ng i t S o m et i m e s i f the .

,

line s r ad i a te upw a rd s t h e lin e o f he a d s a t the t o p o f the

,

gro up i s s u fficien t by re aso n o f the gre a ter i ntere s t o f the

,

he ad s t o g a t h er i n t h e c o nverg i ng l i ne s but i f n o t a l i n e
, , ,

o r line s m u s t be c o ntr i ved in t h e a c c e sso rie s a s by the

, ,

tree in Fig 1 6 3 T h e g a th ering l i ne m a y be c urved o r it

. .
,

m a y n o t but c a re m u s t be t a ken t h a t i t le a d s t h e eye i n

,

the righ t directi o n n o t o u t o f the de si gn b u t b a ck t o so m e

, ,

le a ding p a r t o f i t The d r a pery w h i c h i n so m e style s

.
2 68 F IG U RE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

fl ut te red o ver t h e h e a d i s a k ind o f ga ther i n g l i n e as

”
is
w el l a s a h al o a r o und t h e he ad
“

The mo re th e fi g ures are to b e c o mbined i n o n e ac ti o n ,

t h e mo re c o n sta n tly sh o uld t h e line s o f o n e le ad to t h e

l i ne s o f an o th er a n d b ack a gain But i f o n e fi gure o f t h e
, .

gro up is i n an y w ay sep a r ated i n t h o ug h t o r act i o n fr o m

the o t h er s t h e line s o f t h a t o n e sh o uld tend t o return up o n
,

the m selve s o r t o d i verge i nt o t h e o ther p a rt s o f the design

,
.

Thi s sep a r ati o n wi ll be pro du c ed by n o t d rawing the figure

F IG . 1 63. F IG . 1 6 4.

at t h e sa m e ti m e a s the o th er s a n d o n ly o cc asi o n a lly

,

a l l o w i ng the pencil t o w a n der fr o m i t t o t h e m .

T h e gr o und pl a n o f a gro up m u st be c a refully c o n si der e d

-
.

T h ere w i ll genera lly be a fo cu s o r centre t o the group a s

, , ,

in Fig 1 6 0 where the fo cu s i s the o l d m a n a n d the m i ddle

.
, ,

li ne o f the gr o up ru n s to t h e o ut stret c hed feet o f t h e figure

o n o u r right .The chief figure i s u su a lly a t o r ne a r the
edge o f the gro up but fa c i ng inw a rd s in a d i recti o n whic h
,

divide s the gr o up equ a lly fo r t h e v a r i o u s per so n s asse m bled

w i ll al l wi sh t o b e w ith i n a c ert ain d i st an ce o f th e centre o f
’
2 7 0 FIG UR E D RAWING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

a l m o st a t the right o r left e xtre me In R ap hael s c a rto o n

.
’

‘
of The C h a rge t o Peter C h ri st i s bec o m ing sep arate d
,
’

fro m the gro up H e i s a t the extre m e left the figure s a t

.
,

the e xtre m e righ t sh o w le ss i ntere st t h a n th o se i n the

m i ddle . It i s in every w a y a m a sterly c o mp o siti o n a n d ,

we feel th a t i n a m o ment the sep a r a ti o n wil l be c o m plete ,

a n d th a t the c o m p o siti o n wi ll a ssu m e th a t fo r m so a bly

u sed by M r O rc h a rdso n wherei n o n e i m p o rt a n t figure o n

.
,

o n e s i de i s b a l a nced a g a in s t a gr o up o f le ss i m p o rt a n t o ne s

o n the o t h er .

To keep the i ntere s t w i thin a gr o up the o uter figure s

,

m a y pre sen t the sa m e c urve o r line o n eit h er s ide ; t h u s

t w o figure s m a y be b o th s e a ted o n e o n e a c h s ide o f a n d
,

fa c ing the c entre o f the gro up a n d pro viding by their

,

bent b a c k s sy mm etr i c a l curve s Thi s i s in a c c o rd a n c e

.

wit h the prin c iple o f v o rte x c o m p o sit i o n a s de sc ribed o n

,

p a ge 2 7 5
The de si gner m u st n o t a ll o w h i m sel f a n y l i ne s to ,

b i nd t h e different p a rt s o f h i s de si gn t o get h er bey o nd ,

wh a t c a n be pro v i ded by the furn i ture a rchitecture o r

, ,

a n y k i nd o f det a il w h ich i s suit ab le t o the s ubj ect C url s .

 C O MPO S ITIO N

o f s m o ke and t he
“
m y st i c
w i rl a re very u seful but the
s ,

fa c ility wit h w hi c h t h ey c a n be h a ndled a n d their v a lue ,

a s c o n nect i ng l i ne s a re a p t t o le a d t h e de s igner t o u se the m

t o o frequently a n d so fa ll i n t o m a n ner i s m In de c o r a t i ve .

a rt so m e e xcu s e c o uld be fo u nd but a n ende a v o u r s h o uld,

be m a de t o do wit h o u t t h e m .

Fig 1 66 i llu str a te s t h e fa ct th a t t h e fr o n t a n d b a c k v i ew

.

o f a n a tt i tude h a ve t h e sa m e o utl i ne G ener a lly o n e fi nd s .

o ne s elf d r a w i ng a l l t h e figure s i n fr o n t v i ew b ut a ny o f ,

the m m ay be turned r o und w i t h very l i ttle tr o u ble .

81 . E m p ha si z i ng P a rt ic u l a r F ig u re s .

T HE fo ll o w i ng a re differe n t m et h o d s o f e m ph a si zing
p o rt i o n s o f c o m p o s i t i o n s —b y line s w h ether o f a rc hi ,

te c ture p a ve m ent furn i tu re s pe a rs o r a n y l o ng defi n i te

, , , ,

F IG . 1 67 .

line s p o i nt i ng t o w a rd t h e o bj ect a s do t h e a rc hi te c tu r a l
,

‘
l i ne s to t h e h e a d o f t h e Ch r i st i n th e L a st S upper .
’

( F i g.

W h en o n e h a s to g i ve a feel i ng o f so l i tude t h e l i n e s ,

o f t h e c o m p o si t i o n m a le a d t h e eye t o o r ne a r s o m e
y , ,
272
‘
BIG URE DRAWING A ND C O MPO SITIO N

uni m p o rt a nt o bj e c t whi c h st a nd s o u t w i th c o nsider a bl e

pr o m i nen c e a n d ne a r the c hief p o i nt Of i nt ere st Thi s
, .

i s i n a c c o rd a n c e with the fa c t th a t when o n e enter s a

r o o m i n whi c h a per so n i s eng a ged i n a n y so lit a ry o c c up a
ti o n o n e r a rely see s th a t per so n i m m edi a tely up o n o ne s
,
’

entra nce O ften so m e trifl i ng det a i l will a ttra c t a ttenti o n

.

fi r s t Thi s m a n age m ent O f the effe c t o f so lit u de i s to be

.

s een in D ii re r s print o f S t Jer o m e i n h i s c ell

’
. .

Em p h asi s m a y a l so be O bt a i ned by c i rc l e S r
o u n d a figure
'

o r he a d o f a fig u re a s a h a l o r o un d the he a d o f a sa int
,
~

a n d by a n y o ther w a y o f f m m z ng a p o rt i o n S o m eti m e s
'

F IG . 1 68 .

the fra m e o f a d o o r o r wind o w will serve o r a p a t c h o f ,

d ark o r light ; a nything th a t will c a ge the eye in a n d ,

co m pel i t to dwell up o n wh a t i s within By

. a n y o f the s e
e
m a s n i t will be fo un d p o ss i ble t o give s pe c i a l pr o m i nen c e
to a n y figure o f a gr o up ,
whi c h i t m a y be de s i r a ble t o

spe c i a lize .

In i llu s tr a t i o n o f thi s e m ph a s i s Fig

,
. 1 6 8 m a y be
referred t o It i s supp o sed t o repre sent a pl a c e o f publi c
.

re so rt where pe o ple o f a l l te m per a m ent s a n d p o siti o n s

,

will be eng aged in a l l m a n ner o f c o nver sa ti o n L et it .

be supp o sed th a t t o th i s pl a ce o n e ch a r a cter in a st o ry

br i ngs a n o t h er The se t w o perso n s w i ll be to the o rd i n a ry
.
2 74 F IG URE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

s pect a t o r p o ssibly o f fa r le ss intere st th a n m a ny o f

,

the o ther pe o ple pre sent The a rti st w i ll h a ve to expre ss

.

t he i m p o rt a n c e t o the c r o wd o f the se o ther pe o ple w h ile ,

the a ttenti o n o f th o se w h o see t h e picture m u st be dra wn

t o the t w o s tr a nger s w h o w o uld be o f co n s i der a ble c o ncern
,

t o a re a der o f the s upp o sed s t o ry T hi s i s to be d o ne by

!

r a di a t ing l i ne s fr o m the se stra ngers a n d a rc hi ng t h e m ,

o ver ,
a s i s sh o wn i n t h e d i a gr a m In thi s ex a mple a l l .

the figure s were drawn w i th o ut a n y ide a a s t o wh i c h

’

figu re s sh o uld be e m ph a si zed a n d the wh o le o f t h e a rc h i

,

t e c t u ra l b a ckgr o un d w a s a dded t o s o lve the pr o b l e m , ,

when i t h ad been deter m i ned wh i c h were app a rently

o f l ea st i m p o rt a nce th a t Z/zey m ay bec o m e the centre
,

o f i ntere st A n y o n e O f the figu re s m ay be s i m i l a rly

.

e m ph a si zed by m a nipul a ting the b a ckgr o u nd .

Further a fo r m m ay be e m ph a sized by repe at i ng

,

o n e i t h er s i de o f it the sa m e o r si m i l a r fo r m s a bl o t o f
, ,

t o ne o r a p o se rever sed
,
.

A g a i n when the figu re s o f a c o m p o si ti o n a re l o o king

,

a t a n O bj ect the fa ct n a tu ra lly c a ll s a ttent i o n t o t h a t

,

o bj e c t . If i t h a ppen th a t t h e o bj ect i s c o m p a r a t i vely

uni m p o rt a nt the c o m p o sit i o n m u st be strengt h ened i n
,

o t h er w a y s t o preven t the i ntere s t be i ng c o ncentr a ted t o o

m uch o n t h a t o bj e c t .

In Fig 1 6 9 let the fo ll o wing det a i l s o f c o m p o si t i o n

.

be n o ted T h e w ay i n which the h e ad s o f t h e sh ep h erd s

.

a n d o ther s fo r m a n o v a l a r o und t h e V i rg i n s he a d
’
S he .

i s ev i dently t h e centre o f t h e c o m p o si t i o n a lth o ugh the ,

figu re s a re m o st o f the m l o o k i ng a t the ch i ld A l l the .

line s c o ncentr a te a t the Vi rgi n s fa c e h o wever the s l a nting ’

be a m o r l a dder the a rch the a rm o f the figure w i th

, ,

the l o ng st a ff the right a rm a n d he ad o f the ne a re st

,

figu re s o n t he left a n d the st i ck o n the gr o und l e ading

,
 C O MPO S ITIO N 2 75

u p by the V i rg i n s t hi g h a n d
’
m ent i —
b ck to
o n n o m o re
a .

T h e vert i c a l l i ne s o f t h e a rc hi te c ture a n d tree m u st n o t

be o verl o o ked S tra nge a s i s t h e d ra w i ng i t well rep ay s
’

.
,

s tudy

Y e t a n o t h er m et h o d o f e mp h asi z i n g o r c a ll i ng a tten t i o n
t o a p a r t o f t h e subj ect i s t h a t o f i ncluding i t i n a n
‘
i m p o rt a n t line o f t h e c o m p o si t i o n In the A d o r a t i o n .
’

a b o ve o n e i s s u re t o fo ll o w the o v a l m a de by t h e h e a d s ,

a n d t h i s o v a l l i ne i nclude s t h e he a d o f t h e Ch ri s t c h ild
-
,

u p o n w h ic h t h e a tten t i o n m ay be kept O n ly o n Hi s .

he a d a n d o n t h a t o f t h e Virgi n ca n th i s be d o ne ; fr o m
a l l the o t h er s o n e i s led a w a y p a rti a lly i t w i l l be seen
,

by t h e pro x i m i ty o f o ther h e ad s which fo rce the m selve s

up o n o ne s n o t i ce
’
.

82 . F il l i n g of S p a ce s . T w o m e t ho ds of t he l a st
c e n t u ry .

O R NA MENTAL LY c o n si dered t h e c o m p o si t i o n o f l i ne
,

in a figure subj ec t i s b ased very m uc h o n t h e sa m e

pri nciple s as a n o rd i n a ry p i ece o f o rn a m ent Wh ere a l l .

t h e figure s a re c o m b i ned i n o n e a cti o n t h e c o m p o s i t i o n ,

s h o uld cert a i n ly fo ll o w so m e defi n i te pl a n a n d a cc o rd i ng ,

a s t h e i ntere s t i s c o ncentr a ted so w i ll t h e l i ne s o f t h e

,

c o m p o si t i o n retu rn ag a i n a n d a ga i n i nt o o n e a n o t h er .

A s i n o rn a m ent a l de si gn t h e c o m p o si t i o n m ay be l i kened
,

t o a d a nce s i nce t h e eye i s led gr a c e fully fr o m p o i nt

,

t o p o i nt .

F i gure de si gn s may b e c l assi fied a cc o rd i n g to t h e

nu m ber o f sep a r at e p o i nt s o f i nte re st t h ey c o nt a i n ; t h a t
“

i s t o sa y w h er e i t c o n si st s o nly o f t w o o r t h ree figure s

,

eng a ged i n o ne act i o n t h e l i ne s o f t he se fi gure s w i ll

,
 2 7 6 F IG URE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

a rr a nge t h e m selve s i n w h a t m i ght be c a lled i f c urved ,

l i ne s a re u sed a vo rtex Th a t i s the l ine s le ad r o und

, .
,

a n d ro u n d the fi gure s a n d i n a n d a m o ng the m but do

, ,

n o t s tr a y bey o nd t h e gr o up Per h ap s the si m p l est k i n d

.
t

o f Co mp o s iti o n Or a d a pt a t i o n o f figure s t o a sp a c e i s
,
-
,
'

th at wh i ch w a s so m u c h u sed in an d bec a m e typic a l o f ,

t he l a st century It w as s i m ply the e m pl o y m ent o f wh a t

.

h as been c alled a v o rtex with i n a re c t angl e

-
The se .
’

v o rtice s may be ro ughly rega rde d a s o f t w o kind s T h ere .

a re t h o se i n whi c h the figure s fo r m su c h a Sh a pe a s

an o va l w i thin which a l mo st a l l t h e line s a re kept
, ,

a s in Fig 1 7 0 Perh ap s the m o st be a ut i ful ex a m ple

. .

‘
o f thi s s tyle O f c o m p o s iti o n i n re c ent a rt is the D i a n a ,

Endy m i o n O f M r G F W a tt s The figure o f

’
and . . . .

D i a n a o cc up i e s the upper h a lf fl o a ting a b o ve a figure ,

of Endy m i o n a n d st o o ping t o k i ss h i m
, A p i ece o f .

d ra pery en c l o se s i n a h a lf o v a l the figure o f D i a n a a n d ,

c o nclude s the c o m p o siti o n a t the t o p The under h a lf .

i s s i m il a rly tre a ted There thu s o c cu r v a c a ncie s a t the

.

c o rner s a n d i t i s the se w hi c h a re so c h a r a cteri sti c o f the

,

s tyle o f t h e l a st century In fa c t it w i ll be fo und th a t

.
,

i n t h o se style s the figure s o r o rn a m ent were gener a lly

pl a ced i n the m i ddle a n d a t the c o rner s o f t h e rect a ngle s .

T hi s i s well exe m pl i fied i n th e p i cture fra m es o f th a t -

p er i o d
. T h e re a der m u st s urely h a ve n o t i ced the o l d
fa shi o ned fra m e wit h i t s o rn a m ent a l c o rner s ; the se a re
o n ly s uit a ble an d a re then re al ly so t o encl o se o v a l
'

, ,

com p osi t i o n s Th e centra l m

.
-
a ss w as u su a lly o v a l i n a n

O bl o ng o r r o u nd i n a squ a re
,
T h e v a lue o f dra pery a s .

'

a m e a n s o f m a k i ng the se o v a l s o r c i rc l es i s i llu str a ted ,

i n the picture by Mr G F Watts befo re a lluded t o i n . . .

,

w h i ch e x a m p l e it i s a ppr o pri a t e But it h a s been a n d

'

c o nt i nu ally i s c o n st antly used w h er e n o re a so n ca n be

,
278 F IG URE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

g i ven w h y a n y dr apery sh o uld be fluttering a b o ut a t a l l .

It see m s indeed a s if i n thi s s tyle o f c o m p o si t i o n the

, ,

per so n s were c o nti nu a lly living a m id gu st s o f w i nd .

The o ther kind o f v o rtex c o m p o sit i o n i s t h a t i n w h i c h

F IG . 17 1 .

t h e li m b s o f t h e figure spre a d o ut i n a st a r like m a nner

-
,

a s i n Fi g 17 1
. It m a y be sa i d t h a t the se a re a l so o v a l
o r c i rcul a r de si gn s t he l i m b s be i ng a rra nged a t right
,

a ngle s t o t h e c i rcu m ference . B o t h o f t h e k i nd s o f c o m

 C O MPO S ITIO N 279
“

p o s i t i o n w hi c h h ave been m enti o ned h ere were l a rgel y ,

e m pl o yed i n t h e l a st c en tury fo r t h e centre s o f o therw i se

pl a i n p a nel s fo r w hi c h they a re re m a rk a bly s u i t a ble ;
,

t h u s t h e b a ckgro u nd o f Fig 1 7 1 m ay be a l l o n e fl a t .

c o l o u r T h e st a r like a rr a nge m en t i s p erh a p s b est w h en

.
-

t h e p a nel i s l a rg e a n d t h e gr o up i s t o o ccupy o nly a

,

s m a ll p o rt i o n o f it ; t h e m o re c o nfi ned sy s te m w h en it
i s t o o ccupy m o st O f t h e p a nel .

83 . F il l in g of S pace s . A n o t he r or L a te r S ys te m .

T HE y ste m s s p o ken o f i n the l as t p a r a gr a p h were

s

by n o m e a n s l i m i ted t o t h e l a st c entu ry In fa c t so m e .
,

w h a t si m i l a r a rr a ng e m ent s h a ve been u sed i n a l l the o l d

s tyle s . The nu m ber o f ex a m ple s i n o u r Na t i o n a l G a llery
i s very l a rge a n d i t w a s r a rely t h a t a n o l d m aster a d o pted
,

a sy ste m w h ic h w a s very d i fferen t T h e l a rger t h e .

nu m ber o f figure s t h e m o re exp a nded t h e gr o up bec o m e s

, ,

b u t i t c a n gener a lly be surr o unded by a curved l i ne .

O n ly i n a fe w i n s t a nce s i n t h e It a l i a n S c h o o l h a s the
, ,

c o m p o si t i o n been b a sed up o n t h e rect a ngle t h e m o s t ,

n o t i ce a ble ex a m ple s be i ng Mi c h a el A ngel o s Ma d o nn a

‘ ’
,
’

‘
a n d h i s pup i l Br o n z i n o s F o lly In t h e l a tter pi c tu re
’ ’
.
,

‘
t h e a rm o f T i m e see m s t o h a v e been pu rp o sely pl a ced
’

p a r a l lel to t h e upper b o rder t o w hi c h a l so it i s very ne a r

, .

B u t a rect a ngul a r m eth o d i s e m pl o yed i n w o rk s o f t o da y -

,

wh i c h see m t o h ave n o very d i stin c t p a ra l lel i n o l d w o rk .

It i s t h a t in w h ich line s o f the a r c h itecture furn i ture , ,

a n d s uc h s ub o rd i n a te m a tter s a n d n o t o f t h e figure s,

a s in B r o nzi n o s pi c ture a re kept m o re o r le ss p a r a llel

’

t o the line s o f t h e fr a m e a n d wh i c h see m therefo re t o

,

run o ut o f t h e picture T h ere i s o n e a dv a nt a ge i n t h i s

.

m e th o d o ver th o se w hi c h tend t o c entr a liz a t i o n w hi ch

, ,
2 80 F IG URE D RAWING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

i s, th a t t h ey sugge st t h at t h e v i ew exp o sed i s o nly a p a rt

o f a very m uch l a rger w h o le a n d i n th i s m a tter the
,

sy s te m s sp o ken o f i n the l a st p a ragra ph a re seen t o

h ave a c o ntra ry effect In p i c ture s b a sed up o n t h o se
.

sy s te m s , it a ppe a rs a s t h o ugh there w as n o t h ing el se

in the un i verse be s ide the t w o o r t h ree figure s whi c h
m a ke up the c o m p o siti o n a s i n Fig 1 7 1
, It see m s t h en
. .

th a t a cc o rd i ng a s t h e a rt i st w i sh e s t o expre ss t h e perso n
a l i t i es o nly o f the figure s he i s repre sent i ng t h e m et h o d ,

F IG . 172 .

of t h e l ast century i s p a rt i cul a rly su i t a ble ; but w h ere n o

p a rticul a r perso n i s o f spe c i a l i ntere st t h e m o re m o dern
,

princ i ple i s t h e m o re su i t a ble It i s per h ap s o nly i n

.

o ur ow n day t h a t a rti st s h ave en ga ged t h e m selve s

i n s uc h subj ect s a s gro up s o f figure s i n publ i c pl a c e s .

In t h e nu m er o u s ep h e m era l i llu str a t i o n s w i th w hi c h we

a re n o w deluged ,
s uc h subj ect s a re very frequent a nd ,

w h a t h a s t o be n o t i ced p a r ti c ul a rly a b o ut t h e m i s t h a t
w hile t h ey repre sent a nu m ber o f per so n s O ften o n a ,

l a rge sc a le n o p a rt i cul a r intere st a tt ac h e s t o a n y o n e

,

o f the m , a nd t h e next gro up w hi ch m ay h appen to

2 82 F IG U RE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

the Wh o le m a tter t u rn s up o n zsol a tzon Th at th e pi c tur e

h
' '

m u st h a ve a n d so fa r a s i t c an get it it m ay ret a i n
, ,

i t s pi c t o ri a l c h a r a c ter a n d s o fa r a s i t l o se s it it m
,
u st ,

c o n fo r m t o dec o r a tive rule s .

A m o v a ble a n d u sa ble thing c a n never be o r pr o v i de , ,

a field fo r pict o ri a l a rt be c a u se o n e c a n n o t depe n d up o n

,

i ts i s o l a ti o n n o r i so l a te i t with o ut a t the s a m e t i m e di s
,

F IG . 173 .
—W al l deco ra ti o n i n th e B yz a n ti n e m a n ne r
.

re ga rd i n g i ts fu nct i o n s o f ut i l i ty S h o w vases a n d al l
” ,
.

u
s c h “
o bje t
c s o f a rt a,
re m o n s tr o u s being ,
m o n u m ent s

to the i n s incerit y a n d c o rrupt t a s te o f the i r pr o duc er s ,

a nd t o the v a n i ty a n d pri d e o f the i r p o sse sso rs .

The o nly c o m m o n gr o und u p o n w hi c h the t w o a rt s

ee w i l be x ed A d the deg ee f
can m t l fi s u f
r a ce s n.
r o

co n vent i o n nece ssa ry wil l be deter m i ned b y t h e ki nd o f

i so l a ti o n pr o vided .
 C O MPO S ITIO N 2 83

T h e Byz a ntine m et h o d o f dec o r a t i o n m ay be defi ned

a s by a ve sture T h ey c l o t h ed t h ei r w o rk s i n s o m u c h
.

p a ttern Mo sa i c s a n d m a rble fa c i ng s were the c h ief m e a n s

.
-

a d o pted , a n d t h ey s pre a d t he t h i n m a rble o r g o rge o u s

m o sa i c s o ver the s u rfa ce o f t h e i r w a ll s .

A lth o ugh t h ey did u se s ubd ivi si o n s dr a wn u po n the

w a ll s a s i n t h e r i ght si de o f Fig 1 7 3 I h a v e preferred
, .
,

to reg a rd a s t h e Byz a n ti n e m anner th a t i n w h ich there

a re n o d i v i s i o n s. There be i ng n o d ivi si o n s t h ere i s n o

i so l a t i o n a n d t h erefo re i n the left s ide I h a ve fo ll o wed
,

t h e m o st dec o r a t i ve o f m et h o d s T h a t i s t h ere i s little

.
,

o r n o gr o und fo r t h e fig u re s t o s t a nd up o n fo r de c o r a t i vely
,

th i s i s n o t nece ssa ry a n d m ay be o m itted C o m p a re the

, .

Po m pe i a n w a ll dec o r a ti o n w h ere a figure i s o ften seen i n

,

t h e m i ddle o f a l a rge p anel wit h o ut a n y gr o u nd T h ey .

a re gener a lly d a ncing figure s ; w h ere they a re st a ndi ng ,

t h ey sh o uld h a ve a slig h t s ugge st i o n o f gr o und O n Greek . -

v a se s figure s a re o ften p a i nted a b o ve o n e a n o t h er t h e ,

gr o u n d repre sen ted by a w a vy li ne o nly .

T h e fig u re s i n Fig 1 7 3 s t a n d up o n t h e scr o ll w o rk
.
-

w hi c h o ccup i e s t h e s p a ce s be tween t h e m T h o se o ver the

.

d o o r m u s t n o t st a nd o n t h e d o o r n o r t h e sitt i ng o ne s o n
,

t h e d a d o o r the n o n s t a nd i n g p ri nc i pl e w i ll be de st ro yed
,
-

a little sc r o ll w o rk s h o uld run bene a th t h e m

-
T h e s cr o ll .

w o rk m ay h ave le a fa ge der i ved fro m n a ture b u t n a tu ra l ,

gr o wt h w o uld be le ss s u i t a ble t h a n s pi ra l s w hi c h h a ve ,

n o expre ss i o n o f gr a v i t a t i o n but a ffix t h e m selve s t o the

,

wa ll by t h e i r wh o le lengt h .

T h e figure s i n t hi s de sign w o uld n eed t o be fl a tly tre a ted ,

o utl i ned i n a l l pr o b a b i l i ty. A n d a s a ffect i ng figure s w h i c h

a re a ll o wed b u t l i t tle g ro und , we m a y n o tice t h a t quite

vert i c a l d ra pery a s o n t he r i g h t s i de te nd s t o enfo rce

, ,

t h e a c ti o n o f s t a n d i ng a n d de m a nd s a gr o und l i ne a n d -
,
2 84 F IG U RE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

t h erefo re t h e g ravita ti o n i s l ess expre ssed by s u c h dra pery

a s t h a t O f the centr a l figure fo r th o s e fo ld s c a rry t h e eye
,

u p a s wel l a s d o wn .

The le ft si de o f F i g I7 4 i llu str a te s a n o ther style th a t

.
,

o f t h e m iddle Re n a i ssa nce ending a b o u t 1 6 8 0 The w a ll .

i s d i v i ded by a r c h itectur a l m e m ber s O f gre a t we i ght a n d ,

the re sult i s th a t the p a nel s between a re a s c o m pletely

i so l a ted as t h ey ca n be i n a de c o r a t i ve sc he m e H en c e .

I IG I7 I
.
-
\
Va l l de c orat io n i n Pal l a d ian an d L ou i s X V . st yl es .

t h ey m ay be tre a ted m o re o r le ss p i ct o r i a lly t h a t o ver ,

the d o o rway le ss per h a p s .

The ex a m ple o n the rig h t i s i n t h e s tyle L o u i s Qu i n z e ,

a style re m a rk a ble fo r i t s l icence a n d fo r the true u nder

,

t nd i ng of the pr i nc i ple f dec r t i n whi h i t exh i bit

“

s o o a o c s
s a .

The he avy c o lu m n s a n d c o rn ice s o f the e a rlier peri o d

were the i ntr o duct i o n o f t h o ug h tle ss a n d v a i n ped a ntry ,
.

Pr o perly fe a ture s o f a n ex t i nct extern a l a rch i tecture they ,

2 86 F IG URE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S IT IO N

( F ig T h e be st ex a m ple s o f thi s a re perh a p s the “

o l d Fle m i sh t a pe strie s

C o mpa c t fi lli ng give s a go o d dec o rat i ve effect C a re .

F IG . 17 5 .
-
( Al l th e fi el d cove red wi th fo rms
.
)

m u st be t a ken h o wever n o t t o dep art fro m th e pro b able

, ,

i n o rder t o a c hi eve t h i s re sult o n e so met i m e s see s de si gn s

in w hi c h a per so n s h a ir i s flut tered a w ay fro m t h e h e ad
’
 C O MPO S ITIO N 2 87

to e x actly fi l l a ne i g h b o u r i ng sp a ce W h ere th i s Ca n .

r easo n a bly be d o ne i t i m pr o ve s t h e de c o r a ti ve e ffe c t

,
.

The m o st co nven t i o n a l de s i gn s O f t h i s c l a ss a re t h o se
i n w hi c h figure s o c c u r a t regul a r i n terv a l s wit h p o ssi bly , , ,

t rees b etw ee n t h e m m o re o r l ess r i gi dl y arr a n ged F o r

'

, .

F IG . 176 —(Th e w h ol e c o m p osi ti o n o rn a m en tal l y a rra n g ed . Th e va se, tab l e ,

a n d c u rta i n i n tro duced m erel y to co ver th e fi el d . The h id i n
g o f th e

fig ru e i n th e wal l b y t h e t
c ur ain i s b ad .
) ( By C h arl es Le Br un . )

fil l i ng the sk y cl o ud s a nd b i rd s are v ery v a lu a ble whi le

, ,

the fo regro un d m ay be O cc up i ed by ren dering s o f fl o wering

pl a nt s a n d Shrub s al l wit h s u ffi c ien t sp a c e t o fully sh o w
.

them selves a nd hiding n o ne behi n d the m a s i f i ndeed

, ,

the y fitted t o get h er l ike a c h i ld s pu z zle Ma ny be a ut i ful ’

.
2 88 F IG U RE D RAW ING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

de sign s i n t hi s m a nne r h a ve been pro duced by M r .

W ill i a m M o rr i s a n d S i r E Burne J o ne s .
-
.

In fi gu re w o rk p o ssibly a n o ther c a se o f t h e che ss b o a rd

-
, ,
-

a rr a nge m en t i s the A r a be sque i n whi c h the surface i s

,

c o vered with scro ll s whi c h a re devel o ped i n pl a ce s i nt o

,

repre sent at i o n s o f n a tu ra l o r a rt i fi c i a l o bj ect s In th i s .

kind o f w o rk figure s h ave been i ntro duced e spec i a lly ,

i n the Ren a i ssa nce per i o d a n d i t i s a very c o m mo n th i ng

i ndeed t o h ave wh a t i s c a lled a h a lf figure c o m m en c ing ,

a n d pr o v i d i ng the r o o t fo r a s cr o ll o f fo li a ge In the .

dec o ra ti o n by G i ul i o R o m a n o a n d th e Z u cca t i figure s ,

h ave their a r m s gr o wi ng i nt o o rn a m ent a s well a s their

leg s a n d a ppe a r i n a l l m a n ner o f su c h l i ke m o n str o u s
,
-

c o nditi o n s It s h o uld h o wever be a c c epted as a l a w

.
, ,

by the de signer th a t h e i s never t o dra w a figure with o ut

,

end o win g it wit h a per so n a lity ; he m u st never a ll o w

h i m self to u se a figure m erely fo r i ts sh ape S u c h a l a w .

a s thi s i s n o t l i kely t o be re a dily a cquie sced in si n c e ,

n o thing i s e a si er t h a n t o e m pl o y a figure i n t h e se m i
m o n stro u s m a nner ind i c a ted There is h o we ver n o o t h er
.
, ,

w ay o f keep i ng o ne s a rt i n st i nct s hig h a n d pu re

’
It .

i s i nc o nceiv able th a t a n a rt i st w i th h ig h p o et i c p o wer

c o uld br i ng h i m self t o e m pty a figure o f a l l i t s i ndi
v i du a l i ty fo r the sa ke o f i t s e m pl o y m ent as a m e re
,

sh a pe . A n d i t w i ll be fo und t h a t t h o se w h o h a ve
m o n str o u sly h a ndled the figure h ave e i t h er been t h o ug h t
,

le ss o r h ave i ndulged a n o t a lt o ge th er benefic i a l fa n c y

,
.

It will be fo und th a t i n the pure st s tyle s the figure h as

r a rely been t h u s degr a ded It i s i m p o r ta nt h o wever t o
.

d i st i ngui sh between a repre sent at i o n O f a mo n ster i n i ts ,

re a l l i ght o f m o n ster a n d a m an i pul at i o n o f t h e figure

,

fo r supp osed o rn a m ent a l re a so n s re sult i ng i n t h e se m i ,

m o n stro u s T h e B abyl o n i a n s bel i eved t h at t h e c re ati o n

.
2 90 F IG U R E DRA W ING A ND C O MPO S IT IO N

m a ke it gro w i nt o fo li a ge ( Fig .

They h a d a lwa y s m o re
re sp e c t b o th fo r the figure a n d
hu m a n ity The defe n ders o f
.

the h a lf fo li a ted figu re e n

de a v o u r t o g a in re c o g n iti o n
fo r thi s m o n s ter by p o i n ti n g,

o ut th a t the winged hu m a n
being s a re equ a lly m o n sters .

They a re pr o b a bly a l so o f
equ a l B a byl o n i a n o rigi n a n d ,

a s m o n str o u s a s the re s t but ,

the n they a re m o n sters whi c h

we a re m o re ne a rly di sp o sed
t o believe i n th a n se m i v e ge
,
-

t a ble perso n age s .

85 . S o m e G e n e ra l
P ri n c ip l e s of D e c o ra t i v e
C o m p o s i t io n .

W HAT id o f de co ra
is sa

tive c o m p o s iti o n will be fo u n d

,

t o a p p ly t o so m e exte n t a l so
, ,

t o p i c t o ri a l c o m p o siti o n .

There a re de co ra tive p i c
ture s a s well a s g a llery p i c ture s ,

and they h a ve t o c o n fo r m
t o de c o r a tive pri n c iple s The .

c o m p o s iti o n o f their li n e s t o s uit the s p a c e i s o n e m eth o d

e m pl o yed i n d o ing thi s A n o t h er i s th a t they sh a ll.

,
 C O MPO S ITIO N 29 I

re sp o n d to the fl a tne ss o f su rfa ce by l i m iting t h ei r per

,

sp e c t i v e,
a n d thu s they c o m e i nt o li ne with t h e e a rly
M o sa i c dec o r a ti o n s. The m o s t dec o r a tive a rr a nge m en t
o f the figure s will t h erefo re be the pr o c e ss i o n a l ( Figs
'

17 8 a n d By keeping the fi g ure s o n o n e pl a ne ,

h a r m o ny i s e st a bli shed with t h e surfa c e de c o r a ted whether ,

i t be a w a ll a p a ge o f a b o o k o r the side o f a n O bj ect In

, ,
.

th i s c o n ne c ti o n i t i s i ntere sting t o se e h o w the fo regr o u n d i s

de a lt with Fig 1 8 0 give s the o utli ne o f the fi gure o f S t
. .
.

L uke fr om the m o sa ic s a t R a ven n a It will be

. n o ti c ed

F IG . 179 .

th a t b o t h a b o ve a n d bel o w h im —befo re a n d beh i nd —the

gr o u n d i s c o m p o sed o f step s o f r o c k Th i s w a s t h e m e a n s
.

gener a lly e m pl o yed by the o l d m a ster s fo r t h ro w m g t h e

fo regr o u nd b a ck a n d br i ngi ng the b a c kgr o u n d fo rw a rd so
, ,

th a t t h e ne a r a n d d i st a n t figu re s a ppr o xi m a te in size t o

t h o se i n the m idd le fo r o ther w i se the fo regro u nd bec o m e s
,

in c o nven iently l a rge a n d the b a c kgro u nd i n co nveniently

,

s m a ll. Thi s i s s i m ply a n o ther w a y o f bringing the wh o le

s ubj e c t i n t o the pl a ne o f the pi c ture The se step s o f r o ck
.

h a ve been frequen tly e m pl o yed by S i r E Bu rne J o ne s .

-
,

Wh ile a s i m il a r a rr a n ge m ent o f a fli ght o f s te p s i s o n e

292 F IG U RE D RA WING A ND CO MPO S ITIO N

of the co m m o ne st m et h o d s
ng a rti st s o f c l assi c t aste
a mo .

O n e re a so n fo r t h e u se o f the se step s i s t o get the figure

,

high u p the pi c ture with o ut h av i ng a l so a huge length o f

,

fo regro und The m a n age m en t o f the per spe c t i ve a l so a ffe c t s

.

the rel a tive si z e o f the fig u re s The gre a ter the di s t a n c e .

o f t h e spe c t a t o r befo re t h e pi c ture the m o re equ a l i n s ize ,

F IG . 1 80 .
—St
1 . Lu k e, Mo sa i c Ra ven n a ; 2 C o rregg i o
at .
'
s
‘
Ec c e IIo mo
'

;
3 . k
D ea th o f A ig i sth o s fro m a G ree vase .

will the figure s be Thu s i f o n e figu re be S i x feet behind

.
,

a n o ther it will a ppe a r very m u c h s m a ller th a n the figure

,

i n fr o nt i f the s pe c t a t o r i s ne a r ; but it will be m uch m o re

,

equ a l with it i n size if the spe c t a t o r i s further a w a y Fig

,
. .

1 8 1 A a n d B will illu s tr a te thi s a n d will de m o n str a te the ,

fa c t th a t if the pro p o rti o n between the di st a n c e o f the o n e

fi gure b a ckw a rd a n d o f t h e spect a t o r fo rwa rd be ma i n
, ,
2 94 F IG U R E D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

ap pro x i m a tely equ a l i n s ize if the spe c t a t o r be reg a rded

,

a s fa r i n fr o nt O f the pi c ture It will be fu rther n o ti c ed

.
,

th a t a gre a t de a l m o re be a uty o f fo r m c a n be go t i nt o the

l o ng di st a n c e perspe c tive a s sh o wn in B Thi s c a n be
-

, .

very c le a rly seen i n the repre sent a ti o n o f c ir c le s o n the

p ave m ent in b o th di agr a m s There c a n be n o d o ubt th a t
.

the s i m il a rity i n size o f the figure s i n S i r E Burne J one s s .

-
’

G o lden S t a irs c a n o nly be a c co unted fo r in thi s w a y .

While l o ng di st a n c e per spe c tive thu s fl a t ten s the de sig n

-

a n d render s it m o re suit a ble fo r p er m a nent de c o r a ti o n i t ,

i s a ppr o pri a te i n the se w o rk s fo r a n o ther re a so n n a m ely , ,

th a t w e exp ec t t o V iew pers o n s repre sented i n m o n u m ent a l ,

th a t i s l a rge per m a nent de c o r a tive w o rk s a t a d i st a n c e

, , ,
.

The pi c ture p a inter s gener a lly try t o m a ke u s feel we a re

w z tfi the per so n s repre sented hen c e thi s sh o rt di st a nce
’

-
,

per spe c tive .

It see m s t o h a ve bee n a rule i n de c o r a t i ve a rt o f a l l

ti m e s t o keep the t w o s ide s O f the c o m p o siti o n m o re o r
,

le ss sy m m etri c a l In the G reek v ase s ( Fig 1 8 0 3 ) thi s

. .
,

o ften t a ke s the fo r m o f a fi gure in c o m p a r a tive re o se a t

p ,

eit her side o f a gro u p i n m o re vi o lent a c ti o n o r a figure ,

i n a m o re v a ried p o siti o n Thi s kind o f c o m p o siti o n m ay

.

be sy m b o lized by tw o o r three verti c a l line s a t either side ,

a n d a c urved fo r m sa y a spir a l
,
between the m a n d i s in, ,

deferen c e t o the sp irit o f a r c hite c ture S t a bility a n d e q u il i .

b ri u m e m pl o y a n d a re typified by the verti c a l line

,
It i s
,
.
,

there fo re very s u it a ble th a t a s the c o m p o siti o n ne a rs i ts

, ,

b o rder s it sh o uld be co m e le ss a n d le ss intere s ti n g a n d

, ,

m o re a n d m o re i n a c c o rd a n c e with the a r c hite c t u r a l

prin c i p le Thi s dying a w a y o f the i n tere st fr o m the c entre
.

t o the s ide s i s t o be n o ti c ed i n m a ny o f the c o m p o s iti o n s

,

o f R a ph a el The ter m a r c hite c ture i s i n thi s sen se a pplied

.

t o a l l m a n ner o f c o n stru c ti o n a n d n o t m erely t o building

,
.
 C O MPO S IT IO N

It i s gener a lly held n o w — a d a y s th a t the figure s h o u ld

-

n o t be u sed a s a s u pp o rt Thi s i s p erh a p s quite right

. .

It i s h o wever re m a rk a ble h o w m a ny i n st a n c e s there a re

, , , ,

even i n the very be st peri o d s G reek thirteenth c entury , , ,

a n d e a rly Ren a i ss a n c e i n whi c h i t h a s been so e m pl o yed

,
.

The o n ly r u le th a t i s sa fe t o o b serve i s th a t the l a w i s ,

i m p o sed up o n m edi o c rity a n d th a t it i s d a nger o u s fo r

,

a n y de s igner t o a ss u m e th a t he d o e s n o t c o m e within

th a t c a teg o ry M a n y thi n g s there a re whi c h m ay n o t

.

F IG . 1 82 .

be per m itted befo reh a nd whi c h m a y be c o n d o ned o n

,

c o m pleti o n .

It i s well e spe c i a lly i n dec o r a t i ve s ubj e c t s t o h a ve

, ,

the c o rner s o c c upied by so m e p a rt o f the subj e c t It .

w ould h o weve r be wr o ng t o twi s t a figure a b o ut i nt o a

, , ,

p o siti o n it w o uld n o t n a tur a ll y t a ke i n o rder t o do thi s ,

.

Befo re c o m m en cin g the figure s with i n the sp a c e c a re ,

sh o uld be t a ke n t o a sc ert a i n whether it i s su it a ble fo r

o n e t w o o r m o re figure s
, ,
If it i s t o o wide fo r a s t a ndin g
.

figure a se a ted o n e wil l perh a p s do It w a s by n o m e a n s

, .

u nc o m m o n i n G o thi c t i m e s t o put in extr a figure s t o fi l l

, ,
2 96 F IG URE D RA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

v a c a n c ie s a lth o ugh the subj e c t w a s c o m plete with o ut the m

,

a n d i n d o ing thi s they did better th a n did the a rti s t s o f

,

the l a ter Ren a i ssa n c e when t hey fluttered dr a perie s a n d , ,

in o ther l ike w a ys exp a nded the subje c t where n o su c h ,

exp a n si o n w a s w a rr a nt a ble .

If p o ss ible a l l t he p a rt s o f the figure sh o uld s h o w a n d

, ,

c a re m u s t be t a ken n o t t o a l l o w a n y p a rt t o c u t o ff a

little fr om a figure whereby it a ppe a rs a s if dr a wn t o o

,

thin Further in o verl a p p ing figure s o r li m b s i t will be

’

, ,
.

fo und th a t they interfere le ss with o n e a n o ther if they

c r o ss a t right a ngle s .

Then a ga i n if the b o rder c o ver p a r t o f the figure it m u st

n o t c o ver m u c h o r the figure will S,
ee m t o be behind it .

86 . Al l the F ig u re to be s ho w n ,

IT w a s l
prin c iple a m o ng the o l d m a sters t o sh o w
a so a

a s m uch o f a figure a s p o ss ible Thi s w a s perh a p s due .

, ,

t o the fa c t th a t the m o re c o m pletely a figure i s sh o w n ,

the m o re co m pletely will i ts perso n a lity be re a lized The .

o b serv a n c e o f thi s pri n c iple w a s so gener a l i n de c o r a tive

a rt a s t o be a l m o st i m pera ti ve It i s re m a rk a ble w i th .

wh a t s kill the o l d de signer s were a ble t o gr o up t o gether

a nu m ber o f figure s a n d yet s h o w a gre a t de a l o f a l l o f
,

the m R aph a el see m s t o h ave p a rti c ul a rly ende a v o ured

.

t o sh o w the wh o le length o f the figure Thu s i n h is .

,

‘
C h a rge t o Peter ne a rly a l l the fig u re s a re sh own a t
,
’

their full le n gth a n d m o st o f h i s c o m p o siti o n s a re c h a r a c

,

t e ri z ed by a s i m il a r tre a t m ent The w o r s t ex a m ple fr o m .

the o l d m a sters i s perh a p s the Ec c e H o m o o f C o rreggi o ’

,

i n o u r Na ti o n a l G a llery ( Fig 1 8 0 The C hri st i s a. .

,

h a lf length figure but a l l the o thers a re fra g m ent s The

-
,
.
2 9 8 F IG U R E D R A WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

c h a rge c o uld h a rdly be br o u ght a g a in st Re m br a ndt s b u t ’

a n ex a m i n a ti o n o f h i s el a b o r a te c o m p o s iti o n s will S h o w

th a t he O b served the pri n c iple o f a c o m plete repre sent a ti o n

of a fa c e even m o re rigidly th a n R a ph a el bec a u s e he ,

gener a lly a ll o w s hi m sel f very m u c h le ss sp a c e t o w o rk

‘
i n In h is H undred G uilder print a re fo rty figure s
.
’

m a n y ne c e ssa rily repre sented by he a d s o nly In the d a rk .

s ide o f the pl a te a re t w o he a d s whi c h a re c u t o ff bel o w

, ,

but they a re s o di m ly seen i n the gener a l gl o o m o f th a t

p a r t th a t it i s d i ffi c ult t o m a ke very m u c h o u t If the se
, .

t w o he a d s be o m itted there i s o n ly o n e fa c e c u t s h o rt
, ,

a n d th a t so s lightly a s n o t t o i n terfere i n the le a s t with

the i nte n ti o n o f the figure It i s the h e a d o f the c ripple

.

on the right o f the c e n tre ; but o f the fa c e o n ly the tip ,

o f the n o s e the m o uth a n d the c hi n a re hidden A l l

, , .

w h o h a ve s ee n Re m br a ndt s et c hing s kn o w th a t i n the m

’

every fa c e h as a c o m plete hi st o ry written i n it ; every

perso n c o uld a s i t were be fo ll o wed h o m e a n d the v a ri o u s
, , ,

c ir c u m st a n c e s o f h i s c o nditi o n be n o ted It i s und o ubtedly .

be ca u se o f thi s gre a t i n tere st whi c h he thre w i nt o every

,

fa c e a n d with o ut whi c h he c o u ld n o t dr a w the m th a t he

, ,

e n de a v o ured t o sh o w the fe a ture s a s c o m pletely a s p o ssible .

T h e e x p ress io n o f vi o lent a cti o n m u st be a v o ided It

s

IS no t n e c e ssa ry h o wever t o kee p the figure s ti m idly

, ,

s tr a ight A l l th a t o n e h a s t o do i s t o prevent li m b s in
.

very d efi n ite a c ti o n sh o wing i n their n a tur a l thin a n d

a ngul a r m a n n er a n d thi s c a n be d o n e with dr a pery
, ( S e e .

the c entr a l figure o f Fig 1 7 3 a n d s ee p .

,
.

If a fig u re h a s t o be elev a ted by a n extr a s t o ne bene ath

i t s fo o t o r t o h o ld t o a b o u gh let the p a r t the fo o t re st s
, ,

up o n o r h a nd h o ld s be a le sser p a rt o f the st o ne o r b o ugh .

O therwi se the pr o ppi n g will be p a infully evident .

W e sh o uld a v o id i n de c o r a tive w o rk s p l a c m g o n e thing

 C O MPO S IT IO N 2 99

befo re a n o t h er a s w he n bra n c he s o f a tree g o be h i nd a

,

figure fo r su ch a rr a nge m ent s sugge s t d i st a n c e a n d de m a n d

,

the expre ss i o n o f i t It i s well h o wever fo r there t o be

.
, ,

som e o verl a pping a s it c o m bine s the

,
de s ign ; but the
p a rt s c r o ssed sh o ul d be a s s m a l l a n d sub o rdin a te a s
p o ssible .

The sa m e fo r m sh o uld n o t be repe a ted i n a c o m

p o siti o n Th a t i s t o sa y t w o he a d s s h o uld n o t be a like
.

‘
,

i n p o s iti o n n o r sh o uld t w o ben t a r m s m eet a t the elb o w s

, ,

fo r m i ng a ki nd o f c r o ss .

87 . Th e P o in t Of S ig h t .

T HE hief p o int o f i ntere st ne a rly a l w a y s o c c ur s a t o r

c

ne a r the c entre o f the pi c t u re fo r when o n e l o o k s a t a ,

p er s o n o r a n o bj e c t o f a n
y ki n d o n e o f c o ur s e m a ke s th a t ,

o bj e c t the centre O f o ne s vi s i o n If therefo re a fr a m e ’

.
, ,

were pl a c ed r o und a n y fa c t i n n a ture whi c h h a ppened t o ,

fo r m t h e s ubj e c t o f o b serva ti o n the subj e c t w o u ld be fo un d ,

t o o c cupy a p o s it i o n i n the m iddle o f the fr a m e A fig u re .

i s n o t h o w ever a lw a y s fo und pl a c ed cen tr a lly ; Fig 1 8 3

, , .
,

1 and 3 i llu str a te the t w o different tre a t m ent s o f the

,

sa m e s ubj e c t A n d so it m a y be t a ken a s a rule th a t

.
, ,

the o bj e c t o f fi rs t i ntere s t g o e s t o the m iddle o f the c o m

p o s iti o n If h o wever t w o figu re s o r gr o up s O f fi gure s
.
, ,

d ivide the i n ter es t a n d the subj e c t requi re s a n a m o u n t o f

,

s p a c e between the m then they wil l o cc u r so m ewh a t equ i

,

d i st a nt fr o m t h e centre Thi s tre a t m en t h a s been very .

l a rgely e m pl o yed by M r W Q O rc h a rdso n It m ight . . . .

be s a id i ndeed th a t the gr o u n d pl a n o f wh a t dr a m a ti st s
”
-

, ,

c a ll the s itu a ti o n o cc u r s m idw a y withi n the pi c tu re

“
, 7

thu s frequently the s ubj ect re so lve s it self i nt o three o r

m o re gr o up s .
3 00 F IG U R E D R A W ING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N
’

The h o riz o n sh o uld a lwa y s be within the field a l l o tt ed t o

the s u bj e c t Pa ve m ent s h aving line s v a n ishing t o the
!

c e n tre o f the h o riz o n h a ve the c o ntr a ry line s p a ra llel t o

the l o w er b o rder but if the c o m p o s iti o n i s wide i t i s well

,

F IG . 1 84 .
—( H e re th e c o m p o si ti on i s b a l a n ce d upon th e ce n t re l i ne .

S o me wh at as w i th a steel - y a rd th e i m p o rta n t p a rt i s n ea r th e ce n tre .

)

to u rve the h o r i z o nt a l l ine s up a l i ttle a s they a ppr o ac h

c

the side s If the p a ve m ent d o e s n o t v a n i sh t o the a b so lute

.

c entre the c o ntr a ry l ine s m u s t n o t be ex a ctly h o r i z o nt a l .

88 . Th e Va l u e o f P ro fi l e .

IT h a s been re m a rked i n the p a r agra p h o n c o ncept i o n ,

p a ge 8 th a t the pr o file i s m o re i n telligible th a n fo re

,

s h o rteni n g a n d s h a di n g for a lth o ugh a n edu c a ted per so n

,

c a n u nder s t a n d the s e m e a n s o f expre s s i o n p erfe c tly well ,

yet j u st a s the pr o file i s m o re re a dily u nderst o o d by the

u nedu c a ted it m a in t a in s i t s pre c eden c e o ver the o thers in
,

the u nder s t a ndi ng o f the cultured A pro fi le i s th a t .

 3 0 2 F IG U R E D RA WING A ND C O MPO S IT IO N

the ect a t o r A n d i n Fren c h A rt under L o ui s X IV

sp .
, .

a n d L o ui s X V the a rti st s were never tired o f re p re

.
,

s enting figure s flyi n g i n the a i r i n the m o s t re m a rk a ble ,

o f p o s i ti o n s .

89 . C o n c l u sio n .

T HE Ren a i ssa n c e c o vering the l ast fo ur hundred ye a r s

o r m o re t a ke s i t s n a m e fr o m the reviv a l o f c l a ssi ca l le a rning

by whi c h it i s di s tingui shed To the h i st o ri a n thi s reviv a l .

i s o f the gre a te st i ntere s t but o f even gre a ter i s the ,

devel o p m en t a n d de c a y o f M o n a r c hi sm The c e n tr a l .

prin c iple o f Mo n a r c hi sm i s unque s ti o ning sub o rdin a ti o n

o f the i nd i v i du a l t o a c entr a l a uth o rity o ver whi c h there

i s n o c o ntr o l Thi s i nv o lve s the co m plete a b o liti o n o f

.

c o n sc i o u s freed o m but i n the h a nd s o f a C r o m well i t

,

i m p o se s s u c h regul a ti o n s a s a ll o w the individu a l a l l the

freed o m he c o uld c l a i m o r de sire Mo n a r c hi sm a t i ts .

be st en a ble s a m an i n c a p a ble O f self g o vern m ent t o live -

the life he hi m self w o u ld c h o o se It i s n o t co nfi ned t o .

p o liti c s but m a y a l so h o ld swa y i n b oth religi o n a n d a rt

, .

Every o n e a d m it s th a t L o ui s X IV w a s L e G r a nd .

M o n a rque a n d he ruled i n a rt a s wel l a s i n everything

,

el se M o n a r c hi s m thu s set i t s h a nd up o n a rt a n d sa id to
.
,

the a rti st n o t wh a t c a n yo u do a n d wh a t c a n yo u feel !

, ,

,
s ,
—
but c a n yo u do thi c a n yo u feel thi s fo r n o thing el se
i s a d m i ssible .

A n d thi s m o n a r c hi sti c c o ntr o l O f a rt c o uld n o t h a ve

been so c o m plete i n a n y peri o d but the Ren a i ssa n c e .

Pe o p le do n o t intuitively u n der s t a n d a ph a se O f a rt
a lt o gether fo reig n t o their l a nd a n d ti m e espe c i a lly if it ,

be o nly inc o m pletely seen O n ly th o s e w h o were a ble t o .

re c e i v e s u c h an e duc a ti o n as m a d e t h e m a c qu a i nted with

-
 C O MPO S IT IO N 3O 3

the det a il s o f the o ut w a rd fo r m Of a c iviliz a ti o n a cc epted

a t the t i m e a s the be st a n d therefo re o nly m o del c o uld
, , ,

either a p preci a te o r p r o du c e w o rk s i n the c h o sen m a n ner .

U n fo rtun a tely it w a s o nly the s tyle a n d exter n a l a spe c t o f

the c l a ssi c fo r m s whi c h e n g a ged the s t u dent s a ttenti o n ’

n o t the s piri t w hi c h h a d i n G ree c e o r R o m e pr o du c ed

th o se fo r m s It w a s therefo re within the gra sp o f a n y o n e

.

w h o c o uld a b s o rb c l a s si c det a il t o be c o m e a c riti c o f a rt .

The true e sse n c e o f c riti c i s m the c o m p a ri so n o f re su l t with

,

the de m a nd s o f o ne s o w n be st n a tive feeling w a s l o s t

’

, ,

a n d the d rie s t fo r m u li s m s ub s tit u ted O n e c a n o nly w o rk

.

i n su c h a n a rt by be co m ing u nthinkingly a n d u n feeli ngly

dev o ted t o i t A n d thi s bli n d devo ti o n rui n s re a l a rt
. .

R a bel a i s e a rly in the Ren a i ssa n c e sa w th a t yo u sh o uld

“
do a s yo u like
” .

M en livi n g u nder si m il a r c o nditi o n s wi ll w h en d o ing

,

wh a t ple a se s the m selve s pro du c e thi ng s s i m i l a r a n d thi s

, ,

i s h o w the v a ri o u s s tyle s o f the p a s t were pr o du c ed a n d ,

n o t by a n y K ing L o ui s s a ying do thi s o r th a t, .

The sc eptre o f L o ui s p a ssed t o th e e st a bl i she d A c a de

m ie s ; a n d so the pr o fe ss i o n be c a m e ex c lu s ive a n d i t s ,

m a ster s were c a reful t o keep a rt a m o ng the c l o ud s R u le s .

,

pri n c iple s pre c ept s a n d m a xi m s were t o be fo u nd i n

, ,

gre a t pr o fu si o n b u t i ntelligible o n ly t o the i n iti a ted the

, ,

c o n n o i sseur s o r More w h o k n ow
, .

D uring the l a s t fi fty ye a r s t h e p o wer o f M o n a r c hi s m

i n a rt h a s sen sibly de c lined Ph o t o gr a phy a n d ste a m
.

l o co m o ti o n h a ve pl a c ed a t o u r d o o r s so m a ny v a rying
ex a m ple s th a t i t i s pl a in th a t the kin d O f a rt whi c h h a s
i ts e st a bli sh m ent a m o ng u s i s by n o m e a n s u niver sa l ,

a n d t h a t th o u sa nd s o f pe o ple h a ve bee n h a ppy with o u t

i t A n d pri n c iple s a re j o stled s o rudely th a t w e c o m e

.

a t leng th t o se e t h a t w e c a n a n d perfo r c e m u st do a s
“
, ,
3 4
0 F IG U R E D R A W ING A ND C O MPO S IT IO N

we like . O n ly
th a t p a r t o f o u r w o rk whi c h c o m e s fro m
o ur own he a rt s wil l be ple a sure g i v m g o r in a n y w a y
-
,

ex p re ss ive ; wh a tever w e do be c a u s e it i s p r o per t o be

d o ne o r be ca u se so m e o n e sa ys it sh o u ld be will be so
, ,

m u c h de a d weight u p o n o u r l ittle geni u s .

W hile we m u st n o t bind o u r selve s t o a n y m a n s p ri n ’

c ip l e s w e g a in by sca n n i n g the m be c a u se it i s pr o b a ble

,

w e a re negle c ti n g prin c i p le s equ a lly i nheren t i n o u r o w n

n a ture s but d o r m a n t o r o ver c r o wded i n so m e w a y o r o ther

, , .

The p r a c ti c e o f a rt req u ire s I a m s u re a s m u c h the

, , .

tr a i n ing O f o u r m o r a l n a t u re a s the tr a i n ing o f h a nd a n d

eye Prin c i p le s o f a rt a re b a sed o n th a t m o r a l sub str a tu m
.

up o n whi c h a l l c h a r a c ter i s buil t The a rti s t m u st do

.

thing s whi c h ple ase h i m sel f a n d m u st thr o w t o the w i n d s

,

the m o n a r c hi sti c pri n c iple o f d o ing wh a t i s a p p ro ved o r

by l a w e st a bli sh ed .

If o u r fi r s t precept m u st be t o do a s w e like a n d t o ,

ple a se o u r selve s o u r se c o nd m u st be t o a ppr o ac h a l l thing s

,

i n su c h a spirit a s t o do fu ll j usti c e t o thei r delic a c y o f

c o n s tr u c ti o n o r be a uty o f fo r m
,
W a rned by the S elective
.
~

Ide a li s m with which the c ent u ry o pened a n d the Ro m a n t i ,

c ism whi c h fo ll o wed i t the re a li st s o f t o da y p u r sue

,
-

a c t u a lity with so m eti m e s a n u nwillingne ss t o se e deli c a cy

a n d be a uty where they exi st . They kn o w o n ly t o o well

the err o r a n d d a n ger o f l o o ki n g a t n a ture thr o ugh r o se
ti nted o r green sp e c t a c le s ; a n d they w o uld r a ther be
a c c u sed o f n a sty re a li sm th a n p rettine ss Ide a li s m m u st
.

be left fo r th o se w h o c a n ide a lize o r r a ther fo r th o se wh o se

,

th o ght m et a m o r p h o se s their w o rk in t o ide a l fo r m s ; but

u

the o n ly s u re gr o u n d fo r the studen t i s A c tu a li sm with

wi llingne ss t o s ee deli c a c y o f co n stru c ti o n a n d be a uty o f
fo r m The true ide a li st never kn o ws th a t he ide a lize s
.
.

Th o se w h o po rtr ay th a t whi c h i s no t b efo re the m ru n

3 O 6 F IG U RE DRA WING A ND C O MPO S ITIO N

Pi c t o r i a l di spl ay s fa c t s o f life a n d experien c e o rn a

a rt ,

m ent a l a rt seek s fi r st t o m a ke life be a utiful The t w o .

n a tura lly cr o ss o r o verl ap but with o u t i n a n y w a y n eutr a l

,

i zi n g o n e a n o ther when pi c t o ri a l a rt enter s int o t he

,

p a ge a n t o f life o r o rn a m ent a l a rt exhibit s n atur a l

,

fo r m s fo r the se m u st nece ssa r i ly be subj ect s o f i ntere st

,

o r experien c e .

C o nventi o n a lity i s si m ply s uit a bility so th a t the gre ater ,

the de m and s o f suit a bility the m o re co nventi o n a l be co m e s

the re sult O n e a lway s h as t o c h o o se o ne s m e a n s Of
.
’

expre ss i o n even fo r p i c t o ri a l w o rk ; whether it sh a ll be

,

c l a y ink c o pper o r p a i nt ; a n d thi s c h o i c e i s it s elf a n a c t

, , ,

o f c o nventi o n a lity T o thi s h a s o nly t o be a dded the

.

a d a pt a ti o n t o the li m it s o f the p a per o r c a nv a s a n d a l l ,

the de m a nd s o f su i t ability a re enu m era ted In de co ra tive .

a rt there a re o f c o ur s e gre a ter de m a nd s a n d the se m u st ,

be supplied with o ut tren ch ing a t a l l up o n re a li sm .

The m e a n s o f expre ss i o n a s deter m i n ed by suit a bility

h a s n o thing wh a tever t o do with the de s ign s being de c o r a
tive in ste a d o f p i c t o ri a l T a ke the c ase o f a thi c k o utline
.

whi c h i s gener a lly reg a rded a s a de c o ra tive m e a n s : i t h a s

n o thing t o do with the de c o r a tive su it a bility o f a de sign .

S u c h a s uit a bility i s deter m i ned by the pre sen c e o f the

de c o r a tive l a w s o f even di stributi o n i mpl ying ri c hne ss ;
-
,

legibility which rej ect s vi o lent fo re sh o rteni n g ; fl a tne ss

, ,

o r l a c k o f pr oj e c ti o n whi c h i s p a rti c ul a rly h o s tile t o str o ng

,

s h a ding o r a er
,
i a l per spective ; h a r m o ny w ith the c o n
s tru c tive sc he m e &c Therefo re a c o m p o siti o n i s n o t
,
.

m a de de c o r a tive by a d ding a thi c k o u tline un le ss it h a s ,

h a d de c o r a tive qu a litie s befo re .

T h e rule t o fo ll o w i s t o a d o pt su c h m e a n s ( wh ether
o utline ,
ti nt s o f c o l o ur l o w relief i n c i sing & c ) a s a re
,
-
, ,
.

s u i t a ble fo r the purp o se in h a nd a n d with the m t o re a li z e ,

 C O MPO S ITIO N 39 7

l ely a s p o ssible Th i s i s w h a t the G reek s d id when

as c o s .

de c o r a ti n g the i r v a se s .

The o nly O pp o s ite t o Re a l i sm i s u ntruth The co n .

v e n t i o n a l i t y o f whi c h the re a li s t c o m pl a i n s i s m et h o d o u t

o f pl a c e ,
a s dir t i s m a tter o u t o f pl a c e D e sign er s a re .

a p t t o fa n c y a n d b o a s t th a t dec o r a tive a rt i s hig her th a n

, ,

pi c t o ri a l a s i f either c o uld be the h igher th o ugh a w o rk

, ‘ ,

o f the o n e m a y excel a w o rk o f the o ther They a ll o w .

the m selve s t o t h in k they need m a ke n o effo rt to re a lize ;

and t h a t every err o r i s ex c u sa ble u n der t h e ple a o f
c o nven t i o n a lity .

Ex a ctly w h a t m e a n s o f expre ss i o n sh o uld be a d o pted

i n de c o ra ting thi s o r th a t o bj e c t m u st be deter m i ned by ,

the exer c i se o f t h a t fa c ulty o r j udgment w h i c h sh o uld ,

m a rk the a rti s t fr o m o ther m e n It i s entirely a m a tter

.

o f t a s te
.

In c l o s i ng th i s b o o k w e m a y n o t do i ll t o wr i te d o wn
t h e fo ll o wi ng precept s — fl

Do as y ou l i ke .

P l ea se y ou rs elf ; or y ou w il l y/ea se a o oue .

Ad ou t l ook
'

u a l zz e, bea u ty
f or .

R ea l i z e m el fi oa s
’

z u s u z ta o
'

/e ’
.

Ma ke Me m ore of m odest m ea u s .
3 Io IND EX

D i stan ce i n c o m p osi t on , 2 9 2 i F em al e l ii ac c rests to sh o w b ut del i

r y
D a p er , 2 5 0 et seq . c a tel y, 1 14
r
D aw i n g, c on s ru c ve, 1 9 t ti i l ia c c res s l ess an gul ar an d t
D i n er, A l b er ( 1 4 7 1 t 18, 89, m o re h o ri o n al , 1 1 8 z t
2 55, 2 72 l ow e r l i m b c o m p a red w i th
D ut c h p a i n ti n g, c h a ac er o f, r t 1 3, 1
5 m a l e, 2 4 5
i q y
l o n s, o b l i u e l p l a ced, 1 3 7
a pp aren t
l en g th o f, 1 1 9
Ear, 8 7 n ec k 9 95 1,
y ti t
,

Eg p a n p a in i ng, 3 n o se, s ra t i g ht d w er an n a rro e r,

El b o w b o n es o f 1 6 1 , 1 6 2
, , 83
El b ow j oi n t 1 6 0
-
, p l i
e v s, w i d d d p r b t er an ee e u
it
,
Em ph asi s i n co m p o s i on , 2 7 1 , 2 72 , 2 73 l t ll
e ss 8 a 11
r t
,

E ec o r sp i n ze m usc l e 1 2 7 , p l i
e v s, f l l f r w d 18
a s o ar 1
t y
,

Exp l an a o r a rt, 4 , 3 0 6 r ib b l i q ity f fi t 9 4

,
o u o rs

iti
,

compo s p wh t on , u on a sa c ru m w id 12 8 , er,
l w b d 6 6
a s a se ,
2 1, 2 2 h ld
s ou m r e rsti i o e co n n uo us n
Ex pr i f bj t
ess o n o 4
su ec , 1, f m w ith
or m 14 ar ,
1
Ex t m
en so r l ff usc es o m 74 o re - a r , 1 s k l l b l i q i ty f 9 4
u ,
o u o ,

p i di
c ar l i l g rai m la s on or u sc e th i g h 2 3 46,
0, 2
ff mo 74 o re - a r , 1 th x l
o ra ,
q r d ess s ua e an

p i d
c ar i l i b rai m la s rev o r u sc e m ll r
s a 9 e 11
ff r
,

mo 74 o e - ar ,
1 t ru nk 4 47 ,
11 ,
1

p i l
c ar i m l f
u n ar s f u sc e o o re w i t l a s g dm on
p p l er a n o re su e,

m 75 ar , 1 148
mm co i di gi t r m m un s l F m o u usc e e u r, o r t h i gh b 2 6 -
o n e, 0
ff mo 74 9
o re - a r 99 F ib l , b 1 fl g ,
1 7 2, 1 9 u a, on e o e , 20 , 20
i di i m l f f n c s m F ig
u sc e wh l
o 9o re - a r ,
ure a s a o e, 2

7S I ll t b h w i mp t H a o e s o n n co o sI l o n ,
l g di git r m m
on us l f o u 96 usc e o 2
l g e 7 , 2 10, 2 1 i d r ti 8 n e co a on , 2 1

p l li i m o l c s f f m u sc es d o pp t o re - a r 95 ,
u se a s a su or ,
2

74 9 I ,
I 0 Fi l l i g f p 75 79 n o s a c es, 2 ,
2

p p i p lli i
ro r us m l f Fi g o 94
c s u sc e o n e rs, 1
l g e , 7 Fi i h
2 10 , 2 1 2 , 2 1 4 n s ,
1
Ex t l
e rn a bl iq m
o l ue 3 35 F l b b y
u sc e, fl h th p 1 i d
2, f 1 36 9 ,
a es ,
e er o o , ,
0

22 1 Fl h pp r ti g h tl y d r w i R
es ,
a ea s a n n e

i 36 n a ssan c e,

ff t f g it ti p 3 4 e ec O ra v a on u on ,

F i l t
a sc a f th i gh
a a o 3 ,
2 1 fl bby t tm t f 3 6 9 a re a en o , , 0

F m l
e m
a e ar 83 1 h d tr tm t f b y D id 3 6 ar ea en o ,
av ,

r t
,

p p i f o or F l x m
on s o l f ,
f 2 02 m 75 e or u sc es o o re - a r ,
1
b
9 ,
t t t b li d p t
reas no o e re p i d i e l i m
u on l o f f 3 , car ra a s usc e o o re

xp e 4 re ss sex , m11 89 ar ,
1
b t h id reas f hi
,
eo u s l g asd i g it m
o n s conm l f l g on us o ru u sc e o e ,

i g 45 c e rn n , 1
br t t di t d f rw d
eas no l
re c e
g p l l i i o m ar l ,
f l g on us o c s usc e o e ,

44 I
b t il l tr t d 4
re as us F a et 37 ,
1 2 oo ,
2

h t c 43 es ,
1 b f 7 37 o n es o ,
20 ,
2
l b l ky ess4 F u m m ,
l
11 f 74 o re - a r usc es o , 1
tl i
,

m ll r
ea r, sd m r a h e an i o e o h p N ts ou n es e n c ro a c u on

l iq l y p l d 9
ue a ce th m
0 6 e ar ,
1 1
t
,

fig r u e,g l tr
a t F g en erad h w d l con w i t h as 9 o re ro un , o ea , 2 1

b tw it e d th m l e en 3 F an h t i g e i t l l i
a e, 2 g i b l t
0 o re s o r en n un n e e o nu

g i h l l w
ro n s r 8 a o d e t d 8
,
11 e uca e , ,
12
 IND EX 3 11

tr
G a s o cn em i us m usc l e o f c al f, 2 1 0 , 2 1 6 Leg , 2 0 7 e! seq .

t i i
G a h e r n g l n e i n co m p o s o n , 2 6 7
-
iti L eo n ardo da i n c i, 1 2 , 1 3 V
t
G es ure , 3 1 t i
L ev a o r an g ul sc a p u l ae m usc l e, 1 0 4
ir j
G h l an da o , D o m en i c o , G l s
’
e ad ir H L i g m en tum Nuch ae, 9 4
b y, 1 2 i
L n e, 4
tt
G io o ( 1 2 76 11 L i ps, 8 4
i
G u l i o Ro m a n o , 2 8 8 L o u i s X IV , 3 0 2 .

t
G l u e al m usc l es, 2 1 3 , 2 2 2 ty
L ou is X V , s l e o f w a l l de c o ra t io n ,
.

t xi
G l u eus m a m u s, 2 1 0 2 8 4
m i n i m us m usc l e o f h i p , 2 1 0 Lo we r l i mb ,
2 0 7 e! reg .

ti
G o h c dra w i n g, & c , 7 , 9 , 1 0 , 3 3 .

ii
G ra c l s m uscl e o f th i gh , 2 1 0 , 2 1 5
i ti t
G ra v ta o n , e ffec o f i t o n th e fl esh , Ma l l eo l us o r an k l e 2 1 8 ,

34 Ma ss l i n e i n g ro u p i n g 2 6 6 ,

G k
re e p i ti g
v a se a n n s, 2 9 2 , 30 7 Meta c a rp u s o r b o n es o f b o dy of h an d,
d p y 5 6 ra er ,
2

G i ro n of th bd m e a o en, 1 1 7, 2 06 Metatarsa l b o n es o f fo ot 2 3 7 ,

Gr pi g ou 65 t q
n ,
2 e se . Meth o d o f draw i n g 1 7 ,

Mo n arc h i sm i ts effect u p o n art 3 0 2

, ,

Mo n sters 2 88 ,

H a i r, 2 49 Mo u th 8 4 ,

H a l f- fi gu re, fo l i a t e d o r n o t, 2 89 Mo v em e n t o f b o n es o f trun k 1 2 6 ,

H a m str n i g, 225 Mu sc l es o f a rm 1 6 5 1 6 9 , ,

H an d, 1 89, 1 90, 19 1, 198 fa ce , 7 1

m o vem en t s o f, 1 85 r
fo e a rm , 1 7 3 -

H ea d, 47 et se
q . l eg, 2 1 6
to b e co m p l e t ly e sh o w n , n o t c u t , l o w e l m b , 2 10 r i
2 97 l o w e r l m b , em a r i r k s upo n ,

Hi p , 2 19 2 13
H l b i H th y
o e n, a n s, e o un
ge r, 1 3, 15 n ec k
9 6 , 1 0 4, 1 0 6
,

H iz t l l i h w
or on a n es, o val u ab l e in co m sh o u l de , 1 5 0 r
p iti 67
os on , 2 th igh , h o w a an g ed, rr 2 15
H m u m b
e rus o r a r -
o n e, 1 60
H y id b o f th t on e o ro a , 98
Neck , 9 1 ez seq
‘
.

No rth , dev e l o p m en t o f a rt i n th e , 13
Il i a c c res t , th e l i p of i
th e p el v s, 1 1 6 , No se ,
82
135, 1 5 6, 2 2 0
Im p ressi o n i sm , 9
In fra sp i n a tus m u scl e o f sh o u l de r,
-
1 50 O l e cra n on p ro c ess o f u l n a , 1 6 0
i i i y
In t el l g b l i t , 8 yi
O m o h o d m usc l e o f n e c , 1 00
-
k
t ti
In e n o n , 1 , 2 i
O s c al c s, b o n e o f h e e l 2 3 7 ,

Ita l i a n art, 1 0 , 1 2 , 1 9 ti
O u l n e, h o w e p ressi ve, 2 6 x
itn el l i
g bl e, 8 i
sam e fo r b o th b a c a n d fro n t k
J u
g u l ar v e i n ,
10 8 V ew s, i 2 70

K n ee, 2 30 , 2 48 ty
Pa l l adi an s l e o f w al l de c o rat i o n , 2 8 4
Pa l m a r su rfa ce o f h an d, 1 9 2
Pa l m a ri s l o n gu s m usc l e, 1 8 9
t
L a s S u pp er, des gn fo r, 2 7 1
’
i i
Pa ra l l e l sm i n gro up i n g, 2 6 7
t i
L a i ss m u s do rsi m u scl e , 1 2 8 , 1 7 2 t k
Pa e l l a o r n e e c ap , 2 1 4 , 2 3 0 -

Le Br
un , C h arl e s ( 1 6 1 9 36
’
t
Peasa n s, b y D ure r, I8
D e a h o f Me l e age r
’
t t
Pe c in eu s m u scl e o f th igh , 2 1 0
b y, 2 8 7 t j r
Pec o ral is m a o m uscl e o f ch es , 1 3 9 t
3 12 IND EX

Pec to ral i s m i n o r m uscl e o f ch est, 1 3 9 i

S e m ten d in o sus m usc l e o f th igh , 2 1 0
-

Pero n eu s b re vi s, l o n gus, an d t e It i u s t
S e rra us m agn u s m uscl e, I5 1
m u scl e s o f l eg, 2 10 , 2 1 6 , 2 1 8 S h a di n g, 2 7 , 30 6
i
Pe rsp ec t ve i n c o m p o si t i o n , 2 9 2 S h o u l der, 1 5 2
Ph al a n ges, b o n e s o f n ge rs, 1 6 0 , 1 9 4 fi S h o u l d e r b l a de , 1 4 9 -

n fi
S i n gl e g u re s i n sp a c es, 2 6 3
Pa i zz tt e a, G i a mb a ttl sta , e n g ra v m g s S o l e u s, l o w e r m uscl e o f c a l f, 2 1 0 , 2 1 6
a ft e r, 35, 37 x
S o l itu de , e p re ssi o n o f, 2 7 2
Pi cto ri a l a rt, n eeds i so l a t i o n , 2 8 1 S p a ce fi l l i n g , 2 6 3 , 2 7 5 , 2 7 9
-

Pi s ifO Im b o n e o f w ri st, 1 9 0 S p i n e o f sc a p u l a , 1 4 9
y
Pl a t s m a m yo ides m uscl e o f n e c , k 1 08 su p e ri o r a n t e ri o r, th e fo rw a rd
Po se , 3 1 ,
’
153 i
t e rm na ti o n o f t h e l ac c rest, ii
Po u p a rt l i ga m e n t , 1 1 7
s 1 16
i
Pro c ess o n a l c o m p o s ti o n , 2 9 0 i p o s t eri o r su eri o r o f i l i a c c rest,
p
fi
Pro l e, 8 , 3 0 1 IZ S
k
Pro n a t i o n , a i n d o f ro ta t io n o f fo re S p l e n i u s c ap i t is m u scl e o f n ec , 10 4 k
a rm , 1 6 2 t k
S a r l i e co m p o si ti o n , 2 7 8
-

Pro p o rti o n , h o w sec ured i n a draw n g, i y

S teel a rd, c o m p o si ti o n b a l a n ced as a ,
-

21 300
Pro p o rti on s o f w h ol e fig u re , 38 t
S e p s o f ro c i n fo re gro u n d, 2 9 1k
fa c e, 5 7 S t ern o c l e ido m a sto i deu s m u sc l e
- -
of
h ead, 5 5 k 95
n ec ,

l o wer l m b , 2 4 2 , 2 48 i St m e rn u or b rea s b o n e, 9 3 ,t -
12 0
n ec , 1 0 8 k S bj t I
u ec ,

t ru n , 1 46 , 1 5 5 k S p i ti
u na on of fo re a rm , 1 6 2 -

u p p er l i m b , 2 0 2 S u p i n a to r gi
ra d i l o n u s m u sc l e of fo re ~

y
P ra m i da l i s m u sc l e o f ab do m en , 1 3 6 a rm , 1 7 4

t
S u pp o r , th e g ure used fi a s, 2 95
S up ra sp in a tus m u sc l e of sh o u l de r ,

Rab el a i s, h i s a dvi c e, 3 0 2 1
5 0
Ra di us b o n e o f fo re a rm , -
1 60 y
S m me ty r in c o m p o srtron , 3 3, 2 9 4,
R a ph a e l , so m e c o m p o si ti o n s of h is 95 2
an al yz ed, 2 70, 2 96 S ym p h ysrs p ub i s, 1 17
R av en n a m o sa i cs, 2 9 1 , 2 9 2
Re a l ism , 3 0 5
Rec ta n g u l a r sp a c e l l in g, 2 7 9 fi T e n do A c h i l l i s o f l eg, 2 1 7
R ec tus a b do m i n i s m u sc l e , 2 1 1 , 2 1 4 Ten so r m uscl e o f th ig h , 2 1 1 , 2 2 4
fem o ri s m u sc l e , 2 1 1 , 2 1 4 j
Te res m a o r a n d m i n o r m usc l es, 1 5 0
Rem b ran d , I3 t Th i gh , 2 2 0 , 2 2 1 , 2 2 4 et seq 2 2 6, 2 2 7 .

his u n dred H
G u i l der b o n e o r fe m u r, 2 0 7
p r n t, 2 9 8 i m usc l es o f, h o w a rra n ged, 2 1 5
Rh o m b o ideu s m a o r m u scl e, 1 5 1 j i
sp l c ed i n o t h e h i p , 1 1 6 t
m i n o r m u sc l e, 1 5 1 i
Th rteen t h ce n tu r dra w n g, 7 , 1 0
-
y i
Rib s, 1 1 2 , 1 1 9 , 1 2 5 Th o ra ci c a rch , 1 2 1
Ro ck s i n fo regro un d, 2 9 1 va l u e o f i n dra w i n g a

i
fi g Ire b e n d n g b ac w a rds 1 1 5 i k
l h o ra x , 1 1 9
'

i
S a cro l u m b al s m u scl e , 1 2 7
-
Th ro a t , 9 8
S a cru m b o n e, 1 1 7 , 1 2 3 , 2 2 2 Th u mb , 2 00
t
S a r o ri us m u sc l e o f t hi gh , 2 1 0 , 2 2 4 e xt
e n so rs o f, 1 7 4 , 2 0 1

S ca l e n i m u scl es O f n e c , 1 04 k Ti b i a o r sh i n b o n e , 2 0 7 , 2 0 8 -

i
S c aph o d b o n e o f fo o t, 2 3 7 t i
w sted u p o n tse l f, 2 0 9 , 2 4 7 i
S ca p u l a o r b l a de b o n e , 9 3 , 1 0 1 , 1 5 0 ,
-
Ti b i a l i s an ti c us m u sc l e o f l eg, 2 1 0 , 2 1 7 ,
152 2 35
S em i m e mb ran osu s m uscl e
-
of th ig h 3 p os ti cu s m uscl e o f l eg, 2 1
3 ,
2 16

2 10 To rso or t run k ,
1 10
 C HA PMA N HA L L S ’

A RT P U B L IC A T IO NS
A B O O K O F S T U D IES IN PLA NT F O R M, W IT S O ME H
S U G G ES T IO NS F O R T EIR A PPL IC A T IO N T O D E H
S IG N W MID G L EY an d A E
. By L 1L L EY C o m p ri si n g o v e r 8 0
. . . V . .

dra w rn gs of t
p l a n s ( m o st l fu l l p ag e Il l ustra t o n s) , y -
i 20 ph o t o gra p h s fro m
Na ture , a n d 6 0 o rig i n a l de s gn s L a rge c ro w n 8 vo i . .
[In Me Press .

O n e of t he n ote s o f re ce n t de c o ra t i v e a rt h a s b e e n th e c o mp a ra t i ve di s u s e o f th e e l e m en t s
a n d fo rm s o f h i s t o ri c o rn a m e n t , an d i t s re t u rn t o a t u re fo r i n sp i ra t i o n T h e a u t h o rs, w h o N
h av e o ft e n h a d t ro u b l e i n fi n di n dra w i n s o f t h e o rn a m en ta l s i de o f m a n p l a n t s—w h ic h a re
g g y
.

g e n e ra l l yo u t o f s e a s o n wh e n w a n t e d —
h a v e t h o u h t t h a t o t h e rs, w h o h a v e fe l t t h e s a m e g
d i ffi c u l ty , w o u l d w e l c o m e a se ri e s o f m o re o r l ess dec o ra t i v e dra w i n g s a n d p h o t o g ra p h s fro m
N a t u re , c o n v e n i e n t i n si z e , a n d a t a p ri c e w h i c h w o u l d b ri n g i t w i t h i n th e re a c h o f a l l st u de n t s
g g gg g
.

A re a t n e e d o f b e i n n e rs , t o o , i s a c o l l ec t i o n o f m a t e ria l s a n d su e st i o n s fo r desi n Th e
y g y k y
.

a u t h ors c o n si de re d t h a t i t w o u l d a d d v e r l ar e l t o t h e u se fu l n e ss o f t h e i r w o r i f th e
sh o w e d h o w t h e i r p l a n t fo rm s c ou l d b e si m p l ifi e d a n d c o n v e rt e d i n t o o rn a m e n t , a n d so h a v e
g
i n c l u de d desi n s for sp a c e -fi l l i n g , b o rde rs, a l l o ve r p a t t e rn s, g e ss o , e m b ro ide r , t il es, w a l l -
y
p a p e rs , st e n c i l l i n g , p ri n t e d a n d w o v e n fa b ri c s, & c T h e h a v e a l so i v e n de sc ript rv e n o t e s o n
—
y g
In fo rm a t i o n so e sse n t i a l t o p ra c t i c a l de srg n rn g
.

t h e req u rre m en t s o f th e se p ro c es s es .

A RCH IT EC T U RE F O R G ENERA L R EA D ERS t w h i h i dd d o c s a e

Hi t i l S k t h f A hit t r By H H E H TE S H M
an s o r ca e c o rc ec u e . . AT CO TA T A .

With h d d f Il l tr ti b y t h A th r
un D my 8
re s o us a o ns e u o . e vo , 12 s .

T HE T HEO RY A ND PRA C T IC E O F D ES IG N A Ad d . n va n c e

T t b k ti A t B i g S q l t th A th L ’
D ex -
oo on e c o ra ve r . e n a e ue o e u or s esson s

D m
on D ig By F G J K N W i th 7 Il l t ti
eeo
‘ '

z zo e es n . . . AC SO . 00 u s ra on s .

L a rge c ro w n 8 vo , 9 s .

EL EMENT A RY D ES IG N b e n g a Th eo re i c al a n d Prac c al In tro du c i t ti

t i on in th e A rt o f D eco ra t i on R IC HA R D G A TT O N, D u rh a m . By . H
C o l l ege i
o f S c e n c e , Ne w c a s l e on T n e t
W th 1 1 0 Il l us ra o n s C ro w n - -
y . i t ti .

8 v o, 2 s
’
. 6a .

S i n ce i t h a s b ec o m e n ec e ssa r t o h a v e s o m e y k n ow e l d g e of
”
—
g de si n , t h ere h a s b e e n
k
p ub l i sh e d n o w o r so v a l ua b l e t o a b eg i n n e r a s thi s o f Mr Ha t t on s
.
’
. Tecl z n z oa l Wo rl a
’
'

A H
PRA C T IC A L A ND B O O K O F D RA W ING F Mdr : or o e n
r i
Meth ods of Rep o duct on By C H E G H E W i th m y . A RL S . A RP R . an

Il l tr ti h wi g ti lt C w 8
’
us mp a on s s 7 6 o n co a ra v e resu s . ro n vo , s . a .

EG Y PT IA N A RT By C H E R N l t H d M t f th V t . A RL S YA , a e ea a s er o e en n o r

S h l f A t c W ith 5 6 Il l t ti
oo o C w 8r 6d
. u s ra o ns . ro n vo , 2s . .

PR INC IPL ES O F O RNA MENT By J ME W Edi t d b y G . A S A RD . e .

A H N A R A
IT C F l l y Il l t t d
IS O C w 8
, 7 6d . . . u u s ra e . ro n vo , s . .

y
Adm i rab l a dap t e d t o serv e a s a te x t -
b oo k in a b ran ch of t e c h n ic a l e du ca t i o n w hi c h h a s
l o n g st o o d i n n e e d o f o n e Tl ze Tz m es
'

. .

V
D EC O RA T I E D ES IG N A n El em en ta r Te . y xt B k -
oo of Pri n c p l e s an d i
Prac ce Fti G AC SO N
. By
F ul l Il l u s . . J K . y t td ra e . Th rd Ed t i o ni i .

L arge c ro w n 8 vo , 7 s 6 d . .

“
T h i s i s o n e o f t h e b e st t e t - b o o s o n x k t h e su b ec t t h a t a t e a c h e r co u l d p l ace
j i n th e h a n ds of
y ou n g st u den ts o r c h o o se a s a c l ass-b oo k —P . o rt o l zo.f

LO N D O N : C H APMA N H A LL ,
LTD .
,

A g en l s to Me S ci en ce a n d A rt D ep a r t m en t .
 C HA PMA N 81 HA L L S A RT PU B L IC ATIO NS
’

T HE D EC O RA T IO N O F MET A L S : C h a srn g , Rep o ussé, a n d S aw

Pi e c n g O HNri . By J H A R RISO N . i
W th 1 80 Il l u s rati on s C ro w n t .

8 vo , 3 s 6 d . .

WOOD C A R ING IN T EO R
-
V
A ND PRA C T IC E, A S A P H Y
PL IED T O H
O ME A RT S , w i th No es o n D esign h av i n g S p e c al t i
ti t S ty l
,

A p pl i ca on C a rved W o o d i n D i fferen
to es . By F . L . S C HA ER U
MA NN . 1 2 4 Il l ustra t i o n s S e co n d Edi ti o n . . Im p . 8VO , 5 s .

y y
Th i s l av i sh l a n d b ea u t ifu l l i l l u s tra te d m a n u a l o f th e a rt o f w o o d c a rv i n c a n n o t fa il t o b e -
g
In v a l u a b l e t o a l l s t u de n t s o f t h a t fa sc n a t n
i p u rs u t w h e t h e r t h e p i g
ro p o s e t o p ra c t se It p ro i y i ”
i
,
y k
fe ssro n a l l y a s a c ra ft , o r S m p l t a e i t u p d ur n g l e su re h o u rs a s a n a m a t e u r re c re a t o n i i . i
.

A rl s a n d C raf f s .

HOO LS O F L O ND O N t
T

T HE A RT S C . A D esc ri p i o n o f th e Pri n c i p al
A rt S ch o o l s i n the L o n do n D is ic tr t By . MIS S T ERSA MA C ENZ IE K .

C ro w n 8 vo , 2 s .

S C IO G RA P HY
Paral l e l a n d Ra di a l Pro ec i o n o f S h ado w s
: o r, ein g j t . B
a x
C o u rse o f E e rc i ses fo r t h e u se o f S tu d en ts i n A rch i tec tu ra l an d
En gi n ee ri n g D ra w i n g R PRA T T, . By
e a d Ma s te r, S ch o o l o f S c i e n ce . H
a n d A rt, B
a rro w i n F u rn e ss Wi th n u m e rou s p l a tes O bl on g 4 to , 7 s 6 d
- -
. . . .

Mr k
Pra t t s w o r w i l l b e fo u n d o f e sse n t i a l v a l u e t o a rch i t e c t u ra l a n d
’
en gi n e e ri n g s t u de n t s
x i y
. .

Th e e erc i se s a re c l e a r a n d b r e f, a n d t h e p ro b l e m s w i l l , i f c a re fu l l s t u d i e d, p re v e n t t h e
gl a ri n g mi k sta m e t w i t h i n p e n a n d i n k a n d s h a de d c o l o u re d dra w in s o f b u l di n s
e s so o ft en - -
g i g
g x
.

A rt D e p a rt m e n t .
”—
T h e t re a t i s e i s w e l l a da p t e d fo r s t u de n t s p re p a ri n
B m l zl z n g New s
'
fo r t h e E a m i n a t io n s o f t h e S c i en c e a n d
.

EL EMENT A RY PR INC IPL ES O F O RNA MENT . By J A MES

WA R D . Il l u stra te d . 8 vo , 5 s; .

H A ND B O O K O F PER S PEC T I E V . By H J J ; . A MES , MA . . C an tb a .

W i th 7 5 D i agra m s . C rown 8 vo , 2s . 6d .

H INT S T O A MAT EU RS . A H a n db oo k on A rt . By LO U IS E J O PL ING .

W i th D i agram s . C ro w n 8 vo , 1s . 6d .

T EN L EC T U R ES O N A RT . By E J . . PO Y NT ER, R A . . Th rd Ed i iti on .

L a rge c ro w n 8 vo , 9 s .

T HE S C U L PT O R a n d A RT S T U D ENT S G U ID E to th e Pro p o r i o n s
’
t
of th e H
F o rm , w th Measu re m e n ts i n fe e t a n d i n c h es
u ma n i of fu l l g ro w n -

Fi gu res o f b o th S e es an d o f va ri o u s A ges x
T ra n sl a ed b y . t J J . . W RIG HT .

Pl a tes repro du ced b y S T C L IF F E O b l o n g fo l i o , 3 1 s 6 4 J . U . . .

O U T L INES O F IS T O R IC O R NA MENT H
Tran sl ated fro m . th e
G erm an Ed ted b y G RED G RA V E C ro w n 8 vo , 4s
. i . . .

T HE C H A RA C T ERIS T IC S O F S T Y L E A I t : n n ro du c t o n i t o th e
S t dy f th H i t y f O
u o m t l A t By R N W
e s or o rn a en a r . . . O R NU M . Nin th
Edi ti R y l 8
on 8 . o a vo , s .

L IF E IN A NC IENT EG PT A ND A S S R IA Y Y By G MA S PERO
v

. .
.

T ra n sl at e d b y A P MO RTO N W i th 1 8 8 Il l u s ra ti o n s
. . . t . T h i rd T h o usan d .

C ro w n 8 vo , 5 s .

L O ND O N : C H A PMA N H A LL ,
LT D .
,
 C HA PMA N HA LL S A R T PU B L IC AT IO NS
’

S OUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM ART HANDBOOKS .

HA ND S O MELY PRINT ED IN LA RG E C RO W N 8 v c .

Pzedl z sfi ed f or Me C om m i /tee f Me Edu ca t i on

'

o Cou n ci l on .

IRO NW O RK F r om th e Ea rl i es t T i m es t o th e En d o f th e Med i ae va l
By J S K E G NE W i th 5 7 Il l ustra t i o n s 3 s
.

Peri o d IA R
‘
I A RD R
'

. . . . .

EA R L Y C H R IS T IA N A RT IN IR EL A ND . By MA RG A RET
S K E W i th 6 W d t 4
TO S . 10 oo cu s . s .

T HE A RT O F T HE S A RAC ENS IN EG PT Y . By S TA NL EY
L A NE PO O L E, B A , W i th 1 0 8 Wo o dcu ts . . .
4s .

ENG L IS H PO RC EL A IN PRO F A C H R C H, . By . . H . U MA . . Wi th
n u m e ro u s W o o dcu ts 3s . .

R U S S IA N A RT A ND A RT O B EC T S IN R U S S IA J By A L FRED
MA S K EL L W i th Il l u stra ti o n s 4 s 6 d
.

. . . .

F R ENC H PO TT ERY By PA U L G A S NA ULT . an d ED O U A RD G A RNIER

W ith Il l ustra t i o n s an d Ma rk s 3 s
.

. .

ENG L IS H EA RT H ENW A R E By PRO F . A . H CH U RC H M A

Wi th n um ero us W o o dc uts 3 s
. . .
, .

. .

IND U S T R IA L A RT S OF D ENMA R K . By J J . A WO RSAA E

W ith Ma p
. .

Ho n F S A
. . . .
3 s 6d &c , &c . . an d W o o dc u ts . . .

IND U S T R IA L A RT S O F S C A ND INA IA IN T HE PA G A N V
T IME A NS
. IL D E R A ND By H
W h n u m e o us W o o dcu ts 2 3 6 a H B . it r . .
’
.

PR EC IO U S S T O NES . By PR O F . A . H . C H RC H, U MA . . W i th
n u m ero u s W o o dc u ts . 25 . 6d .

IND U S T R IA L A RT S O F IND IA S IR G EO RG E C . By M . B IR D
i
.

WOO D, &c W th Ma p a n d W o o dc u ts D e m 8 vo
. . y . 1 4s .

H A ND B O O K T O T HE D C E Y A ND
F O RS T ER C O L L EC
T IO NS i n th e S o u h K en s n g o n t i t Museu m Wi th Po i ra s as 6d .
-
t it . . .

IND U S T R IA L A RT S IN S PA IN . By J U AN F . R IA NO . With
n u m ero us W o o dc u t s .
4s .

G LAS S . By
A L EX A ND ER NES ITT B . Wi th n u m ero us Woo dcuts 2 3 6d . . .

G O L D A ND S IL ER S MIT S
’
V H W O RK By J O HN H U NG ERF O RD .

PO L L EN, MA . . W i th n um e ro u s Wo o dcu ts . 25 . 6d .

T A PES T RY By A . W i th Wo o dcuts L F R ED D E C HA MPEA U X . . 25 . 6d .

B RO NZ ES By C D E F O RT NU M P S A
. Wi th W o o dcu ts . . .
, . . . . 2s . 6d .

J A PA NES E PO TT ERY B ei n g a Na tive Rep o rt Wi th . . . an In ro t

du c ti o n b y A W F RA NK S M A F R S Wi th Il l u stra ti on s
. .
, . .
, . . . . 2 5 6d . .

IND U S T R IA L A RT S : Hi t ri l S k t s o ca e c h es . Ful l y Il l us t t ra ed 35 . .

T EX T IL E F A B R IC S . By th V y R e er ev . D A NIEL RO C K , D D . . Wi th
n u m e ro us Wo o dc uts . 6 11 .

J O NES C O L L EC T IO N IN T HE S O UT H KENS ING T O N

MU S EU M W th Por ra an d Wo o dcu ts 2 3 . i t it . . 6d .

C O L L EG E A ND C O R PO RAT IO N PLAT E . By W L FRE J O SEPH I D

C R IPPS , M A , F S A W i th Il l u strat i o n s 2 s . . . . . . 6d .

I O R IES : A NC IENT A ND MED IZEVA L

.

V . By W MA S K ELL With .
’

Wo o dc u s 2 s 6d t
MO D ERN F U R NIT U RE A ND W O O DWO RK
. . .

A NC IENT A ND .

H UN E F
B y JO H N M A W i th n u m ero us W o o dcuts
G R O RD PO L L EN, . . . 25. 6d .

MAJ O L IC A By C D E F O RTNU M F S A
. With Wo o dcuts . . .
,
. . . . 23 . 6d .

MU S IC A L INS T R U MENT S By C ENG EL W ith Wo odc uts . . . . 25 . 6d .

MA NU A L O F D ES IG N By R RED G RA VE R A Wi th Woodcu ts . .
, . . . 23 . 6d .

PERS IA N A RT By MAJO R R MU RD O C K S MITH R E . .

, . . S eco n d
Editi o n en l a rg ed
,
With Map an d Wo o dcuts 2 5 . . .

LO N D O N : C H A PMA N H A LL .
 C H APMA N 81 HA L L S A RT PU B L IC A TIO NS
’

WORKS PERROT ( GEORGES) AND

- BY
CHIPIEZ ( CHARLES) .

H IS T O RY O F A NC IENT A RT IN PR IMIT IV E G REEC E .

W i th 5 5 3 Il l us tra ti o n s . 2 vo l s . Im p er a l 8 vo , 4 2 3i .

H IS T O RY A NC IENT A RT IN PER S IA
OF W i th 2 5 4 .

Il l t ti
u s ra o n s, a n d 1 2 S t eel a n d C o l o u re d Pl at es Im p eri al 8 vo , 2 1 3 . .

H IS T O RY O F A NC IENT A RT IN P R G IA —L D IA , H Y Y
A ND C A R IA — L C IA Y
W i th 2 8 0 Il l ustra o n s Im p er al 8 vo , 1 5 3
. ti . i .

H IS T O RY O F A NC IENT A RT IN S A R D INIA , JU D ZEA ,

S Y R IA A ND ,
A S IA MINO R . i
W th 3 9 5 Il l u s ra o n s 2 vo l s t ti . .

Im p eri al 8 v o , 3 6 3
‘
.

A H IS T O RY O F A NC IENT A RT IN P ( E NIC IA A ND IT S H
D EPEND ENC IES W h 6 5 4 Il l u stra io n s 2 vo l s
. Im p eri a l it t . .

8 vo , 4 2 3 .

H IS T O RY O F ART IN C H A L DIEA A ND A S S Y RIA With '

45 Il
2 l t ti l
u s ra Im p i l 8
o n s. 4 2 vo s . er a vo , 23 .

H IS T O RY O F A RT IN A NC IENT EG Y PT Wi th 6 . 00

Il l t ti
u s ra l Im p i l 8
o n s. 24 vo s . er a vo , 23 .

C HA RTS FO R MO D EL D RA WING .

BY T . c . B A R F IELD,
M ‘
a sz er o f i l ze A rt Gl a 3 3 e3 az
‘
l /ze If i n e/ /ey a
Gra m m a r an d f orm erly
S eeon a
’
Ma 3 fer of ‘ ‘
L ezee3 zer S e/z ool of A rz
’

T en Im p e ri al S h eets 85 .

O n Ro l l e s r and Va rn i sh ed 1 85 .

O n L n en i I7 s .

Te a ch ers, do n o t s ta re a t t h e p ri c e y
Y o u h a v e o u r m o n e 5 w o rth h e re i f y o u do fa i l y
o c c a si o n a l lyt o g e t i t e l se w h e re i
O n t e n i m p e r a l sh e e t s o f e c e l l e n t p a p e r y o u g e t t e n x
g
.

o f t h e m o s t v i g o ro u s l e sso n s i n t h e t e a c h i n g o f m o de l dra w i n i t h a s e v e r b e en o u r l o t t o se e
ig
Th e dra w i n g s a n d i l l u s t ra t i o n s , t o o , a re V o ro u s, a n d e m b ra c e t h e W h o l e su bj e c t fu l l y
.

Th e
l esso n s a re , W i t h o u t do u b t , t h e o u t c o m e o f m a n yy
e a rs o f p ra c t ica l e p e ri e n c e , a n d w e re c o m x
g
m e n d t h e m t o o u r rea de rs a s a s u re a n d s a fe u i de t o a c o m p l e t e m a st e r o f t h e s u bj e c t We y
k k g
.

th in t h a t a n y t e a c h e r w o r i n g th ro u h su c h a c o u rs e m a y fa c e t h e S o u t h K e n si n g to n
x
e a m i n a t i o n s w i th c h e e rfu l n e ss W e re c o m m e n d t h e m c ordi a l l to t h e W h o l e p ro fe ssi o n , b u t y
y y i i
.

w e sp ec i a l l re c o m m e n d t h e m t o o u r i s o l a t e d c o u n t r m a st e rs a n d m st re sse s a n d t h e i r p u p l
i y
t e a ch e rs, w h o l v e b e o n d t h e re a c h o f a rt c e n t re s, l e st t h e y
fa l l b e h i n d t ho s e m o re fo rt u n a t e l y
si tu a te d .

S HA D ED D RA WING C A RDS
F O R THE

El ementary S tage ofS h abi ng f rom ( taste of

® t uament .

JNO . E . C HEES E,
F O R T HE US E O F

N
EL EME TA RY TEA C HER S ,
PU PIL T EA C HER S , S TU D E T S O F SC HO O L S
-
N
O F A RT , A RT C L AS S ES , A ND T R A I I G C O L L EG ES N N .

S ET OF 6 EX AMPLES 3 s NETT
'
. .

LO N D O N : C H A PMA N H A LL ,
LTD ,

A g en ts l o t/ze S c i en ce and A rt D ep a rtm en l .

 C HA PMA N 81 HA LL S A RT PU B L IC A T IO NS
’

MO D EL D RAW ING
EL EMENT A RY A ND A DVA NC ED S TA G ES .

Mo del s an d Vases p resc ri b ed b y th e S c n c e an d A rt D p a ie e rt

t
m e n fo r use a t the ab o v e
A rt Ex a m n a o n s T ese Mo del s a n d i ti . h
V a se s a ve b e n h e du l y A pp o v d b y th e A u o r e
e s, a n d are th riti
sp e c a l l
yi m a n u fa c t r u ed fo r C HA PMA N 8c HA LL, L IMIT ED
-

‘
T/z e E n nre Col /eczzon ‘
f
' ' '

c0n3 z3 z3 o

( )
1 VA SE — B ttl f m th Th o e ro e ree A
Q C Y L IND ER .

O bj t H EX A G O NA L PRIS M
C
fF m ec s o or A
O

V A S E—f m th S t f F i
. .

(2 ro e e o ve O T R IA NG U LA R PR IS M
A .

M j li V a o ca a ses HO S QU A R E PR IS M
V A S E—f m th S t f Tl Y
. .

(3 ro e e o i i ee HH S QUA R E P R A MID .

E th w ar V en a re a ses HN S K EL ET O N C U E B
C U B E—L g
. .

(4) ar e H HD
J
S P ER E .

C U B E—S m l l
.

(5) a . HA RING .

( 6 ) C O NE .

S et fo r El em e n t ar y S tage ( S u bj ec t 3 A ) , 2 1 6 3 n ett . .
‘

S et fo r A dva n c e d S tage ( S u bj e c t 3 A) , £ r 4 3 n ett . .

C O MPL ET E S ET, £ 4 n ett .

Pri c e s of S e p a ra t e Mo de l s , &c .
,
as u n de r

No . I, 53 . 6d . No . 2 ,
83 . 6d . No 3 .
,
63 .

No s .
4 , 6, 7 , 8 , I I, 1 2 ,
21 11 d I3 , 63 .
3 a e ac h
’
.
9 an d 1 . No s . 0,

5 3 6 d e ac . . h . No s .
5 an d 1 4 3 e h tt
, 3 . ac ne .

Im p eri al b o a d, go r x z z ,
as re c o m m en de d b y th e D ep artm e t n ,

43 . ad . ne tt .

k
Pa c i n g w i l l b e c h a r g e d a s an e x t ra i te m .

INT ERMED IA T E D RAW ING MO D EL S . C o n ta i n i n g th e ab o ve

T w e l ve w e l l fi n i sh e d Mo de l s, p a i n ted
-
W hi te a ve ra g e h ei g h t 8 i n c h es

”
, .

Th e S e t, i n c l udi n g S t a n d, i n B o x , 3 0 3 .

T HE A ND “
H Y SE
T O F C O O R D INAT E PLA NES A ND -

T EN MO D EL S 1 03 n et . . t
.

J M D IC K S EE S C O NS T R U C T I E S O L ID D RAW ING
. . V
MO D EL S 3 4 Pi e c es In B o x , £8 . . .

W IS E S EL EMENT A R D RAW ING MO D EL S In B o x , W i th Y .

S tan d, £4 i
; W th o u t S tan d, £3 .

BOX O F S MA L L MO D EL S , a v e rage si e 7 i n ch es, £1 43 z .

D A ID S O N S S O L ID MO D EL S , i n B o x , £2
V ’
.

V
F I E S EL EC T ED A S ES IN MA O L IC A W A R E, £2 1 13 V J .

H
T R EE S EL EC T ED A S ES IN EA RT ENW A R E, 1 83 V H .

H
T R EE O B JEC T S O F F OR /ll IN PO T T ER , 1 83 6 d Y . .

A NEW S ET O F T R EE A S ES , 1 8 3 H V .

D A ID S O N S A D A NC ED D RA W ING MO D EL S , £9
V V
’
.

i
A l so Mo d el s fo r t each n g G eo m e t r , G e o m e t ri c al D ra w n g , a n d i l l ustra i n g y i t
th e fo l l o w i n g su b j e c ts : S team , Ma c h i n e D e a l s, Th eo re t ca l an d A p p l e d ti i i
Mech a n cs, & c , & ci . .

ILLUS TRATED CATALOGUE, t

con a i n i n g F ULL DETAILS , f re e on a p p l i ca ti on .

LO ND O N C H A PMA N H ALL ,
LTD .
,

A g en ts to fl ee S c zen ce ‘
D ep a rz‘
m en t
'

a nd A ri .