OBSERVATIONS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF CONCRETE AT

HIGH STRESS LEVELS FROM BLASTING

L. L. Oriard
President, Lewis L. Oriard, Inc.
Huntington Beach, California

ABSTRACT

This paper presents a brief discussion of three case histories to illustrate several aspects of
the question of blasting in or immediately adjacent to concrete. The results demonstrate a
need to make dramatic upward revisions in previous criteria, whether it be the standard
particle velocity criteria or damage response spectra bounds, - especially those which
include conservative upper limits of constant acceleration for the high-frequency portion
of the spectrum. It is demonstrated, also, that conventional off-the-shelf blast-monitoring
instruments are not capable of monitoring small blasts at close range. Both the frequencies
and the levels of effect are beyond the range of such instruments. These case histories
suggest further that there is a need to review the applicability of certain wellknown
equations of elasticity.

INTRODUCTION

A common occurrence on civil construction projects is the need to blast in or immediately

adjacent to concrete, either for modification of existing structures or the building of new
structures. Although this work has generated a wealth of observational experience
regarding blasting effects on concrete, there has been relatively little instrumental data
obtained. One reason has been the greater expenditure of time and dollars required to
obtain good-quality instrumental data since we are dealing with much higher stress levels,
and usually much higher frequencies, than can be measured with conventional
off-the-shelf blast-monitoring instruments.

Criteria for blasting near concrete and/or engineered structures have been more diverse
than those applied to residences, and have covered a broader range of individual
judgments. In some instances, relatively sophisticated analyses have been performed for
individual structures, such as finite element analyses of the dynamic responses of
hypothetical structural models to assumed input motions. In the more common case where
detailed analyses are not made, practices for establishing blasting limits have varied
widely, including the following approaches:

1) Total prohibition of blasting.

2) Temporary prohibition of blasting during the early curing stage for the concrete,
following by various (usually very conservative) limits.
3) Adoption of the typical 2.0 ips limit usually applied to residences.

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4) Some higher limit usually based on the judgment of individual specialists retained to
offer this guidance.
5) No limitations.

It is far more common at the present time to find very conservative limits than to find
liberal limits applied to concrete. There does not appear to be a common trend, but rather
two diverse trends. One seems to be following the trend towards greater restriction on all
limits associated with blasting; the other seems to be a trend toward more liberal limits as
more and more persons become aware of the great costs in time and dollars that have been
associated with unnecessary restrictions on so many civil construction projects,
accompanied by a growing realization that concrete is more durable than generally
believed.

When we try to develop a rational approach to blasting effects on concrete, we first run
into the complexity that freshly poured concrete passes through physical property phases
that are related to its compressional and tensile strengths. It goes through a transition from
being a viscous slurry to being a weak plastic solid to becoming a solid with increasing
strength and brittleness. The lack of strength in the early stages of curing lead naturally to
a great deal of conservatism. If we were to believe the elastic relationship stating that the
stress in a solid during the passage of an elastic wave is equal to the product of the
acoustical impedance and the particle velocity, it is clear that the relatively low particle
velocities of even more distant blasting might exceed the theoretical strength of freshly
poured concrete.

The second complexity is that concrete may react to vibration in at least two major ways;
(1) as a material, en masse, through which a stress wave travels as a sonic pulse, and (2) as
a structure or structural element, consisting of a given shape, dimension, mass and
damping which responds as a dynamic oscillator to a given input. Thus, a freshly poured
concrete wall can be damaged as a structure through deflection, which may not be of
concern in dealing with concrete en masse. Of course, deflections can be minimized if
form bracing is well designed and the vibrations are of high frequency. Both of these
factors are amenable to control.

Despite the lack of published data relating to blasting near concrete, the profession's bank
of instrumental data continue to expand each year, making it increasingly reliable to
extrapolate more conventional data to small distances, if frequency changes are
understood. However, many persons have found it difficult to accept such extrapolation
because it often leads to particle velocities up to hundreds of inches per second, and they
may have been accustomed to reading specifications that limit particle velocities to values
of the order of 2.0 ips.

In the past, the construction industry has often resisted the rather high expenditure of time
and dollars required to measure close-in blast effects, and has preferred either to rely on
field experience and visual observation, or to defer the question by operating under very
conservative criteria. However, in recent years, more and better instruments have become
available at costs that make such monitoring more attractive. Some of this equipment is

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available for rent, thus increasing even more the opportunities for its use. Although this
writer has been involved in questions of high stress levels for some 30 years, only in recent
years has there been an opportunity to gather instrumental data of such quality as to per
mit publishing the results. With several such instances now documented during the last few
years, the writer would like to present a brief discussion of several case histories, and
repeat his belief (for example, Oriard, 1972) that the frequency con tent of a blasting
vibration is an extremely important factor and needs to be given much more consideration
than has typically been the custom in the past. It is this writer's opinion that the profession
should now

1) make a revision in high-frequency vibration criteria, especially those applied to the

protection of concrete during blasting operations,
2) consider all criteria based on particle displacement, velocity or acceleration to be
strongly frequency-dependent, whether the criteria are applied to concrete, plaster,
residences, or any other material or type of structure.
3) explore more thoroughly the concept that significant strains seem to be required for
damage, and investigate the influence of frequency on strain at different levels of
other parameters such as particle velocity and impulse.

Most of the recent publications on blasting observations point out a description of the
decreasing intensity of vibration with distance from the source of the blasting. Most do not
delve further into the basics of seismology which can become quite important in
understanding the frequency content. Some of the factors which affect the changing
character of seismic waves with distance are spreading, selective scattering, absorption
and dispersion (standard texts such as Bullen, 1963, Heiland, 1946, and others).

The concept of geometric spreading is easily grasped intuitively. Different waves will
diminish in intensity at different rates. For example, body waves diminish at a different
rate than surface waves. Of special interest in the present discussion is the change in the
frequency content of the energy. If the medium contains sources of scattering, theories of
sound transmission tell us that the intensity varies inversely as the fourth power of the
wave length. Thus, scattering quickly attenuates the high frequencies and accentuates the
low frequencies. In a similar fashion, the absorption coefficient appears to increase with
the second power of the frequency, again contributing dramatically to the rapid
attenuation of the high frequencies generated at the source. Dispersion varies with the first
power of frequency. Our main interest in dispersion is its contribution to the relative
position of peak energy in the wave train. With an understanding of a few of these factors,
we can anticipate a rapid increase in frequency content as we approach close to the energy
source.

Experience suggests that concrete is less easily damaged by high-frequency stresses than
elastic theories have suggested. It seems that theoretical response spectra have conformed
reasonable well to field experience in cases of low-frequency motion, such as that from
earthquakes or nuclear detonations, but seem to be increasingly conservative at higher
frequencies. In particular, experience seems to cast doubt on damage spectra that suggest
an upper damage bound of constant acceleration. A problem arises when we consider the

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response spectrum of a damaging blast and assume that all three legs of the spectrum
(displacement, velocity and acceleration) represent damage potentials for future blasting,
even if there is a frequency shift in the spectrum.

It seems clear that the response of a structure will be greater if the incoming vibrations
occur at the natural frequency of the structure. However, that fact does not dictate either
that damage will necessarily occur at the natural frequency or that it will not occur at some
other frequency. That is merely a question of relative response; it does not establish
criteria.

CASE HISTORIES

A brief summary of three case histories is presented to illustrate several facets of the
question of structural and material responses to high-frequency vibrations from blasting.
The three cases were selected to illustrate three different field conditions:

1) the classical case of structural elements undergoing deflection at frequencies far

above their natural frequencies and at their natural frequencies,

2) components of concrete subjected to an external vibration source, where the

concrete components are sufficiently small in dimension compared to the wave
lengths of incoming pulses, and sufficiently rigid, that structural deflections are
insignificant,

3) concrete subjected to an internal energy source for explosive demolition.

The first case history illustrates an approach to close-in blasting which does not require
that damage limits be known precisely, only that one recognize that certain minimum
values of strain must be reached before damage can occur. Values of acceleration and
particle velocity were not considered to be diagnostic. This case is that of the underwater
blasting operations conducted to remove the rock in front of the last three generating units
in the first-stage powerhouse at Guri Dam, Venezuela. The rock projected some 20 feet
above the tailrace invert level and was located some 10-12 feet in front of the powerhouse
stoplogs and walls. Originally it had been assumed that blasting operations could not be
conducted because the stoplogs and walls were designed to withstand static water
pressures of only 40-49 psi (2.8-3.4 kg/sq. m.) and these pressures would undoubtedly be
exceeded by any blasting operations at such close range. However, a closer look was
requested in view of the disastrous financial consequences of not being able to blast. It
was estimated that it would take about three weeks to remove the rock by blasting, and
about 3 years by mechanical methods. The cost differential would be many, many millions
of dollars of electrical revenue, probably in the range of a million dollars a day for one of
the world's largest hydroelectric plants.

The writer had previous experience on a number of projects involving even closer
distances and heavier explosives charges, so had confidence in the feasibility of blasting.
The first step was to make a detailed inspection of the facilities and make a prediction of

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the responses of the stoplogs and walls. The next step was to develop a blasting plan,
beginning with a modest level of blasting, and systematically increasing the charge weights
while monitoring structural responses, with the proviso that the work could be stopped and
re-evaluated if the responses were greater than predicted.

After an examination of the site, it was concluded that the maximum single charge needed
to break the rock would generate peak pressures of the order of 580 psi (40.8 kg/sq. m.) at
the powerhouse, some 15 times the static design values. Impulses were expected to
approach 200 psi-ms. Particle velocities in the low frequency range were expected to
remain below about 25 ips. Strain was to be used as the governing criterion for the work.
The work would be stopped and re-evaluated if strains exceeded 150 micro-inches per
inch, although we expected less.

Pressure measurements were in precise agreement with predicted values for charges
suspended in water and those placed into the rock. The measurements showed that the
powerhouse did indeed receive exactly the pressure predicted, 580 psi. The corresponding
impulse was about 200 psi-ms. However, dynamic shear strains in the walls did not exceed
50 micro-inches per inch and there was, therefore, no damage done either to the walls or
to the stoplogs. Accelerations reached at least 1000 g, but were not monitored
continuously since acceleration was not considered to be diagnostic of damage potential.
Particle velocities approached 25 ips in the low-frequency range. There were no visible
effects on the concrete, nor were there any changes in sonic velocities in the concrete
before and after the blasting.

Elastic theory demonstrates that the response of the stoplogs should have been quite low,
as it was. We had calculated a natural frequency of less than 20 Hz for the stoplogs and
were anticipating pressure times of the order of 2 ms for waterborne waves (longer
positive phase for seismic energy transmitted through the rock). Although response spectra
are dependent not only on the ratio of the pressure time to the natural period of the
structure, but on the wave shape as well, nevertheless, for ratios less than 0.4 the wave
shape becomes of little importance and the response drops off very rapidly. For our ratio
of 0.04, the stop logs would see the static equivalent pressure of about 1/10 the dynamic
peak, that is, have a response equivalent to a static pressure of about 58 psi, still slightly
over design, but within an anticipated factor of safety.

Air bubble curtains had been considered but we recommended that they not be used. It is
popularly and mistakenly believed by some persons that damage from underwater blasting
is in linear proportion to the peak pressure. Consequently, such persons logically
recommend the use of air bubble curtains to reduce peak pressures. Unfortunately, the
initial premise seems to be incorrect. The damage potential is related more closely to
impulse than to pressure. Consequently, the air curtain may not only be ineffective, it has
the potential in some cases for increasing the possibility of damage. Although the air
curtain reduces the peak pressure, it increases the pressure time, sometimes nearly in
direct proportion to the decrease in peak pressure, so that there is little effect, if any, on
impulse. Further, increasing the pressure time usually brings the high-frequency energy
closer to the natural frequency of some component of the structure, thus increasing the

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possibility of greater structural response.

The same theories used for evaluating stoplog response would give a prediction of failure
for the powerhouse walls, since the walls were very stiff and had a high natural frequency
(calculated to be of the order of 250 Hz). At the frequencies expected for the blast effects,
the walls should (theoretically) react as though the 580 psi were applied as a static
pressure, and thus fail for certain. In fact, a finite element analysis predicted failure.
However, previous field experience indicated that failure would not occur, so it was
recommended that the blasting progress on an increasing scale while structural responses
were monitored, as mentioned previously. The finite element analysis indicated that the
failure mode for the walls would be in shear around the periphery of the panels, so strain
gages were placed to monitor these locations, as well as other locations.

In the practical sense, the work was successful in saving a great deal of electrical revenues
for one of the world's largest powerhouses. However, technically, the work was less
satisfying because of the discrepancies between elastic theory, established criteria and
field practice.

Let us now consider a case involving concrete as a rigid body of material whose
dimensions are small compared to the wave length of the incoming seismic energy from an
external source. This is the case we deal with commonly for such items as small footings or
foundations, small slabs, backfill concrete and other concrete masses which are of such
dimension that they are not likely to undergo deflections of any significance.

In the summer of 1976, the writer conducted a simple experiment on a construction site to
test the effects of blasting on new concrete used for column footings, mass backfill and
other shapes essentially incapable of structural deflection. Two cubes were chosen for the
test purposes. The cubes were three feet on a side. One was poured into a pit flush with
the surrounding rock surface; the other was poured into forms resting on top of the rock
surface, using a concrete purposely prepared to be relatively weak. Test cylinders were
obtained from the same batch as the cubes, and were set aside for laboratory testing to
determine compressive strengths at various ages, giving the following results:

AGE (in days) COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (psi)

1.17 212
2 273
3 409
7 492
28 1249

During the first three days from batching, nearby construction work subjected the cubes to
particle velocities in the range up to about 3 ips. On the third day, two test shots were
detonated, subjecting the cubes to particle velocities of 19 ips and 70 ips, respectively. On
the eighth day another test shot was detonated. In order to exceed the previous particle
velocity of 70 ips, it was necessary to blast out the rock supporting the cubes, with the

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nearest charges at a distance of 2 feet. The cube beneath the rock surface was demolished
along with the surrounding rock as part of the crater zone. The cube resting on the rock
surface first received an elastic pulse with a particle velocity in excess of 100 ips, then was
ejected into the air, coming to rest on top of a large muck pile of fractured rock. Clearly,
the concrete was more durable than the rock. Excavators pushed the cube to one side and
it was later cored for laboratory testing, giving a compressive strength of 2146 psi at an
age of 61 days. This strength was about 17% higher than the extrapolated values for the
laboratory test samples that had never received any vibration.

Since velocity gages were imbedded in the concrete, it is certain that the cubes actually
experienced particle velocities at least as great as reported. Some portion of the energy
may have been beyond the limited frequency range of the monitoring recorders.

If we accept the relationship that stress is equal to the product of the acoustical impedance
and particle velocity, the compressive strength of the concrete was exceeded by a factor
of 3 1/2 to 4, and the tensile strength by about ten times that amount.

A third case history helps to place more definitive limits on the behavior of concrete
subjected to high stress levels at very high frequencies from demolition charges placed
within the concrete. This case involves the old concrete of Lock and Dam No. 1 on the
Mississippi River at Minneapolis. The old lock is now undergoing modifications requiring
the removal of part of the old concrete walls and preserving the remainder undamaged, -
taking about half of walls which are of the order of 4 ft. in thickness.

During the winter of 1978-89, blasting tests were performed to determine the feasibility of
using explosives for this work, in comparison to mechanical methods. During the tests, the
response of the old concrete was carefully monitored. There was a recording capability of
65 channels on magnetic tape. Dynamic transducers consisted of strain gages,
piezo-resistive accelerometers and velocity gages. Strain gages were placed at distances of
8 inches to 32 inches from the explosives charges. At the face of the concrete wall, at
about 3 1/2 ft., were accelerometers. The velocity gages responded only to about 3,000 Hz
and could not be used at distances less than about 10 feet because of this frequency
limitation. It was necessary to have a frequency range up to about 30,000 Hz for the
close-in readings. Accelerometers had a range to 30,000 Hz and 50,000 g.

As a starting point for prediction of responses and instrumental requirements, reference

was made to the Oriard prediction curves, under the assumption that the concrete would
show an elastic response somewhat greater than that for the Oriard curve for unusually
elastic rock, and considering that the test explosive PETN was more brisant than the
blasting agents and explosives typically used in construction and mining, from which the
reference curves were prepared. Also, we started with a prediction of an attenuation curve
based on Oriard's rockblasting data, intending to modify the curve as data was obtained. It
would not have been surprising to find a different attenuation since the peak effects for the
test shots were primarily compressional with some shear, with no Rayleigh waves present,
Rayleigh waves being a prominent part of much of the data obtained for quarrying
operations and construction blasting.

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There was better agreement with the rock-blasting data than was expected. This is shown
in Figure 1.

Four degrees of damage were observed and identified on the data plot. These were (l)
grout spell, (2) concrete skin spell, (3) cracking, and (4) blowout. These can be compared
to a calculated static tensile strength. The values are as follows:

SUMMARY

1. Test data obtained at very close distances confirms what is suggested by the
extrapolation of measurements made at greater distances, namely that particle velocities
indeed reach values of several hundreds of inches per second or more in some cases. Of
course, the actual values reached depend on several factors, such as the type of explosive,
nature of the transmitting medium and the geometric relationships involved. For example,
a distributed explosives source would give much lower values at very small scaled
distances.

2. Frequencies at very close range for small shots are far beyond the range of conventional
off-the-shelf monitoring instruments. For small charges of PETN detonated in concrete, it
was necessary to have a frequency range up to 30,000 Hz for very close-in measurements.

3. Numerical values of acceleration rise so rapidly at close distances (they are proportional
to the square of the frequency) that it seems meaningless to attempt any useful correlation
between acceleration and damage potential. This fact would suggest that we need to look
more carefully at damage bounds which identify a constant acceleration bound in the
higher-frequency portion of the spectrum. In the third case history cited in this paper,
values of acceleration were 4 to 5 orders of magnitude higher than those which have
sometimes been recommended as limits in the past.

4. Response spectrum techniques based on elastic relationships have commonly been

considered reliable indicators of structural responses. Although field experience has shown
acceptable correlation with low-frequency events such as earthquakes and nuclear
detonations, the calculated predictions seem to be increasingly conservative at higher
frequencies. It appears that much remains to be learned about structural responses to
transient, high-frequency phenomena.

5. Concrete is far more resistant to blast damage than has generally been believed,
although this fact has been noted many times by observers of concrete demolition work.
Except for certain special cases, it seems inappropriate to limit vibrations in concrete to

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particle velocities of only several inches per second. It is not rare to find conditions on
construction sites such that concrete could not be damage by blasting unless the rock
supporting the concrete were to be ruptured, as was true for the second case history cited
in this paper.

6. It seems that strain must remain for the present time to be the best indicator of damage
potential while we learn more about high-frequency phenomena. However, existing
particle velocity criteria can continue to be useful for monitoring purposes, as long as we
recognize their increasing conservatism at higher frequencies. Velocity measurements are
conveniently made with readily available instruments. Continued research may reveal a
convenient and meaningful means of taking the time history into account for velocity
measurements. For example, a further look at impulse criteria might be worthwhile. (see,
for example, Oriard, 1970).

REFERENCES

Bullen, K. E. (1963), "An Introduction to the Theory of Seismology", Cambridge

University Press, Great Britain.

Heiland, C. A.(1946), "Geophysical Exploration", Prentice-Hall, Inc., New York, New

York.

Oriard, L. L. (1970), "Blasting Operations in the Urban Environment", Association of

Engineering Geologists Annual Meeting, Washington, D. C., October, 1970. Published in
the Bulletin of AEG, Vol IX, Winter, 1972.

Oriard, L. L. (1972), "Blasting Effects and Their Control in Open Pit Mining", Chapter 13
in "Geotechnical Practice for Stability in Open Pit Mining', Proceedings of the Second
International Conference on Stability in Open Pit Mining, Vancouver, B. C., SME of
AIME, New York, 1972, Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 72-86923.

Oriard, L. L. (1980), "Blasting Effects and Their Control", prepared for Handbook on
Underground Mining Methods,sponsored by the Society of Mining Engineers of AIME,
being printed.

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