Module - 2

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 2
Geometric design
Geometric design is an aspect of highway design with visible features and dimensions of road. The
safe, efficient and economic operation of a highway is governed to large extent by the care with
which the geometric design has been workout. Efficient and comfortable operation of traffic is
possible if the design elements have been meticulously considered. At the same time a well
designed highway should be economical. Therefore the objective of geometric design is to provide
optimum efficiency in traffic operation and maximum safety at reasonable cost
It is possible to design and construct the pavement in stages but it is very expensive and difficult to
improve the geometrics in stages at a later date. Hence it is important to plan and design the
geometric features using the initial alignment itself, taking into consideration the future growth of
traffic flow and possibility of road being upgraded at a later stage.
Geometric design of highway deals with the following stages,
1. Cross sectional elements - Pavement surface characteristics
- Camber
- Carriageway
- Kerbs
- Road margins
- Width of roadway
- Right of way
- Cross sections of roads
2. Sight distance - Stopping sight distance
- Overtaking sight distance
- Sight distance at intersections
3. Horizontal alignment - Design speed
- Horizontal curves
- Superelevation
- Radius of Horizontal curves
- Extra widening
- Transition curve
- Set-back distance
4. Vertical alignment - Gradient
- Vertical curves - Summit curves and valley curves
5. Intersection elements - The design of road intersection with facilities for safe and
efficient traffic movement needs knowledge of traffic
engineering.
The important factors, which affect the geometric elements are

Department of Civil Engineering, AIT- Chikkamagaluru 1
1. Design speed
2. Topography
3. Traffic factors
4. Design hourly volume and capacity
5. Environmental and other factors
Design speed: This is an important factor controlling the geometric design elements of highways.
There is considerable variation in the speeds adopted by different drivers and by different types of
vehicles. Hence it is not easy to select a value for design because the value selected should
accommodate nearly all demands with reasonable adequacy. Yet the design should not fail
completely under extreme condition.
Design speed is the speed determined for design and correction of physical features that influence
the vehicle. It is the maximum speed that can be maintained over a specified section of a highway.
Almost all geometric elements of a road are dependent on the design speed. In India different speed
standards have been assigned depending upon the class of road such as NH, SH, etc.
Table 1: Design speed for rural highways
Design speed for various terrains
Road Plain Rolling Mountainous Steep
Classification
Ruling Min. Ruling Min. Ruling Min. Ruling Min.
NH and SH 100 80 80 65 50 40 40 30
MDR 80 65 65 50 40 30 30 20
ODR 65 50 50 40 30 25 25 20
VR 50 40 40 30 25 20 25 20
Topography: The topography influences the geometric design of highway significantly. The
design standards specified for various classes of roads are different depending upon terrain
classification. The terrains are classified based on the general slope of the country across the
alignment. The following classification is generally adopted by “IRC”.
Sl. Cross slope of
Terrain Classification
No. the country in %
1 Plain 0 - 10
2 Rolling 10 - 25
3 Mountainous 25 - 60
4 Steep >60
Traffic factors: The traffic factors, which affect the geometric design of roads, are the vehicular
characteristics and human characteristics of road users. The important vehicular characteristics,
which affect traffic behaviour, are the different vehicle classes such as passenger cars, buses,
trucks, motor cycles, etc. have different speed and acceleration characteristics, apart from having
different dimensions and weights. The important human factors, which affect traffic behaviour,
include the physical, mental and psychological characteristics of drivers and pedestrians.
Design hourly volume and capacity : The traffic flow or volume keeps fluctuating with time,
low traffic flow during off - peak hour and highest traffic flow during peak hour. It will be

uneconomical to design the roadway for the peak hour traffic flow. Therefore a reasonable value of
traffic volume is decided for the design and this is called the design hourly volume
Environmental and other factors
The environmental factors such as aesthetics, landscaping, air pollution, noise pollution and other
local conditions should be given due consideration in the design of road geometrics.
Cross sectional elements
Pavement surface characteristics
The important pavement surface characteristics which are given due consideration during the
geometric design are
1. Friction
2. Pavement unevenness
3. Light reflecting characteristics
Friction
The friction between the vehicle tyre and the surface is one of the factor determine the operation
speed and the distance requirement in stopping and accelerating the vehicle. When a vehicle
negotiating in a horizontal curve friction force counteract the centrifugal force governs the safe
operating speed. Hence the frictional force plays a major role during the acceleration and
retardation of the vehicle. The coefficient of friction or skid resistance offered by the pavement
surface under various driving and surface condition is important with reference to the skid
condition. The maximum coefficient of friction comes into picture when the breaking efficiency is
high enough to almost arrest the rotation of the wheels on application of breaks.
Skid:Skid occurs when the wheel slide without revolving or when the wheels partially revolve. When
the breaks are applied, wheels are locked partially or fully the vehicle moves forward then the
longitudinal skidding takes place. It varies from zero to 100 %
While a vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve if the centrifugal force is greater it drags the vehicle away
from the path outwards and skidding takes place is called lateral skidding. Lateral skidding is
considered to be most dangerous as vehicle goes out of control and leads to accident.
Slip:Slip occurs when a wheel revolves more than the corresponding longitudinal movement along
the road. Slipping usually occurs in the driving wheel of a vehicle when the vehicle rapidly
accelerates from slow speed on pavement which is either slippery or wet or when the road surface
is loose with mud
Factors affecting the friction or skid resistance
Following factors are observed to influence the skid resistance
1 Type of pavement surface like cement concrete surface, bituminous surface, Water bound
macadam surface, etc.
2. Condition of pavement like wet or dry, even or uneven, oil spilled, smoothened or rough,
mud or dry sand on pavement.
3. Type and condition of tyre that is new with good treads or smoothened and worn out tyre.
4. Speed of vehicle
5. Extent of break application or brake.
6. Load and tyre pressure

7. Temperature of tyre and pavement

8. Type of skid
The frictional force that develops between the wheel and the pavement is the load acting multiplied
by a factor called the coefficient of friction and denoted asf. The choice of the value of f is a very
complicated issue since it depends on many variables. IRC suggests the coefficient of longitudinal
friction as 0.35-0.4 depending on the speed and coefficient of lateral friction as 0.15. The former is
useful in sight distance calculation and the latter in horizontal curve design.
Pavement unevenness
It is always desirable to have an even surface, but it is seldom possible to have such a one. Even if a
road is constructed with high quality pavers, it is possible to develop unevenness due to pavement
failures. Unevenness affects the vehicle operating cost, speed, riding comfort, safety, fuel
consumption and wear and tear of tyres. Unevenness index is a measure of unevenness which is the
cumulative measure of vertical undulations of the pavement surface recorded per unit horizontal
length of the road. An unevenness index value less than 1500 mm/km is considered as good, a
value less than 2500 mm.km is satisfactory up to speed of 100 kmph and values greater than 3200
mm/km is considered as uncomfortable even for 55 kmph.
Light reflecting characteristics
Night visibility very much depends upon the light reflecting· characteristics of the pavement
surface. The glare caused by the reflection of headlight is considerably more on wet pavement
surface than on dry pavement. Though light coloured or white pavement surfaces give good
visibility at night, they produce glare and eye strain during bright sun light. Black top pavement
surfaces on the other hand should provides poor visibility during the nights especially when the
surfaces wet.
Camber
Camber or cant is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface in the transverse
direction to drain off rain water from road surface. The objectives of providing camber are:
• Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous roads
• Sub-grade protection by proper drainage
• Quick drying of pavement which in turn increases safety
The camber is given a parabolic (Fig.-l) or the straight line (Fig.-2) shape in cross section. For
providing the desired amount and shape "camber boards" (templates) are prepared. These are used to

check the lateral profile of the finished pavement during construction.

The factors on which the camber depends are
a) T
he type of pavement surface.
b) T
he amount of rainfall
If the pavement surface is impervious in nature (cement concrete pavement), flat camber is
provided. On the other hand if the pavement surface is pervious in nature (WBM road), steep
camber is required. Similarly steep camber is required in the areas of heavy rainfall. Whereas flat
cambers may be sufficient in the areas of less rainfall the values of camber recommended by the
IRC are given in the following table.
Sl. Types of road surface Range of camber in areas of rainfall range
No
Heavy Light
1 C. C. and high type bituminous surface 1 in 50 (2.0%) 1 in 60 (1.7%)
2 Thin bituminous surface 1 in 40 (2.5%) 1 in 50 (2.0%)
3 WBM and gravel pavement 1 in 33 (3.0%) 1 in 40 (2.5%)
4 Earth road 1 in 25 (4.0%) 1 in 33 (3.0%)
Too steep camber is not desirable because of the following reasons
1. Transverse tilt of vehicles causes uncomfortable side trust and a drag on the steering of the
vehicle. Also the thrust on the wheels along the pavement edges is more causing unequal wear
and tear of the tyres.
2. During overtaking operation discomfort is felt when crossing the crown of the surface.
3. Formation of cross ruts due to rapid flow of water
4. Problems of toppling over of steel tyred vehicles like bullock carts.
5. Tendency of most of the vehicles to travel along the centre line.
Problems
1. Design a straight line camber board for a two - lane national highway provided with a high type
bituminous surface in heavy rainfall area.
Solution: As per IRC for high type bituminous surface in heavy rainfall area the camber to be provided
is 2% or 1 in 50
Width of Carriageway
The surface of the roadway suitably designed and constructed with road metals (aggregates) to
carry the vehicular traffic is called carriageway or pavement. The width of carriageway or
pavement depends on the width of traffic lane and number of lanes. The carriageway intended for
one line of traffic movement is called "traffic lane". Width of a traffic lane depends on the width of
the vehicle and the clearance. Side clearance improves operating speed and safety. The maximum
permissible width of a vehicle is 2.44 and the desirable side clearance for single lane traffic is 0.68
m. This requires minimum of lane width of 3.75 m for a single lane road However, the side
clearance required is about 0.53 m, on both side and 1.06 m in the center. Therefore, a two lane
road require minimum of 3.5 meter for each lane.

The desirable carriage way width recommended by IRC is given in the following table
S1. Class of road Width of

No. carriageway
1 Single lane 3.75 m
2 Two lanes without raised 7.0m
3 kerbs
Two lanes with raised kerbs 7.5 m
4 Intermediate carriage 5.5 m
5 Multi - lane pavements 3.5 m / lane
Traffic separators or Medians

Traffic separators or Medians are placed between the lanes of highway to divide the traffic
moving in opposite directions. The main function of traffic separators is to prevent head on
collision between vehicles moving in opposite directions on adjoining lanes. The traffic
separators may also help to:
1. Channelize the traffic into steams at intersections
2. Shadow the crossing and turning traffic
3. Segregate slow traffic and to protect pedestrians.
The different types of traffic separators are
a) Pavement marking
b) Physical dividers
c) Area separators
IRC recommends a minimum desirable width of 5 m for medians of rural highways, which may be
reduced to 3 m where land is restricted and on long bridges it may be reduced 1.2 to 1.5 m.1he
absolute minimum width of 1.2 m and minimum desirable width of 5 m for the medians of urban
highways.
Kerbs
Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage way and the shoulder or islands or footpaths.
Based on their function kerbs are divided into four types
 Low or mountable kerbs: This type of kerbs is provided such that they encourage the
traffic to remain in the through traffic lanes and also allow the driver to enter the shoulder
area with little difficulty. The height of this kerb is about 10 cm above the pavement edge
with a slope which allows the vehicle to climb easily. This is usually provided at medians
and channelization schemes and also helps in longitudinal drainage.
 Semi-barrier type kerbs: When the pedestrian traffic is high, these kerbs are provided.
Their height is 15 cm above the pavement edge. This type of kerb prevents encroachment of

parking vehicles, but at acute emergency it is possible to drive over this kerb with some
difficulty.
 Barrier type kerbs: They are designed to discourage vehicles from leaving the pavement.
They are provided when there is considerable amount of pedestrian traffic. They are placed
at a height of 20 cm above the pavement edge with a steep batter.
 Submerged kerbs: They are used in rural roads. The kerbs are provided at pavement edges
between the pavement edge and shoulders. They provide lateral confinement and stability to
the pavement.
Road margins
The portion of the road beyond the carriageway and on the roadway can be generally called road
margin. Various elements that form the road margins are given below.
1 Shoulder: Shoulders are provided along the road edge and are intended for accommodation of
stopped vehicles, serve as an emergency lane for vehicles and provide lateral support for base
and surface courses. The shoulder should be strong enough to bear the weight of a fully loaded
truck even in wet conditions. The shoulder width should be adequate for giving working space
around a stopped vehicle. It is desirable to have a width of 4.6 m for the shoulders. A minimum
width of 2.5 m is recommended for 2-lane rural highways in India.
2 Parking lanes: Parking lanes are provided in urban lanes for side parking. Parallel parking is
preferred because it is safe for the vehicles moving on the road. The parking lane should have a
minimum of 3.0 m width in the case of parallel parking.

3. Service roads: Frontage roads or Service roads access to access controlled highways like
freeways and expressways. They run parallel to the highway and will be usually isolated by a
separator and access to the highway will be provided only at selected points. These roads are
provided to avoid congestion in the expressways and also the speed of the traffic in those lanes
is not reduced.
4. Driveways: Driveways connect the highways with commercial establishments like fuel -
stations, service stations, etc. driveways should be properly designed and located, fairly away
from an intersection. The radius of the drive way curve should be kept as large as possible, but
the width of the drive way should be minimized to reduce the length of cross walks.
5. Cycle track: Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle traffic is high
Minimum width of 2 meter is required, which may be increased by 1 meter for every additional
track.
6. Footpath: Footpaths are exclusive right of way to pedestrians, especially in urban areas. They
are provided for the safety of the pedestrians when both the pedestrian traffic and vehicular
traffic is high. Minimum width is 1.5 meter and may be increased based on the tra_c. The
footpath should be either as smooth as the pavement or smoother than that to induce the
pedestrian to use the footpath.
7. Guard rails: They are provided at the edge of the shoulder usually when the road is on an
embankment. They serve to prevent the vehicles from running off the embankment, especially
when the height of the fill exceeds 3 m. various designs of guard rails are there. Guard stones
painted in alternate black and white are usually used. They also give better visibility of curves
at night under headlights of vehicles.
8. Embankment slope: Embankment slopes should be as flat as possible for the purpose of safe
traffic movement and also for aesthetic reasons, Though from the slope stability point, a steeper
slope may be possible, the slope may be kept as flat as' permitted by economic considerations,
Road side landscaping can improve the aesthetic features of road side making road travel more
pleasant
Width of formation (Roadway width)
Width of formation or roadway width is the sum of the widths of pavements or carriage way
including separators and shoulders. This does not include the extra land in formation/cutting. The
values suggested by IRC are given in Table
Table : Width of formation for various classed of roads
Roadway width in m
Road
classification Plain and rolling Mountainous and
terrain steep terrain
NH/SH 12 6.25 - 8.80
MDR 9 4.75
ODR 7.5 - 9 4.75
VR 7.5 4.0

Right of way
Right of way (ROW) or land width is the width of land acquired for the road, along its alignment. It
should be adequate to accommodate all the cross-sectional elements of the highway and may
reasonably provide for future development. The right of way width is governed by:
 Width of formation: It depends on the category of the highway and width of roadway and
road margins.
 Height of embankment or depth of cutting: It is governed by the topography and the vertical
alignment.
 Side slopes of embankment or cutting: It depends on the height of the slope, soil type etc.
 Drainage system and their size which depends on rainfall, topography etc.
 Sight distance considerations: On curves etc. there is restriction to the visibility on the inner
side of the curve due to the presence of some obstructions like building structures etc.
 Reserve land for future widening: Some land has to be acquired in advance anticipating
future developments like widening of the road.
Table: Normal right of way for open areas
Land width in m
Road
classification Plain and rolling Mountainous and
terrain steep terrain
NH/SH 45 24
MDR 25 18
ODR 15 15
VR 12 9
Built-up areas
NH/SH 30 20
MDR 20 15
ODR 15 12
VR 10 9
Typical cross sections of roads
Figure: Cross section of VR or ODR in embankment in rural Area

Figure: Cross section of MDR in cutting in rural Area
Figure: Cross section of NH or SH in rural Area
Figure: Cross section of two lane city road in Built – up area

Figure: Cross section of Divided Highway in Urban area

Sight Distance
The distance along the road surface at which the driver has visibility of objects (stationary or
moving) from a specified height above the road surface is known as sight distance. In other words
it is the length of road visible ahead to the driver at any instance. Restrictions to sight distance may
be caused due to the objects as shown in fig 1, 2 and 3
Fig.1 Sight distance at horizontal curve
Fig.2 Sight distance at vertical summit curve
Fig.3 Sight distance at intersection
Three sight distance situations are considered in geometric design. They are
1. Stopping sight distance (SSD)
2. Overtaking sight distance (OSD)
3. Sight distance at Intersection
Apart from the above three situations IRC considered the following sight distances in highway
design.
a) Intermediate sight distance.
b) Head light sight distance.

The sight distance in general depends upon the features of the roads (horizontal alignment and
vertical alignment), height of driver's eye level and height of object above the road surface.
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
Stopping Sight Distance is the absolute minimum sight distance required to bring the vehicle
travelling at design speed to a stop without collision with any obstruction. The SSD on the summit
curve is that distance measured along road surface at which an object of 0.15 m can be seen by a
driver whose eye level is at a height of 1.2 m above the road surface
The SSD depends on the following factors
1. Total reaction time of driver
2. Speed of vehicle
3. Efficiency of brakes
4. Frictional resistance between the road and tyres.
5. Gradient of the road if any
Reaction time of driver: Reaction time of driver is the time taken by the driver between instant at
which the object is seen and instant at which the brakes are applied. The total reaction time of
driver may vary from 1.5 seconds for simple situations to as much as 3 to 4 seconds or even more
in complex situations. IRC recommends the total reaction time of driver is 2.5 seconds for SSD and
2.0 seconds for OSD. Larger the value of total reaction time larger will be the SSD
Speed of the vehicle: The speed of the vehicle very much affects the sight distance. Higher the
speed, more time will be required to stop the vehicle. Hence it is evident that, as the speed
increases, sight distance also increases.
Efficiency of brakes: The efficiency of the brakes depends upon the age of the vehicle, vehicle
characteristics etc. If the brake efficiency is 100%, the vehicle will stop the moment the brakes are
applied. But practically, it is not possible to achieve 100% brake efficiency. Therefore the sight
distance required will be more when the efficiency of brakes are less. Also for safe geometric
design, we assume that the vehicles have only 50%brake efficiency.
Frictional resistance between the tyre and the road: The frictional resistance between the tyre
and road plays an important role to bring the vehicle to stop. When the frictional resistance is more,
the vehicles stop immediately. Thus sight required will be less. No separate provision for brake
efficiency is provided while computing the sight distance. This is taken into account along with the
factor of longitudinal friction. IRC has specified the value of longitudinal friction in between 0.35
to 0.4.
Gradient of the road: Gradient of the road also affects the sight distance. While climbing up a
gradient, the vehicle can stop immediately. Therefore sight distance required is less. While
descending a gradient, gravity also comes into action and more time will be required to stop the
vehicle. Sight distance required will be more in this case.

P I E V Theory
According to "PIEV" theory the total reaction time is split up into 4 parts
Perception time: It is the time required for the sensations received by eyes or ears to be
transmitted to the brain through nerves system and spinal chord.
Intellection time: It is the time required for understanding the situation.
Emotion time: It is 'the time elapsed during emotional disturbances such as fear, anger, etc. with
reference to the situation
Volition time: It is time taken for the final action.
It is also possible that a driver may apply breaks or take any avoiding action without thin king. The
"PIEV" theory has been illustrated in the following figure.
Equation for SSD
SSD = lag distance + braking distance
Lag distance: The distance travelled by the vehicle during the reaction time is known as lag
distance.
Braking distance: The distance travelled by the vehicle after the application 'of brake to the dead
stop position is known as braking distance.
2
V
SSD=0.278 Vt + −−−−−−−−−at grade
254 f
2
V
SSD=0.278 Vt + −−−−−on gradient
n
254 (f ± )
100
Where SSD = Stopping Sight Distance, m
V = Design speed, Kmph.
t = Total reaction time of driver, Sec. (2.5 sec for SSD)
f = Co-efficient of friction between the road surface and tyres of vehicle.
f= µ×ƞ
Where ƞ = break efficiency and µ = Skid resistance for 100 % break efficiency
Table: Coefficient of longitudinal friction
Speed, kmph 20 -30 40 50 60 - 65 80 - 100
Coefficient of friction, f 0.40 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35

n = Gradient of road, %
Note: Use + ve sign for upgrades and - ve sign for down grades
Problems
1. Calculate the SSD for designed speed of 80 kmph for
One - way traffic road.
i) Two - way traffic road.

Assume appropriate values for the reaction time of the driver and the co-efficient of friction
Solution
Assume, t = 2.5 sec for SSD and f = 0.35 for speed of 80 kmph
SSD on a One - way traffic road
2
V
SSD=0.278 Vt +
254 f
2
80
SSD=0.278 × 80× 2.5+
254 ×0.35
SSD=127.6 m=128 m
SSD on a two - way traffic road
SSD=2 ( SSD of one way traffic road )
SSD=2 [ 128 ] =256 m
2. Calculate the SSD required for avoiding a head on collision of two cars approaching from
opposite directions at 100 kmph and 80 kmph. Make suitable assumptions.
Solution :
2
V
SSD=0.278 Vt +
254 f
SSD for vehicle -1

2
100
SSD1=0.278 ×100 ×2.5+ =182 m
254 × 0.35
SSD1=182 m
SSD for vehicle -2
2
80
SSD2=0.278 ×80 × 2.5+ =128 m
254 ×0.35
SSD2=128 m
To avoid head on collision, SSD =SSD1 + SSD2
= 182 +128 = 310 m
3. The design speed of a particular road with a gradient of 1 in 40 is 65 kmph. Find S S D for
ascending and descending gradients. Assume suitable data.
Solution
Given: V = 65 kmph and n = 1 in 40 = 100 / 40 =2.5 %
2
V
SSD=0.278 Vt + −−−−−on gradient
n
254 (f ± )
100
For ascending grade
2
65
SSD=0.278 × 65× 2.5+
2.5
254(0.36+ )
100
2
75
SSD2=0.278 ×75 ×2.5+
2
254 (0.35+ )
100
SSD = 88.4 m
For descending grade
2
65
SSD=0.278 × 65× 2.5+
2.5
254(0.36− )
100
SSD = 94.8 m
4. Calculate the absolute minimum sight distance required to avoid a head on collision of two cars
approaching from opposite directions at 80 kmph and 65 kmph. Assume the reaction time as 2.5
Sec. Co-efficient of friction as 0.85 and break efficiency of 50 % in either case.
Solution :
2
V
SSD=0.278 Vt + If break efficiency is given
254 f ×ƞ
SSD for vehicle -1
Given: V = 80 kmph , µ = 0.85, ƞ = 50 % = 0.5 and t = 2.5 sec
2
80
SSD1=0.278 ×80 ×2.5+
254 ×0.85 ×0.5
SSD1=m
SSD for vehicle -2
Given: V = 65 kmph , µ = 0.85, ƞ = 50 % = 0.5 and t = 2.5 sec
2
65
SSD2=0.278 ×65 ×2.5+
254 ×0.85 ×0.5
SSD2=m
To avoid head on collision, SSD = SSD1 + SSD2 =

Overtaking Sight Distance
Traffic characteristics in India marked by mixed modes of traffics. Therefore it becomes necessary
for vehicles moving at design speed to overtake slower vehicles. Hence it is essential to provide
Overtaking Sight Distance at reasonable interval to enable fast moving vehicles to safely overtake
the slow moving vehicles.
The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of vehicle intending to overtake slow
vehicle ahead with safety against the traffic of opposite direction is known as O S D or safe passing
sight distance. The O S D on the summit curve is the distance measured along the centre of the road
at which a driver with his eye level 1.2 m above the road surface can see the top of an object 1.2 m
above road surface
The above figure shows the overtaking operation of vehicle 'A' travelling at design speed and
another slow vehicle 'B' at a two-lane road with two - way traffic. Third vehicle ‘C’ comes from
opposite.
Assumptions:
 The overtaking vehicle 'A' reduces its speed from design speed to the speed of slow moving
vehicle ‘B’ and moves behind it allowing a safe spacing till there is an opportunity for safe
overtaking operation.
 On getting an opportunity the driver of vehicle 'A' accelerates, shifts to the next lane,
overtakes and shift back to the original lane without disturbing the path of opposite vehicle
'C'
The overtaking operation may be split info 3 operations, thus dividing the overtaking distance into
3 parts dl, d2 and d3.
dl = distance travelled by overtaking vehicle A during the reaction time (t)
= 0.278 Vb t
d2= distance travelled by the overtaking vehicle' A' during the actual overtaking operation time (T)
= 0.278 Vb T + 2 s
d3 = distance travelled by on-coming vehicle C during the overtaking operation time (T).
= 0.278 V. T
Thus OSD = dl + d2 + d3
Therefore OSD = 0.278 V t + 0.278 Vb T + 2 s + 0.278 V T
Where V = Speed of overtaking vehicle or design speed, kmph.
Vb= Speed of overtaken vehicle, kmph

t = Reaction time of driver ( 2 sec for OSD)
s = Spacing of vehicles = 0.2 Vb + 6
T = duration of actual overtaking operation
or
A = Acceleration, kmph / sec

a = Acceleration, m / sec2
The acceleration values of the fast vehicle depends on its speed and given in Table below
Speed Maximum overtaking
(kmph) acceleration (kmph / sec)
25 5.00
30 4.80
40 4.45
50 4.00
65 3.28
80 2.56
100 1.92
Notes:
1. In case the speed of the overtaken vehicle is not given, it can be assumed that it moves 16
kmph slower the design speed.
2. On divided highways, d3 need not be considered
3. On divided highways with four or more lanes, IRC suggests that it is not necessary to
provide the OSD, but only SSD is sufficient.
Overtaking zones
The overtaking opportunity for vehicles moving at design speed should be given at frequent
intervals. These zones, which are meant for overtaking are called overtaking zones. The OSD and
pavement width should be sufficient for safe overtaking operations. Sign posts should be installed
at sufficient distance (equal OSD) in advance to indicate the start of the overtaking zones. Similarly
sign posts should be installed ahead at sufficient distance (equal OSD) to indicate the end of the
overtaking zones. The desirable length of overtaking zones is 5 time OSD and the minimum is
three times OSD

Problems 1. The speeds of overtaking and overtaken vehicles are 80 and 60 kmph respectively. If
the acceleration of the overtaking vehicle is 2.5 kmph / sec. Calculate the overtaking sight distance.
What is the desirable length of overtaking zone?
Given: V = 80 kmph, Vb= 60 kmph, t = 2 sec (assumed) and A = 2.5 kmph / sec.
Solution
s = 0.2 Vb + 6 = 0.2 x 60 + 6 = 18 m
T=
√14.4 s
A
=
√14.4 × 22.8
2.4
=11.70 sec
T=
√ √
4s
a
=
4 × 20
0.99
=8.99 sec
d1 = 0.28 Vb . t = 0.278 x 60 x 2 = 33.36 m

d2 = 2 s + 0.278 Vb. T = 2 x 18 + 0.278 x 60 x 10.18 = 205.80 m
d3 = 0.28 V. T = 0.28 x 80 x 10.18 = 226.40 m
OSD = d1 + d2 + d3
OSD = 33.36 + 205.80 + 226.40 = 465.56 m
Say OSD = 466 m
Desirable length of overtaking zone = 5(OSD) = 5 × 466 = 2330 m
Sight distance at intersections

At intersections where two or more roads meet, visibility should be provided for the drivers
approaching the intersection from either side. They should be able to perceive a hazard and stop the
vehicle if required. Stopping sight distance for each road can be computed from the design speed.
The sight distance should be provided such that the drivers on either side should be able to see each
other. This is illustrated in the figure above. Design of sight distance at intersections may be used
on three possible conditions:
 Enabling approaching vehicle to change the speed
 Enabling approaching vehicle to stop
 Enabling stopped vehicle to cross a main road
Horizontal Alignment
Horizontal curve
It is curve provided along the highway to introduce a change in direction along the centre line of
road. When a vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve at some speed an outward force acts
horizontally through the C. G of the vehicle is known as centrifugal force. The centrifugal force is
given by the following equation
W v²
P=
gR
Where P = Centrifugal force, kg

W= Weight of the vehicle, kg
v = Speed of vehicle, m / sec
R= Radius of the curve, m
g= Acceleration due to gravity,
The centrifugal force acting on the vehicle while negotiating the curve has two effects
1. Overturning effect
2. Transverse skidding effect
Overturning effect:

The figure shows the effect of centrifugal force to cause overturning about a wheel 'B' on
horizontal curve.
Overturning moment due to centrifugal force = P x h ----------1
Wb
This is counter acted by the restoring moment = ----------2
2
Equating (1) and (2) for equilibrium of the vehicle.
Wb
We have P×h=
2
P b
=
W 2h
b
When the centrifugal ratio approaches a value equal to . Then there is a danger of overturning
2h
of the vehicle
Transverse skidding effect:
.
The lateral skid may occur due to the centrifugal force if the resisting friction is lower. Refer the above fig
for equilibrium condition centrifugal force should be equal to lateral friction
P = FA + F B
P = f ( RA + RB)
P=fW
P
Therefore =f
W
Where
 FA and FB is the fractional force at tyre A and B,
 RA and RB is the reaction at tyre A and B,
 f is the lateral coefficient of friction and
 W is the weight of the vehicle.
In the above expression when the centrifugal ratio approaches a value ‘ f ‘ lateral skid takes place and hence
its value should be less than lateral friction.
Radius of horizontal curve
The radius of the horizontal curve depends upon the super elevation and the co-efficient of friction
between tyres and pavement surface for a particular design speed. IRC recommends two design speeds in
the form of "Ruling design speed" and "Minimum design speed". Hence the radius computed based on the
above speeds are called as "Ruling minimum radius" and Absolute minimum radius". Following equations
is used to compute the radius of the horizontal curve.
2
V (Ruling)
R(Ruling) =
127(e + f )
2
V (Minimum)
R(Minimum) =
127(e + f )
Where R(Ruling) = Ruling minimum radius, m
R(Minimum) = Absolute minimum radius, m
V(Ruling) = Ruling design speed, kmph
V(Minimum) = Absolute minimum design speed, kmph
e = Super elevation (ratio) = 0.07 As per IRC
f = Co-efficient of lateral friction = 0.15 As per IRC
Problems
1. Calculate the values of ruling minimum radius and absolute minimum radius of a horizontal
curve for a national highway in plain terrain.
Solution:
Assume - Ruling design speed for NH in plain terrain, V (Ruling) = 100 kmph
- Minimum design speed for NH in plain terrain, V(Minimum) = 80 kmph
- e =0.07 and f = 0.15
2 2
V 100
Ruling minimum radius, R= ¿ = 357.90 m say R = 360 m
127 (e+ f ) 127(0.07+ 0.15)
2 2
V 100
Ruling minimum radius, R= = = 229.10 m say R = 230 m
127 (e+ f ) 127(0.07+ 0.15)
Superelevation
Transverse slope given to the road surface to counteract the effects of centrifugal force (skidding
and overturning) on the vehicle is called superelevation or banking or cant (e). It is expressed as the
ratio of the height of outer edge w.r.t the horizontal width

In practice the value of 'e' is very small and its inclination W.r.t. horizontal seldom exceeds 0.07
and hence the value of tanθ is practically equal to sinθ.
NL
Hence e= =tanθ ≈ sinθ
ML
E
e= the ratio of height to width
B
The total rise in the outer edge of the pavement w.r.t inner edge, E = e B
Here e = Supere1evation
E = Amount of super elevation or rise of outer edge w.r.t inner edge.
B = Width of pavement on curve
Equation for superelevation

2
V
e +f = −−−−−1
127 R
Where e = Superelevation (ratio) = E / B
V= Design speed, kmph.
f= Co-efficient of lateral friction = 0.15 as per IRC
R = Radius of curve, m
g= Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m /sec2
In above equation if f = 0 the superelevation obtained is called as equilibrium superelevation.
2
V
e=
127 R
Note: If 'e' is the superelevation and 'B' is the width of pavement on the curve, then the total rise of
outer edge w.r.t inner edge is given by

E=e×B
Maximum superelvation
As per equation (1) the value of superelevation requires increases with increase in speed and
decrease in radius for a constant value of friction. In view of mix traffic consisting of fast and slow
traffic it is essential to limit the supecelevation to a maximum of 0.07 (7 %) while that of hilly
terrain is 10 percent and urban road is 4 percent.
Minimum superelvation
In order to have an effective drainage of surface water it is essential to proved the minimum superelevation
equal to or less than the camber provided for a particular pavement surface and the amount of rainfall.
Design of superelevation for mixed traffic

Step 1: Find e for 75 percent of design speed, neglecting f, i.e..
2
V
e= ------------------------1
225 R
If the calculated value of 'e' from above equation (1) is less than 0.07, the value so obtained is provided.
If the value of 'e' exceeds 0.07 then provide the maximum superelevation equal to 0.07 and step (2) is
followed
Step 2: Find ‘f’ for the design speed and max e, i.e.
2 2
V V
f= – e= – 0.07 ---------------------2
127 127
If the calculated value of ‘f’ from above equation (3) is less than 0.15, the superelevation of
0.07 is safe for the design speed 'V'. If not the speed on such curves is to restricted and step (3) is
followed
Step 3: Find the allowable speed’ Va ‘for the maximum e = 0:07 and f = 0:15,
V a =√ 127 R (e+ f )
Appropriate warning sign and speed limit regulation sign are installed to restrict and regulate the speed of
the vehicles at such curves
Attainment of super-elevation
1. Elimination of the crown of the cambered section by:
a) Rotating the outer edge about the crown: The outer half of the cross slopes is rotated about
the crown at a desired rate such that this surface falls on the same plane as the inner half.
b) Shifting the position of the crown: This method is also known as diagonal crown method.
Here the position of the crown is progressively shifted outwards, thus increasing the width
of the inner half of cross section progressively.

2. Rotation of the pavement cross section to attain full super elevation by: There are two methods
of attaining superelevation by rotating the pavement
a) Rotation about the center line: The pavement is rotated such that the inner edge is depressed
and the outer edge is raised both by half the total amount of superelevation, i.e., by E=2 with
respect to the centre.
b) Rotation about the inner edge: Here the pavement is rotated raising the outer edge as well as
the centre such that the outer edge is raised by the full amount of superelevation with respect
to the inner edge.
Problems
1. A two lane road with design speed of 65 kmph. has a horizontal curve of radius 315 m, design
superelevation for the mixed traffic. Also find the total rise at the outer edge if the the width of
the pavement on curve is 7.6 m.
Solution
2
V
e=
225 R
2
65
e=
225 ×315
e=0.06 <0.07
Hence provide e = 0.06
Total rise of outer edge w.r.t inner edge = E = ex B = 0.06 x 7.6 = 0.456 m.
2. Design the super elevation of a horizontal curve of radius 260 m for design speed of 80 kmph.
Solution
2
V
e=
225 R
2
80
e=
225 ×260
e=0.109> 0.07
Hence provide e = 0.07 and check for f
2
V
f= −0.07
127 R
2
80
f= −0.07
127 ×260
f =0.124 <0.15
Hence the design speed of 80 kmph is safe on the Superelevation of e = 0.07
3. Design the supere1evation for a horizontal curve of radius 315 m for a design speed of 100 kmph.
Solution
2
V
e=
225 R
2
100
e=
225 ×315
e=0.141> 0.07
2
V
f= −0.07
127 R
2
100
f= −0.07
127 ×315
f =0.179> 0.15
Hence the design speed of 100 kmph is not safe on the Superelevation of e = 0.07 and speed is to
be restricted
V a =√ 127 R (e+ f )
V a =√ 127 × 315(0.07+ 0.15)
V a =93.80kmph
Appropriate warning sign and speed limit regulation sign are installed to restrict and regulate the
speed of the vehicles at such curves
4. A major district road with thin bituminous surface in low rainfall area has a horizontal curve of
radius 1400 m. If the design speed is 65 kmph. What should be the Superelevation provided?
2
V
e=
225 R
2
65
e=
225 ×1400
e=0.0134=1.34 %
But the recommended camber for drainage for thin bituminous surface in light rainfall area is 2 %
or 0.02. Hence Superelevation to be provided should be equal to camber for drainage = 2 % = 0.02.

5. The radius of a horizontal curve is 100 m. The design speed is 50 kmph and the design co-
efficient of lateral friction is 0.15.
a) Calculate the Superelevation required if full lateral friction is assumed to develop.
b) Calculate the co-efficient of friction needed if no Superelevation is provided.
c) Calculate the equilibrium Superelevation.
Solution
a) If f = 0.15.
2
V
e= −f
127 R
2
50
e= −0.15
127 ×100
e=0.047
b) If e=0
2
V
f= −e
127 R
2
50
f= −0
127 ×100
f =0.197
c) If f = 0 for equilibrium Super elevation
2
V
e= −f
127 R
2
50
e= −0
127 ×100
e=0.197
Extra widening of pavement on curve
On horizontal curve especially when they are not of vary large radii, it is common to widen the pavement
slightly more than the normal width. Widening of pavement is needed on horizontal curve for the
following reasons.
1. An automobile has a rigid wheel base and only the front wheels can be turned therefore
when a vehicle takes a turn to negotiate a horizontal curve, the rear wheels do not follow the
same path as that of front wheels. This phenomenon is called as "off tracking". Due to this
the extra width of pavement is provided on curves. The widening provided for this purpose
is called "mechanical widening"(W m).

2. At speeds higher than the design speeds transverse skidding of vehicles occur due to the
centrifugal force and hence extra widening is required.
3. While two vehicles cross or overtake at a horizontal curve, there is a psychological tendency
to maintain a greater clearance between the vehicles for increased safety. The widening
provided for this purpose is called "psychological widening" (W ps)
Equation for extra widening
The total extra widening on horizontal curve (We) is given by
We = Wm + Wps
2
nl V
W e= +
2 R 9.5 √ R
Where Wm = Mechanical widening
The widening required for the account of off - tracking due the rigidity of the wheel base of the
vehicle is called as Mechanical widening.
Wps = Psychological widening
While two vehicles cross or overtake at a horizontal curve. there is a psychological tendency to
maintain a greater clearance between the vehicles for increased safety, The widening provided for
this purpose is called "psychological widening"
l = Length of wheel base between the front and rear wheels, m (As per IRC 6m)
n = Number of lanes,
V = Design speed, kmph,
Note: as per IRC extra widening is not required on curves with radius greater than 300 m
Problems
1. Calculate extra widening imparted for a pavement of width 7m on a horizontal curve of radius
250 m. If the longest wheel base of the vehicle expected on the road is 6 m. Design speed is 65
kmph.
Data given: W = 7 m, R = 250 m and V= 65 kmph
Solution
Assume l = 6 m (as per IRC) and n = 2 (for W = 7 m)
2
nl V
W e= +
2 R 9.5 √ R
2
2× 6 65
W e= +
2 ×250 9.5 √ 250
∴ We = 0.576 m
2. Calculate the total width of pavement for a horizontal curve on a new N.H. to be aligned on a
rolling terrain with ruling minimum radius and assume necessary data.
Solution
Assume l = 6 m (as per IRC) , W = 7m (for 2 lane NH), n = 2 (for W = 7 m),e = 0.07, f = 0.15 and
V= 80 kmph (for ruling minimum radius

2
V 80
R= = =229.06 m
127 (e+ f ) 127 (0.07+ 0.15)
Say R = 230 m
n l2 V
W e= +
2 R 9.5 √ R
2× 62 80
W e= +
2 ×230 9.5 √230
We = 0.712 m
∴ Total width of pavement = W + W = 7 + 0.712 = 7.712 m
3 A horizontal highway curve of radius 300 m has been provided with superelvation of 1 in 15
and a total pavement width of 7.5m, Check whether these geometric elements are adequate for
the two lane highway with design speed of 100kmph.
Data given: R = 300 m e = 1/15 = 0.07, B = 7.5 m and V= 100 kmph
Solution
Assume l = 6 m (as per IRC) , W = 7m (for 2 lane NH), n = 2 for W = 7 m,
2
V
e=
225 R
2
100
e=
225 ×300
e=0.142> 0.07
2
V
f= −0.07
127 R
2
100
f= −0.07
127 ×300
f =0.192>0.15
Hence the design speed of 100 kmph is not safe on the Superelevation of e = 0.07 and speed is to
be restricted
V a =√ 127 R (e+ f )
V a =√ 127 × 300(0.07+ 0.15)
V a =91.75kmph
Say V a =90kmph
From this is evident that the superelevation design is inadequate for design speed of 100 kmph. It
should be 90 kmph.
Note: Appropriate warning sign and speed limit regulation sign are installed to restrict and regulate the
speed of the vehicles at such curves

n l2 V
W e= +
2 R 9.5 √ R
2× 62 100
W e= +
2 ×300 9.5 √ 300
∴ We = 0.66 m
∴ Total width of pavement, B = W + W = 7 + 0.66 = 7.66 m > 7.5 m
From this is evident that the pavement width of 7.5m is inadequate it should be 7.66 m.
Transition curves
A transition curve is a curve of varying radii provided between the straight and circular curve of
the road. The transition curve has a radius, which decreases from ∞ at the tangent point to a
designed radius of the circular curve. The functions or objectives of transition curve in the
horizontal alignment are,
1. To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent point and the beginning of
circular curve, to avoiding a sudden jerk on the vehicle.
2. To enable the gradual introduction of the designed superelevation and extra widening of the
pavement.
3. To enable the driver, turn the steering gradually for his own comfort and safety.
4. To improve aesthetic appearance of the road.
Requirements of an ideal transition curve
The requirements of an ideal transition curve in the horizontal alignment are,
1. The rate of introduction of centrifugal force or the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration should be
uniform throughout the length of the curve.
2. Length of the transition curve should be inversely proportional to the radius.
There are 3 types of transition curves namely "spiral", "cubic parabola" and "lemniscate". IRC has
recommended "spiral shape" as transition curve because,
i) The spiral curve satisfies the requirement of an ideal transition curve.
ii) The geometric properties of spiral are such that the calculation and setting out of spiral curve is simple
and easy.
Length of transition curve
The length of transition curve Ls is calculated by the following 3 - methods and the highest among them is
adopted.
Method 1: Based on "rate of change of radial or centrifugal acceleration" is given by,
3
V
Ls 1=
46.5 C R
Where Ls = length of transition curve, m
V = Design speed, kmph
C = Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, m / sec3 and is given by,

80
C= [ 0.5<C <0.8 ] i. e ., the min .∧max . values of C are limited ¿ 0.5∧0.8 respectively
75+V
Method 2: Based on "rate of introduction of superelevation" is given by,

Ls 2=NE if the pavement beingrotated about the inner edge .
NE
¿ Ls 2 = if the pavement beingrotated about the centre line
2
N = Rate of introduction of superelevation (1 in N)
= 150 in plain and rolling terrain
= 100 inbuilt up areas
= 60 in hilly terrain
E = Amount of super elevation, m
E = e (W + We)
Where W = Width of pavement on straights, m and We= Extra widening on curves, m
Method 3: Based on "Indian Road Congress" is given by,
2
2.7 V
Ls 3 = for plain∧rolling terrain
R
2
V
¿ Ls 3= for hilly terrain
R
Where V = Design speed. kmph
From the above equations it is seen that the length of transition curve depends upon the following factors.
1. Design speed
2. Rate of change of radial acceleration.
3. Radius of curve.
4. Superelevation and its introduction.
5. Width of pavement on curves.
6. Type of terrain.
Shift: In order to fit the transition curves the main circular curve has to be moved inwards by a certain
2
(L¿¿ s)
L= ¿
24 R
Pr.oblems
1. Calculate the length of transition curve and shift using following data
Design speed = 65 kmph
Radius of curve = 220 m
Allowable rate of introduction of superelevation = J in 150
Pavement width including extra widening = 7.5 m
Type of terrain = Plain
Pavement rotation = About the center line.
Solution

Method 1: Based on "rate of change of radial or centrifugal acceleration",
80
=0.57 m/ sec [ 0.5<C <0.8 ]
3
C=
75+65
Hence adopt C = 0.57 m/sec3
3
V
Ls 1=
46.5 C R
3
65
Ls 1= =47.10 m
46.5 × 0.57 ×220
Method 2: Based on "rate of introduction of superelevation"

2
V
e=
225 R
2
65
e=
225 ×220
e=0.085> 0.07
2 2
V 65
f= −0.07= −0.07=0.08<0.15
127 R 127 × 220
2
100
f= −0.07
127 ×300
Hence the design speed of 65kmph is safe on the Superelevation of e = 0.07
E = eB = 0.07 × 7.5 = 0.525
NE
Ls 2= if the pavement beingrotated about the centre line
2
150 ×0.525
Ls 2= =39.40 m
2
Method 3: Based on "Indian Road Congress"

2
2.7 V
Ls 3= for plainterrain
R
2
2.7 × 65
Ls 3= =51.90 m
220
Adopt the highest value of the three i.e., Ls = 51.90 m
Say Ls = 52 m
2
( L s) (52)2
Shift , S= = 0.51m
24 R 24 ×220
2. A notional highway passing through a rolling terrain in heavy rainfall area has a horizontal curve of radius
500 m. Design the length of transition curve assuming suitable data.
Data given : R = 500 m
Solution
Assume V = 80 kmph (for NH in rolling terrain)
W = 7 m for NH 2 – lane road
l = 6 m (as per IRC) , and n = 2 for 2 lane NH
Method 1: Based on "rate of change of radial or centrifugal acceleration",
80
=0.52 m/sec [ 0.5<C <0.8 ]
3
C=
75+80
Hence adopt C = 0.52 m/sec3
3
V
Ls 1 =
46.5 C R
3
80
Ls 1 = =42.30 m
46.5 × 0.52× 500
Method 2: Based on "rate of introduction of superelevation"

2 2
V 80
e= = =0.057< 0.07 OK
225 R 225 × 500
2 2
nl V 2 ×6 80
W e= + = + =0.45 m
2 R 9.5 √ R 2× 500 9.5 √ 500
∴ Total width of pavement , B=W +W =7+0.45=7.45 m
E = eB = 0.057 × 7.45 = 0.425
Ls 2=NE if the pavement beingrotated about the inner edge
Ls 2=150 × 0.425=63.70 m
Method 3: Based on "Indian Road Congress"
2
2.7 V
Ls 3 = for rolling terrain
R
2
2.7 × 80
Ls 3 = =34.6 m
500
Adopt the highest value of the three i.e., Ls = 63.70 m
Say Ls = 64 m
Set back Distance (clearance)

The distance required from the centreline of a horizontal curve to an obstruction on the inner side of the curve
to provide adequate sight distance at a horizontal curve is called set back distance or clearance (m). Setback
distance depends on:
1. Sight distance(SSD, ISD or OSD)
2. Radius of the curve (R).
3. Length of curve(L)

Equation for setback distance

Case 1: When L > S
For single lane roads :m=R – R cos ( α2 )
Where m = Setback distance, m
α
=Half the angle subtended by the arc length S
2
180 S
¿
2 ᴫR
S = Sight distance, m (SSD, ISD or OSD)
R = Radius of the curve, m
L = Length of curve, m
For multi−lane roads :m=R – ( R−d)cos
α
2 ()
α
=Half the angle subtended by the arc length S
2
180 S
¿
2 ᴫ(R−d )
d = distance between the centre line of the road and the centre line of the inside lane, m
Case 2: When L < S
For single lane roads :m=R – R cos ( α2 )+ (S−L)
2
sin ( )
α
2
Where m = Setback distance, m
α
=Half the angle subtended by the arc length L
2
180 L
¿
2ᴫR
S = Sight distance, m (SSD, ISD or OSD)
R = Radius of the curve, m
L = Length of curve, m
For multi−lane roads :m=R – ( R−d)cos
2 ()
α (S−L)
+
2
sin
α
2 ()
α
=Half the angle subtended by the arc length L
2

180 L
¿
2 ᴫ(R−d )
d = distance between the centre line of the road and the centre line of the inside lane, m
Problems
1. There is a horizontal highway curve of radius 400m and length 200m on this highway.
Compute the set – back distances required from the centre line on the inner side of curve so
to provide for SSD of 90m and OSD of 300m. The distance between the centre lines of the
road and the inner lane is 1.9m.
Solution
For SSD of 90m
Given: R = 400m, L = 200m, S = 90m and d = 1.9m
When L > S (200m > 90m)
α 180 S 180 ×90
= = =6.48 ͦ
2 2 ᴫ(R−d ) 2 ᴫ(400−1.9)
m=R – ( R−d)cos
α
2 ()
m=400 – ( 400−1.9 ) cos ( 6.48 ͦ )=4.4 m
For OSD of 300m
Given: R = 400m, L = 200m, S = 300m and d = 1.9m
When L < S (200m > 300m)
α 180 L 180 ×200
= = =14.39 ͦ
2 2 ᴫ(R−d ) 2 ᴫ(400−1.9)
m=R – ( R−d)cos
2
+ ()
α (S−L)
2
sin
α
2 ()
( 300−200 )
m=400 – ( 400−1.9 ) cos ( 14.39 ͦ ) + sin ( 14.39 ͦ )=26.8 m
2

Design of vertical alignment

The vertical alignment is the elevation or profile of the centre line of the road. The vertical
alignment consists of grades and vertical curves and It Influences the vehicle speed, acceleration
and deceleration. stopping distance. Sight distance and comfort in vehicle moments at high speeds.
Gradient
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the horizontal. It is
expressed as a ratio of 1 in x. Sometimes the gradient is also expressed as percentage, n i.e., n in
100. The angle that measures the change of direction at the intersection of two grades is called
the deviation angle N.
Gradient = 1 in x
= tan 
=n
100
= percentage
x

Note: +ve sign represents ascending gradients
ve sign represents ascending gradients
N = Algebraic difference between the two grades.
Types of gradients
The different types of gradients are used in the design of highway are
l . Ruling gradient 2. Limiting gradient 3. Exceptional gradient. 4. Minimum gradient
Ruling gradient
Ruling gradient is the maximum gradient within which the vertical profile of a road is to be
designed. The ruling gradients are adopted as a normal course in design of vertical alignment
and the quantities of fill and cut are balanced accordingly. Hence ruling gradient is also known
as design gradient. The factors, which influence on the selection of ruling grade for the purpose
of design, are type of terrain, length of the grade, speed, pulling power of vehicles and presence
of horizontal curves. The following values are recommended by IRC.
Sl.
Type of Terrain Ruling gradient
No.
1 Plain and Rolling terrain 3.3 % (l in 30)
2 Mountainous and steep

terrain
i) 3000 m above MSL 5 % (1 in 20)
ii) Up to 3000 m above MSL 6 % (l in 16.7)
Limiting gradient
Limiting gradient is the gradient steeper than ruling gradient and this reduces cost of
gradients. However continuous grade line steeper than ruling gradient should be limited. The
following values are recommended by IRC.
Sl.
No Type of Terrain Ruling gradient
.

1 Plain and Rolling terrain 5 % (l in 20)
2 Mountainous and steep terrain
i) 3000 m above MSL 6 % (1 in 16.7)
Exceptional gradient
In some extraordinary situations it may be unavoidable to provide gradients steeper than
limiting gradients for short stretches. Such gradients are called exceptional gradients. However,
the exceptional gradient should be strictly limited only for short stretches not exceeding about
100 m at a stretch. The following values are recommended by IRC.
Sl.
No Type of Terrain Ruling gradient
.
1 Plain and Rolling terrain 6.7 % (l in 15)
2 Mountainous and steep terrain
i) 3000 m above MSL 7 % (1 in 14.3)
Minimum gradient
The road can b
Though the surface water can be drained off to the Side drains by camber a certain longitudinal
slope (minimum gradient) is essential to drain the water along the side drains depending upon the
surface of the drains. The following minimum gradient is generally adopted
Sl.
No Type of side drain Minimum gradient
1. Concrete Side drain 0.2% (l in 500)

2. Inferior surface side drain 0.5%(1 in 200)
3. Kutcha open side drain (Soil drains) 1% (1 in 100)

Grade compensation on curves

At horizontal curves in order to tap the total resistances due to gradient and curvature
within allowable limits, the gradients is reduced. This reduction in gradient on curve is called
grade compensation. It is calculated by the following formula.
30+ R 75
Grade compensation % = , subject to a maximum of
R R
Where, R = Radius of the curve. m
Grade compensation is not necessary for gradients flatter than 4 %.
Vertical curves
Due to change in grade in vertical alignment of highway, it is necessary to introduce
vertical curve at inter sections of different grades to smoothen out the vertical profile and thus
ease off the change in gradients for the fast-moving vehicles.
The vertical curves used in highway may be classified into types

l. Summit curves
2. Valley curves
Summit curves
Vertical curves with convexity upwards are called Summit curves. Summit curves are
provided in the following situations.
i) Upgrade meeting a downgrade (Fig. l)

ii) Upgrade meeting a level road (Fig. 2)
iii) Upgrade meeting a flatter upgrade (Fig. 3)
iv) Downgrade meeting a steeper downgrade (Fig. 4)

Length of summit curve is governed by the choice of sight distance (SSD, ISD = 2 SSD,
OSD). Since there is no problem of discomfort to the passengers on summit curves. On summit
curves centrifugal force acts against the gravity, releasing the pressure on tyres and springs.
Thus, the passengers in the vehicle moving on summit curve will feel no discomfort. IRC has
recommended “square parabola” shape for summit curve. The length of summit curve is
calculated from the following equations.
Equation for SSD Equation for OSR

Case Basic Equation
H =1.2 m, h=0.15 m H =1.2 m, h =1.2 m
2
NS 2 2
LS L= NS NS
( √ 2 H+ √ 2 h)
2 L= L=
4.4 9.6
2
L= 2 S - √
LS [ 2 H + √ 2 h] 4.4 9.6
L=2S- N L = 2S - N
N
Where L = Length of summit curve, m.

S = Required sight distance, m.
N = Total deviation angle, radians.
H = Height of drivers eye level above road surface, m.
h = Height of object above road surface, m.
Problems
l. A vertical curve is formed at the intersection of two gradients of + 3% and – 4%. Design the
length of summit curve for
i) S S D of 120 m
ii) I S D of 240 m
Solution,
Total deviation angle = n1 + n2
3 4
= + =0.07 radions
100 100
i) Summit curve for S S D
Assume L > S,
2
NS
L=
4.4
2
0.07 ×120
L= = 229.1 m > 120 m i.e., S S D
4.4

Hence provide L = 229.1 230 m

ii) Summit curve for I S D
Assume L > S,
2
NS
L=
9.6
2
0.07 ×120
L= = 420 m > 240 m i.e., S S D
9.6
Hence provide L = 420 m
2. An ascending gradient of 1 in 100 meets a descending gradient of I in 125. Find length of
summit curve for O S D of 470 m.
Solution:
Total deviation angle= n1+n2
1 1
= + =0.018 radians
100 125
Summit curve for I S D
Assume L > S,
2
NS
L=
9.6
2
0.018 ×470
L= = 414.2 m < 470 m ( O S D )
9.6
Hence assumption is wrong.
 Assume L < S
9.6
L = 2S -
N
9.6
L = 2 × 470− = 406.67 m < 470 m ( O S D )
0.018
Hence provide L = 406.67 m 407 m
Valley curves
Vertical curves with concavity upwards are called valley curves Valley curves are provided in
the following situations.
i) Downgrade meeting an upgrade (Fig. 1)

ii) Downgrade meeting a level road (Fig. 2)
iii) Downgrade meeting a flatter downgrade (Fig, 3)
iv) Upgrade meeting a steeper upgrade (Fig. 4)

The length of valley curve is governed by "Head light sight distance (HLSD = sight distance
available under the illumination of head lights of the vehicle and should be equal to SSD) and
comfort. On valley curves centrifugal force acts in the direction of gravity. This results in increase
of pressure on tyres and springs causing discomfort for the passengers. Also, SD problem does not
exist during the day time. But during night time the SD available depends upon the illumination of
head lights. From safety point of view the HLSD should be equal to SSD. IRC has recommended a
" square parabola" shape for valley curves. The length of curve is calculated from the following
equations and the largest value is adopted.
Case Basic Equation Modified Equation

1
L = 0.38 [ N V 3 ] 2
[ ]
3 1
Comfort NV 2
L = 0.30
Condition C Putting C = 0.6 m / sec3
2
NS
NS
2 L = 1.5 h + 0.035 S
L>S L = 2h +2 S tan α 1
1
Putting h1 = 0.75 m and  = 1⁰
HLSD
1.5+0.035 S
2 h1+ 2 S tan α L = 2 S− N
L<S L = 2 S−
N
Putting h1 = 0.75 m and  = 1⁰
Were,
L = Length of valley curve, m
N = Total deviation angle, radian
V = design speed, kmph
C = Rate of change of radial acceleration, m / sec
S = Head light sight distance, m

h1 = Height of head light above road surface, m

 = Beam angle of head light, degrees
Problems
l. A valley curve is formed on a descending gradient of 1 in 40, which meets an ascending
gradient of 1 in30. Design the length of valley curve if design speed is 100 kmph. Also find the
position of lowest point on the valley curve.
Solution,
i) Comfort condition
1
L = 0.38 [ N V 3 ] 2
Were,
L = Length of valley curve, m
V = Design speed, kmph = 100

kmph
N = Total deviation angle, radians
1 1
= + =¿0.0583 radians
40 30
1
L = 0.38 [ 0.0583 ×100 3 ] 2
L = 91.75 m
ii) HLSD condition

2
V
HLSD = S = SSD = 0.278 V t + (Neglecting descending and ascending gradients)
254 f
Assumed t = 2.5 sec (for SSD as per IRC)
f = 0.35 for design speed of 100 kmph as per IRC

2
100
 S = 0.278 ×100 × 2.5+ =182 m
254 ×0.35
Assume L>S
2
NS
L=
1.5+0.035 S
2
0.0583 ×182
= = 245.4 m (> 182 m) ok.
1.5+0.035 ×182
 Provide L = 245.4 m (Largest of two values)
The position of lowest point on the valley curve X0 from the tangent point of the 1st
grade line is given by
X0 = L
√ n1
2N
√
1
X0 = 245.4 40 = 113.6 m
2 × 0.0583
2. A valley curve is formed on a descending gradient of 4 % meets an ascending gradient of 3.3

%. Design the length of valley curve using the following data. Also find the position of
lowest point on the valley curve.
Design speed = 80 kmph
Allowable rate of radial acceleration = 0.65 m / sec3
Height of head light = 0.7 m
Beam angle = 45 minutes
Solution,
i) Comfort condition
1
L = 0.38 [ N V 3 ] 2
Where, L = Length of valley curve, m
V = Design speed, kmph = 100

kmph
N = Total deviation angle, radians
4 3
= + =¿ 0.073 radians
100 100
1
L = 0.38 [ 0.073 × 803 ] 2
L = 71.9 m
ii) HLSD condition

2
V
HLSD = S = SSD = 0.278 V t + (Neglecting descending and ascending gradients)
254 f
Assume, t = 2.5 sec (for SSD as per IRC) and f = 0.35 for design speed of 100 kmph as per
IRC
2
80
 S = 0.278 × 80× 2.5+ =127.6 m
254 ×0.35

Assume L>S
2
NS
L=
2h 1+2 S tan α
2
0.073 ×127.6
= 0 = 268.9 m (> 127.6 m) ok.
2× 0.7+2 ×127.6 tan(0.75 )
 Provide L = 268.9 m (Largest of two values)

The position of lowest point on the valley curve X0 from the tangent point of the 1st
grade line is given by
X0 = L
√ n1
2N
√
4
X0 = 245.4 100 = 140.6 m
2 × 0.073
PAVEMENT DESIGN
The portion of the road provide with aggregates is called pavement or carriage way. Based on the
structural behaviour of the pavement over the prepared subgrade the pavements are generally
classified as
1. Flexible pavements
2. Rigid pavements
Component parts of flexible pavement

Cross section of a typical flexible pavement
Component parts of rigid pavements
Cross section of a typical flexible pavement
The components of flexible and rigid pavement are

1. Soil subgrade
2. Sub base course
3. Base course
4. Wearing surface
Soil Subgrade
It is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the loads from layers of pavement materials. The
wheel loads of the pavement are ultimately received by the soil subgrade. Hence it is essential that
the stress induced on the top of subgrade is within allowable limits. To improve the strength of
subgrade it is desirable that maximum dry density at optimum moisture content.
Functions of soil subgrade are:
1. To receive the stress generation from the above layers.
2. To receive the materials of the above layers and act as a bedding layer.
Sub base course
It is the layer provided next to the subgrade. It is generally made up of soils like gravel, moorum
etc. which are stronger than the subgrade soil. Sub base is necessary when subgrade is week. The
subgrade provides additional help to base course in distributing the load.
Functions of Sub-base course are:
1. Act as a support for base and wearing course.
2. To improve drainage condition.
3. To remove heave.
4. To protect above layers from bad qualities from under laying soils

Base course
It is the layer provided next to the sub base. It is generally made up of crushed or broken stones
with some binder. The main function of base course is to act as a structural portion of the pavement
and distribute the wheel loads.
Functions of base course are:
1. To prevent horizontal shear stresses and vertical pressure produced by moving or standing
wheel load.
2. To provide density and resistance to weathering.
3. Distribution of higher wheel load pressure.
Wearing surface
It is the top most layer of the pavement. The main functions of wearing surface are.
1. To provide resistance against wear and tear due traffic movements.
2. To provide smooth and dense riding surface to resist the pressure exerted by vehicle and to
resist surface water infiltration
Comparison of Flexible and Rigid Pavements
Sl.No Flexible pavement Rigid pavement
.
1 A flexible pavement consists of a relatively A rigid pavements generally made up of
thin Wearing course built over a base and plain cement concrete and may or may not
sub base resting upon the compacted have a sub base course between the
subgrade pavement and subgrade.
The load carrying capacity of a flexible The rigid pavement because of its rigidity
pavement is brought about by the load and high modulus of elasticity distributes
2
distribution characteristics of the layered the load over a relatively wide area
system by grain to grain contacts points
The flexible pavement has stability due to The stability of rigid pavement is provided
3 aggregate inter lock particle friction and by the pavement slab due to its flexural
cohesion strength
The flexible pavement deflects Rigid pavement is able to bridge over
4 deformations of subgrade and subsequent localised failure
layers on to the surface
The thickness requirement of a flexible The major factored considered in this design
5 pavement influenced by the strength of of rigid pavement is the flexural strength of
subgrade concrete
The life of flexible pavement for the The life of rigid pavement for the purpose of
6
purpose of design is taken as 10 years design is taken as 20 years
The initial cost of flexible pavement is less The initial cost of rigid pavement is more.
7
but its maintenance is regular and costly but a well designed rigid pavement needs
Flexible pavement is best suited for stage These are not suited for stage construction
8
construction.
Immediately after the construction it can be requires 28 days for curing before opening to
9
opened to traffic traffic
Equivalent Single Wheel Load(ESWL)

Vehicles are provided with dual wheel assembly or tandom dual wheel assembly to the rear axles.
This arrangement increases the load carrying capacity of vehicles. But for the design purposes the

magnitude of single wheel load is considered. Hence a single wheel load that produces the same
effect (in terms of stress or deflection) as that of dual wheel assembly at any depth is called
“ESWL”.
The concept of ESWL is shown in following figure.
The effect of dual wheel assembly is shown in following figure.
Fig:-Stress dispersion under dual wheels.

P=Load on each wheel
d=clear distance between wheels
S=centre to centre spacing between wheels.
Upto the depth of d/2 each wheel load P acts independently and after this point the stresses induced
due to each load begins to overlap at depth 2S and above, the stresses induced are due to the effect
of both wheels as the area of overlap is considerable. So the total stresses due to the dual wheels at
any depth greater than 2S is considered to be ESWL of magnitude 2P.
Determination of ESWL
Equivalent wheel loads may be determined based on either equivalent deflection or equivalent
stress criterion.
For determining ESWL the plot is made on graph as shown in following figure.

Two points A & B are plotted on the graph with co-ordinates of A[log(P) ,log(d/2)] and B[log(2P),
log(2S)]. Line AB is a plot which is the locus of points where any single wheel load equivalent to a
certain set of dual wheel. To calculate the ESWL for a dual assembly, it is essential to estimate a
design thickness of the pavement. Thus ESWL is obtained at the assumed thickness of the
pavement.
Problems
Calculate ESWL of a dual wheel assembly carrying 2044 kg each for pavement thickness of 15, 20
& 25cm, centre to centre tyre spacing =27cm & distance between the walls of the tyres=11cm.
Solution
Here P=2044kg, 2p=4088kg, d=11cm & S=27cm
X & Y points are plotted on a graph between ESWL & pavement thickness.
X has co-ordinates (P ,d/2) = (log 2044, log 5.5)
Y has co-ordinates (2P ,2S) = (log 4088, log 54)

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Module - 2

The important factors, which affect the geometric elements are

Department of Civil Engineering, AIT- Chikkamagaluru 2

Department of Civil Engineering, AIT- Chikkamagaluru 3

7. Temperature of tyre and pavement

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check the lateral profile of the finished pavement during construction.

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S1. Class of road Width of

Traffic separators or Medians

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Department of Civil Engineering, AIT- Chikkamagaluru 7

Department of Civil Engineering, AIT- Chikkamagaluru 8

Typical cross sections of roads

Figure: Cross section of VR or ODR in embankment in rural Area

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Figure: Cross section of MDR in cutting in rural Area

Figure: Cross section of NH or SH in rural Area

Figure: Cross section of two lane city road in Built – up area

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Figure: Cross section of Divided Highway in Urban area

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Fig.1 Sight distance at horizontal curve

Fig.2 Sight distance at vertical summit curve

Fig.3 Sight distance at intersection

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Department of Civil Engineering, AIT- Chikkamagaluru 13

Department of Civil Engineering, AIT- Chikkamagaluru 14

i) Two - way traffic road.

SSD for vehicle -1

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Overtaking Sight Distance

Vb= Speed of overtaken vehicle, kmph

A = Acceleration, kmph / sec

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d1 = 0.28 Vb . t = 0.278 x 60 x 2 = 33.36 m

Sight distance at intersections

Department of Civil Engineering, AIT- Chikkamagaluru 19

Where P = Centrifugal force, kg

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Transverse skidding effect:

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Equation for superelevation

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Design of superelevation for mixed traffic

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is called "mechanical widening"(W m).

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speed of the vehicles at such curves

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Method 2: Based on "rate of introduction of superelevation" is given by,

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Method 1: Based on "rate of change of radial or centrifugal acceleration",

Method 2: Based on "rate of introduction of superelevation"

Method 3: Based on "Indian Road Congress"

Method 2: Based on "rate of introduction of superelevation"

Set back Distance (clearance)

Department of Civil Engineering, AIT- Chikkamagaluru 33