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PRIVATE PILOT LICENCE
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METEOROLOGY
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I © Avex Air Training (Pty) Limited, 2003.
(Reg No 67/00941 /07)

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Private Bag X10404
EDLEEN, 1625
Republic of South Africa
Tel: (011) 974-4855

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Fax: (011) 974-6517
E-Mail: avex@iafrica.com
Product Code: AAT-MET-PPL

I First published in South Africa by Avex Air Training 2003

Revised August 2008

I All rights reserved. In terms of the Copyright Act, No 93 of 1978, no part of these notes may be
reproduced or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic or mechanical, including

I photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without the permission
in writing of the publisher.

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I An Avex Air Training Publication

I Private Pilot Licence

Revsion: 08/2008
© Avex Air Training 04/2007

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CONTENTS
I CHAPTER PAGE SUBJECT
I 1 1-1 - 1-4 THE ATMOSPHERE

I 2

3
2-1 - 2-6

3-1 - 3-6
TEMPERATURE

PRESSURE

I 4 4-1 - 4-3 HUMIDITY

5 5-1 - 5-2 AIR DENSITY

I 6 6-1 - 6-5 STABILITY, LAPSE RATE AND
ADIABATIC PROCESS

I 7 7-1 - 7-9 WIND

8 8-1 - 8-2 AIR MASSES

I 9 9-1 - 9-7 CLOUDS

I 10

11
10-1 - 10-11

11-1 - 11-2
FRONTS

VISIBILITY

I 12 12-1 - 12-2 PRECIPITATION

13 13-1 - 13-6 THUNDERSTORMS

I 14 14-1 - 14-6 TURBULENCE

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15 15-1 - 15-5 ICING

16 16-1 - 16-5 SOUTH AFRICAN WEATHER

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17-1 - 17-7

18-1 - 18-11
SYNOPTICS

AVIATION WEATHER REPORTS

I 19 19-1 - 19-7 UPPER AIR CHARTS AND

SYMBOLS

I 20 20-01 - 2005
20-A 1 - 20-A2
QUESTIONS
ANSWERS

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INDEX

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INDEX
I Abbreviations for cloud types ....................................................................................................... 19-2
Absolute instability ...........................................................................................................................6-3

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Absolute stability ..............................................................................................................................6-2
Advection .........................................................................................................................................2-3
Advection fog .................................................................................................................................11-2
Airframe icing .................................................................................................................................15-3
Anabatic wind ..................................................................................................................................7-4

I Anemometer .....................................................................................................................................7-8
Anti-cyclone ......................................................................................................................................3-5
Berg wind .........................................................................................................................................7 -4
Black south easter .........................................................................................................................16-4

I Buys-ballots law ...............................................................................................................................7-2

Cape Doctor ..................................................................................................................................16-4
Carburettor icing ............................................................................................................................15-1
CAVOK ...........................................................................................................................................18-4

I Celsius scale ....................................................................................................................................2-1

Classification of clouds ...................................................................................................................9-1
Clear air turbulence (CAT) ............................................................................................................14-2
Clear ice .........................................................................................................................................15-4

I Cloudbursts ....................................................................................................................................12-2
Cloud cover symbols ......................................................................................................................9-7
Cloud types ......................................................................................................................................9-1
Coalescence theory .......................................................................................................................12-1

I Coastal low ....................................................................................................................................16-2

Col ....................................................................................................................................................3-5
Cold front .......................................................................................................................................10-4
Conditional instability ......................................................................................................................6-2

I Conduction .......................................................................................................................................2-3
Convection .......................................................................................................................................2-3
Convection cloud .............................................................................................................................9-4
Convective thunderstorm ..............................................................................................................13-1

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Convergent cloud ............................................................................................................................9-3
Convergent thunderstorm .............................................................................................................13-1
Coriolis force ....................................................................................................................................7 -1
Criteria for issuing SPECI reports ................................................................................................18-6

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Density altitude ................................................................................................................................5-1
Depression .......................................................................................................................................3-5
Dew point .........................................................................................................................................4-1
Doldrums ..........................................................................................................................................7-6

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Drizzle .............................................................................................................................................12-1
DALR ................................................................................................................................................6-1
Dry bulb thermometer .....................................................................................................................2-1
Engine impact icing ......................................................................................................................15-2

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Environmental lapse rate ..........................................................................................................2-5/6-1
Factors affecting air density ...........................................................................................................5-1
Fahrenheit scale ..............................................................................................................................2-1
Fog .................................................................................................................................................11-1

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Fohn wind ........................................................................................................................................7-4
Forecast weather abbreviations ....................................................................................................19-3
Frontal cloud ....................................................................................................................................9-7
Frontal fog ......................................................................................................................................11-2

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Frontal thunderstorm .....................................................................................................................13-1
Fuel evaporation icing ...................................................................................................................15-1
Geostrophic winds ...........................................................................................................................7-1
Glare ...............................................................................................................................................11-4
Greenhouse effect ...........................................................................................................................2-3

I Guti fog ..........................................................................................................................................11-1

Hail .................................................................................................................................................12-2
Haze ...............................................................................................................................................11-1
Hoare frost .....................................................................................................................................15-3

I Horse latitudes .................................................................................................................................7-6

Ice particle theory ..........................................................................................................................12-1
Instability ..........................................................................................................................................6-2
International Standard Atmosphere ................................................................................................1-2

I Inversions .........................................................................................................................................2-5
Ionosphere .......................................................................................................................................1-2

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Isobars ..............................................................................................................................................3-5
ITCZ ..................................................................................................................................................7-6
Katabatic wind .................................................................................................................................7-5

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Land breeze .....................................................................................................................................7-5
Lapse rates ................................................................................................................................2-5/6-1
Lenticular cloud .............................................................................................................................14-3
Lightning ........................................................................................................................................13-5

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Low level turbulence .....................................................................................................................14-1
Maximum thermometer ...................................................................................................................2-2
Mechanical turbulence ..................................................................................................................14-1
Mesosphere .....................................................................................................................................1-2

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Metar ..............................................................................................................................................18-1
Metar - decode ..............................................................................................................................18-1
Micro bursts ...................................................................................................................................14-4
Minimum thermometer ....................................................................................................................2-2
Mist .................................................................................................................................................11-1

I Monsoons .........................................................................................................................................7-6
Mountain waves .............................................................................................................................14-2
Neutral stability ................................................................................................................................6-5
Nocturnal thunderstorm ................................................................................................................13-1

I Occluded fronts .............................................................................................................................10-9

Orographic cloud .............................................................................................................................9-3
Orographic thunderstorm ..............................................................................................................13-1
Polar continental air ........................................................................................................................8-1

I Polar maritime air ............................................................................................................................8-1

Pressure altitude ..............................................................................................................................5-1
Pressure gradient ............................................................................................................................3-6

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QNE ..................................................................................................................................................3-3
QNH ..................................................................................................................................................3-2
Radiation ..........................................................................................................................................2-2

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Relative humidity .............................................................................................................................4-1
R!dge. of high pressure ...................................................................................................................3-5

I Rime ice .........................................................................................................................................15-4

SALR .................................................................................................................................................6-1
Secondary depression ....................................................................................................................3-5
Sea breeze .......................................................................................................................................7-5

I Significant weather - low chart .....................................................................................................19-4

Significant weather symbols ......................................................................................................... 19-1
Sleet ...............................................................................................................................................12-1
Smog ..............................................................................................................................................11-3

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South westerly Buster ...................................................................................................................16-3
Speci ..............................................................................................................................................18-1
Special types of cloud ....................................................................................................................9-2
Snow ..............................................................................................................................................12-1

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Stability .............................................................................................................................................6-2
Standing waves .............................................................................................................................14-2
Static electricity ..............................................................................................................................13-5
Station model. ................................................................................................................................17-1

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Station model decode ...................................................................................................................17-3
Station model examples ...............................................................................................................17-7
Stationary front ............................................................................................................................10-11
Steam fog ......................................................................................................................................11-2

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Stevenson screen ............................................................................................................................2-1
Stratosphere .....................................................................................................................................1-2
Synoptic charts ..............................................................................................................................17-1
TAF ................................................................................................................................................. 18-7

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TAF decode ...................................................................................................................................18-7
Throttle ice .....................................................................................................................................15-1
Trade winds .....................................................................................................................................7-6
Tropical air fog ..............................................................................................................................11-3
Trop!cal con~i'.1ental. air ....................................................................................................................8-1

I Tropical maritime air ........................................................................................................................8-1

Troposphere .....................................................................................................................................1-2
Trough ..............................................................................................................................................3-5
Turbulence cloud .............................................................................................................................9-5

I Upper winds and temperatures ....................................................................................................19-5

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Upslope fog ...................................................................................................................................11-2
Valley fog .......................................................................................................................................11-2
~l;r~1;iy:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~t~
I Visibility from the air. .....................................................................................................................11-3
Wake turbulence ............................................................................................................................14-1
Warm front .....................................................................................................................................10-6

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Wet bulb thermometer ....................................................................................................................2-1
Wind shear .....................................................................................................................................14-3

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I Private Pilot Licence © Avex Air Training 04/2007
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I THE ATMOSPHERE
CHAPTER 1

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THE ATMOSPHERE
I A. INTRODUCTION

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The atmosphere is a colourless sea of air, enveloping and moving in sympathy with the rotation of the
earth. It is characterized by general motion and variations relative to the earth and plays a vital role in
the creation of "weather".

I B. COMPOSITION
Air is a fluid. Fluids are substances that can be made to change their shapes by the application of a
pressure, or simply induced to flow. Both liquids and gases are termed fluids as they have the same

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characteristics under certain conditions. Both possess viscosity (stickiness) and internal friction, al-
though, for example, air has less viscosity than oil.

The atmosphere is composed of a number of different gases and hydroscopic impurities and may be

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divided into different groups.
1. FIXED GASES

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The percentages given are by volume, with the corresponding weight percentage:

VOLUME

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NITROGEN 78.08%
OXYGEN 20.95%
ARGON 0.93%

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2. RARE GASES (0.04%)

These gases are found in the atmosphere, in quantities by volumes of less than 0.001 %. They are
also known as trace elements and are relatively constant in the lower portion of the atmosphere.
They include:
I Hydrogen, Helium, Neon, Methane, Xenon, Radon, Krypton and Carbon Dioxide.
3. WATER VAPOUR
I This is of major importance in meteorology, plaring a vital role in the creation of weather. Water
vapour weighs only five eighths that of dry air o comparable temperature and pressure. Typically,
0.2% by volume would relate to the cold dry polar regions, while 4.0% would relate to the warm

I moist tropical regions. Like air, it is important to remember that water vapour is also an invisible
and odourless gas.

4. OZONE

I This forms a layer, approximately 150 Km deep, in the upper atmosphere which acts as a shield
against the harmful ultra violet rays of the sun. Due to the photochemical process of the sun
(intense solar energy in short wave radiation), an oxygen molecule 02 breaks up and becomes

I 0+0. One of these oxygen atoms now combines with an 02 molecule, becoming 03 (Ozone).
Although Ozone is poisonous, it is present in very small amounts, about 2 parts per million by
weight. Due to the absorption of short wave (uv) radiation energy in the formation of Ozone,
temperatures tend to be at a maximum at approximately 50 Km above the earth's surface.

I 5. CONDENSATION NUCLEI

Water vapour molecules are incapable of joining together to form water droplets (cloud particles)

I and therefore require a nucleus to cling to. This is provided by hydroscopic impurities, such as
dust salt from the sea, ash and soot from volcanoes, smoke and nitrous acids, which are found
in abundance in the atmosphere and are ideal nuclei to which water has a high attraction hence
the term "condensation nuclei". Such nuclei vary in size between 0.1 to 1.0 micron, with few

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larger nuclei 5 to 6 microns.

C. LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE (See Figure 1-1 on page 1-4)

I The atmosphere is characterized and divided into four main layers or spheres, based on temperature.
In ascending order from the earth's surface, they are as follows:

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1. THE TROPOSPHERE

This region extends to about 8 Km (26,000 ft) above the cold polar areas and about 16 Km

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(52,000 ft) above the warm tropical regions. Its height is influenced greatly by seasonal and
temperature changes. At the 45° latitudes, the average height of the Troposphere is 36,090 ft (11
Km).

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It is within this region that most of the phenomena known as weather occurs and is characterized
by the following:
(i) Large scale horizontal and vertical movement of the air masses relative to the earth.

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(ii)Decrease in temperature of the air takes place at an average rate of 1.98 C per thousand
0

feet of ascent up to a height of 36,090 ft, thereafter the temperature remains constant at
-56°.5 c.
(iii)Pressure decreases at an average rate of one hectopascal (hPa) for every 27.2 feet
(rounded off to 30 ft), of ascent in the lower layers of the atmosphere. This pressure/feet

I relationship is not constant with increasing altitude and at 20,000 feet, where the pressure is
half of that at sea level, 1 hPa would be equal to approximately 47.06 ft.
(iv) Due to the higher concentration of water vapour and condensation nuclei in the lower
atmosphere, most weather occurs in the Troposphere and very rarely beyond the

I Stratosphere due to the Tropopause acting as a barrier.

2. THE STRATOSPHERE

I This is the region above the Tropopause extending to a height of 30 Km (98,000 ft) above the
earth's surface and is characterized by the following:

(i) It is fairly iso-thermal in the lower layer, in which the temperature remains constant at -56.5°

I C up to 20Km (65,617 ft)

(ii) From 20 Km to 32 Km the temperature increases by 0.3 C /1000 ft due to the formation of
Ozone.
0

(iii) Horizontal movement of airmasses are more common with very little or no vertical

I movement.
Flying conditions in this region are excellent, the only disadvantage being the low pressures and
temperatures. Clear air turbulence (CAT) is predominant in this region.

I 3. THE MESOSPHERE
This is the region above the Stratopause extending to a height of 80 Km (262,000 ft) above the

I earth's surface and is characterized by the following:

(i) The Ozone layer (already discussed) is found in this region.

(ii) Temperatures increase with an increase in altitude up to 50 Km above the earth's surface

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and thereafter decrease with an increase in altitude. The formation of Ozone by the
absorption of intense solar radiation (ultra violet) causes warming of the atmosphere in this
region.

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4. THE IONOSPHERE
This is the region that extends above the Mesopause to a height of at least 1000 Km above the
earth's surface.

I Interest centred on the Ionosphere is largely due to the electrical structure of the layers. Intense
solar radiation, primarily due to the sun's ultra violet rays, emit free electrons from the gas
molecules, these being known as ions and have the property of reflecting, refracting or
attenuating radio waves, depending on the wave frequency.

I D. THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

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Variations in the atmosphere call for a standard set of artificially created conditions, in which perfor-
mance and calibration of certain instruments may be assumed.

This standardized atmosphere was created by ICAO and is called the International Standard Atmo-

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sphere or ISA. It assumes that at mean sea level, the:

(a) Temperature is + 15°C

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(b) Pressure is 1013.25 Hectopascals (hPa) or 29.92" of mercury.

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I THE ATMOSPHERE

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Page 1-3
(c) Density is 1225 gram/m3.

(d) The lapse rate, (decrease in temperature with altitude), is 1.98 C /1000 ft up to 36,090 ft (11
0

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km), and thereafter remains constant at -56.5°C. From 20 km to 30 km there is an increase in
temperature of 0,3C /1000 ft.
0

(e) Gravity is 9.8066 metres per second/second.

I (f) Air is dry and uniform throughout.

E. PROPERTIES OF THE ATMOSPHERE

I In the structure of weather formation, there are three major elements present, either working individually
or in conjunction with each other. They are:

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1. Temperature
2. Pressure
3. Humidity

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In the following three chapters, we will study each element in depth.

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I THE ATMOSPHERE

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0DEGREESC

I 200km Temperature increases

to 200Cf' C

I IONOSPHERE
I 100km
"THERMOSPHERE"

I 80km
MESOPAUSE

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I OZONE LAYER
MESOSPHERE

I 50km

TEMPERATURE PEAK "OZONE"

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I STRATOPAUSE
30km

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Temperature increase
0.3 C /1000 ft
0

I 20km
l STRATOSPHERE

I -56.5°C

I 11 km 36090 ft ----------------------------------
TROPOPAUSE

I Temperature decrease
1.98 C°/1000 ft
TROPOSPHERE
+ 15° C

I Figure 1-1 - Layers of the Atmosphere

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I TEMPERATURE
CHAPTER 2

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Page 2-1

TEMPERATURE
I A. INTRODUCTION

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It would be fair to say that temperature plays a controlling role in meteorology. Air density is directly
influenced by a change in temperature, which in turn causes a change in pressure resulting in wind.
More importantly it is the change in temperature of the air closest to the earth's surface which has the
greatest effect on weather. The term temperature means the degree of heat a body contains. It is mea-

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sured with a thermometer, the sensitive element being either alcohol or mercury.

B. SCALES AND CONVERSIONS

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The scales of temperature measurements, in degrees, are:

(a) CELSIUS SCALE (C 0

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The boiling point of water is taken as 100°C, and the freezing point as 0°c. This scale has been
adopted internationally for all scientific purposes as well as meteorological reports.

(b) FAHRENHEIT SCALE (F°)

I The boiling point of water is taken as 212°F and the freezing point as 32°F. This scale is used in
the United States of America.

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For conversions from one scale to another, apply the following formulae:

NOTE: 1C = 1.8F°
0

+ 32
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1. Centigrade to Fahrenheit: °C x 1.8

2. Fahrenheit to Centigrade: °F- 32

1.8

I EXAMPLES

Convert 100°c to Fahrenheit:

I °F= 100° 9
5
+ 32° = 212°F

OR

I °F = 100°c x 1.8 + 32 = 212°F ffi = 1.8)

5

I C. INSTRUMENTS IN USE FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE

The thermometers (dry bulb, wet bulb, maximum and minimum) are housed in a structure called the

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Stevenson Screen. This is a white box, with double louvered sides, placed four feet above ground
level away from buildings and trees. It allows free passage of the air and protects the instruments from
direct sunlight. The observation door opens south in the Southern Hemisphere so as to prevent direct
sunlight on the instruments when observations are being noted.

I 1. DRY BULB

This is the common thermometer as used in everyday life, scaled in degrees Centigrade and/or
Fahrenheit with a mercury or alcohol bulb. Alcohol being colourless, is usually dyed red or blue.

I This instrument will read the ambient, or outside, temperature.

2. WET BULB

I A normal thermometer, except that the bulb has muslin wrapped tightly around it with the wick
immersed in pure water. (The operation of this thermometer will be explained under the chapter on
humidity).

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3. MAXIMUM THERMOMETER

Used to measure the daily maximum temperature (which occurs at about 1400 hours) . It is the same
as the normal thermometer except that the capillary tube contains a small steel cylinder (called an
index) which is pushed along by the mercury. Once the daily maximum has been reached , the
mercury then recedes, leaving the steel cylinder in the position which corresponded to the maximum
temperature.

Another type of maximum thermometer in daily use is one which has a constriction in the capillary
tube about one inch from the bulb. With an increase in temperature, the mercury is forced through
the constriction to register the maximum daily temperature. When the temperature falls, the mercury
thread "breaks" and the thermometer continues to register the maximum temperature attained. It

I may be reset by holding the thermometer at the upper end and swinging it vigorously at arm's
length.

4. MINIMUM THERMOMETER

I This is used to measure the daily minimum temperature {which occurs just after dawn) . It is usually
an alcohol type thermometer which has a small index inserted in the capillary tube. Owing to the
surface tension of the alcohol, the metal index is «dragged" back when the liquid recedes. Once the

I temperature begins to increase, the alcohol passes freely around the index, leaving it in the last
position which corresponded to the minimum temperature. It is reset either by using a magnet or by
tilting the thermometer slightly so that the index slides down the tube to the end of the alcohol.

I 5. MECHANICAL RECORDING THERMOMETERS

The autographic temperature recorder is called a Thermograph. This unit employs a bi-metallic strip
in the shape of a coil. Any variation in temperature produces differential expansion between the two
metals causing the coil to tighten or slacken. Via a suitable linkage system, a coloured stylus
continually records the temperature variations in degrees on a piece of graph paper (graduated in
12 or 24 hour intervals) attached to a drum rotating at the same rate.
An alternative Thermograph employs a Bourdon tube filled with alcohol, which is responsive to any
change in temperature, causing the curvature of the tube to vary. Temperature recording is achieved
in the same manner.

I D. RADIATION
Heating of the earth's surface occurs due to the short wave radiation and is called solar radiation or
insolation. lnsolation is not constant everywhere on earth, a factor which contributes to the formation

I of weather.

The reasons for this are:

I 1.
2.
3.
The
The
The
daily rotation of the earth about it's axis (day/night)
yearly motion about the sun (summer/winter)
different types of surface
4. The spheroidal shape of the earth.

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Oblique rays

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Most intense rays

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Oblique rays

Figure 2-1: lnso/ation

A body of any temperature emits radiation in the form of electromagnetic waves travelling out at the
speed of light. When a piece of metal is heated, it first emits radiation which is invisible, but may be
felt as heat. Any further heating then causes the metal to glow a dull red colour and after considerable

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heating it finally glows white hot. These appearances are due to the wave length of radiation getting
shorter, until it is present in the form of light. If light is broken up through a prism, the colour spectrum
becomes visible. The longest waves appear red, the shortest waves violet. Waves too short to be seen

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by the human eye beyond the violet rays are known as ultra-violet rays, while waves too long to be
seen by the human eye are known as infra-red rays.

The earth being a body, therefore, radiates its heat back into the atmosphere. This re-radiation is not

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visible in the form of light and therefore takes place as long wave radiation, or infra-red, and is known
as terrestrial radiation.

HEATING OF THE ATMOSPHERE

I It is important to note that the atmosphere is not heated directly from the sun's radiation, but that
the majority of its heating occurs from re-radiated long wave energy. The atmosphere is therefore
not heated from above, but from below. Thus it is obvious that the earth re-radiates a greater

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portion of its heat back into the atmosphere, otherwise the earth would become progressively hotter.

GREENHOUSE EFFECT
The atmosphere is not nearly so transparent to long wave radiation as it is to short wave radiation

I from the sun. Cloud, water vapour and carbon dioxide absorb this infra-red spectrum well, thus
trapping the energy and the resulting temperature rise is known as the "greenhouse" effect.

To summarise:

I Energy in by day - solar radiation (short wave insolation)

Energy out by day and night - terrestrial radiation (long wave insolation)

I E. CONDUCTION
Conduction is a means of heat transfer through any conductor due to the "passing on" of heat by mo-

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lecular activity. There is no external motion during this process of heat transfer.
Many solid substances are good conductors of heat while others are not. If one end of a metal rod
were placed in a fire and held at the other end, the held end would soon become warm and eventu-
ally hot due to conduction because metal is a good conductor of heat. However, should the same ex-

I periment be done with a piece of wood, the end being held would remain cool since wood is a bad
conductor of heat. Air is a very poor conductor of heat.

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F. CONVECTION
In meteorology, convection is a means of heat transfer primarily during vertical motion, induced by lo-
cal disturbances.

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In other words, when the lower portion of a fluid (water or air) is heated, it expands, the density re-
duces and it rises taking its heat with it. It again is replaced by cooler fluid only to be heated in turn.
Certain surfaces on the earth heat up and lose heat faster than others. Tarmac, ploughed fields, sandy
beaches and runways heat up faster than meadows, grassy and wooded areas. Colour texture and

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vegetation also influence the rate of heating and cooling.
During the day, air over a ploughed field is warmer than air over a swamp and, at night, this process
is reversed.

I H. ADVECTION
This is a process of heat transfer by horizontal motion (wind). As warm air rises in vertical motion, the

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cooler surrounding air moves in and replaces the lifted air. This is a common phenomena in the trop-
ics in the flow of air from high to low latitudes.

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II CONVECTION
warm

I PLOUGHED FIELD FOREST

I H. SURFACE EFFECTS
Figure 2-2: Advection

I HEATING AND COOLING OVER LAND AND SEA

Due to the transparency of water, solar radiation is able to penetrate deeper into water than over land.
Oceans, being characterised by large scale horizontal and vertical motions, allow a mixing process to

I take place with the cooler water and, in conjunction with the general ocean currents, keep the sea
temperatures reasonably constant. However, it is the motion of such water that allows fairly rapid heat-
ing, rather than the slow molecular conduction process of heat transfer in still water. The specific heat
capacity of land is 0.3 calories per cubic centimetre, while that of water is 1.0 calorie per cubic centi-

I metre. A calorie is defined as the amount of energy required to raise one gram of water through 1 Cel-
sius degree (1 C The specific heat capacity of water or oceans is much greater than that of land.
0
) .

It stands to reason, therefore, that more heat energy is required to raise the temperature of water

I through 1C than that required to heat the surface of the earth through 1C Furthermore, this process
0 0
, •

is reversed at night where land cools off more rapidly than the larger volume of water which retains its
heat longer, because more heat energy can be stored in water than in sand. The surface temperature
of water (oceans) has a diurnal temperature range of o.2c 0 to 0.5C 0 , while that of land is some fifty
times greater, in the range of 1OC to 25C due to terrestrial radiation.
0 0
,

I. DIURNAL VARIATIONS

I During the day under cloudless conditions, the surface of the earth is heated by incoming solar en-
ergy. During cloudless nights this heat is lost again by terrestrial radiation. This process is called diur-
nal variation.

0000

---------------
i
Daily minimum Cloudless conditions
during sunrise ,.._...... ___ __/_------.... Overcast conditions
Figure 2-3: Average Diurnal Variations

I
Figure 2-3 represents the ideal minimum temperatures just after dawn, with maximum temperatures just
after mid-day, approximately 1400 local time.

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Revsion: 08/2008

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I
TEMPERATURE

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Page 2-5
During the morning, insolation is greater than terrestrial radiation and, therefore, the surface tempera-
ture will rise. At mid-day, insolation is still greater than terrestrial radiation so the temperature will con-
tinue to rise. However, as the sun passes its meridian insolation will equal terrestrial radiation. At this

I
point, about 1400 local time, the temperature will begin to fall.

The minimum temperature will occur just after dawn when aQain terrestrial radiation will equal insola-
tion. At this point, the temperature will remain constant but will start to rise as the sun's insolation in-

I
creases due to the sun's rays becoming less oblique.

With cloud cover, the curve will be less steep as there will be less solar insolation during the day, and
the cloud will act as a blanket during the night, thus trapping the terrestrial radiation.

I J. LAPSE RATES
As has been discussed, the average lapse rate is 1.98C per 1000 feet of ascent, but the actual ob-
0

I
served figure may vary from day to day, either being of a higher or lower value. Water vapour present
in the atmosphere, may either absorb terrestrial radiation or re-radiate it upwards or downwards, and
the passage of this radiation through the atmosphere will influence the temperatures attained by the
free air.

I K. INVERSIONS
An inversion is a reversed lapse rate, (ie an increase in temperature with an increase in height). The

I formation of a ground inversion may occur on clear nights when terrestrial radiation is at a maximum.
The lower layers of air cool very rapidly while the temperature of the layers of air above does not fall
as rapidly as the decrease in surface temperatures. The inversion is destroyed by the presence of sun-
shine, but may persist during the day under conditions of cloud cover or by the presence of fog, pre-

I venting full solar heating. An inversion may also form during the day when a warm air mass passes
over a very cold sea or land surface.

L. ENVIRONMENTAL LAPSE RATE (ELR)

I This is defined as: the actual temperature of the air measured at different heights through an air
mass, at one particular place, at a given time, under given conditions. When the temperature decrease
with an increase of altitude is great, the ELA is said to be steep, and when only a small temperature

I decrease occurs with an increase in height it is said to be shallow. When the average decrease in
temperature per 1000 ft of ascent, throughout, is 2C the ELA is said to be positive, whilst during an
inversion it is negative.
0

I An iso-thermal layer is a layer of air in which the temperature remains constant with an increase in
height, in which case the ELA is said to be zero.

I ISOTHERMAL

INVERSION

I
I HEIGHT

I
---Decrease-- TEMPERATURE - - Increase---

I Figure 2-4: Environmental Lapse Rate

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I Private Pilot Ucence
Revsion: 08/2008
© Avex Air Training 04/2007

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I PRESSURE
CHAPTER 3

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Page 3-1

PRESSURE
I A. INTRODUCTION

I
Atmospheric pressure, its effect and distribution, is of great importance to the pilot not only because of
the role it plays in the formation of weather, but also because of how we use it to measure the vertical
position of an aircraft. Simply defined, pressure is the force exerted per unit area, by a column of air
as high as the atmosphere.

I B. UNITS OF PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

1. IMPERIAL SYSTEM

I This is the old system whereby pressure is measured in pounds per square inch; the MSL pressure
being approximately 14.7 pounds per square inch, or the height of a column of mercury in a
barometer would rise to 29.92".

I 2. METRIC SYSTEM
In this system, pressure is measured in grams per square centimetre or more commonly,

I
Hectopascals. At MSL the height of a column of mercury would rise 760 mm in the barometer, or in
the Meteorologists' units, 1013.25 Hectopascals (hPa).

1013.25 hPa = 29.92" Hg = 14. 7 lb./square inch

I For conversions from one unit to another, apply the following formulae:
1. Hectopascals to Inches (Hg):

I hPa x 0.02952 29.92" H~

1013.25 h a

2. Inches (Hg) to hPa:

I Inches (Hg) x 33.86 1013.25 hPa
29.92" Hg

I 3. Hectopascals to feet:
Layer of hPa (in feet) 961° (KJ

I
P (hPa)

With reference to (3) above, this pressure/feet relationship is not constant with an increase or
decrease in height. Under standard conditions, a layer of 1 hPa in depth equals 27.29 feet at
mean sea level and is rounded off to 30 feet.

I By application of the formula given in (3), it is found that at 20,000 feet a layer of 1 hPa in depth
now equals approximately 47.06 feet; at 40,000 feet 1 hPa equals 98.91 feet; while at 60,000 feet
1 hPa equals 160.31 feet, under ISA conditions.

I Furthermore, this explains the reason why flight levels above FL 290 have 2000 feet intervals to
maintain safe separation between aircraft on conflicting routes with regard to the semi-circular
flight rules.

I C. INSTRUMENTS USED FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE

1 . MERCURY BAROMETER

I This barometer consists of a glass tube filled with mercury. The weight of the column of mercury (its
height) is balanced by the weight of the atmosphere acting on the free surface of the mercury.
The height of the mercury is recorded on a scale alongside the tube, corrected for the following

I errors:
(a) Index Error

I There are slight imperfections in the graduations. A correction card is supplied with the
instrument, giving the corrected reading at certain points on the scale.

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Page 3-2
(b) Temperature Corrections

Mercury being sensitive to temperature variations, causes incorrect readings. Therefore, a

I
thermometer is attached to the instrument which can then be corrected using appropriate tables.

(c) Latitude Corrections

I
Variation in the force of gravity with change of latitude must be allowed for, using latitude
correction tables. However, if the barometer remains at one station, the latitude correction is
applied and need never be corrected for again.

(d) Atmospheric Pressure

I Remember that any barometer will read OFE, ie the actual pressure at the station.
2. THE BAROGRAPH

I The barograph is an autographic pressure recorder which employs one or more airtight capsules,
partially exhausted of air, which respond to pressure variations by contracting slightly with an
increase in atmospheric pressure, or expanding with a decrease in atmospheric pressure, similar in

I operation to an aircraft altimeter. Via a suitable linkage system, a coloured stylus continually records
these pressure variations in hectopascals on a piece of graph paper (graduated in 12 or 24 hourly
intervals, or occasionally over a longer period of time), which is attached to a rotating drum of the
same time interval. The record of the pressure variation is called a barogram.

I 3. ALTIMETRY

Altimeters seldom indicate the correct height due to calibration and atmospheric pressure variations.

I Because of this, severe limitations would be placed on the altimeter if there were no means of
correcting it for prevailing conditions. However, by means of the subscale setting, it is possible to
correct for these variations. The subscale of the altimeter is its reference point and the altimeter will
indicate the height above this pressure reference. The various settings used in the subscale are

I given names in the 0-code and it is important that the following be clearly understood:

OFE

I The barometric pressure at the aerodrome level. With this set, the altimeter would indicate the
height of the aircraft above the reference point of the airfield. This setting is generally used for
take-off and landings and when carrying out radar vectored approaches. It is also used for
checking the serviceability of the instrument.

I ONH

The barometric pressure at aerodrome level, computed to mean sea level using the ISA formula.

I
With this set, the altimeter would indicate the height of the aircraft above mean sea level. This
height is called altitude. This setting is also used to check the serviceability of the instrument.
SPOT ONH

I This ONH is only valid for the aerodrome where the reading took place.

REGIONAL ONH

I This is the lowest forecast ONH throughout a certain region. When the lowest value is set, the
altimeter will indicate lower, which may not be the correct altitude indication. However, this error
is in favour of safety.

I ONE
This is the altimeter indication when the ISA setting, 1013.25 hPa, is set on the altimeter subscale.
The altitude indicated is called a pressure altitude or flight level. It follows, therefore, that the

I aircraft's altitude will only be the same as the pressure altitude when the ONH is 1013.25 hPa.
Refer to Figure 3-1 below for a pictorial explanation of OFE, ONH and ONE.

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I PRESSURE

I . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . P a g e 3-3

-.. -..•-.. -ra-.. -.. -..-.. -.. -..-..r- .. - .. - .. - .. - ..-•..- .·i-a..-.

With aerodrome QFE set I
indicates HEIGHT above With 1013.25 set
aerodrome indicates FLIGHT
With QNH set indicates LEVEL

l ALTITUDE above Mean

I
Aerodrome Sea Level

I
I Elevation above
Mean Sea Level __ _ ___ _1013.25 hPa

I l Mean Sea Level

I ALTIMETRY PROBLEMS
Figure 3-1: Altimeter Indications

Questions are frequently asked in the examination involving the use of QNH, QFE or ONE. The
easiest way to solve these problems is with a sketch. Two sample questions with diagrams showing
the solutions follow.

EXAMPLE 1

1. Aerodrome elevation = 5327 ft, QFE = 848 hPa. What is the QNH?

I
I 848 + 177.5 = 1025.5 hPa
5327 ft+ 30

I = 177.5 hPa
---'-i-------''------"'Q--N__H'----Mean Sea Level

I Figure 3-2: Solution to Example 1

I Remember that with QNH set on the altimeter, it will indicate the aerodrome elevation above
mean sea level. With QFE set, the altimeter will indicate zero on the ground. In reality all we
have to do is re-set the altimeter to aerodrome elevation (5327 ft). To convert this to
hectopascals, divide 5327 by 30 (1 hPa = 30 ft) , = 177.5. Since the altimeter subscale already

I
has 848 hPa set, add the two together.

SOLUTION 1

= 1025.5
I
QNH hPa.
EXAMPLE 2.

An aircraft is flying at flight level 75. What actual terrain clearance would the aircraft have when
passing over high ground 1686 meters above mean sea level (AMSL) when the QNH is 1005.2
hPa?

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I PRESSURE
Page 3-4

I SOLUTION 2

1686 metres = 1686 x 3.28 (3.28 ft = 1 metre)

= 5530 ft
Difference between QNH and standard = 8 hPa (1013.2 - 1005.2)
= 240 ft (1 hPa = 30 ft)
Pressure altitude = 7500 feet
- 240 feet
7260 feet
- 5530 feet (elevation of high ground)

I Clearance = 1730 feet

, a
I
I ~__,~---.
H+T I
F075
(PA/t 7500 ft)

I 1686m
(5530 ft)

I
--•'------------'---+-------- Mean
QNH = 1005.2 hPa S

~~:·=-=
-~~:~
ea Level
1 2 1
~~ ~~ --- 1_ ____ ----------- 1013.2 hPa
Figure 3-3: Solution to Example 2

QUESTIONS :

1. QNH 1020 hPa, QFE 820 hPa

What is the airfield elevation?

I Answer : 6000 ft

2. An aircraft leaves Johannesburg International with QNH 1020 hPa set. What will the altimeter
indicate, without re-setting, on landing at Cape Town (elevation 300 ft) , in the following four

I cases:

(a) Cape Town QNH 1010 hPa Solution : 600 ft

(b) Cape Town QNH 1020 hPa : 300 ft

I (c)
(d)
Cape Town QNH 1030 hPa
Cape Town QFE 1020 hPa
: 0 ft
: 0 ft.

3. During an altimeter serviceability check the following indications were observed :

I Airfield elevation - 5327 ft

Apron elevation - 5306 ft
Height of altimeter above the apron: 41 ft

I Altimeter indication with QFE set: 80 ft

What is the instrument error?

Solution + 60 ft

I 4. Before start up you set 1013.25 hPa on the subscale of your pressure altimeter.
The indication reads 5000 ft
The QNH is 1020 hPa

I
What is the airfield elevation?

Solution: 5202.5 ft

Private Pilot Licence © Avex Air Training 04/2007

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I PRESSURE
Page 3-5

I 5. Your flight level is F070

The QNH is 1023 hPa
The radio altimeter reads 500 ft
What elevation is the land?

I Solution: 6792.5 ft

I
D. PRESSURE VARIATIONS
The sense of pressure variation (to rise or fall) is called the tendency; the rate (rapidly or slowly) in
which the change occurred is called the characteristic. The recording of pressure tendency (to rise or

I
fall), and the way characterised, is used to determine areas of rising or falling pressure on the synoptic
charts, usually over or within a 3 hour period.

ISOBARS

I Lines joining places of equal pressure at mean sea level are called isobars and, when drawn in on
synoptic charts, present variable and complex configurations but they will generally fall into one or
more of the following pressure patterns:

I DEPRESSION OR LOW

This is a region of relatively low pressure with associated names such as "a low", "depression" or
"cyclone". It is depicted on synoptic charts as fairly circular and closely spaced concentric isobars

I surrounding the area of low pressure. The diameter of such a low may be a few feet in the case of
a tornado, to some hundreds of miles in the case of a tropical revolving cyclone to thousands of
miles in the largest of depressions. They may be classed as deep or intense, weak or shallow.

I Depressions are said to deepen or intensify, decay or fill up. The major characteristic of a low is its
clockwise rotational movement in the southern hemisphere, with an inwards and upwards flow
towards the centre. This behaviour of pressure flow tendency will be discussed fully under pressure
gradient force.

I SECONDARY DEPRESSIONS

This is a small depression within the primary depression and is known as a secondary depression

I or low, usually more intense than the primary low and may develop into the primary depression after
some time.

TROUGH OF LOW PRESSURE

I This is a wedge of low pressure forcing itself between other pressure areas, so that the pressure is
lower in the trough than on the two sides. It is indicated on synoptic charts by the isobars extending
outwards in any direction in the shape of a "V".

I ANTI-CYCLONE OR HIGH

This is a region of relatively high pressure, once again depicted on synoptic charts as fairly circular

I
and widely spaced concentric isobars surrounding the area of high pressure. It should be noted that
isobars are, in general, further apart in a high than those of a low, particularly near the centre.
Diameters may vary in the same way as a low; small anti-cyclones always being very weak.
Anti-cyclones build up or intensify, give way, weaken or collapse. The major characteristic of a high

I
system is the anti-clockwise rotational movement in the southern hemisphere, with an outwards and
downwards flow from the centre. This behaviour of pressure flow tendency will be discussed under
pressure gradient force.

I
RIDGE OF HIGH PRESSURE

This is a wedge of high pressure forcing itself between other pressure areas, so that the pressure is
higher on the ridge than on the two sides. It is indicated on synoptic charts by the isobars

I
extending outwards in any direction, the point being rounded and never sharply "V" shaped as that
of a trough of low pressure.

A COL AREA

I This is a neutral region between two highs and two lows. Alternatively, the term saddle back is used
and is likened to a neck or pass at the lowest point between two mountains. It is an area of
indeterminate weather with light and variable winds.

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I E. PRESSURE GRADIENT
Figure 3-4: A Col Area

I Differential pressure due to unequal heating of the earth's surface is largely responsible for the cause
of winds. Laws of nature dictate that air will always flow from a high pressure to a low pressure sys-
tem, this flow being greatest with a large pressure difference. Pressure gradient is termed "flat" or shal-
low when the pressure difference per unit distance is small, and steep when the pressure difference

I per same unit distance is large. Pressure gradient acts at 90° to the isobars. As discussed, a high
pressure system has an anti-clockwise rotation and the pressure gradient force, coupled with the rota-
tional effect of the high, causes an outwards, anti-clockwise flow as mentioned. This outward flow of
air from the high moves inwards towards the low pressure system and coupled with the rotational flow

I of the low causes an inward clockwise rotational flow in the southern hemisphere. This will be dis-
cussed in Chapter 7, Winds.

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Private Pilot Licence © Avex Air Training 04/2007
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I HUMIDITY
CHAPTER 4

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Page 4-1

HUMIDITY
I A. INTRODUCTION

I
The atmosphere is capable of containing moisture in the form of an invisible gas, termed water
vapour. The hotter the air, the more water vapour it can hold; the colder the air, the less water vapour
it can hold. This moisture in the atmosphere is directly attributable to evaporation caused by the sun's
heat acting on oceans, rivers, lakes, swamps and vegetation. Typically, the air from over the warm

I
maritime tropical regions is more moisture laden than the air from over the cold polar maritime regions.
Although this moisture content in the atmosphere is relatively small, it is the basis of all weather. By
the absorption of solar and terrestrial radiation, it has an effect on the temperature of the air. Further-
more, air is termed "dry" when there is only a very small proportion of moisture contained within it,

I
and "moist" when a larger quantity of moisture is contained within.

B. METHODS OF MEASURING THE WATER VAPOUR CONTENT OF AIR

I RELATIVE HUMIDITY is the ratio of water vapour actually present in the air, to the maximum amount of
vapour it can hold at a given temperature, expressed as a percentage (%). In other words, when air
contains the maximum amount of vapour possible at a given temperature, it is said to have a relative
humidity of 100% and is termed saturated, ie it cannot hold any more water vapour. When it contains

I
only one half of the maximum water vapour it is capable of holding, at the same temperature, it is said
to a have a relative humidity of 50%.

Relative Humidity = Amount of water vapour air is holding x 100 =%

I
Amount of water vapour it can hold

NOTE: An increase in air temperature would result in a decrease in relative humidity, and vice versa.

I
DEW POINT

This is the temperature to which air must be cooled at a constant pressure for saturation to take place
(cold air can hold less water than warm air). From the example under relative humidity, should the unit

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volume of air be cooled, the relative humidity would increase in percentage until it became 100%. At
this point the air would be termed saturated, and if the temperature was noted at this point it would be
the dew point temperature of that particular air mass.
oc

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14 14 14

12 12 12

10 10 10

I 8
50% 8
75% 8
100%
6 6 6

I 4

2
4

2
4

2
______ 3°c ____ _
DEW POINT

I
I
I w~:!:!:!:1:::1 ACTUAL WATER VAPOUR IN THE AIR

[Willimimimmmm
I
MAXIMUM POSSIBLE WATER VAPOUR IN THE AIR

Figure 4-1: Relative Humidity and Dew Point

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© Avex Air Training 04/2007

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I HUMIDITY

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Page 4-2
C. TEMPERATURE - DEW POINT SPREAD
The difference between air temperature and dew point temperature is popularly called the spread. As

I the spread becomes less, relative humidity increases and it is 100% when temperature and dew point
are the same. Surface temperature - dew point spread is important in anticipating fog, but has little
bearing on precipitation. To support precipitation, air must be saturated through thick layers aloft.

I
INSTRUMENTS USED FOR MEASURING HUMIDITY
The instruments in use for humidity measurement in the atmosphere are the wet and dry bulb
thermometers, housed in the Stevenson screen, and are known as the Hygrometer or Psychrometer.

I The dry bulb thermometer is the same as that used in every day life. The bulb is "naked" and
records the temperature of the free air. The wet bulb thermometer has its bulb dressed tightly in
muslin, the wick of which draws pure water from a container. Under conditions of very dry air, (low

I
relative humidity), evaporation is maximum and takes place from the muslin. (bearing in mind that
heat is required to evaporate water and therefore some heat is absorbed due to latent heat, which
causes the temperature to drop). The greater the evaporation, the greater the temperature drop.
However, if the air is saturated (ie relative humidity 100%), no evaporation takes place from the

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muslin and no temperature drop is recorded; both wet and dry bulb thermometers record the same
value. The closer the two readings of the wet and dry bulb thermometers, the more saturated the air
is, (ie a high relative humidity). Mist may be forecast when both temperatures are within 3°C of each
other. The relative humidity or dewpoint may be found from the wet and dry bulb thermometers,

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using tables for the specific atmospheric pressure.

THE HYGROGRAPH

I
This is the autographic continuous recorder such as is employed in temperature and pressure
recording. In this case, the sensitive element responding to any change in humidity is strands of
human hair, which either expand or contract with humidity variations. Via a suitable linkage system,
the stylus records these variations continuously on the graph paper (called a hygrogram), attached
to a rotating drum, of the appropriate time interval (12 or 24 hours).

I D. CHANGES OF STATE

I
Water may exist in any of the three physical forms:

1. Liquid
2. Gas (vapour)

I
3. Solid

The changes in state of these forms is indicated in Figure 4-2.

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I
I
I
>
I HEAT RELEASED
t> HEAT ABSORBED

I Figure 4-2: Changes of State of Water

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Private Pilot Ucence © Avex Air Training 04/2007
Revsion: 08/2008

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I AIR DENSITY
CHAPTER 5

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Page 5-1

AIR DENSITY
I A. INTRODUCTION

I
The significance of air density in aviation is that it is directly related to aircraft performance, a subject
which is covered in both Aircraft General and Flight Planning and Performance. In Meteorology we are
more concerned with the calculation of air density and the factors which affect it.

I B. FACTORS EFFECTING AIR DENSITY

(a) PRESSURE

I When air is compressed, at a constant temperature, more molecules occupy a given volume, thus
the mass increases which results in an increase in density. Conversely, when air expands, less
molecules occupy the original volume, mass is less and therefore density decreases.

I
(b) TEMPERATURE

When air is heated, while keeping the pressure constant, it expands and, therefore, less molecules
occupy a given volume and the density decreases. The converse also applies.

I (c) HUMIDITY

As we have already discussed, water vapour weighs less than dry air, therefore less molecules

I
occupy a given volume; thus density decreases under the same conditions of temperature and
pressure. In other words, water vapour molecules displace the molecules of air: less air per unit
volume, decreased density. Therefore, the higher the humidity, the lower the density.

I
(d) HEIGHT
Air has weight, therefore at mean sea level there is more air above, which will exert a greater
pressure than at height. The greater the pressure, the greater the density. Now, with an increase

I
in altitude, pressure decreases, so does the density; at an average rate of approximately 12% with
an increase in altitude of 3000 feet. But temperature decreases at approximately 2% for every 3000
feet increase in altitude; cold air contracting and, therefore, increasing density, ie more molecules
occupy a given volume. Therefore, combining both the effects of altitude and temperature, density
decreases at an approximate average of 10% with each 3000 feet increase in altitude.

I A useful "rule of thumb" method to obtain the density at a level 1000 feet higher, is to subtract 3%
of the value at its present level. This evaluates almost exactly up to the density value of 20,000 feet
in the ISA.

I PRESSURE ALTITUDE

This is the reading obtained on the altimeter with the subscale set to the Standard pressure of

I 1013.25 hPa (QNE). In other words, this would be the altitude of a place in relation to the Standard
Atmosphere.

DENSITY ALTITUDE

I The importance of density altitude can never be over emphasised with regard to the aviator, as
aircraft performance graphs are based on this. High density altitudes mean poor aircraft
performance, which may lead to a hazardous situation if not understood fully.

I Density altitude is that altitude when the pressure altitude has been compensated for temperature.
An approximate correction of 118.8 feet may be added to the pressure altitude for every 1C
increase in temperature above the Standard temperature for that altitude.
0

I EXAMPLE:

Airfield elevation 4000 ft, temperature +28°C, QNH 1030.

I Calculate the pressure altitude: 1030 - 1013 = 17 hPa x 30 ft

For ease of calculation use a pressure altitude of 3500 ft.
= 51 0 ft. 4000 ft - 51 0 ft = 3490 ft.

I
Calculate the temperature deviation: 3500 x -2° = -7°C + 15°C = +8°. At 3500 ft the temperature
according to ISA should be +8°C. The actual temperature is +28°C, which is 20° warmer.

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I AIR DENSITY

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Page 5-2
20 x 118.8 = 2376 ft + 3500 ft = Density Altitude 5876 ft.

For each 1C increase above Standard temperature, it can be seen that the aircraft will be operating
0

I
at an altitude higher than the actual indicated altitude, which means decreased density and,
therefore, decreased aircraft performance.

If the temperature is lower than the Standard temperature for that altitude, the correction must be

I
subtracted. Density altitude may also be calculated on the navigation computer.

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© Avex Air Training 04/2007

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I STABILITY, LAPSE RATE AND ADIABATIC PROCESS
CHAPTER 6

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Page 6-1

STABILITY, LAPSE RATE AND

I ADIABATIC PROCESS
I A. INTRODUCTION
Air that is forced to rise enters an area of successively lower pressure. The air, therefore, expands and
cooling occurs due to the air's heat energy occupying a larger volume (temperature drop with no ac-

I tual heat calorie loss). Conversely, air that is forced to descend is compressed and therefore the tem-
perature increases. This decrease and increase in temperature due to expansion and compression is
known as the Adiabatic process.

I B. LAPSE RATES
1. DRY AIR

I Dry (unsaturated) air that is forced to rise, will cool due to expansion at a fairly high standard rate
of approximately 3C 0 /1000 ft, known as the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR).

I
2. MOIST AIR
Moist (saturated) air on the other hand, when forced to rise will cool, due to expansion at a lower,
fairly standard rate of 1.5C per 1000 ft, called the Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALA). This
0

reduced cooling only occurs once the dew point temperature has been reached, ie the condensation

I level. Condensation of water vapour releases latent (dormant) heat, and this reduces the adiabatic
cooling, at a rate of approximately half of the DALR. This value may vary according to the amount of
moisture present in the air, which will depend upon the temperature. In very cold air, having a low
moisture content, the SALR is only slightly less than the DALR, due to the smaller release of latent

I heat by condensation.
3. THE ENVIRONMENTAL LAPSE RATE (ELR)

I This is the actual lapse rate existing in the atmosphere at any one place, and changes from day to
day, hour to hour, and is, on average, 2C per 1000 ft. Note, in this case air is not forced to rise,
0

therefore it is the actual condition of the atmosphere at any given level.

I 4. RELATIONSHIP BElWEEN THE SALR AND THE DALR

Warm saturated air holds a large amount of water vapour and therefore when cooled adiabatically
will release a large amount of latent heat. This results in a relatively low SALA value.

I However, where the air temperature is lower, the same sample of air has the ability to hold less
water vapour and any further cooling results in less latent heat being released by the sample of air.
Thus, the SALR at these temperatures is higher and approaches the DALR value until at about

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-40°C, both the DALR and SALR have the same value, ie 3C /1000 ft.
0

This explains the reason why the SALR is expressed graphically as a curve. The DALR is expressed
graphically as a straight line because the rate of cooling is constant, no matter what the

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temperature of the original sample of air was.
For mathematical purposes, the average value of 1.5 C /1000 ft is used for the SALR.
0

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HEIGHT
//
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+15°C

I Figure 6-1: Lapse rates

A. Steep positive ELA (Absolute Instability).

I B. Intermediate positive ELA, lying between DALA and SALA. Conditional Instability. (Stable for
dry air, unstable for saturated air).

C. Shallow positive ELA (Absolute stability).

I D. Isothermal (Absolute stability).

E. Inversion (Absolute stability).

I F. STABILITY
Three types of stability are used to describe the condition of the atmosphere, these being:

I 1. STABILITY

The ability of the air to resist any upsetting tendency.

I 2. INSTABILITY
The inability of the air to resist an upsetting tendency, even after the removal of the disturbing force.

I 3. CONDITIONAL INSTABILITY
Air that resists any upsetting tendency initially, until it becomes cooled to its saturation point where,

I because of the smaller reduction in temperature per 1000 ft (SALA), it will eventually stop resisting
the upsetting force and will rise by itself.

Using the following examples, the stability of a sample of air is illustrated.

I (a) ABSOLUTE STABILITY

Assume a constant rate of change of temperature and humidity throughout the layer. The

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following observations were derived from a radio sonde ascent:

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HEIGHT

I 6000FEET -F ·---- ---------- +§".C -----------

I _________
RELATNE HUM/ID/TY 100%

2000FEET
+10°C __, ________________________________
+10"C _

I GROUND
ELR

I Figure 6-2: Absolute Stability

I
Consider a parcel of air forced to rise from 2000 feet up to 6000 feet (eg wind blowing up the
side of a mountain). First of all, find the ELR for the two levels under consideration:

Temperature difference (+10°C - 6°C)= +4°C

I
Height difference(6000 ft - 2000 ft) 4000 = 1C /1000 ft (ELR)
0

Relative humidity shows that air is saturated and therefore cools at 1.5°/1000 ft (SALR).

The sample of air will cool off by: height difference x 1.5C /1000 ft.
0

I Therefore 2000 ft up to 6000 ft = 4000 ft

1.5C 0

4000 X 1000 = 6°

I The temperature of the sample of air at 6000 ft is: + 10°c - 6°C = +4°C but, since the
environmental air temperature at 6000 ft is +6°C, the sample of air will be colder, denser and
therefore will resist the lifting force (become heavier). This layer of the atmosphere is said to be

I stable - ELR<SALR
2. ABSOLUTE INSTABILITY

I Assume a constant rate of change of temperature and humidity throughout the layer.

t
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HEIGHT

3000FEET \__
--------------------------------------------- ±1.B C _______________ _
o

I i RELATIVE HUMIDITY 50%

I 1 o351_~~~!______________ ~---------------- +250c -----------------

GROUND ELR

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Figure 6-3: Absolute Instability

The ELR is +3.5C /1000 ft. (Temperature drop of 7° through 2000 ft). Air is dry and therefore
0

cools at the DALR of 3C 0 /1000 ft. The sample of air cools off by: 2000 ft x 3C 0 /1000 ft = 6°C.

I Temperature of sample of air at 3000 ft: +25°C - (6C = 19°C being warmer and less dense
0
)

than the surrounding environment, continues rising even though the lifting force is removed.
This is an UNSTABLE condition of this layer in the atmosphere where the ELR > DALR.

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3. CONDITIONAL INSTABILITY

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HEIGHT

3000 FEET
~g
--------- -----------------~-- +5°C

I i
I _____________,_
2000FEET _______
8 _,_______________________________
+7.5°C _

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RELATIVE HUMIDITY 80%

1000 FEET +10°c

I GROUND ELR

I Figure 6-4: Conditional Instability

I However, in this case, let us assume that the dew point temperature of the air which is being lifted
is 7°C (ie condensation level 2000 ft).

The ELR is 2.5C /1000 ft (5°C drop through 2000 ft).

0

I The sample of air which is forced to rise cools initially at 3C /1000 ft (DALR). When it reaches 2000
0

ft its temperature will be 7°C, which is cooler than the surrounding air and will therefore resist the
lifting force. However, if the lifting force persists, the air which is forced to rise will now cool at 1.5

I C /1000 ft (SALR) as the dew point has been reached ( + 7°C). Now, at 3000 ft the temperature of
0

the lifting air will be 5.5°C, which is now warmer than the surrounding air and the sample of air will
then continue to rise even if the lifting force is removed. For this state of conditional stability to
occur, condensation (dew point) must take place well within the bounds of the disturbing force so

I that the sample of air may initially be raised through saturation level for cooling to take place at a
lower rate (ie the SALR).

Conditional Instability is where DALR> ELR> SALR. See Figure 6-5.

I
I CONDITIONAL
INSTABILITY
ABSOLUTE STABILITY

I r
DALR > ELR ELR < SALR

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HEIGHT

I
0 +15°C

I TEMPERATURE

I Figure 6-5: Stability and Instability

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I I. NEUTRAL STABILITY
If a parcel of unsaturated air was forced to rise it would cool down by 3C /1000ft (DALA). However, if
0

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the ELA were also 3C0 /1000ft then the air which is forced to rise would be the same temperature as
the surrounding air, which means that it will not resist the upsetting tendency, nor would it tend to con-
tinue rising if the lifting force were removed.

I
This is called Neutral Stability.

The same situation would occur if saturated air was lifted (SALA 1.5C /1000 ft) and the environmental
0

lapse rate (ELA) was 1.5C /1000 ft.

0

I ELR =
or
DALR

I ELR = SALR

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CHAPTER 7

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Page 7-1

WIND
I A. INTRODUCTION

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Wind is the term used to define the horizontal flow of air as it moves from one place to another. The
direction of this wind is the direction from which it is blowing and its velocity is given in nautical miles
per hour, or knots. Wind velocity information provided by a control tower at an airfield gives the direc-
tion in degrees magnetic to coincide with the magnetic direction of the runway. Forecast winds from a

I
met office are given in degrees true. The effect of wind on aircraft operation is dealt with in other sub-
jects, its cause will be discussed here.

B. DEVELOPMENT OF WIND

I PRIMARY CAUSE
The primary cause of wind is the variation in air density caused by differences in air temperature.

I
The effect of gravity causes warm air to rise and cold air to sink resulting in a vertical flow of air. At
the same time low presure areas (rising air) and high pressure areas (sinking air) introduce a
horizontal motion - air flows from high to low, creating a force called the pressure gradient..
Loosely defined, this is the difference in pressure between consecutive isobars, the implication being

I
that the air flows at 90° to the isobars which is in fact not the case, as we shall now see if we
examine the effect of the earth's rotation.

CORIOLIS FORCE

I Newton's First Law states: A body in a state of rest or uniform motion, will continue in that state of
rest or uniform motion unless acted upon by an external force.

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If we view the body, or air mass, from a rotating platform, the path of the moving mass relative to
the platform appears to be deflected or curved.
An example of this deflection can be illustrated on a record player. Start rotating the turntable, then,

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using a piece of chalk and a ruler, draw a straight line from the centre to the outer edge of the
turntable. The chalk will have appeared to travel in a straight line. However, if the turntable were
stopped the line will, in fact, be a spiral. If the turntable rotated in an anti-clockwise direction the
spiral would be to the right, and if the turntable rotated clockwise, the spiral would be to the left.

I If one were to look down upon the earth from over the north pole, the earth would be rotating in an
anti-clockwise direction, therefore the deflection of the wind would be to the right. Looking down
upon the earth from the south pole, the earth's rotation would be clockwise and therefore the
deflection would be to the left.

I This apparent deflecting force is called Coriolis Force.

Coriolis force always acts at 90° to the direction of movement, being of minimum value at the

I Equator and maximum at the Poles. It is directly proportional to the velocity of the wind. If the
wind velocity increases, then the coriolis force affecting the wind also increases.
GEOSTROPHIC WINDS

I The Geostrophic Wind is the result of the pressure gradient force and the Coriolis force. It is
important to bear in mind that these two forces must be balanced for the wind to follow the isobars.
Note that, in this case, the geostrophic wind only applies when the isobars are straight. See Figure

I 7-1.

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Low Pressure

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PGF
-----+--------P....,G,...F_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1005 hPa

I Wind +-----~~---------- --.., ...

5
-- 4 PGF

I ',
-----4--------,+-,;.:i..,..~,----+'-------------- 1010 hPa

I CF CF '"-_At3
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _./_,_P_G_F
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1015 hPa

I
CF

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _C_F____.J_..__2_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1020 hPa

I IHigh Pressure I

I Figure 7-1: Geostrophic Wind

With reference to Figure 7-1. In the southern hemisphere, consider a particle at rest at position 1.
Velocity is zero, Coriolis force is zero. As the particle, (position 2), moves towards the low under the

I influence of the pressure gradient force (PGF), the Coriolis force (CF) increases proportionally, acting
at 90° to the direction of movement. The resultant of these two forces is the WIND (W).

As this particle of air accelerates through positions 3 and 4, the Coriolis force increases, until such

I time that it is exactly equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the pressure gradient force,
(position 5). The particle of air will now continue moving parallel to the isobars at the speed it
attained at position 5, provided no external force comes into play. This confirms the statement in
1857 of the Dutch meteorologist Buys-Ballot which became known as Buys-Ballot's Law, which

I states:
"An observer who stands with his back to the wind in the southern hemisphere, will have the low
pressure on his right. (This is reversed in the northern hemisphere)".

I The Geostrophic Wind is only applied where the isobars are straight.

PRESSURE GRADIENT FORCE BALANCES CORIOLIS FORCE

I Geostrophic winds can be calculated by determining the pressure gradient, (speed of wind is
directly proportional to the distance between the isobars. As this distance reduces, the speed will
increase). However, as discussed previously, coriolis force increases in value towards the poles.

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This means that a lower wind speed is required to produce the same coriolis force value to balance
the gradient force. Therefore, for a constant pressure gradient, the wind speed at high latitudes
(towards the poles) will be less than at lower latitudes.

I
SURFACE FRICTION
For the winds to flow parallel or along the isobars, the coriolis force must balance the pressure
gradient force. As we know, the coriolis force is proportional to the speed of the wind.

I
At the earth's surface, there is friction which reduces the wind speed - this in turn causes a smaller
coriolis force which does not balance the pressure gradient force. Consequently, the pressure
gradient force is greater than the coriolis force, which causes the wind to cut the isobars at an
angle and blow into a low, or out of a high, (generally only below 2000 ft).

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1021hPa 1015 hPa

Wind at

I 3000 ft
Surface
wind

I HIGH LOW

I
At 2000 ft: Pressure Gradient Force = Coriolis Force
I At surface: Pressure Gradient Force > Coriolis Force

Figure 7-2: Surface Friction

I For a given isobar pattern, winds below 2000 ft tend to change in a clockwise direction, called
veering, with a decrease in velocity towards the earth's surface.

I
upper winds 035/30
surface winds 090/05
The angle between the isobars and the wind is variable and averages about 30° over land to about

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10° over the sea. (Sea has less friction than land).
DIURNAL VARIATIONS

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During the day, the vertical extent of the turbulence layer is much deeper than by night, due to
thermal activity.

This thermal activity tends to link the lower winds with the higher winds. Therefore, during the day

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the lower (surface) winds will tend to change in an anti-clockwise direction, called backing, and
increase in velocity. During the evening the lower (surface) winds will tend to veer and reduce in
velocity. See Figure 7-3.

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3000 ft wind 3000 ft wind

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Surface wind

I urface wind

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DAY NIGHT

Figure 7-3: Change in Wind Direction with Altitude

I C. LOCAL WINDS
It is a noticeable fact that frequently wind does not agree with what is to be expected from
Buys-Ballot's Law, and the configuration of isobars. These irregularities are due to many local

I disturbances, such as squalls and thunderstorms, and are usually only of short duration. However,
persistent abnormalities are of more importance and such irregularities are due to the topography
(surface qualities).

I Energy is required for air to pass up and over a mountain so, where possible, air attempts to find its
way around rather than go over and therefore blows along the mountain. Where a pass or valley is
found, the air will be forced through with considerable force, where the velocity may be raised to a
gale force, due to venturi effect, and where normally the general wind is no more than fresh.

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Page 7-4
Wind invariably is channelled down a valley from one direction to another, giving false direction of
the true local wind . However, only a small change of local wind may be sufficient for the flow of air
to be channelled down the same valley, in the opposite direction. Forcing of air through valleys is

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called the "funnel effect" - one good example of such being the wind down the Rhone Valley,
known as the famous "Mistral ".

The difference of wind experienced on a sheltered side of an obstruction, such as high ground, as

I
opposed to the exposed side is an important consideration in the selection of an airfield site.

THE FoHN WIND

The name Fohn , adopted from local winds in the Alps , also called the Chinook in the USA and
Canada, which blows over the Rockies and Santa Ana over the Andes. It is characterised by a hot
dry wind from the interior on the leeward side of a mountain range.

3000 ft - Condensation level ----·"'--__,

I +20°C

I
Figure 7-4: The Fohn Wind

Air at ground level (20°C) is forced to rise over a mountain (called topographical uplift) and will cool
adiabatically due to expansion, initially at the DALR of 3°C/1000 ft. At a height of 3000 ft, the

I
temperature will be 11 °c where, say, condensation level is reached (dew point), depicted by the
formation of cloud called "cap cloud" , such as the table cloth on Table Mountain.

Thereafter, cooling takes place at a lower rate, the SALA of 1.5°C/1000 ft until the summit of 8000 ft

I
is reached, the temperature of the air then at +3.5°C. Now the reverse process begins and air
warms at a rate of 1.5°C/1000 ft of descent. Condensation level is higher on the leeward side due to
precipitation and moisture losses from the cloud.

Assume condensation level to be 6000 ft, the temperature +6.5°C. The descending air now warms
at DALR down to ground level where the temperature reaches 24.5°C, a total temperature increase
of 4.5°C higher than the initial temperature. This explains the hot and dry wind - dry because of the
longer warming up at DALR on the descent and loss of moisture near the summit.

I This effect is considerable over very high mountains where the temperature increase over the initial
temperature could be as much as 10°c.

THE BERG WIND

I The Berg Wind is a typical South African wind, characterised by a very hot and dry wind from the
interior and differs from the Fohn wind , inasmuch that the process is not largely dependent on the
height of the mountain, but dependent on the long steep descent from the high interior plateau

I down to sea level. Stratus cap cloud may occasionally form over the summit of the Drakensberg,
but this has a negligible effect on the final temperature at the sea.
MOUNTAIN AND VALLEY WINDS

1. ANABATIC WINDS : (Day winds)

When there is a tendency for air to flow upslope, it is called Anabatic. This wind owes its
presence to the heating of the hill slopes by the sun, which in turn heats up the air in contact
with it and becomes warmer than the air at the same level and is therefore lighter and ascends.

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This thermal upslope current is replaced by cooler air from the valley, the general motion being
upslope, in the form of a gentle breeze.

I
However, this flow may be masked by the irregularities such as convection currents but, on the
whole, the flow is upslope, the effects of which may only be noticeable where they are intensified
by the valley or funnel effect. The forced ascent of such air under given conditions of humidity
and temperature may reach dew point, in which case the formation of upslope fog or mist may

I
occur, especially early morning.

Where the velocity is attained by the funnel affect of a valley, the name "valley wind" has been
used.

I 2. KATABATIC WINDS (Night winds)

This is the reverse of an Anabatic wind. During the night, the ground loses its heat by radiation.
Air in contact with the slopes thus becomes colder than the surrounding air of the free

I atmosphere. Being denser and heavier, it starts to sink into the lower valleys, hence the wind,
which is usually no more than a gentle breeze. The importance lies in the effect of local "pooling"
of this cold air in the valley and, should the temperature be lowered sufficiently to dew point,
local fog or mist occurs. This phenomenon is known as "valley fog" or "valley mist".

I However, on occasions, this Katabatic wind may frequently reach "gale force", with gusts well
over 100 miles per hour. This is typical of the "Bora" found in the Adriatic, the velocity of which is
also greatly influenced by local pressure distribution, intensified by the funnel effect, through the

I numerous valleys extending to the coast (not purely Katabatic). To qualify for the name "Bora",
the air must be colder than its source, even after heating due to compression during the
descent, arriving in the valley at temperatures well below the air it is replacing. Other examples of
such winds are the "Faku", a cold Alaskan wind of the Faku glacier, the Katabatic wind on the

I coasts of Greenland and the shores of the Black Sea. Katabatic winds may persist during the day
when the slopes of mountains and hills are covered in snow, cooling the layer of air in close
contact with it, causing it to flow down the slope as a Katabatic wind.

I LAND AND SEA BREEZES

These are most noticeable during clear days with slack pressure gradients; the sea breeze during
the day being more marked than the land breeze during the night. With these winds, usually only a

I strip of 1O to 15 miles either side of the coastline is affected.

1. SEA BREEZE - ON SHORE WINDS

I
During the day, land surfaces heat up far more rapidly than the water. Due to the difference in
temperatures of the air in contact with these surfaces, a local surface pressure differential occurs.
The lower pressure occurs over the warm land surface as a result of the warm air rising, while the
pressure over the cooler sea remains the same. In an attempt to equalise the pressure, air flows

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from the sea to the land resulting in the sea breeze.
At the same time, a local low pressure will form over water surfaces at altitude caused by
descending air replacing the flow towards the land along the surface. Warm air rising from the

I
land surface will create a local high pressure at altitude, and the resulting pressure differential will
cause a flow of air from land to sea, thus completing the cycle.
When the temperature difference between land and sea disappears, usually towards late
afternoon, the sea breeze dies out.

I In temperate latitudes, the sea breeze rarely exceeds 1O knots, whereas in tropical latitudes,
where the temperature differences are more marked, wind speeds of between 15 and 20 knots
are common. The importance of such a wind lies in the fact that the onset is sometimes quite

I
sudden, often accompanied by squalls and a sharp temperature drop, causing a significant
increase in humidity as the dew point is approached. It can, therefore, cause low cloud or
advection fog over the inland coastal areas. In the event of a strong sea breeze occurring and
combining with the geostrophic effect, the resultant wind will become the actual wind along the
shore.

I The highs of the South African East Coast cause the prevailing wind to be North Easterly and,
when combined with the sea breeze and modified by the geostrophic effect, becomes a strong
North Easterly wind with fine and partly cloudy weather conditions.

I 2. LAND BREEZE - OFFSHORE WINDS

This is the opposite of the sea breeze and occurs during the night, being most marked on clear,

I cloudless nights when terrestrial radiation is at a maximum. A pressure differential is set up due

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to the fact that water retains its heat for longer periods than land surfaces. A low pressure area
occurs over the water as the warmer air rises, inducing a flow of air from the land to the sea in
an attempt to equalise the pressure. This outflow of air is called a land breeze.

I The upper level circulation is again set in motion as a direct result of the ascending and
descending air, which, of course, is the reverse of the surface flow.

I
The land breeze dies out once the sun comes up in the early morning, when land and sea
temperatures equalise.

MONSOONS

I The Monsoon is similar to a giant sea breeze. Monsoonal tendencies are associated with all the land
masses in tropical and subtropical latitudes. The "Great Monsoon" of Asia is most significant in July
when the sun is well north of the Equator, and extends throughout Asia from North East India,
across China to Japan. During the summer months, where very high land temperatures are

I experienced, the general ascent of this warm air gives rise to a large low pressure area. This
induces a flow of moisture laden maritime air into the central continent and the effects of orographic,
convection or convergent uplift result in high annual rainfall values.

I During the winter months of the Northern Hemisphere, when the sun is well south of the Equator, a
strong high pressure develops over Siberia and the conditions are reversed. The wind backs through
180°, giving rise to a flow from land to sea with very dry, warm conditions.

I The Monsoon reaches two peaks of intensity; one just at the beginning of the season and the other
occurring near the end of the season, giving rainfall values in excess of 1O 000 mm in some places.
An example of this is Cherrapunji in India with a mean annual rainfall of 11,477.4 mm!!!

I These vast temperature differences between land and sea occur for the following reasons:

1. Water, being transparent, absorbs the same amount of solar insolation to greater depths than
land surfaces, thus giving a lower overall temperature increase.

I 2. Continual mixing of the water with colder water below, due to the currents, gives an overall lower
temperature increase.

I
3. Large amounts of insolation are used up in evaporation.

4. The specific heat capacity of land is 0.3 calorie/cm 3 , while that of water is 1.0 calorie/cm 3 .

I
THE TRADE WINDS AND THE I.T.C.Z.

The tropics are dominated by the Trade Winds. In 1753, George Hadley presented the explanation
that air near the Equator is warmed more rapidly than air near the poles. This Equatorial warm air

I
being lighter, rises and the cold heavy air flows in from the poles, attempting to equalise the
pressure difference. Due to the Coriolis effect, this flow of air is deflected, to the right in the
Northern hemisphere and to the left in the Southern hemisphere, and this results in the Trade Winds
which blow from the north east in the northern hemisphere and from the south east in the southern

I
hemisphere. The region where these winds converge, ie equatorial regions, is called the Inter
Tropical Convergence Zone or ITCZ. This is shown clearly on satellite photographs as a band of
continuous Cirrus and Cirrostratus cloud, that tends to spread out from the tops of Cumulonimbus
cloud and which lies roughly parallel to the Equator. It is obvious that the ITCZ follows the sun,

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moving south of the Equator during our summer months and north of the Equator during our winter
season. This is the region where thunderstorm activity is very significant, due to convergent uplift,
and these storms are named "hot towers" because of the enormous amount of latent heat they
pump into the upper atmosphere.

I The circulation process is completed in the upper atmosphere by this warm air moving and sinking
towards the cold polar regions. In the subtropical latitudes, 30°N or S, which are known as the
horse latitudes, well defined areas of high pressure exist due to the sinking of this upper cold air.
Due to the sinking air, the Horse Latitudes, also called Doldrums, can cause vast areas where there

I is absolutely no wind. Once again, this flow of air at or near the surface, flows back to the equatorial
low pressure area as the N.E. or S.E. trade winds in the northern and southern hemispheres
respectively, while some of it flows towards the intermediate low pressure area in about the 60° N or
S latitudes as south westerly trade winds in the northern hemisphere, and north westerly trade winds

I in the southern hemisphere, towards the poles.

There is a region of convergence at the 60° N and S latitudes, where the south westerly or north
westerly winds converge with the high polar cold air on its flow towards the Equator, resulting in the

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intermediate low pressure region . The upper flow circulation is completed, as the direction of the
flow of air is towards the Equator.

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The cold polar flow of air is north easterly in the northern hemisphere, and south easterly in the
southern hemisphere. See Figure 7-5 .

I Tropopause

I
Permanent Polar High

Variable Easterly Winds

Moving Depressions

I Variable Westerly Winds

Sub-tropical Semi-Permanent
Anti-cyclones

I North East Trades

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ITCZ

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I South Easterly Trades
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I Sub-tropical Semi-permanent
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\
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\
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\

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\ Variable Westerly Winds
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\
\\ Moving Depressions

I '\\
'' Variable Easterly Winds

I "-,',,,',,, Permanent Polar High

',,

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........
...........
........ .......
-....----
-- ------------------------ Tropopause

Figure 7-5: Idealised Global Wind Circulation

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D. INSTRUMENTS USED FOR SURFACE WIND MEASUREMENT
ANEMOMETER

I This basic instrument employed in wind speed measurement is the cup anemometer. It is placed at
a height above ground level, where it will be exposed to the free stream of air. Its rotational speed is
directly proportional to the wind speed. Its axis, the rotation of which drives a generator, and the

I voltage so generated, cause an electrically induced needle, (basically a voltmeter calibrated in

knots), to register the respective wind speed more accurately.

This instrument is used in conjunction with the conventional weather vane, the position of which is

I also transmitted to a directional dial, thus enabling the wind direction to be read simultaneously.

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CHAPTER 8 AIR MASSES

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AIR MASSES
I A. INTRODUCTION

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An air mass is a large body of air usually occupying the whole Troposphere in a region which can be
thousands of miles across, with more or less horizontal uniformity in temperature and humidity.

Vertical lapse rates are approximately uniform throughout, resulting in small variations in wind with

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height and the air mass can move along with little distortion.
The characteristic of an air mass is largely dependent upon the region of its source, as it will acquire
the same properties as the earth's surface, both in temperature and humidity.

I B. CLASSIFICATION
The four basic classifications are:

I (a) Latitude - related to temperature

(i) Polar (P)

I
(ii) Tropical (T)

(b) The significance of moisture content.

I
(i) Maritime (m): over oceans
(ii) Continental (c): over land

POLAR MARITIME AIR

I This cold air in combination with its low water vapour content is very stable at its source.
However, as it passes over a warmer sea, the lower levels become warmer and absorb more
water giving rise to convective currents which make it very unstable away from its source.

I
Cumulus and Cumulonimbus cloud are common. Visibility is excellent - convectional currents
remove pollution. Flying conditions are bumpy with fresh winds.

POLAR CONTINENTAL AIR

I At its source this air is very dry and very cold, thus making it very stable. As it moves away from
its source and becomes warmer this air mass becomes moderately unstable, causing bumpy
flying conditions with good visibility.

I TROPICAL MARITIME AIR

At its source, this air is exceptionally unstable. Cumulonimbus cloud of very great vertical extent
develop. Away from its source, tropical maritime air is characterised by very moist conditions with

I low stratus and stratocumulus cloud. Fog is common in winter.

TROPICAL CONTINENTAL AIR.

I At its source this air is unstable with little or no cloud. Away from its source, this air mass will
provide exceptionally fine weather with poor visibility.

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AIR MASSES

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Tropical Continental (Tc)

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I Tropical Maritime (Tm)

I Polar Maritime (Pm) Polar Maritime (Pm)

I Figure 8-1: Path of Air masses over South Africa

C. MODIFICATION OFAN AIR MASS

I Just as the air mass takes on its characteristics from the underlying source region, so, during its pas-
sage away from the source, it is modified by the underlying surface conditions. Several factors influ-
ence the amount of modification, these being:

I 1. SPEED.
The faster the air mass moves, the less time it has to acquire the underlying surface

I characteristics, whereas a slower moving air mass will tend to become more modified. As an
example, when a cold dry air mass moves slowly over a warm ocean surface, the lowest layers
will become warm thus increasing its tendency to hold more moisture. In this case, the air mass
will tend to become less stable as convection currents tend to spread this modification to

I progressively higher levels.

2. DIURNAL VARIATIONS.

I Land surface temperatures can vary considerably during the day and night. Consider a case
where cool moist air moves in over a hot land surface. The surface temperature rise increases the
lapse rate in the lower levels, producing increased instability. If the air is moist, convectional
currents generated will produce towering cumuli form cloud. Conversely, if an air mass is moving

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over a cooler surface area, it will be cooled from below, decreasing the lapse rate. This stability
opposes vertical motion so confining the cooling to the surface layers which could produce a low
level inversion. If the air is moist, cloud formed will be stratus and stratocumulus. Any prolonged
cooling could produce fog.

I 3. MECHANICAL INFLUENCES.
Any motion producing lifting (orographic due to mountains), sinking (subsidence of a high

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pressure system) and mixing, (light and variable winds influenced by objects to produce
turbulence), have a definite bearing on the modification of an air mass. For instance, the
temperature and humidity of an air mass are altered by the passage over a mountain range.

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Should precipitation be lost to the mountain summit, humidity content on the leeward side would
be reduced. For example, tropical maritime air being forced over a high mountain range could be
modified to air which would have properties of tropical continental air on the leeward side of the
mountain range, due to moisture loss on the windward side of the mountain range.

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CHAPTER 9

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CLOUDS
I A. DEFINITION

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Cloud is a visible combination of water particles or ice crystals, white in appearance due to the reflec-
tion of white light. Fog is simply a cloud at ground level.

B. CLASSIFICATION OF CLOUD TYPES

I Clouds are classified by both their height above ground and their appearance, comprising 4 main
groups.

I
(a) HIGH CLOUD

Bases above 20 000 ft and known by the name CIRRO clouds.

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(b) MEDIUM CLOUD
Bases between 8000 ft and 20 000 ft above ground and are known as ALTO clouds.

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(c) LOW CLOUDS

Bases below 8000 ft and known as LAYER or STRATOFORM cloud.

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(d) VERTICAL DEVELOPMENT CLOUD

Cloud of great vertical extent, known as CUMULOFORM cloud, extending through one or more
of the above groups.

I The cloud bases of these four groups vary, being higher in tropical areas and lower in polar areas.

C. CLOUD TYPES

I Clouds may be further subdivided into individual types according to their appearance:

(a) CIRRUS (Ci)

I Detached clouds of delicate and fibrous appearance, without shading, generally white in colour,
often of a silky appearance. (Often referred to as mares tails). They appear in the most varied
forms, such as isolated tufts, lines drawn across the sky, feather-like plumes or curved lines

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ending in tufts.
(b) CIRROCUMULUS (Cc)
A cirroform layer or patch composed of small white flakes or globular masses without shadows,

I arranged in groups or lines, or more often in ripples resembling fish scales.

(c) CIRROSTRATUS (Cs)

I A thin opaque veil which does not blur the sun or moon, but gives rise to halos. Sometimes a
fibrous structure distinctly shows with disordered filaments, giving the sky a milky appearance.
The composition of the above clouds is in the form of ice crystals

I (d) ALTOCUMULUS (Ac)

Layer or patch cloud, composed of laminae or regularly flattened globular masses, being fairly

I small and thin without shading. Sometimes appearing in parallel wave bands.

(e) ALTOSTRATUS (As)

I A fairly thick or grey veil, similar in appearance to thick cirrostratus, obscuring the sun or moon,
with lighter patches between the very thick parts. When not so thick, the sun or moon shows
very vaguely.

I The composition of the above clouds is either water or ice crystals.

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(f) STRATOCUMULUS (sc)

A layer of patches or globular masses composed of laminae, being soft and grey with darker

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parts. These elements are arranged in groups, lines or in waves. Often waves are so close that
their edges touch and during winter give a wavy appearance.

(g) STRATUS (St)

I A uniform layer of cloud resembling fog, but not on the ground. When appearing as a low,
broken up layer, it is referred to as Fractostratus (Fs).

(h) NIMBOSTRATUS (Ns)

I A low dark grey, black cloud, soft in appearance. Usually associated with names like rain cloud,
when precipitation is in this form. When no precipitation occurs, the base looks diffused and wet
because of the trailing precipitation called virga, and the lower limits of the base are difficult to

I distinguish.

The composition of the above cloud types is water droplets or ice crystals.

I (i) CUMULUS (Cu)

Thick white clouds of vertical development, taking on the appearance of cauliflower. Against the
sun, these clouds exhibit dark shades with bright edges.

I 0) CUMULONIMBUS (Cb)
Heavy masses of cloud with extreme vertical development. The cumuliform summits rise in the

I form of mountains or towers, upper parts having a fibrous appearance and often spreading out
in the anvil shape, the base of which often has a fractostratus layer of cloud beneath it (scud).

The composition of the above cloud types is water droplets, ice crystals or ice in the form of hail.

I D. SPECIAL TYPES OF CLOUD

I
Clouds may take on many different appearances or shapes, which can be described by use of a prefix
or suffix as follows:

(a) FRACTUS CLOUD

I The prefix fracto may be added to the name of a cloud to indicate that it occurs in broken
patches.

(b) CASTELLANUS

I This suffix is added when cloud has the appearance of a turreted structure similar to that of
towering cumulus clouds, but on a smaller scale with bases in the alto levels; for example,
altocumulus caste/Janus.

I (c) LENTICULAR CLOUDS

Clouds that have the shape of almonds or lenses, with smooth clear cut edges. When they

I take on such appearances, the word lenticu/aris may be added to the name of the cloud.

(d) CAPILLATUS

I
The upper portion of a cumulonimbus, shaped like an anvil with a smooth fibrous or striated
appearance, for example cumulonimbus capillatus.

(e) MAMMA

I Hanging protuberances on the under surface of a cloud, for example cumulonimbus mammatus.

E. CAUSES OF CLOUD FORMATION

I If cloud is a visible collection of water or ice particles, then some phenomena must have occurred for
water vapour in the air to become visible which otherwise, as we know, is invisible. This phenomena
was condensation or sublimation (from water vapour to ice crystals) and would only occur if the air

I was cooled. So already we see it is obvious that the cooling of the air is directly responsible for the
formation of cloud. This cooling may take place in four ways:

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(a) Loss of heat by radiation from the air.

(b) Mixing of two air masses at different temperature with sufficient moisture content.

I (c) Loss of heat by conduction to a cold surface.

(d) Adiabatic cooling by lifting.

I The latter is by far the most important factor in the vertical formation of cloud and this lifting is
brought about in the following ways:

I
(i) Orographically
(ii) Convergence
(iii) Convection
(iv) Turbulence
(v) Frontal

I OROGRAPHIC CLOUD

This is usually cloud of stratus or layer type and sometimes cumulus or nimbostratus. The

I formation of such cloud is due to the terrain features of the earth's surface, such as mountains.
This means that the air is forced upwards, which in turn is cooled adiabatically. Provided that the
moisture content is sufficiently high and dew point temperature is reached, any further cooling will
cause condensation to take place, with subsequent cloud formation.

I The classic example of this type of cloud formation in South Africa is the famous table cloth
which forms over Table Mountain in Cape Town.

I When there is no precipitation, the base of the cloud on the windward side of the mountain is the
same height as the base of the cloud on the leeward side. However, if precipitation does occur,
in the form of rain, drizzle or snow, the base of the cloud on the leeward side is higher due to
the drop in dewpoint.

I When, on occasions, the air is unstable, stratocumulus cloud will develop into cumulus or even
cumulonimbus cloud. This often occurs over the Drakensberg, especially during the summer
months.

I Under somewhat drier conditions, when standing mountain waves form, lenticular cloud formation
often occurs in the crests of such waves, giving good visual indications of the areas of up and
down draughts. With very dry air, the standing waves may be present without lenticular cloud and

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the dangers of such would not, therefore, be indicated.

CONVERGENT CLOUD

I
Cloud formation due to convergent uplift is normally of the cumulus type, developing into
cumulonimbus when the air is unstable. Convergent uplift occurs where two opposing winds meet
and three distinct areas of occurrence are:

I
(a) COL AREAS

The area of opposing winds found between two highs or two lows, is known as a Co/ Area
and is favourable for the formation of cumulus cloud, with fairly strong and very variable

I
winds.

(b) THE ITCZ

I
As discussed earlier, the meeting place of the North Easterly and South Easterly trade winds
is the ITCZ, where the air is moist, especially over the ocean, and unstable cumulonimbus
cloud formation takes place, otherwise over the continent, large cumulus develop.
(c) SMALL CLOSED LOWS

I Where air blows in a clockwise spiralling inward motion into a low, an area is created
inducing uplift.

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CONVECTION CLOUD

(a) CUMULUS CLOUD

I During the day, the land heats up due to solar radiation with some areas absorbing more
heat than others, ie tarmac, runways, roads, sand ploughed fields, rocky outcrops and mine
dumps. Air in contact with these surfaces is heated up, expands, becomes less dense and

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rises. These convective currents of warm rising air are known as thermals. Should this rising
air be warm enough, and dew point reached, clouds of the cumulus (cumuli form , cauliflower
type appearance) type will form . These fairly large cumulus clouds are known as fair weather
cumulus, the base of which are at the same level, (ie condensation level), with tops rarely
exceeding 5000 ft agl. Fair weather cumulus will form only in stable conditions, or if a stable
layer exists relatively low in the atmosphere.

I
3000 ft -+6°C

2000 ft --+7°C

I 1000 ft - + 8°C
SALR

I Surface - + 9°C t +12°c t DALR

ELR 1°C/1000 ft

Figure 9-1: Fair Weather Cumulus

Referring to Figure 9-1, on the left is the actual environmental lapse rate, which for this
example is 1 C /1000 ft, indicating absolute stability. Consider, (on the right) the surface is
0

heated by the sun, for example, to + 12° C. The air in contact with the surface will be heated

I
up, expand and being less dense, start to rise. This rising air will initially cool at the DALR of
3 C /1000 ft until it reaches its dew point, which happens to be + 9° C. This rising air, still
0

being warmer than the surrounding air, will continue to rise and, being saturated, will now
cool at the SALA of 1.5 C /1000 ft.
0

I The air within the cloud will continue to rise until it reaches a temperature equal to the
surrounding air, thereby preventing any further uplift. The fair weather cumulus will tend to
persist as long as there is surface heating and the thermal is maintained. During the latter
part of the afternoon, the surface will tend to cool and the cloud will evaporate into the

I surrounding air and dissipate.

(b) CUMULONIMBUS CLOUD

Again , surface heating warms up a layer of air at the surface, which will start to rise. In this
case, the environmental lapse rate (ELA) is such that instability persists up to the Tropopause
where, within the last 5000 ft, the ELR shows a very small lapse rate, (almost isothermal).

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35 000 ft - -54.5°C 545 C

30 000 ft - -52.5°C 95C

25 000 ft - -40°C -37°C

I 20 000 ft - -27.5°C -24.5°C

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15 000 ft --17.5°C -14.5°C

10 000 ft -4.5°C

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--7.5°C

5000 ft - 0°C +3°C

I 4000 ft -+1.5°C +4.S°C

3000 ft --+3°C +8°C

I 2000 ft -+7°C +7.S°C

I 1000 ft - + 8°C

I Surface - + 9°C
___________(_ +12°c_t__________

ELR 1°C/1000 ft

Figure 9-2: Cumulonimbus Cloud

TURBULENCE CLOUD

When a very strong wind blows near the ground, a large amount of turbulence is set up, affecting
levels up to 3000-4000 ft. This air, given a suitable amount of moisture content, cools adiabatically
with resultant cloud formation , even through a relatively small increase in height. An obstacle,
about 600 ft high, is sufficient to create the required turbulence to heights of 4000 ft.

The formation of such cloud requires four factors to be fulfilled :

(a) Humidity must be high enough for the condensation level to be within the turbulence layer.

(b) Turbulence must be active enough for this level to be reached.

(c) A stable lapse rate, so that the cloud is restricted to the height of the turbulent layer.

(d) Turbulence must be effective enough, 8 knots or more for the air to be cooled adiabatically
while mixing , thus changing the lapse rate .

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3000 ft +7°C +1 °c +4°C +7°C

+?oc

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2000ft +8°C +4°C +10°C

(mean +8.5°C) (mean +8.5°C)

1000 ft +9°C +?°C +10°C +13°C

I Surface
ELA 1°C/ 1000 ft
+10°c +10°C +13°C
ELA after mixing
+ 16°C

I Figure 9-3: Change in ELR due to Mixing

Consider a typical layer of stable air 3000 ft in depth, the ELA of such a layer being 1 C / 1000 ft.
Now, the air is forced to rise due to turbulence, cools at the DALR from + 10° C at the surface to
0

I + 1° C at 3000 ft, while the air that sinks warms adiabatically at the DALR, if dry, from + 7° C at
3000 ft to + 16° C at the surface. Thus, the effect of turbulent mixing is always to lower the
temperature at the top and raise it at the surface . In a thoroughly mixed layer, the lapse rate
increases .

I At the surface, thoroughly mixed air attains a mean temperature of:

+10°C + 16°C = +26 = +13° C

2
while at 3000 ft,it attains a mean temperature of:

+1°C + +7° C = +8 = +4° C

2
giving a new steeper lapse rate of : +13° C - +4° C = +9C0 /3000 ft = +3C 0 /1000 ft

I This same process occurs if saturation is reached, only this time producing a lapse rate of 1.5
C /1000 ft. Thus the effect of turbulent mixing always tends to move the value of the ELA closer
0

to the DALR below the cloud, and closer to the SALA within the cloud. If condensation is

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reached , then the cloud will be restricted to the top of the turbulent layer, due to the stable lapse
rate above the turbulent layer, the cloud being of stratus layer (stratiform) type, ie stratocumulus.
ELA - ffter mixing

I .
\
Marked inversion \
\
\
layer )

r---------~-.....-------~-----
\ Top of stratocumulus layer
\
\ ,/ Top of mixing
\\ layer

I \\
\
\
\
\

I
\
\
\
\
\
\
\ ', condensation level/cloud base
\ ',,

I
\
\
\
\
',,
\ ',, ELR - 3C0 / 1000 ft
\
\ ',
\
\ ',

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\
'
ELR - before mixing

Figure 9-4: Formation of Turbulence Cloud

It is of importance to note that after mixing, the increased lapse rate will tend to increase the
stability of the layer of air above the turbulent layer. This is a prerequisite for layer type cloud
formation .

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This stratiform cloud rarely exceeds 3000/4000 ft in depth. With a light wind blowing (2 - 4 kts),
fog is more likely to form. Thermal currents present will tend to lift the base of the cloud.
Often after a very clear night (terrestrial radiation maximum), an increase in turbulence just after

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dawn may give rise to a very sudden formation of low cloud, which may clear during the day.
Very rapid changes of turbulence and relative humidity usually occur towards evening and again
in the early morning when turbulence cloud is most probable.

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Another type of turbulence cloud which forms on occasions, is the ragged fracto-stratus (scud)
cloud below rain bearing cloud, such as nimbo-stratus, altostratus or cumulonimbus. Falling rain
below these clouds increases the relative humidity and turbulence easily causes low cloud
formation. Where wind changes rapidly with height through a humid layer, upper atmosphere

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sheet cloud may be expected, such as altocumulus or stratocumulus.
FRONTAL CLOUD

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Widespread cloud formation takes place from adiabatic cooling when an air mass is forced to rise
over another air mass. When warm, the air mass slides gently over the cold air (in this case, a
warm front), clouds of the sheet layer type (stratus) develop, such as cirrus, cirrostratus,
altostratus and nimbostratus. Where cold air forces its way under the warm air (in this case, a
cold front), clouds of the vertical development type occur, such as cumulus or cumulonimbus.

I CLOUDS DUE TO GENERAL ASCENT OVER A WIDE AREA

Cloud formation over a very large area of the country occurs where there is a deep low in the

I upper regions of the atmosphere. This tends to complement the weak surface low, which would
otherwise begin to fill up slowly. The upper flow however, gives rise to a vertical ascent of air and
extensive layer type clouds form, usually altostratus or nimbostratus with drizzle or rain. Where the
surface low is small and closed, with resulting moderate winds, a zone of convergence occurs

I and cloud formation of vertical extent such as cumulus develops.

ESTIMATION OF CLOUD AMOUNT

I The amount of any cloud type covering the sky is given in numbers of eight parts, called octas.
Thus, when half the sky is obscured by a certain cloud, it will be referred to as four octas of that
particular cloud. The individual cloud classifications of the various types would have their
respective amount reported in octas, while the total portion of the sky that is obscured would

I include all the cloud types together.

I Sky
Clear
1/8 2/8 3/8 4/8 5/8 6/8 7/8 8/8 Sky
Obscured

I CEILING
Figure 9-5: Total Cloud Cover Symbols

I Cloud base is referred to as a ceiling when more than half the sky is covered by cloud below 20
000 ft.

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CHAPTER 10

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FRONTS
I A. INTRODUCTION

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A front is a zone of interaction between two air masses of differing characteristics of temperature and
humidity.
This dividing line is called a frontal surface, while the line which it "traces" on the surface of the earth

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is called a front. A frontal surface is a slopin~ surface separating two air masses of different tempera-
ture and therefore different densities. (Dew points also differ). The slope of the frontal surface is due to
the fact that the warm air tends to slide over the more dense cold air.

I B. TYPES OF FRONT
1. WARM FRONT

I Where warm air is overtaking colder air at a front, this condition is known as a warm front, depicted
on synoptic charts as a red line with "beehives".
COLD AIR

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I WARM AIR

Figure 10-1: Warm Front

I 2. COLD FRONT

Where cold air is overtaking or undercutting warmer air, this condition is known as a cold front,

I depicted on synoptic charts as a blue line with "sharks teeth".

WARM AIR

I
I
I COLD AIR

Figure 10-2: Cold Front

I A front may sometimes become stationary and will be depicted on synoptic charts as a combination of
a warm and a cold front. See Figure 10-3

I
WARM AIR

I COLD AIR

Figure 10-3: Quasi Stationary Front

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C. THE LIFE CYCLE OF A FRONTAL DEPRESSION
Fronts are associated with depressions and are common in temperate latitudes, affecting places like

I South Africa. Fronts and their associated depressions form what is known as the Polar Front theory. It
has been found that the dividing line between the cold polar air and the warmer air of the tropics, lies
around the earth at a position fairly far south of South Africa and this is the birthplace of fronts.

I STAGE 1.

Winds blow parallel to the boundary of the two different air masses. Warm air is depicted north of
the boundary and cold air south of the boundary. The cold air forms a wedge under the warm air

I
and since there is no motion to advance or retreat, there is no ascent of the warm air. The
leading edge of the wedge of cold air is stationary.
WARM AIR

I
I COLD AIR

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Figure 10-4: Stage 1

STAGE 2

The state of this stationary front may be disturbed, giving rise to a wave-like formation. This

I disturbance may be due to an acceleration of the wind in either air mass, or due to the

.----------.
. ..
conflicting air streams resulting in a bulge in the warm sector.

I ---------.... WARM AIR

______.
I ...,,---2 - -
___.
- - .__

I
COLD AIR

Figure 10-5: Stage 2

STAGE 3

I If the wave-like tendency persists, a drop in pressure occurs at the surface where the warm air
has penetrated the cold air. The wave increases in amplitude and a cyclonic circulation is set up.
Due to the cyclonic rotation, one section of the front begins to move as cold front, while the other

I
section moves as a warm front. This formation, known as a frontal wave, is carried along by the
westerly winds.

WARM AIR

I
I
COLD AIR

I
I STAGE 4
Figure 10-6: Stage 3

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The pressure at the peak of the wave falls and a low pressure centre forms. As the frontal
depression travels from west to east, the cold front tends to move faster than the warm front.

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WARM AIR

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__________________.
COLD AIR

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Figure 10-7: Stage 4

STAGE 5

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When the cold front catches up with the warm front, they occlude (close together). The result is
an occluded front, being the time of maximum intensity for the wave cyclone. Symbols for both
warm and cold fronts are used to indicate an occluded front. The front grows in length and the
cyclonic motion decreases with frontal movement slowing down. A secondary low pressure may

I
form at the apex of the warm and cold fronts.

---------.
WARM AIR

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I
)
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Figure 10-8: Stage 5

STAGE 6

I
During its passage, the cold air mass may become modified to such an extent that the
temperature difference between the warm sector and the cold sector becomes negligible, resulting
in the dissipation of the front.

I
The development of such fronts may take from three to five days, in which time they may have
travelled up to 10,000 Km from their original birthplace. The occlusion of the frontal system marks
the end of its life cycle.

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Page 10-4
WARM SECTOR

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I WIND FROM
SOUTHWEST

L
WIND FROM
COLD SECTOR NORTH NORTH WEST

I
Figure 10-9: The Mature Frontal Depression

I D. THE COLD FRONT

Fronts are classified by their motion. A front that moves along replacing warm air at the ground is

I called a cold front, with the leading edge of the advancing cold air having a slope of 1 in 40, to 1 in
80. Because of such steep slopes, rapid moving cold fronts are associated with cloud of considerable
vertical development, due to the very rapid forced ascent of warm and unstable moist air. This vertical
uplift results in a relatively narrow band of weather along the front, usually 20 to 50 miles wide.

Wann, moist
20 000 ft unstable air

15 000 ft

I air
10 000 ft

I 5000 ft Cu

I I

I
100 nm 50nm 50nm 100 nm

Figure 10-10: Cross Section of Unstable Cold Front

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Pa e 10-5
20 000 ft

15 000 ft
Warm. stabi a,r

10 000 ft

I 5000 ft

I 100 nm 50 nm 50nm 100 nm

I Figure 10-11: Cross Section of Stable Cold Front

The cold front is associated with the following weather conditions :

I (a) Frequent showers and thunderstorms, accompanied by hail , icing, turbulence and lightning.
(b) Cold fronts approaching from the west are often masked from low flying aircraft by bands of
altocumulus cloud.
(c) A sharp backing of the strong winds as the front moves through, usually from a NW to a SW
direction in the southerly latitudes.
(d) A squall line, roll cloud and cumulus often occur along the entire frontal line of fast moving and
active cold fronts . This leads to turbulent conditions. The most severe thunderstorms occur in
frontal systems.
(e) Further west, in the cold air, post frontal cumulus storms and showers may occur, either due to
convection or orographic uplift. Sometimes due to the development of a secondary cold front.
(f) With the advance of a slow moving cold front, where the warm air is stable, cloud development is
the stratus type, typical of a warm front. Precipitation is rain in this case (not showers) and the

I affected land can reach up to 100 miles wide.

1. SURFACE CHANGES WITH THE PASSAGE OF A COLD FRONT

I (a) TEMPERATURE

There is a marked and sudden drop in temperature as the cold air moves in to replace the warm
air. After the passage it remains low, but steady.

I (b) DEW POINT

There will be a marked drop in dew point as cold air holds less water vapour.

(c) VISIBILITY

This decreases with the approach of the front and is significantly reduced in the rain sector. A

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rapid improvement occurs after the passage, becoming excellent.

(d) PRESSURE

With the advance of the front, pressure falls steadily until at the passage a marked drop occurs
suddenly (1 to 2 hPa). After the passage, it remains steady or begins to rise slowly.

(e) WIND

There is a sharp backing of the wind, usually from northwest to a south westerly direction.
(Backing, when the wind direction changes to the left; veering, when the wind direction changes
to the right).

2. FLYING CONDITIONS IN THE VICINITY OF A COLD FRONT

(a) The sharp changes in temperature and wind become less marked with an increase in height. For
low powered aircraft, where penetration above 30 000 ft is not possible to avoid the icing and

I hail, it is advisable to land and wait for the passage of the front.

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(b) Turbulence may be present, even in the absence of cumulus cloud and may extend to great
heights.

(c) Severe icing can occur in the cumulus cloud of the cold front as well as in the nimbostratus
cloud of less active cold fronts, up to temperatures in the range of 0°C to -20°C.

I 30 000 ft - • - • Heavy lcmg Umit

I
I 20 000 ft
Direction of movement

I COLDAJR

I 10 000 ft
0 C ---------

Figure 10-12: Cross Section of a Cold Front Indicating Typical Cloud and Icing Zones

E. THE WARM FRONT

I A front that moves along when warm air is gently forced to ascend up and over cold air is known as a
warm front, with the leading edge of the warm air having a slope of 1 in 100 to 1 in 150. Because of
the much shallower slope than that of a cold front, cloud of the sheet or layer type will tend to develop
over a very much larger belt or region - usually 200 to 300 miles wide, affected by continuous rain and

I not showers, as is common to the cold front.

Warm fronts generally fall into one of three categories depending on the characteristics and moisture
content of the air.

I 1. WARM, MOIST AND STABLE AIR

In this case the warm front is characterised by stratiform type clouds. When flying towards the front

I cirrus cloud would be encountered first, followed by cirrostratus, alto stratus and nimbo stratus.
Precipitation will increase in intensity as the front approaches. See Figure 10-13.

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I 30 000 ft
Wann moist stable a,r Ci
25 000 ft Cc

20 000 ft

I 10 000 ft Cold Air

I 500 ft St or Sc

I I
100 nm 200 nm 300 nm 400nm 500 nm 600nm

Figure 10-13: Cross Section of Stable Warm Front

2. WARM, MOIST UNSTABLE AIR

The initial indications of the approach of this type of warm front are the same as previously
described but in this case, however, the warm front itself is characterised by altocumulus and
embedded cumulonimbus clouds. Precipitation takes the form pre-frontal showers which raise the
humidity of the cold air ahead of the front to saturation causing low ceilings of stratus, fog and poor
visibility which is followed by heavy showers and possibly hail. See Figure 10-14.

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I 30 000 ft
Wann moist unstable air

I 25 000 ft

20 000 ft
As __
----------_:::::::...----
Cl

10 000 ft Cold Air

500 ft

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100 nm 200nm 400nm 500nm 600nm

Figure 10-14: Cross Section of Unstable Warm Front

3. WARM, DRY STABLE AIR

In this case the warm front is characterised by high level clouds such as Alto-cumulus, Alto-stratus,
Cirro-stratus and Cirrus. The warm, dry air ensures that very little if any precipitation will occur.

To summarise, then , the warm front is associated with the following weather conditions:

I (a) To an observer, the first indication of the approach of a warm front from the west will be a cirrus
cloud followed by cirrostratus.
(b) Cloud bases progressively become lower, altostratus eventually covering the sky, lowering to
altocumulus with the first precipitation commencing.

I (c) This is followed by nimbostratus lowering to 1000 - 2000 ft, with heavy rain or snow, depending
on temperatures.

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(d) Very low ragged cloud, called scud, may form below the rain nimbostratus cloud, due to the air
becoming supersaturated. The height of such can be from 200 to 500 feet.

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(e) With instability present, depending also largely on the speed of the warm air, Cumulonimbus
cloud embedded in the nimbostratus may form, when heavy showers and hail could occur. This
would mark the end of the frontal passage, shortly to come. Pilots should beware of such
possible cumulonimbus development, as it will be well masked by the presence of the layer type

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clouds.

SURFACE CHANGES WITH THE PASSAGE OF A WARM FRONT

I
1. TEMPERATURE

A steady rise in temperature is indicated at the advance and during the passage. After the
passage, temperatures remain high and steady.

I 2. DEW POINT

A marked rise in dew point occurs during the advance, reaching a maximum during the passage.

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Thereafter it remains steady.

3. VISIBILITY

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With the advance, visibility is fairly good, reducing significantly with the passage in the
precipitation area, to poor in the mist or fog which may develop. After the passage, it remains
poor to moderate, still being misty or foggy.

4. PRESSURE

I Pressures fall steadily during the approach and after the passage continue to fall at a slower rate
until they steady out.

I 5. WIND
With the passage of a warm front, the strong winds will back, usually from north north west, to
north west, thereafter remaining constant.

I NOTE: Under very dry conditions, only high or middle cloud type may develop with little or no
precipitation present.

I FLYING CONDITIONS IN THE VICINITY OF A WARM FRONT

1. As with the cold front, wind and temperatures decrease with an increase in height.

I 2. Wide areas of low cloud may be present, with rather poor visibility.

3. Turbulence is not normally as severe as that of cold fronts, however with cumulonimbus
embedded in the nimbostratus cloud, turbulence will be present. This would be indicated by the

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presence of heavy rain and sometimes hail.

4. Rain and precipitation increase with the approach of the front, but cease in the warm sector.

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5. Visibility in the warm sector tends to be moderate to poor, with scattered stratocumulus, hazy
conditions and sometimes fog patches.

6. Heavy icing may occur in the layer clouds of the front, in the temperature range 0°c to -10°c, but

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with cumulonimbus embedded in nimbostratus cloud, the range extends to -20°C.

7. Freezing rain may be expected when rain falls from cloud above 0°c in the upper layers, through
the freezing cloud below. The rain freezes on impact, causing instantaneous aircraft icing and

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rapid weight accumulation.
8. Penetration should therefore take place in the cloud above the freezing level, or better still above
the cloud if it is within the power of the aircraft.

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- •- •- Limit of Heavy Icing

I 30 000 ft

I 20 000ft
WARMAJR COLDAIR

FreeZJng Rain
3 000 ft

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Ice Pellets

c . _ - - : : ~. . . .

I __._...__.:.-...,_.;-------------'--'---'--&..-''--=-'--=-·-------~:.:.::ater Cloud
_ _ _ _ _=:;;;,__L.-,.J.......

I Figure 10-15: Unstable Warm Front Indicating Typical Cloud and Freezing Zones

12 000 ft ooc - ·- ·- · - ·- ·- ·-

I WARMAJR

.- .- ere 3000ft

I COLDAJR

Figure 10-16: Stable Warm Front Indicating Typical Cloud and Freezing Zones

F. OCCLUDED FRONTS
As previously discussed , the cold sector of a front moves faster than the warm sector. There comes a
time when the cold sector catches up to the warm sector. If the air behind the cold front is colder than
the air ahead of the warm front, the cold front will "dig in" below the warm front and a cold occlusion
will be formed. (Cold air is more dense than cool air).

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30000ft -.-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

WARM DRYAIR

I 20 000 ft
Cc

I
I
10 000 ft COLD AIR COOL AIR

I 150 nm
I
100 nm 50 nm 50 nm
I
100nm 150 nm

I Figure 10-17: Cold Front Occlusion

However, if the air behind the cold front becomes modified (surface heating) and is warmer than the

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air ahead of the warm front, then it will tend to ride up over the more dense air ahead of the warm
front and a warm occlusion will be formed .

20 000 ft

I 10 000 ft
COOL AIR
COLDAJR

I
I
I I
50nm 100 nm 150 nm 200 nm 250nm

Figure 10-18: Warm Front Occlusion

The extent and severity of the cloud depends on:

(i) The moisture content and stability of the warm air.

I (ii) The age of the occlusion.

FLYING CONDITIONS IN THE VICINITY OF AN OCCLUSION

The cloud formation of an occlusion depends upon the stability and moisture content of the warm air.
However, there may once again be cumulonimbus embedded in the layer cloud. In the lower portion of
the occlusion, only one wind change takes place, but higher up two successive wind changes take
place; a backing of both fronts.

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• • Heavy Icing Um,t

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30 000 ft

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20 000 ft

COLD AIR

I
COOL AIR

I
10 000 ft

Figure 10-19: Cross Section of Both Types of Occlusion Indicating Typical Cloud and Icing Ranges

I- FACTORS WHICH DETERMINE WEATHER INTENSITY AT ANY FRONT TYPE

1.
2.
The slope of the front.
Stability of the warm air mass.

I
3. Moisture content of the warm air mass.
4. The temperature difference between the two air masses.
5. The speed of the overtaking air mass.

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STATIONARY FRONTS

A stationary front is referred to as a quasi-stationary front. These fronts are moving slowly or sideways
and may just be a dividing surface between the cold and warm air masses.

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CHAPTER 11

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VISIBILITY
I A. INTRODUCTION

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Visibility is a significant factor in aircraft operations. As a VFR pilot strict visibility requirements are in
place in various airspaces which must be complied with in order to remain in VMC. Even IFR pilots re-
quire different levels of visibility in order to complete instrument approach procedures. It is important,
therefore, that as pilots we have a good understanding of just what visibility is.

I B.HAZE
Haze is a reduction in visibility due to the presence of solid particles called "aerosols", such as dust,

I smoke etc.

The term haze is used to describe conditions when visibility is less than 5000 m.

I C. FOG AND MIST

Fog and mist are reported as weather phenomena when the visibility is reduced by water droplets in
suspension. Ice fog or mist is composed of ice crystals and freezing fog is composed of super cooled

I water droplets, which will freeze on contact with a solid surface, (see Icing). Although essentially the
same it is important to distinguish the difference between the two.

Fog - visibility less than 1000 m

I Mist - visibility is between 1000 m and 5000 m

Thus when visibility is deteriorating, mist precedes fog and when fog is dispersing it is followed by
mist.

I 1. FORMATION OF FOG

(a) RADIATION FOG

I During clear nights when terrestrial radiation is a maximum, a thin layer of air near the ground
will be cooled by contact and, providing dew point temperature is not too low, condensation will
take place in the form of water droplets. If there is no wind, these droplets condense on the

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ground in the form of dew. Frost occurs when the dew point is below zero, resulting in
deposition (water vapour directly to ice).
However, with a light wind blowing (2 - 8 kts), there is a good chance that radiation fog will

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occur, provided that 3 conditions favourable to its development are met:
(i) High relative humidity.
(ii) Clear night for maximum radiation to take place.

I
(iii) Light wind (maximum 8 kts) for mixing to occur.
Radiation fog is most likely in winter, although early winter or autumn are also favourable and
this fog may form at any time during the night. The most likely time for fog formation, however,

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is usually about an hour after dawn, after a calm night, when convection currents set up by the
sun's heating effect cause a mixing process to take place in the absence of wind.
Note that the formation of radiation fog depends on a light wind, whereas with stronger winds (in

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excess of 1O Kts), the mixing is carried to much higher levels and the overall drop in
temperature is less, being spread through a much greater volume of air. Under such conditions,
fog may not form, as dew point may not be reached.

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A strengthening of the wind will usually break up the radiation fog, which often lifts to low
stratus, before finally being burnt off from above. However, in very cold regions, where the sun's
rays are oblique, radiation takes place from the top of the fog on successive nights and the fog
forms to great depths, common in Siberia where fog 5000 ft in depth has been known to persist
for many months.

I A phenomenon which is pertinent to South Africa is Guti Fog, which

which has formed over the eastern mountains and drifts further inland
in fact is orographic cloud
at an altitude so low that it
appears as fog to an observer there. Stratus cloud which has formed over the eastern

I escarpment is brought in by an easterly wind and frequently

International Airport and other locations in eastern Gauteng. This type
occurs at Johannesburg
of fog accounts for 60% of

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the fog affecting this region. Whereas strong winds tend to dissipate radiation fog, it is the wind
that causes Guti Fog. It can persist for several hours,usually until mid-morning when the sun is
strong enough to cause it to lift to low stratus before finally burning off my mid-day.

I
Occasionally, when there is a higher layer of cloud above which interferes with the insolation,
Guti Fog may persist throughout the day.

2. ADVECTION FOG

I Advection is the horizontal movement of an air mass and advection fog may, therefore, occur any
time warm moist air moves over a cold surface. Like radiation fog, it tends to form because of the
wind, but not when the wind is too strong. The air is cooled by contact with the cold surface to

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below its dew point and the water droplets then become visible in the form of fog. This type of
fog usually occurs over the sea, where a warm moist air mass blows over the cold Benguella
current, being especially common along the West coast of South Africa. It may drift as far as 20 -
30 miles inland on a mild WSW to SSW wind. It is generally very much deeper than radiation fog

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and may, at times, be as deep as 2000 ft. this early morning fog has a high incidence rate as the
WSW/SSW wind is prevalent along this coast.
During the night, this fog may move inland as the ground is cool (radiation) and then may "burn
off" over the land during the day, but remain out to sea due to the cold ocean current.

I 3. UPSLOPE FOG

This type of fog is found where the land gradually slopes upwards. Fog will form when the air

I cools due to adiabatic cooling as it ascends to higher altitudes and develops more frequently at
night, due to terrestrial radiation.

It is common on the great plains of the USA and Natal midlands, but in the mountains upslope

I fog may be far more common. It is one of the few types of fog that persists with stronger winds.

4. VALLEY FOG

I When a katabatic wind is persistent in mountainous regions, there is a continuous down slope of
colder air into the valley or basin. The temperature at the bottom progressively attains a lower
temperature until dew point is reached and fog results, slowly building upwards. Fog due to this
phenomena is called Valley Fog.

I 5. STEAM FOG
Steam fog, also known as arctic sea smoke, occurs when the air is much colder than the water

I directly below; most commonly occurring in the polar regions. It is generally quite thin and wispy
in appearance and usually also only a few metres thick, forming only over water or wet surfaces.
Steam fog forms by a process involving several steps:

I (i) Firstly, cold air is blown directly over a warm surface, simultaneously becoming warmed and
enriched in vapour.

I
(ii) Secondly, this first sample of air moves up and away from the water surface, mixing with the
colder air above. The resulting mixture may contain excess vapour that condenses to form
fog, although neither sample 1 or 2 contained excess vapour.

I
It is important to remember that this steam fog never forms at the water surface, but a short
distance above it. It can occur during the winter, at dawn, over rivers and lakes, (water retaining
its heat for longer periods than land surfaces).

I
6. FRONTAL FOG
Formation of this fog may occur in two ways. Firstly, at the slope of the front itself, cloud coming
down to the surface with the passage of the front (especially common with a slow moving warm

I
front), reaches levels so low that to an observer it appears as fog. More commonly, when rain
from the warmer air just above the front falls through the underlying cold air near the ground,
saturation due to the continuous fall of rain takes place. This saturation appears as fog, preceding
the warm front in a belt some hundreds of miles in length and up to 200 miles in width. It is an

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indication that the rain is soon to end and weather will improve.

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7. TROPICAL AIR FOG

This type of fog is common in the more temperate latitudes when very warm and moist air is

I
cooled below its dew point, as it moves away from the equatorial regions. It is common during
the winter months and often found over the sea.

8. SMOG

I This is a combination of both fog and smoke, normally occurring during the night when large
amounts of smoke from industry and home coal fires are emitted into the atmosphere. This
smoke is mixed with the fog (radiation fog) and acts as suitable nuclei for condensation to take

I
place.

D. DETERMINING VISIBILITY

I Whilst visibility might be considered as being of significance only to pilots who wish to determine
whether VFR flight is possible or not, it is of vital importance for aircrew operating under IFR when de-
termining both take-off and landing minima, (see the Flight Operations and Procedures Manual).

I
1. VISIBILITY (VIS)

In terms of the Civil Aviation Regulations, 1997, visibility "means the ability, as determined by
atmospheric conditions and expressed in units of measurement (metres), to see and identify

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prominent unlighted objects by day and prominent lighted objects by night". At airports where RVR
is not available, an assessed visibility is provided by an observer.

Obviously, the distance at which an object may be seen depends on the object, the background,

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the lighting, the observer, etc. When the visibility varies in different directions, the lowest value is
reported in the best interests of safety.
For night observation reports, the visibility is expressed in terms of "equivalent daylight visibility".

I 2. VISIBILITY FROM THE AIR

One of the problems encountered by pilots is the visibility looking forward and down from an aircraft

I
in flight. This is termed oblique and is measured from a point on the ground immediately below the
aircraft along the surface to the furthest point that the pilot can see. Oblique visibility varies
depending on the height and location of the aircraft.

I
When an aircraft is being flown above surface mist or haze the pilot's oblique visibility will improve
if the aircraft climbs to a higher altitude. Conversely, when an aircraft descends his oblique vision
will be reduced. When an aircraft is flown through a deep mist or haze layer then any increase in
height will reduce the oblique visibility. See Figure 11-1.

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Page 11-4
A

I B

I D

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I
Oblique Visibility C

1--- Oblique Visibility D --.i

I - - - - - Oblique Visibility B - - - - -

Oblique Visibility A - - - - - - -

Figure 11-1: Oblique Visibility From Above and Within a Haze Layer

I
.
E. GLARE
This is a condition where atmospheric light is scattered by dust particles giving rise to much brighter
conditions in which visibility is greatly reduced. When looking up sun (into the sun) , visibility is reduced

I because of the glare, whereas looking down sun, visibility is improved due to the better contrast pro-
vided by the illumination of whatever object is in sight. Similar effects occur looking up and down
moon respectively.

I F. CAUSES OF REDUCED VISIBILITY

(1) Precipitation
(2) Mist and fog

I (3) Sea spray

(4) Smoke and oil fumes from industry
(5) Dust
(6) Smog

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I
PRECIPITATION
CHAPTER 12

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Page 12-1

PRECIPITATION
I A. INTRODUCTION

I
Precipitation is defined as moisture falling on the earth's surface from clouds, which may be in the
form of drizzle, rain, hail or snow. When air is cooled to below its dew point temperature, condensation
or deposition takes place in the form of visible droplets of water or ice crystals depending upon the
temperature. The growth of these cloud particles to become large enough to fall as precipitation is ex-

I
plained in two theories:

(a) The Ice Particle Theory (Bergeron Process)

(b) The Coalescence Theory

I B. FORMATION
1. THE ICE PARTICLE THEORY (BERGERON PROCESS)

I When cloud temperatures fall below 0°c, ice crystals form amongst the super cooled water droplets.
As the air inside the cloud is saturated in respect of water, it is supersaturated in respect of the ice
crystals. Consequently, the ice crystals grow rapidly by the process of sublimation (deposition). Due

I
to this rapid growth the crystals become large enough to fall through the upcurrents, enlarging
further due to collisions with other ice crystals; eventually falling from the cloud as snow, or melting
during their descent and falling as rain.

I
2. THE COALESCENCE THEORY

This theory explains precipitation from cloud where temperatures are above 0°C. Consider a constant
stream of rising air (updraughts) moving at a uniform speed, the tendency would be to create cloud

I
particles of a uniform size. Therefore, in the higher levels, where the water concentration is
constantly increasing, the chances for collisions (coalescence) between cloud particles must also
increase. Once coalesced, the larger cloud particles, having a higher terminal velocity, will be carried
up at a lower rate than the smaller cloud particles. The slower rate of ascent increases the collisions

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and consequent coalescence with the faster moving smaller cloud particles, thereby still further
aiding the development of the larger particles until they start falling through the cloud resulting in
rapid growth from further coalescence. We now see and feel rain or drizzle.

I
Both the Ice Crystal Theory and the Coalescence Theory complement each other.

C.SNOW

I
Snow is solid precipitation in the form of ice. Snow may consist of various types of ice crystals, de-
pending on the temperature during development. Ice crystals are hexagonal in shape. At cloud temper-
atures around 0°C conglomerates of ice crystals form large snow flakes. In very cold temperatures
granular snow may form, consisting of small grains generally less than 1 mm in diameter.

I In sub-zero temperatures snow will not adhere to the airframe; however, the presence of snow could
reduce visibility significantly.

I
D.SLEET
Where both rain and snow fall together, or as snow melts during its fall, this phenomenon is known as
sleet.

I E. ASSOCIATED CLOUD TYPES AND THEIR PRECIPITATION

1. DRIZZLE

I This precipitation falls from Stratus (St) or Stratocumulus (Sc) cloud type, which have very little
vertical development. The droplets are therefore small (0.5 mm or less) and do not make a splash
when striking a water surface.

I 2. RAIN
The maximum size of a raindrop has a diameter of 5.5 mm. Any increase in this size causes the

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drop to disintegrate on its descent due to its terminal velocity and ensuing resistance to air (See
Table).

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Diameter (mm): 0.02 0.1 1 2 3 4 5.5
Terminal Velocity (fps): 0.04 0.8 12 21 26 28 30

I Rain falls from clouds which have greater vertical development, such as Ns, Sc, Cu and Cb cloud
and makes a splash on striking a water surface.

I
3. FREEZING RAIN OR DRIZZLE

This phenomenon occurs when droplets of water falling from Stratus or Stratocumulus cloud
become super-cooled when falling through air with temperatures below 0°c and freeze on impact

I
with the ground or an aircraft passing through.
4. ICE PELLETS

I
Ice pellets are formed when freezing rain cools down as it falls through very cold air, thus reaching
a temperature below which the rain can be sustained as super cooled droplets. A typical condition
for the formation of ice pellets would be during a temperature inversion i.e. warm front.

I
5. HAIL
Hail falls from the large Cumulonimbus type cloud, having great vertical development, whereby the
process of collision with super cooled water droplets and sublimation results in ice crystals growing

I
in size to form ice chunks or stones. Some hail stones can grow to 1 kg.

6. CLOUDBURSTS

I
Even the largest raindrops cannot exceed 30 ft/sec. Therefore, if vertical updraughts are in the
vicinity of 30 ft/sec. the raindrops are held in suspension. When the warm air (convection) from the
surface is cut off by the movement of the storm, the updraught ceases and the suspended rain is
suddenly released, resulting in very heavy showers, usually of short duration. Cloud types which
favour this development are the large Cu and Cb.

I VIRGA

Virga is wisps or streaks of water droplets or ice crystals falling from a cloud but evaporating before

I reaching the ground.

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© Avex Air Training 04/2007
I THUNDERSTORMS
CHAPTER 13

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Page 13-1

THUNDERSTORMS
I A. INTRODUCTION

I
Local storms, usually accompanied by heavy showers of rain and sometimes hail, are known as thun-
derstorms. Usually they last for a short period of time, being most common in the late afternoons, al-
though their presence and development can occur before noon. They are accompanied by lightning
and thunder on most occasions, this being most significant with very large Cb development.

I B. CONDITIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THUNDERSTORMS

Thunderstorms are the ultimate manifestation of the growth of a cumulus cloud, this being where atmo-

I spheric convection is the greatest. Where vertical development cloud of this nature is to form, three
conditions must be met:
1. There must be sufficient moisture present in the atmosphere, especially in the lower levels.

I 2. Instability must persist to a height of at least 1O 000 feet above the condensation level.

3. There must be a lifting process (called trigger action) which will 9ive rise to a sample of air

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becoming saturated. This trigger action may be one of the following:

(a) CONVECTIVE THUNDERSTORMS

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Thunderstorm development is initiated purely by irregular heating of the earth's surface, thus
causing convective currents which become the trigger activators. Thermal currents are greatest
when the temperature difference between the air and the surface are maximum, which usually
occurs just after mid-day and which explains why thunderstorms occur mainly in the afternoons

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over the land.

(b) FRONTAL THUNDERSTORMS

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In this case, the trigger action is caused by one of the following:

(i) cold air moving under a warm front;

(ii) warm air moving over the cold air at a warm front;
(iii) warm air forced to rise at an occlusion due to the "scissors" effect.

I Frontal thunderstorms, unlike convective thunderstorms, may develop at any time during the day
or night and depend on the stability conditions of the warm air mass for such development, ie
the warm air mass must be unstable. Their occurrence is most frequent at cold fronts,

I accompanied by sharp wind direction and speed changes with preceding line squalls.
(c) CONVERGENT THUNDERSTORMS

I Convergency causes rising air currents. Provided that there is sufficient moisture in the
atmosphere to build and sustain the cloud development with unstable conditions persisting,
thunderstorms may develop at any time of the day or night.

I (d) OROGRAPHIC THUNDERSTORMS

When a flow of air possessing all the necessary properties favourable for thunderstorm
development is forced to rise above a coastline or mountain range, thunderstorm activity will

I develop. The thunderstorm usually remains stationary over the type of terrain feature for as long
as the airstream maintains its properties.

(e) NOCTURNAL THUNDERSTORMS

I Latest theory indicates that the development of thunderstorms during the night is due to
mid-level cloud formation giving rise to a "blanket" effect. Re-radiation of air from the lower
levels remains at a fairly constant temperature (refer to insolation and terrestrial radiation), which

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is warmer than the air being re-radiated from the top of the cloud, giving rise to lower
temperatures at the tops. Provided sufficient moisture is present in the levels below the cloud
base, this push-pull action steepens the lapse rate at the cloud level causing nocturnal
development.

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C. CELLULAR STRUCTURE OF THE THUNDERSTORM
The structuring of cumulus and cumulonimbus cloud have been investigated by aircraft fitted with
weather radar penetrating such cloud. These investigations show that a Cb cloud is made up of sev-
eral cells (large cumulus clouds) which behave independently of adjacent cells. Each cell goes through
its own life cycle (two or three hours), possessing its own convective circulation. Such cells have diam-
eters of 1 km to 8 km across, and between adjacent cells there are cloud filled lanes up to 2 km in
width. These are called saddle backs.

D. STAGES IN THE LIFE CYCLE OF A THUNDERSTORM

I 1. THE DEVELOPING OR CUMULUS STAGE

Several small cumulus cloud that have developed begin to merge and form one large cumulus cell.
This merging of the cumulus cells is due to the fact that the surrounding air is sucked (called

I entraining) into cloud at all levels. Some neighbouring cumulus cells will have stronger convective
currents than others, resulting in the weaker cells entraining into the dominating cells until the
cumulonimbus cloud is formed, the base of which may have a diameter of up to 8 km across.

This stage is marked by updraughts throughout the cell, with velocities of 50 ft/second (3000
ft/minute), although extreme values such as 100 ft/sec (6000 ft/min) have been recorded. This
updraught prevails throughout with velocities increasing to maximum towards the final stages of
development.
These updraughts are not only fed from converging air at the surface, but also from unsaturated air
entrained from all levels through which the cloud has developed and , if the air is very dry, it acts as
an effective brake on the growth of the cumulus. The entraining of unsaturated air steepens the
lapse rate (DALR is approached). This occurs due to the dry air causing evaporation of the
saturated air. Throughout the development of the cloud, air is continually warmer than the
surrounding air. The vertical extent is governed by the unsaturated air (DALR is approached) and its
temperature, maximum height being reached when both cloud air and surrounding air are at the

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~-
same temperature. Rain does not usually fall, as water droplets are kept in suspension with
ascending updraughts. See Figure 13-1.

I 25 000 ft
___.. ..__ -16°C
,,,,., ----1r--- ..... , .....

I 20 000 ft
___.. ___ fi___ ...
..__ -8°C

15 000 ft
___.. -- ------- ..__ 0°C

I 10 000 ft
___.. fi ..__ +10°C

5000 ft +20°C

/
I 2. THE MATURE STAGE
"
Figure 13-1: Developing or Cumulus Stage

The onset of rain marks the beginning of the mature stage and is the most intense period of the
thunderstorm . Lightning and thunder are most frequent during this period, with severe turbulence
and hail, should it be present, is found in this stage. Large amounts of ice crystals and water
accumulate near the top of the cloud and eventually become too large and heavy to be supported
by the updraught and begin to fall as precipitation .
This precipitation, due to its frictional tendencies, creates downdraughts in the cloud. Descending air
warms at the SALA which now becomes colder than the ascending air. Velocities of up to 40 ft/sec
(2400 ft/min) are average figures; while updraughts, now slightly retarded in velocity, are in about
the same order elsewhere in the cloud. This downdraught spreads out on reaching the ground and
causes severe squall with increased wind velocities and change in wind direction. The leading edge
of this gust is called the "first gust". The shear produced between the downdraught and the
I updraught of a mature cell sometimes causes the formation of roll cloud, called the "storm collar",

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when it precedes the storm and an area of severe and intense turbu lence is present at the leading
edge of the cloud . Low ragged cloud called "scud" may form below the cloud.

Storm Movement

I
Roll Cloud

I Scud

/
,/ /'Y:,I I I
' ,,, Wind
\Shear

©
Wind / , 1
/ I I I
Shear/
' I I I FirstGust

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Figure 13-2: The Mature Stage

Figure 13-3 shows the up and down draughts associated with the mature stage and their effects on
temperature levels.

40 000 ft -51 °C

35 000 ft -38°C

30 000 ft -26°C

I 25 000 ft -16°C

I 20 000 ft -8°C

15 000 ft 0°C

I 10 000 ft +8°C

I 5000 ft

I Figure 13-3: Circulation Within a Mature Thunderstorm

3. THE DISSIPATING OR ANVIL STAGE

I Gradually, the downdraughts gain over the updraughts and eventually spread out across the cloud,
giving a gentle downdraught near the lower levels of the cloud with very light rain. Some updraughts
are still present in the upper portion of the cloud, having a maximum value of less than 1O ft/sec .

I They are responsible for the characteristic anvil shape so formed which is composed of ice crystals.
With the cessation of the updraughts, the moisture supply of the cloud is cut off, leaving the cloud
to dissipate. The horizontal spreading over the surface may cause convergency and thus the growth
of neighbouring cells.

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45 000 ft -51 °C

I 40 000 ft -45°C

I 35 000 ft -36°C

30 000 ft -25°C

25 000 ft -16°C
..----
20 000 ft - --r-:::::::::::x:~===-;r-===T -aoc
I 15 000 ft

10 000 ft
_ _ _ _ _ _ _,____________ +8°C ..----
..----
5000 ft

I Figure 13-4: The Dissipating or Anvil Stage

I E. SURFACE WEATHER CHANGES ASSOCIATED WITH THUNDERSTORMS

1. WIND

I During the advance of a mature thunderstorm cell, a station ahead of the thunderstorm will
experience a gentle surface wind towards the cell.

Immediately prior to the passage of the thunderstorm , a sudden and marked increase in a cold

I surface wind occurs, due to the horizontal spreading out of the downdraught. The total wind speed
is the result of the downdraught's divergence, plus the forward velocity of the storm cell.

The initial wind surge is called the "first gust", increasing an average of about 15 kts over prevailing
speeds, but gusts more than 90 kts have been recorded. The average change in wind direction with
the first gust is about 40°. This value may not be significant, as wind shifts occurring with
thunderstorms overhead may be as much as 180° in direction. This gustiness ceases with the
passage of the thunderstorm and winds usually settle down to what they were before the storm.
With the passage of a frontal thunderstorm, the surface wind will depend on the characteristics of
that front.
2. SURFACE PRESSURES

I During the advance of a thunderstorm, the pressure normally falls . In the rain area, it rises sharply
and returns to normal with the passing of the storm . However, with frontal storms, the pressure
would continue to rise steadily. Altimeter settings should be applied and corrected frequently during

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such conditions to minimise any large deviations. Pressures can drop by as much as 10 hPa.
3. VISIBILITY

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During the cumulus stage, visibility remains good. However, at the onset of the mature stage the first
gust is violent enough cause large scale dust storms during conditions of drought. Visibility is further
reduced during the heavy downpours that result, but this reduced visibility is usually only lasts for
short periods.

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F. FLIGHT HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH THUNDERSTORMS
1. TURBULENCE AND DRAUGHTS

I Turbulence is composed of violent vertical currents and gusts which occur especially near wind
shear layers and may also occur outside the thunderstorm cell. They are particularly dangerous to
an aircraft trying to fly through them, not only being unpleasant but also imposing sufficient loads on

I an aircraft to cause it to break up. For this reason a recommended rough air speed is laid down for
each aircraft.

Altimeter and vertical speed indicator readings can be in error by as much as 1000 ft, while airspeed

I indicator readings may under-read due to water ingestion in very heavy rain. Attitude indicator limits
may be exceeded in the pitching plane due to rapid variations of wind, wind shear and gusts.
Updraughts and downdraughts of 50 ft/sec are known to exist in a storm cell and the vertical
displacement for an aircraft travelling at 170 kts could be between 1100 ft and 1350 ft.

I 2. HAIL

This is perhaps the greatest hazard which may be encountered in thunderstorms and fortunately is

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quite infrequent. This is because when hail is present, only a small portion of the cell is affected and
its duration is usually short.

The danger of hail encounters lies in the fact that windscreens are holed or shattered, leading

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edges, spinners and nose cones dented or holed, de-icing boots and aerials ripped off and fins
badly bent. Damage increases with the speed of the aircraft.

3. ICE ACCRETION

I Serious icing may occur in thunderstorms. The temperature range to avoid is 0°C to -20°C in the Cb,
roughly covering 12 000 ft. When aerials ice up, they tend to snap off. ADF readings remain on
zero, a very serious threat if the pilot is not aware of such a danger.

I 4. LIGHTNING

Although there is sufficient proof to show that an aircraft is not prone to any severe damage due to
a lightning strike, because of the excellent bonding, a lightning strike would, however, seriously

I affect the compass and certain electronic systems. Cases have been reported where the outside
aerials have been burnt off. Lighting strikes occur most frequently where the temperature is between
+ 10°C and -10°C, (5000 ft above or below the freezing level), although the risk does exist at higher
altitudes. The accepted theory behind lightning is that within thunderclouds the precipitation at

I different levels acquires different values of electrical potential. Generally smaller particles which are
concentrated in the upper areas of thunder clouds become positively char~ed, whilst larger and thus
heavier particles which congregate in the lower levels become negatNely charged. When the
potential gradient between these particles reaches a critical limit it causes a discharge which takes a

I visible form as lightning. Various types of lightning may be observed, the most common being fork
lightning and sheet lightning. Fork lightning is more centralised an is a highly visible form which is
often seen exiting the base of the cloud near the ground, but can appear as a flash from cloud to
cloud. It is considered a sign of a mature thunderstorm. Sheet lightning, as the name implies,

I appears more as a flash within a cloud and may indicate the dissipating stage of a thundercloud.
5. STATIC ELECTRICITY

I This is normally recognisable as the crackling noise heard on HF or MF bands. The use of UHF and
VHF bands minimise this interference to a great extent. As the static increases in severity, a visible
discharge, known as St Elmo's Fire, results all around the aircraft. It is not dangerous but can cause
the ADF needle to indicate incorrectly.

I G. AVOIDANCE OF THUNDERSTORMS
Never deliberately fly into thunderstorms. Try to fly around them, or, if unable, turn back. In most cases

I Cb's are isolated and the possibility of getting around is quite good.

During winter months, in temperate latitudes, getting over the top at 20 000 ft is possible; in the tropics
Cb's with tops of 50 000 ft are not uncommon. A good general rule is to avoid a storm by 1 nm for

I every 2000 ft of vertical development.

Frontal and convergent storms are difficult to avoid, due to their being obscured by layers of other
cloud.

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Provided that the gap between cloud base and land surface is sufficient, the flight may be undertaken
at low level. Beware of terrain features, especially where mountain tops may be enshrouded by the
cloud. Severe turbulence from the terrain surface may be set up causing extreme bumpiness and se-

I vere loading on the aircraft structure.

Cloud bases over the sea may be as low as 500 ft, while over land it is seldom less than 1500 ft.

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Take-off should be postponed if there is any possibility of encountering Cb cells before the initial climb
is completed. Early turn-outs are not recommended with the approach of a storm, due to the sudden
unexpectedness of the first gust and the consequences thereof, ie wind shear, gusts, poor visibility at
low level.

I The approach and landing should be delayed for 20 to 30 minutes with the approach of such a storm
in close proximity to the airfield.

I
During flight, the worst part of the storm may be avoided by remembering that, during the day, the
darker parts of the cloud are the most active core centres, while at night they are shown up by the
parts with the most lightning activity.

I
Penetration by jet liners takes place at 33 000 ft or above, where they are normally above the icing/hail
zones and only have turbulence to content with. With the use of weather radar, they avoid the hard
core centres, thus virtually flying the cloud filled lanes.

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© Avex Air Training 04/2007

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CHAPTER 14

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Page 14-1

TURBULENCE
I A. INTRODUCTION

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Atmospheric turbulence can best be described as random fluctuations, or surges of air in the horizon-
tal and vertical planes, which are instantaneous, irregular and usually of short duration. Since turbu-
lence can vary from an irritating bump to a severe jar that can result in structural damage, it is impor-
tant that the pilot is aware of the conditions which can contribute to it. Turbulence is dependent upon

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the following criteria:

1. The speed of the wind.

2. The amount of friction offered by the surface.

I
3. The size and shape of the obstacles.
4. The amount of thermal activity, being maximum at midday.

B. CATEGORIES

I 1. MECHANICAL

Effective in the 3000 ft boundary layer, this is caused by winds blowing over the earth's surface

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being stirred into turbulence eddies by contact with obstructions such as buildings and hills.

Factors which influence the strength and amount of mechanical turbulence include the wind speed,
the frictional surface of the terrain or obstruction and the stability of the air. The latter largely

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determines the vertical extent of the turbulence - unstable air will tend to spread the turbulence and
increase the height at which it will be felt, whilst stable air will tend to reduce it. Wind speed also
adds to the vertical limits; for example a light wind coming into contact with surface obstructions will
not be deflected to any great extent and the resultant turbulence may only be a few hundred feet

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thick. Strong winds blowing against large features, such as mountains, may create quite severe
turbulence to great heights.

2. LOW LEVEL TURBULENCE

I This may be considered to be random eddies in the air caused by convection currents from ground
heating and wind over rough terrain. Low level turbulence occurs in the early morning, in stratus
cloud and light winds.

I 3. WAKE TURBULENCE

Wake turbulence vortices are present behind any aircraft and are particularly severe when generated
by large and wide-bodied aircraft. These vortices comprise two counter-rotating cylindrical air

I masses, trailing aft of aircraft. In level flight, in stable air conditions, these vortices descend slowly at
sink rates of 400 - 500 fpm to stabilise approximately 1000 ft below the aircraft's flight path
remaining there for up to 4 minutes. If the air is unstable the vortices disperse fairly quickly. Should
there be any wind, the effect of such must be borne in mind as the vortices drift with the prevailing

I wind. In order to avoid the turbulence, a following aircraft should always fly above the flight path of
the aircraft.

The vortices are most dangerous to following aircraft during the take-off, initial climb, final approach

I and landing phases of flight. When close to the ground they drift sideways from the track of the
generating aircraft. If there is a prevailing crosswind the downwind vortice could affect a possible
second, parallel runway. Various measures are used to try to protect aircraft from the effects of wake
turbulence. The most commonly known method is that of the aircraft wake turbulence categories

I used on ATC flight plans:

Light (L)
Medium (M)
at or below 78000 kg
between 7000 and 136 000 kg

I Heavy (H) greater than 136 000 kg.

Although wake turbulence is generated by all aircraft in varying amounts, the greatest threat would
be to a light aircraft following a heavy aircraft and therefore the following separation is generally

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applied:

(a) RADAR SEPARATION

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Heavy followed by heavy or medium - 5 nm
Heavy followed by light - 6 nm

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Medium followed by heavy, medium or light - 5 nm
Light followed by light - 5 nm

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(b) TIME SEPARATION

(i) TAKE-OFF

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When taking off behind a heavy aircraft, light or medium aircraft are separated by 2 minutes if:

- using the same runway

- crossing in a runway where the flight paths cross

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- using a parallel runway within 760 metres
- using a parallel runway more that 760 metres away if the flight paths cross

The separation is increased to 3 minutes when:

I - taking off from an intersection

- taking off from the intersection of a parallel runway within 760 metres if the flight paths cross.

Also:

I When taking off after a heavy aircraft, get airborne before its lift off point, try to remain upwind
and above its flight path.

I When taking off after a heavy aircraft has landed get airborne after its touchdown point.

(ii) ARRIVING

I Arriving aircraft are separated by 2 minutes in the case of a medium aircraft following a heavy
aircraft, and 3 minutes in the case of a light aircraft following a heavy aircraft.

Also:

I When landing after a heavy aircraft has landed, land after its touchdown point. When landing
after a heavy aircraft has taken off, touch down before its lift off point. If landing on a cross
runway, try and stop before the intersection.

I 4. WIND SHEAR TURBULENCE

Where a fairly steep gradient in wind velocity occurs along a constant line or direction, a churning

I motion of the air results in turbulence. This is exacerbated by a greater change in wind speed and
direction. Wind shear turbulence may also be encountered whilst climbing or descending through a
temperature inversion.

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5. CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE (CAT)

Strong wind shear is often found around the boundaries of jet streams and the attendant turbulence
is referred to as Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) due to the absence of clouds. Severe turbulence is

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found on top of the jet stream, whilst the colder or polar side tends to produce the most severe.
Increased wind speeds as well as curved jet streams create even more severe turbulence, and
frontal jet streams which move with the front are more turbulent than subtropical jets.

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Although more commonly associated with jet streams, CAT may be encountered crossing mountains
and in the vicinity of thunderstorms.

6. MOUNTAIN WAVES AND STANDING WAVES

I In certain conditions of atmospheric instability, strong winds blowing across a range of hills or
mountains set up standing waves, so called because the updraughts maintain their geological
position, even though the wind is, as it were, passing through them.

I These waves extend both vertically above the mountain for thousands of feet and on the leeward
side for many hundreds of miles.

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Lenticular cloud

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/
/
/
' ' '....
___ , ,., ____ ..,,,,,,,
/
/ /~
...... / .......... /

I Mountain

I Figure 14-1: Standing Waves

The appearance of Lenticular and/or Rotor cloud would indicate the presence of such waves;
Lenticular clouds forming at the crests of the waves. Considerable turbulence can be experienced
even in the absence of such cloud.

I CONDITIONS FAVOURABLE FOR STANDING WAVES

(a) A fairly deep layer of uniform wind, with little or no change in direction and an increase in speed
with height.

(b) The wind must blow within 30° of the mountain range.

(c) The wind speed must be less than 15 kts at the crest for small mountains and a wind speed of
not less than 30 kts for larger mountain ranges.

(d) A stable condition (isothermal or inversion) in the air which is directly lifted by the mountain and

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less stable conditions above this.

(e) The mountain should not be wider than the wave length so as not to cut it off.
6. WIND SHEAR

I Low level wind shear as an operational problem constitutes a significant hazard to aircraft during the
landing and take-off phase. Wind shear is defined as a change in windspeed and/or direction
occurring in a relatively short distance. Such changes may occur with height (vertical wind sheer) or

I lateral distance (horizontal wind shear). These conditions cause changes in airspeed, and the flight
path is adversely affected. When an aircraft is in the cruise configuration, any wind induced airspeed
changes tend to be balanced after a short period by a corresponding aircraft inertial speed change,
ie drag/thrust imbalance is regained. However, if the wind change is rapid enough to exceed the
aircraft's acceleration/ deceleration capacity and large enough to match its airspeed margin over the
minimum approach or climb speed for a given configuration, then a potential hazard exists.

Aircraft taking off Aircraft landing tends

I tends to overshoot to undershoot

t
' •- 1
I

I Lower stabilised thrust required

than before wind shear encountered ---
,.,..- "/...............
Aircraft flight path

Figure 14-2: Effect of Reduction in Headwind

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Page 14-4
With reference to Figure 14-2, when an aircraft which is making a stable approach encounters a
rapid reduction in the headwind component, the initial acceleration capabilities of the aircraft are
exceeded and a rapid reduction in airspeed results to below the the minimum approach speed, a

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loss of lift and a consequent undershoot of the glide path follows which requires a thrust increase to
regain airspeed. Such an occurrence may be hazardous where terrain obstacle clearance limits are
marginal. However, once re-established on the glide path, the thrust setting will be lower than the
original setting due to the reduced windspeed.

I Similarly, when an aircraft in the first segment climb-out phase encounters a rapid increase in the
headwind component, the initial deceleration capabilities of the aircraft are exceeded and a rapid
increase in airspeed above the recommended climb speed occurs, resulting in increased lift and
increased climb performance with a subsequent deviation above the flight path (overshoot).

NOTE: Due to the momentum possessed by larger aircraft flying at higher speeds and weight
configurations, an appreciable time delay exists in accelerating or decelerating the aircraft.

I Aircraft taking off

tends to undershoot c:::;>
Aircraft landing tends
to overshoot
c:::;>
c:::;>c:::;> Aircraft flight path

I
c:::;>c:::;> c:::;>
c:::;>c:::;> c:::;> \,
Required glide
path

Figure 14-3: Effect of Increase in Headwind

When an aircraft, making a stable approach, encounters a rapid increase in the headwind

I component, the initial deceleration capabilities of the aircraft are exceeded and a rapid increase of
airspeed results above the minimum approach speed, creating in an increase of lift and a
consequent overshoot of the glide path, which requires a decrease in thrust to regain the approach
speed. Once re-established on the glide path, the thrust setting will be higher that the original

I setting due to the increased windspeed.

Similarly, when an aircraft in the first segment climb-out phase encounters a rapid decrease in the
headwind component, the initial acceleration capabilities of the aircraft are exceeded resulting in a

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rapid decrease in the recommended climb airspeed, a reduction of lift and a reduced climb
performance with a subsequent deviation below the flight path (undershoot). This requires a thrust
increase to regain airspeed (if extra thrust is available). Once again, this is a potentially hazardous
situation where terrain obstacle clearance limits are marginal.

I METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS AND TERRAIN EFFECTS ON WIND SHEAR

(a) MICRO BURSTS

I A typical micro burst is associated with a thunderstorm. A normal downdraught, which is created
by falling rain and cooling due to evaporation, intensifies with heavy rain becoming either a wet
micro burst if rain remains present, or the more severe dry micro burst if the precipitation has

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evaporated, cooling the air which, being more dense, accelerates towards the ground at speeds
in excess of 60 knots. (See Figure 14-4). Potential micro bursts can be identified by obseNing
the cloud and looking for rain shafts, virga or dust circles. This phenomenon usually produces
extreme wind shear because as the burst reaches the ground it rolls outward and upward. An

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aircraft entering the burst would experience a rapid change in wind direction from headwind to
tailwind, as well as exposure to the full force of the down draught. It goes without saying that
these types of storms should be avoided at all cost. Delay the take-off, remain clear until the
storm has passed or divert.

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Figure 14-4: Micro Burst

(b) SURFACE TURBULENCE

Local terrain features can cause wind speed and direction changes at low level. These include:

(i) Lee effects, where the area in the lee of an obstruction causes waves, rotors, eddies or calm
areas.
(ii) Contour following effects, where the wind is deflected parallel to the ground , resulting in up
and down draughts as the air flows over plateaus, ridges and gullies.
(iii) Frictional effects, set up by mechanical turbulence where friction between a moving air mass
and the earth's surface reduces the rate of flow in the lower layers of the atmosphere.
(iv) Other wind shear situations occur in the region of jet streams, marked temperature inversions

I or a sea breeze established against a moderate pressure gradient wind .

MAIN FEATURES OF AN AIRFIELD WHICH CAUSE WIND SHEAR PROBLEMS

I (a) Elevated runway above surroundings.

(b) Airfields situated in the lee of mountains.
(c) Rugged terrain, where one way strips are used.
(d) Non-uniform airflow occurring at the airfield.

I (e) Approach paths over water.

(f) Noise abatement procedures which dictate the use of runways not favouring the prevailing wind
conditions.

I APPROACH TECHNIQUES FOR WIND SHEAR

(a) Alter the approach speed for winds at 500 ft agl that are different from the surface conditions.

I The various methods for achieving this are:

(i) Add the wind shear speed between ground level and 500 ft to the approach speed.
(ii) Add 5 to 1O kts.

I (iii) Use the 500 ft wind instead of the surface wind .

(iv) Aim for a minimum groundspeed, ie select the runway that is most favoured by a headwind
component.

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(b) Alter the aircraft configuration:

(i) Use less or no flap.

(ii) Fly a flatter approach path.

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(iii) Use a high power approach setting.
(iv) Fly a decelerating approach , allowing speed to reduce .
(v) Aim for a long touch down.
(vi) Be ready for an overshoot.

I Private Pilot Licence

Revsion: 08/2008
© Avex Air Training 04/2007
I ICING
CHAPTER 15
Page 15-1

ICING
I A. INTRODUCTION

I The distinction between the two main types of icing has been rather confusing in the past; the term
engine icing was used for one type of icing, and airframe icing used for the other.

The type of engine icing referred to was peculiar to piston engines using carburettors; it did not affect

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fuel injection engines or turbine engines. The other form of icing, in relation to engines, was called Im-
pact Icing because it resulted from the engines intakes and cowlings making contact at speed with air
containing supercooled water droplets. The same form of icing is also called airframe icing.

A better distinction between the two forms of icing would be:

(i) Carburettor Icing

(ii) Impact Icing affecting both engines and airframes.

The significant difference between the two is that carburettor icing is more probable in outside air tem-
peratures above freezing, whereas impact icing will only occur in outside air temperatures below freez-
ing.

B. CARBURETTOR ICING
This can be divided into two types because there are two different causes of ice formation:

(i) Throttle ice

(ii) Fuel evaporation icing

1. THROTTLE ICE

This is not a strictly correct term because the ice can form on the sides of the manifold, on the
venturi and on the throttle. Ice forms as result of the reduction in temperature due to the decrease

I
in pressure caused by the venturi. Depending on the location of the throttle butterfly valve, it may
also be affected by the ice. Humidity is a far more important factor than the outside air temperature
in determining whether icing is probable. Even in conditions with the OAT at +20° C, a high
humidity can cause icing in clear air, although the proximity of water droplets in the form of cloud

I
can give a warning that conditions are suitable for carburettor icing.

I Air intake

I
I 2. FUEL EVAPORATION ICING
Figure 15-1: Throttle Ice

I This is also only experienced in piston engines fitted with a carburettor. The evaporation of fuel to
provide a suitable fuel/air mixture requires latent heat to make the change of state of the fuel from a
liquid to a gas. This evaporation process results in a sharp drop in temperature after the fuel nozzle

I
and this adds to the drop in temperature caused by the drop in pressure in the venturi.

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Fuel ice

----...I_....-- --
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Airintake

..
..
-:~::~~::~::::::/
-------------------------~ -f
-~~\lllill...___
Fuel ice
To manifold
•

Figure 15-2: Fuel Evaporation Icing

Figures 15-1 and 15-2 indicate general areas where ice can form, but the points to remember are
that throttle ice will be worst at the point of lowest pressure, which is not likely to be the throttle
except at low power settings. It does not matter where it occurs because the reduction in the size of
the manifold due to ice formation has the same effect as closing the throttle; it reduces the engine
power. In fact, the name "throttle ice" would be quite correct with regard to the result; it throttles the
engine even though ice may not be forming on the throttle itself.

I Fuel ice can only form after the fuel nozzle, which will probably make the same parts of the
carburettor vulnerable.

The temperature range for carburettor ice is between + 5°C and up to + 27°C. This can occur in
clear air, or in cloud with visible water droplets. The most critical outside air temperature is around
+ 15°C because at this OAT the drop in temperature in the carburettor puts the in-flowing mixture
right in the icing range and if there is adequate moisture in the air it will form ice. The higher the

I
relative humidity, the greater the chance of carburettor icing.

IDENTIFICATION

I
(i) Loss of RPM in the case of a fixed pitch propeller.
(ii) Loss of manifold pressure in the case of a constant speed propeller.
(iii) Rough running

PREVENTION

I Carburettor hot air supply ("carburettor heat").

Unfiltered air is fed over the heat froducing parts of the en~ine and ducted into the inlet manifold,
thus increasing the temperature o the mixture above the icing range. It is important to remember
that when this type of prevention is used, it should be used fully, as partial operation may only serve
to put the temperature into the freezing range.

The initial application of hot air will result in a further reduction in RPM or manifold pressure, but
both will improve after a short while as the ice is removed . Full power may not be regained if the
carburettor heat is left on as the mixture setting will be upset due to the increased temperature of
the air. Leaning the mixture will further increase the power.

Some carburettors have temperature gauges and if this is so, carburettor heat may be selected to
maintain the carburettor air temperature above freezing.

In older aircraft, a hot oil jacket was fitted around the affected area of the carburettor.

PISTON ENGINES WITH FUEL INJECTION

The two causes of carburettor icing are eliminated with fuel injection because fuel is injected
immediately before the inlet valve, eliminating fuel evaporation icing and because no reduction in
pressure is required to induce the flow of fuel from a carburettor, the possibility of icing resulting
from a drop in pressure is eliminated.

C. ENGINE IMPACT ICING

Although the formation of impact icing will be basically the same irrespective of the type of engine, the
ways in which it affects the various engines will differ. There are, however, distinct differences in the
methods used on the different types of engines to eliminate or prevent impact icing and two basic en-
gine types should be considered .

I (i)
(ii)
Piston engines with carburettors
Piston engines with fuel injection

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CAUSE

In both cases the air intake is the affected part.

I Impact ice forming on the air intake to the engine will reduce the size of the intake as well as
disturbing the airflow, thus causing a loss in power.

I
Normally, piston engine intakes will have air filters, which are even more prone to ice formation and
may become blocked as a result.

Engine impact icing will form in the same conditions as airframe icing; visible, super-cooled water

I
droplets in the form of cloud must be present. It will not form in clear air. Super-cooled water
droplets occur between 0°C and -10°C in layer cloud and as low as -18°C in heap clouds. As each
droplet impacts parts of the aircraft, it freezes. However, conditions may be such that both
carburettor icing and impact icing may occur.

I PREVENTION

1 . CARBURETTOR

I In the case of a piston engine with a carburettor, the carburettor heat should be used. It should
be remembered that this will not remove the ice, but will merely seNe as an alternate source of
air. The fuel/air mixture will, of course, be disturbed because of the hot air and to compensate for
this the mixture will have to be leaned.

I 2. FUEL INJECTION

In the case of a piston engine with fuel injection, an alternate air supply is provided. By activating

I the "alternate air" lever air is drawn from around the inside of the engine cowling. This system
should not be confused with carburettor heat. The alternate air may be warmer than the outside
air, but it is not "hot air". The application of "alternate air" in normal conditions will not cause a
drop in engine RPM as would be the case with carburettor heat.

I SUPER-COOLED WATER DROPLETS

It is possible for water droplets to stay liquid at temperatures as low as -40°C. The surface tension

I of the droplet (keeping it in the shape of a sphere) prevents crystallisation. Large water droplets
(cloud particles) such as found in Cb, Cu and Ns will tend to "snap" into crystals at warmer
temperatures (0°C to -20°C) unlike smaller water droplets (cloud particles) found in St or As, (0°C to
-40°C). This is due to the fact that the water volume/surface tension ratio is less in smaller drops.

I D. AIRFRAME ICING
This is mainly caused by the same conditions as engine impact icing and may be classified as follows:

I (i)
(ii)
Hoare frost
Rime ice
(iii) Glazed ice

I (iv) Rain ice

The areas of the airframe affected, in order of importance are:

I (i)
(ii)
(iii)
Wings, tail planes and fins
Propellers
Windscreens
(iv) Radio antennae

I 1. HOARE FROST
This consists of a white semi-crystalline coating, covering the wings and windscreens. Its formation

I may occur under two distinct conditions:

(a) On the Ground

I The formation of this frost occurs largely during winter months when aircraft are parked out in
the open overnight when temperatures are below 0°C, (normal frost). The stalling speed of an
aeroplane is increased slightly by a value that cannot be calculated. It should, therefore, be
removed before flight.

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(b) In the Air

When aircraft descend rapidly from high altitudes where air temperatures are below freezing, to

I
warmer moist air below, the formation of this frost occurs. The main nuisance is the loss of
visibility due to the windscreens becoming frosted up. Usually the deposit is light and confined to
the leading edges of the wings. This phenomenon may also occur when an aircraft climbs
through a marked inversion.

I 2. RIME ICE - 0°C to -40°C (Small cloud particles)

This ice consists of a white opaque deposit with a light porous texture and occurs when small
super-cooled drops of water (-20°C) freeze on impact, although fast freezing can take place when
the temperature is anywhere from O" to -4D°C. It usually occurs on leading edges, windscreens,
aerials and pitots, its weight increase is not too substantial. Its danger, however, lies in the fact that
it alters the shape of aerofoils and chokes up carburettor and other intakes.

The granular and white opaque appearance of such rime ice lies in the fact that air is trapped
between the particles. Furthermore the impact effect of the airstream consolidates the ice formation .

Figure 15-3: Rime Ice

I 3. CLEAR OR GLAZED ICE - 0°C to -20°C (Large cloud particles)

Because the super-cooled water droplets are larger than those associated with rime ice, the

I
formation of clear or glazed ice only occurs when a small portion of the water droplets between
temperatures of 0°c to -20°c freeze on impact, although it may occur with temperatures as low as
f
-25°C. The ortion of the drop that freezes releases latent heat, raising the temperature of the
remainder o the drop to 0°C. This drop now flows back over the wing, its temperature quickly being

I
reduced again by the cold airflow and the cold airframe and it freezes. Subsequent drops increase
the build up and a clear sheet of ice (glazed) is formed. No air is trapped in this process, thus the
clear appearance, with a fairly smooth surface.

Figure 15-4: Clear Ice

The danger of this type of icing lies in the stress and vibrations caused by the unevenness of such
deposits and, when present on propellers, causing vibration
4. RAIN ICE (Freezing Rain)

This is similar in appearance to clear ice and is caused by super-cooled rain, rather than
super-cooled cloud particles. Because of the longer freezing time, flow back is extensive and so is
the area covered. It is regarded as the most dangerous type of airframe icing and is usually found
beneath a warm front where ambient temperatures are just below freezing . On occasions it may be
found below a cold front.

AIRFRAME ICING PROTECTION

Anti-icing is used to prevent the formation of any icing, no matter how slight it is anticipated to be.

I De-icing is equipment that is used to remove any ice once it has formed.

Typical areas protected by de-icing equipment are the leading edges of wings, fin and tail planes
and propellers.

I Methods used include the following:

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I (a)
(b)
(c)
Ice dispersing fluid (glycol or ethyl-glycol)
Thermal ( engine heat utilisation)
Spraymat (a form of electrical heating)
(d) Pneumatic (rubber boots).

I This equipment is designed to allow a modest build up of ice which is then removed at intervals
before it can reach dangerous proportions.

I DANGERS OF ICING

(a) Weight increase - any increase in the total weight increases the stalling speed.
(b) Aerofoil distortion - distorted aerofoil profiles lead to a loss of lift, increased stalling speeds and

I finally loss of control.

(c) Drag increase - due to the smoothness of the surface becoming rough, an increase in skin
friction increases the total drag.
(d) Engine power loss - induction and inlets become choked with ice preventing the use of full

I power.
(e) Instrument failures - pitot-static systems icing up may cause the loss of all pressure instruments.
(f) Antennas - become covered in ice and snap off. Iced up ADF aerials cause the ADF needle to
remain on the zero (0) position.

I (g) Visibility - iced up windscreens cause reduced or zero visibility.

(h) Control failure - iced up hinges and control surfaces may render that control useless and
jammed in the last trimmed position.

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CHAPTER 16 SOUTH AFRICAN WEATHER

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Page 16-1

SOUTH AFRICAN WEATHER

I A. INTRODUCTION

I
Although pressure, wind and rainfall patterns are constantly changing there are, however, certain basic
patterns of pressure and wind which, due to their regularity, may be recognised in their various forms.
Other influences include the two sea currents - the cold Benguela which affects the west coast, and
the warm Agulhas which affects the east coast - as well as the upper air westerly winds and the rela-

I
tive position of the ITCZ. The systems and patterns which influence our weather are indicated in Figure
16-1.

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I
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I ''
'
' ' ' ' '

I °6
' '
' '
'

%
I u>.,..
<;i)O::
~<.P

I SouthA~
High-~ ~nOcean

I Westerlies
~High

I
I Figure 16-1: South African Summer Weather Patterns

I
B. THE BASIC SUMMER PATTERNS
During the summer months:

I
1. The Indian and Atlantic high pressure systems move further southwards, causing westerly winds
(Westerlies) to blow well south of the continent.

2. When the Indian high pressure system develops well out to sea, the influx of moisture laden air from
over the warm Indian Ocean influences the eastern parts of Southern Africa, often bringing rainy

I conditions along the escarpment and Lowveld areas.

3. Moisture laden South East trade winds invade the eastern parts of the region, sometimes re-curving
southwards influencing the northern and central provinces of South Africa and, on occasions, they

I move northwards to influence Zimbabwe and Zambia.

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4. Uplift from the Indian high and South East Trades will cause condensation, cloud formation and
rainfall when moist air is in circulation.

I
5. The Atlantic high pressure system is a source of dry subsiding air, having its centre fairly near the
west coast of South Africa. It has a short "sea track" and therefore carries little moisture.
6. When the air from the Atlantic high meets the Indian high, uplift occurs due to the undercutting

I
effect of the cold Atlantic high and forms a moisture boundary (sometimes called a moisture front),
often affecting the rainfall distribution over the entire region. When this zone of lifting action occurs
north drought conditions prevail, while widespread rains occur when this interaction is found
southwards.

I C. THE DEVELOPMENT OF A COASTAL LOW

The coastal low, also known as an orographic depression, is a weak cell of low pressure frequently

I
developing off the eastern and western coasts of South Africa. Coastal lows along the western coast
generally move southwards, while those along the east coast move in a north easterly direction. They
are marked my overcast conditions, sometimes accompanied by light showers or drizzle.

I
Coastal lows are created by a strong flow of air from the interior at plateau height. This outflow of air
removes air from the coastal regions giving rise to a drop in pressure and thus a cell of low pressure
forms. Once circulation commences, it will continue as long as the wind prevails or the topography re-
mains suitable for its maintenance.

I
I ----====::-----------+
Escarpment .. Off Shore Wind

I
Low

I Airflow

I Figure 16-2: Creation of a Coastal Low

I
D. THE BASIC WINTER PATTERNS
During the winter months:

I
1. The Indian and Atlantic high pressure systems move northwards, bringing westerly winds to the
south and south western coastal regions of South Africa.
2. With the absence of the heat lows to the interior the Atlantic and Indian highs are linked across the

I
land. Generally cool to cold conditions prevail.
3. A separate cell of high pressure usually forms over the central to northern interior. This subsiding air
results in clear skies and calm conditions over large parts of the interior.

I 4. During the South African winter the ITCZ moves well north of the equator (between 5° N and 20° N).
This results in the disappearance of the North East Monsoon. the South East Trade winds still blow,
move across the equator and re-curve north eastwards to become part of the great summer
monsoon of India.

I 5. The South West Monsoon moves further north, crossing the coast well north of Angola. This results
in the Congo Air Boundary moving much further north.

I 6. With the northwards movement of the Indian and Atlantic high pressure systems, mid Atlantic
depressions linked with cold fronts invade the southern regions of South Africa. On occasions these
cold fronts have influenced regions as far north as Zambia under the unusual conditions where a
strong high pressure system follows closely behind the cold front.

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7. Cloudy conditions associated with rain influence the southern, south western and south eastern
coasts. Uplift is mainly due to cyclonic or frontal action, but orographic uplift does occur over the
escarpment where snowfalls may occur. Interior snowfalls usually occur with the presence of a

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strong high following closely behind the cold front, thus pushing the cold air into the interior. A
strong upper air low aids with the uplift and enables condensation and cloud formation to take
place.

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I At/ant~

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I Figure 16-3: South African Winter Weather Patterns

I
E. TYPICAL WEATHER PATTERNS COMMON TO SOUTH AFRICA
1. THE SOUTH WESTERLY BUSTER

I
The Buster is caused by steep pressure gradients when the anti-cyclonic flow of air from a high
pressure system to the south west of the country ridges in behind a coastal low.

The strong south westerly wind follows the coastal low, affecting the KwaZulu - Natal south coast,

I
the onset of which is quite sudden with south westerly winds having speeds of up to 30 kts. It
follows the wake of the coastal low northwards along the east coast. Extensive layers of
stratocumulus and stratus cloud are present with bases of 1000 to 2000 ft, but the stratus may lower
to 600 ft or less in the prevailing intermittent rain or drizzle. the sudden dramatic change of this
south westerly wind, which replaces the prevailing north easter, is a common feature of the Buster.

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Page 16-4

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I South Westerly
Winds

I 2. THE CAPE DOCTOR

Figure 16-4: The South Westerly Buster

I Frequently, during the summer months, a strong south easterly wind is prevalent over the Cape
Peninsula. It is generally accompanied by clear skies, blowing away pollution. Because of the
healthy effect it has on the environment it is called the "Cape Doctor".

I
The Cape Doctor blows when there is a well developed high pressure system west of Cape Town.
These fairly dry, anti-cyclonic winds reach the Cape from a south easterly direction.

When forced to rise up over Table Mountain, the famous "Table Cloth" cloud forms. The descending

I
air on the other side of the mountain is warmed and any moisture present is absorbed by the air as
water vapour. this creates a situation where both sides of the mountain are free of cloud while the
summit is cloud covered.

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I
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I South Easterly

I
Winds

I Figure 16-5: The Cape Doctor

I 3. THE BLACK SOUTH EASTER

With the normal south easter (Cape Doctor), the weather is generally fine with partly cloudy skies

I
on some occasions. However, with strong pressure gradients the Black South Easter, which has a
long sea track, feeds in moist air to a considerable height which influences the Western Cape.
Strong winds are accompanied by overcast conditions and rain showers which are intensified with
the presence of an upper air cut off low in the central Cape. This explains the disastrous torrential

I
rains which affected Laingsburg in 1981. Sharp temperature drops occur with the onset of the Black
South Easter.

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I Upper Air Trough
(Cut off Low)

I South Easterly

I
Winds

0
I
Figure 16-6: The Black South Easter

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I © Avex Air Training 04/2007
Private Pilot Licence
Revsion: 08/2008

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I SYNOPTIC$
CHAPTER 17

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Page 17-1

SVNOPTICS
A. INTRODUCTION

I
Synoptic meteorology is simply a visual means of assessing the general weather, its pattern and char-
acteristics at any given place. This visual presentation is completed on a chart (map) of the country in
question, consisting of relevant information such as isobars and station conditions of cloud amount,
type, temperatures etc.

With sufficient knowledge of this information plotted at a station the weather may be assessed instantly.
Weather offices make visual and instrumental observations which are transmitted to other weather sta-
tions and forecast offices. These transmissions are made in a special format or code consisting of

I
five-figure groups which are distributed either as a Synoptic Telex or portrayed on a Synoptic Chart.

B. SYNOPTIC CHARTS

I
A sea level synoptic chart is usually issued every three hours starting at 0000 UTC. See Chart 1 on the
next page.

C. STATION MODEL

I The station model appears on a synoptic chart and is used as a basis for weather forecasting. The
symbols used comply with the international format and, with the exception of surface wind, always ap-
pear in the same positions making interpretation relatively easy. See Figure 17-1.

I
15 170
15/

I ---6
4
•
V

I Figure 17-1: The Station Model

Figure 17-2 shows the layout of the station model in terms of the information provided. Single letters or

I
groups of letters are used to identify the information displayed at a particular position. These codes are
used in the transmission of synoptic information.

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Private Pilot Licence © Avex Air Training 04/2007
Revsion: 08/2008

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 ..
- - -- - .. -
:x, 'b
(D ::i
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5· ;-
10' E 15"E 20.' E

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0)

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Ondangwa

24w 125

0) !
(')
50 .
17 5 s
24\

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25"~

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:ti,

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:ti,
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______ __
Scale 1: 10 000 000
© Avex Air Training
.;._ ...., co
11 /2000 .....
--,J (')
-
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SYNOPTICS

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Page 17-3

I
Cloud High (CH)

I Pressure (PPP) or height/850 hPa - in metres (hhh)

Present Pressure

I
Pressure
Weather (ww) Visibility 0fV) Characteristic (a)
Change (pp)

I
Cloud Low (CL) Low/Medium Cloud Past
Octa (Nh) Weather (W)
Cloud Base
Height AGL (h)

I Figure 17-2: Layout of Synoptic Information

D. STATION MODEL- DE-CODE

I 1. h - height above ground of the base of the lowest cloud (Low CL or Medium CM)

I
Code Height (ft) Code Height (ft)
Figure Figure

0 0 - 150 5 2000 - 3000

1 150 - 300 6 3000 - 5000

I 2
3
4
300 - 600
600 - 1000
1000 - 2000
7
8
9
5000
7000
9000
- 7000
- 9000
and above

I 2. W - horizontal visibility at the surface

01 - 50 visibility in units of 100 metres, eg 05 = 500 metres, 10 = 1000 metres, 23 = 2300

metres

I 51 - 55
56 - 80
not used
subtract 50 from the relevant figure to obtain visibility in kilometres:
70 - 50 = 20 km
NOTE: 54 = 54 - 50 = 4 km which has already been accounted for in the group 01

I 81 - 89
- 50. This is the reason why 51 - 55 is not used.
the visibility is increased in increments of 5km above the maximum value of 56 - 80,
(80 = 30 km)
eg 85 = (5 increments of 5 km) + (max of 56 - 80 group) = % x 5 = 25 + 30km =

I 55km.

3. N - the total amount of sky covered by cloud. The station circle is completed from the list below,
giving cloud coverage in "octas".

I
I Sky
Clear
1/8 2/8 3/8 4/8 5/8 6/8 7/8 8/8 Sky
Obscured (eg. fog)

I Figure 17-3: Total Cloud Cover

4. dd - The direction from which the surface wind is blowing. Given to the closest ten degrees True.

I 5. ff - The wind velocity rounded to the closest 5 knots. Referring to Figure 17-4, note that each wind
feather is 1O kts, each ½ feather is 5 kts. The use of a pennant indicates 50 kts. Where the wind
is 5 kts or less, the wind feather is projected slightly away from the end of the arrow shaft.

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© Avex Air Training 04/2007

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Page 17-4

I ©
Calm 360/05 310/15 270/25
d
020/50
0-m
060/65

I Figure 17-4: Wind Direction and Speed

6. TT - Air temperature in full degrees Celsius (Note: -01 is shown to indicate -1 °C)

I 7. TdTd - Dew Point temperature in full degrees Celsius

8. PPP - Atmospheric pressure at sea level.

I Indicated in tenths of a hectopascal (hPa) and omitting the thousands value of the pressure.

For example, 1017,2 hPa is shown as 172 and 986,5 hPa is shown as 865

I This group is included by coastal stations and low-lying inland stations whose pressures are
reduced to sea level.

9. a - Characteristic of pressure tendency during the three hours preceding the time of observation.

I a - PRESSURE CHARACTERISTIC TENDENCY DURING PRECEDING 3 HOURS

I 0 Rising, then falling. 1 Rising, then steady; 2 Rising steadily, or 3 Falling or steady, then

/' I / /
Now higher than 3 or rising, then rising unsteady. Now higher rising, or rising then
hours ago. more slowly. Now than 3 hours ago rising more quickly.

I higher than 3 hours

ago.
Now higher than 3 hours
ago.

4 Steady. Same as 5 Falling, then rising. 6 Falling, then steady; 7 Falling steadily, or

I -- 3 hours ago. Same or lower than

3 hours ago.
\_ or falling, then falling
more slowly. Now
lower than 3 hours
\
unsteady. Now lower
than 3 hours ago.
8 Steady or rising,

I
ago.
then falling or falling,
\ then falling more
quickly. Now lower

I
than 3 hours ago.

Figure 17-5: Pressure Tendency During Previous 3 Hours

I 1O. pp - The amount of pressure change during the three hours preceding the time of observation,
indicated in tenths of a hectopascal.

For example, a pressure change of 0,7 hPa is indicated as 07.

I 11 . ww - Present weather

See Figure 17-6 on the next page for examples of some of the symbols used.

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Page 17-5

WW - PRESENT WEATHER

I --- 1=: --- --

-- =:1 (==)
_,
Fog:sky not visible
Fog: thinned Fog: thickened Fog
no change in last Fog patches

I
Mist in last hour in last hour within sight
hour
-- -
- '==
Fog: sky visible. Fog: sky visible.
ex:, r •
I
Fog:sky visible,no Slight rain -
Thinned in last Thickened in last
change last hour Haze Smoke intermittent
hour hour
•• ••• •
I ••
Moderate rain - •
Heavy rain -
••
Slight rain - Moderate rain -
••• '
Drizzle, slight -
Heavy rain -

I
intermittent intermittent

''
continuous

''
contnuous

,', ,,,
continuous intermittent

''
r,'\__,}

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Drizzle, moderate
- intermittent '
Drizzle, heavy -
intermittent
Drizzle,slight -
continuous
Drizzle, moderate
- continuous
'
Drizzle, heavy
- continuous
Drizzle - slight,
freezing

r,"\V • •' fe\J *

I Drizzle - heavy,
freezing
'
Drizzle and rain -
slight '
Drizzle and rain -
heavy
Rain - slight,
freezing
Rain - heavy,
freezing
Snow - slight,
intermittent

* * ** ****
•
I **
Snow - slight,
* **
Snow - moderate, Snow - moderate, Snow*- heavy, Snow - heavy,
V
Rain showers -

I
continuous intermittent continuous intermittent continuous slight

• •• • • * *
ff V .v* *
. ff V ff
I Rain showers - Rain showers - Ram and snow Ram and snow Snow showers - Snow showers -
heavy
L
violent
L ...
showers - slight
...
showers - heavy slight

A
heavy

(K)
I V
Soft hail showers
t!
Soft hail showers
V
Hail showers -
t!
Hail showers - Thunderstorms
Ice pellets
- slight - heavy slight heavy - no precipitation

I ]
Weather during
K]• K]:
Thunderstorm,
•] ,] *]
past hour, not at Thunderstorm, moderate/heavy Rain Drizzle Snow

I observation time

:]
slight rain rain

==]
vJ vJ ~] K]
I Rain and snow Rain showers Snow showers Hail showers Fog Thunderstorms

I
A
11
Thunder[rm wit~ Thunderstorm,
A
< s
hail at observation heavy, with hail at Lightning visible, Widespread dust Dust or sandstorm
time observation time no thunder heard in suspension

I Figure 17-6: Present Weather

I
I
Private Pilot Licence © Avex Air Training 04/2007
Revsion: 08/2008

I
I SYNOPTICS

I
Page 17-6
12. W - Past weather

W-
I
PAST WEATHER - DURING LAST 3 HOURS

0
0
One half or less of
sky covered
5 , Drizzle

I 1
0
More than one half covered
for part of period and less
for part of period
6
• Rain

I 2
0 More than one half of sky
covered
7
* Snow

-5- Sandstorm or

I
3

--
--
+ blowing snow
8 V Shower

4 -- Fog 9 R' Thunderstorm

I 13. Clouds
Figure 17-7: Past Weather

I Cloud Low - CL
Cloud Medium - CM
Cloud High - CH

I Symbols from the table shown in Figure 17-8 are used.

I 1 0
CL CLOUDS LOW

Small Cumulus
CM CLOUDS MEDIUM

L Thin As
CH CLOUDS HIGH
__) Strands of Ci

I 2 Q
Moderate or Large
Cumulus 2- Thick As or Ns _J) Dense Ci

Cumulonimbus

I 3 \JJ Ac Dense Ci in form

Without Anvil of Anvil
Ci in Hooks
4 .0
Sc formed by the
6 Patches of Ac ) Invading the Sky

I
Spreading of Cu
Ac in Bands Ci and/or Cs
5 -...._,- Sc )__ Continuous veil
Growing Denser Below 45°

I
Ci and/or Cs
6 - St
Ac From
Spreading Cu
2_ Continuous veil
Above 45°
Ac in Layers or
--- fu
St Fra Veil of Ci over
7 with As or Ns or L..(

I
Stratus Fractus Opaque Ac Whole Sky

H
-...._,- Cs not Covering
__!
8
0 Cu and Sc Ac Castellanus Whole Sky

I 9
B Cb with Anvil
Ac in Chaotic
Layers
Cc Predominating

I Figure 17-8: Cloud Types

14. Nh - Fraction of the celestial dome, in octas, covered by cloud(s) reported for Cloud Low (CL) or, if
no CL cloud is present, for Cloud Medium (CM).

I If there is no cloud of type CL or CM, but there is cloud of type CH, then Nh =O

I
I Private Pilot Licence
Revsion: 08/2008
© Avex Air Training 04/2007

I
II
SYNOPTICS

I
Page 17-7
E. STATION MODEL EXAMPLES
When the transmitted code is received at a weather office, the relevant information is plotted on a syn-
optic chart partly in code form and partly with symbols. Remember that the various elements are al-
ways plotted in their relevant positions, with the exception of the surface wind which is, of course, vari-
able. For explanation purposes, two examples of station models are shown below with a complete
de-code of the information.

EXAMPLE 1
This is Figure 17-1 from page 17.1.

I d_
15 170
I 15/

---6 •
V
4
Total cloud cover - 8 octas, Surface wind - 260/30
Visibility - 10 km in intermittent rain, Past weather - slight rain showers
QNH - 1017.0 hPa, Temperature - +15°C, Dew point +06°C
6 octas fracto-stratus between 1000 and 2000 ft
Middle cloud - thick altostratus or nimbostratus
Barometric tendency - rising steadily or unsteady with a 1.5 hPa increase during the last 3 hours.

EXAMPLE 2

I ))
H
I 124
12\

I Total cloud cover - 6 octas, Surface wind 225°/20, Visibility - 20 km in intermittent drizzle.
QNH - 1012,4 hPa, Temperature +15°C. Dew point - +6°C.

2 octas cumulonimbus with anvil between 5000 and 7000 ft. Middle cloud - altocumulus castellanus.
High cloud - dense cirrus. Barometric pressure tendency - falling steadily or unsteady with 1.2 hPa de-
crease during the last 3 hours.

I
I
I
Private Pilot Licence © Avex Air Training 04/2007
Revsion: 08/2008

I
I AVIATION WEATHER REPORTS AND FORECASTS
CHAPTER 18
Page 18-1

I
AVIATION WEATHER REPORTS AND
I FORECASTS
I A. INTRODUCTION
Aviation weather reports and forecasts in South Africa are obtainable from the South African Weather
Bureau (SAWS) either via telephone, through their Internet website or by weather offices at selected

I airports. Three types of coded message are used, each with its own identifying name:

1. METAR Aviation Routine Weather Report

2. SPECI Aviation Selected Special Weather Report

I 3. TAF

B. METAR AND SPECI

Aerodrome Forecasts

I 1. METAR
The code name Metar is used to describe an aviation routine weather report. Metars are issued in
telex form usually every three hours and updated every half hour. However, if the weather changes

I during the intervals of sending out routine reports, then the new weather information is distributed
as a special report, or Speci.

2. SPECI

I The code name Speci designates aviation selected special weather reports. Criteria for the issue
of a SPECI include changes in Wind, Visibility, Weather and Low Cloud, (see page 18.7)

I Both Metar and Speci messages make provision for a trend forecast at the end of the transmission.
3. FORMAT

I EXAMPLE: FACT 190300Z 31008KT 9999 SCT035 BKN050 09/04 01014 RESH NOSIG=
4. DECODE

I
To simplify the Metar decode and explanation, the above Metar will be broken into numbered
groups. During the following explanations, the group number in brackets refers to the element
provided in the following Metar (Figure 18-1). and the term Example 1 refers to the example shown
in Figure 18-1:

I GROUP

METAR
(1)

FACT
(2)

190300Z
(3)

31008KT
(4)

9999
(5)

VCRA SCT035
(6)

BKN050
(7)

09/04
(8)

01014 RESH
(9)

NOSIG=

I Notes:
Figure 18-1: Example Metar

I 1. Each group comprises a non-uniform number of characters. Where an element does not occur
this group is omitted from the report.
2. The code name METAR or SPECI is normally included at the beginning of the message, but

I
where a bulletin is issued containing more than one report the code name is only included in
the first line.
GROUP (1) - REPORTING STATION

I The identification of the reporting station in each individual report is indicated by means of the
ICAO location indicator.

I
Example 1: FACT- (Cape Town).

GROUP (2) - DATE AND TIME

I
The time of observation in hours and minutes UTC followed, without a space, by the letter Z.

I
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AVIATION WEATHER REPORTS AND FORECASTS

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Page 18-2
Example 1: 190300Z

Meaning: 19th at 0300 ZULU

I NOTE:

The optional group (AUTO) may be inserted before the wind group, indicating a report containing

I fully automated observations without human intervention. If any element cannot be observed the
group in which it would have been encoded is replaced by the symbol (////).
GROUP (3) - WIND

I The mean wind direction in degrees true rounded off to the nearest 10° from which the wind is
blowing and the mean speed of the wind over the 10 minute period immediately preceding the
observation is reported, followed by one of the abbreviations KMH, KT or MPS, to specify the

I
units for reporting wind speed.

Example 1: 31008KT

I
The wind direction is normally encoded as VRB (variable) in the case of a variable direction with
a wind speed of no more than 3 kts. A variable wind at higher speeds is indicated only when it is
impossible to forecast a single wind direction.

I
When it is forecast that the maximum wind speed will exceed the mean speed by 10 knots or
more, the maximum wind speed is indicated by adding G (gusting) immediately after the wind
direction and speed.

I
Example: 23012G23Kt.

Calm is coded as 00000 followed immediately, without a space, by one of the abbreviations KMH,
KT or MPS to specify the unit, used normally for reporting wind.

I Example: 00000KT

If, during the 10 minute period preceding the observation, the total variation in wind direction is

I
60° or more and the mean wind speed is greater than 3 knots the observed two extreme
directions between which the wind has varied is indicated in clockwise order.

Example: 240V015.

I GROUP (4) - VISIBILITY OR RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE (RVR)

(a) VISIBILITY

I Horizontal visibility is reported using the following reporting steps:

(a) o to 500m, rounded down to the nearest 50m

I
(b) 500 to 5000m, rounded down to the nearest 100m
(c) 5000 to 9999m, rounded down to the nearest 500m
(d) 9999 indicates 10 km or more

I
Example 1: 9999 - 10 km or more

When the differences in directional visibility are more than 50% of the minimum observed value,
then the direction of the lowest visibility is indicated:

I Example: 2000SE (South East)

Where m,mmum visibility is less than 1 500m in one direction but greater than 5 000m in

I
another, the maximum is indicated:
Example: 6500NW (North West).

(b) RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE

I During periods when either the horizontal visibility or the runway visual range is observed to be
less than 1 500 metres, one or more runway visual range groups will be included in the report.
The letter indicator R followed immediately, without a space, by the the runway designator will

I
precede the RVR reports:

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Revsion: 08/2008
© Avex Air Training 04/2007

I
I AVIATION WEATHER REPORTS AND FORECASTS

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Page 18-3
Example: R03L/0800

Meaning: RVR on runway 03 Left 800 metres.

I For more than one runway -

Example: R03L0800 R21R0500 R21L0600.

I If the runway visual range values during the 10-minute period preceding the observation show a
distinct increasing or decreasing tendency this shall be indicated by:
U: for increasing visibility e.g. R03L/0700U

I
D: for decreasing visibility e.g. R03L/0700D
N: for no change in visibility e.g. R03L/0700N
Significant variations of runway visual range:

I If the Runway Visual Range varies by more than 50 metres or more than 20% of the mean value
during the 1O minute period preceding the normal observation time, the one-minute minimum
and maximum values shall be given in that order.

I Example: R03L/0300V0400
When actual RVR values are outside the measuring range of the observing system in use, the
following procedures apply:

I (a) RVR more than 1500 m - Code P is used e.g. R03L/P1500

(b) RVR less than 50 m - Code M is used e.g. R03L/M0050

I QUALIFIER WEATHER PHENOMENA

I
INTENSITY DESCRIPTOR PRECIPITATION OBSCURATION OTHER

1 2 3 4 5

I - Light Ml Shallow DZ Drizzle BR Mist PO Well-developed

dust/sand whirls

I MODERATE
(no qualifier)
BC Patches RA Rain FG Fog SQ Squalls

I + Heavy DR Drifting (Below

two metres)
SN Snow FU Smoke FC Funnel cloud(s)
(tornado or
waterspout)

I vc In the vicinity
(Within 8 km,
BL Blowing
(Extending above
SG Snow grains VA Volcanic ash SS Sandstorm

but not at two metres)

I aerodrome)
SH Shower(s) IC Diamond dust
(Ice crystal)
DU Widespread
dust
OS Duststorm

I
vis< 3000 m
TS Thunderstorm PE Ice pellets SA Sand

I FZ Supercooled GR Hail
Dia> 5 mm
HZ Haze

I GS Small hail and/or

snow pellets

I Figure 18-2: /CAO Table 4678

I
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Revsion: 08/2008

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I AVIATION WEATHER REPORTS AND FORECASTS

I
Page 18-4
GROUP (5) - PRESENT WEATHER

A maximum of three codes may be used to indicate present weather at or near the aerodrome.

I
The codes are drawn from ICAO Table 4678 shown in Figure 18-2.

Example 1: VCRA

I
Meaning: moderate rain in the vicinity of the aerodrome

GROUP (6) - CLOUDS

I
The cloud amount is reported as one of the following:
FEW Few (1 to 2 Oktas)
SCT Scattered (3 to 4 oktas)

I
BKN Broken (5 to 7 oktas)
ovc Overcast (8 oktas)
The three-letter abbreviations FEW, SCT, BKN and OVC are followed, without a space, by the

I
height of the base of the cloud layer. The cloud group is repeated to report different layers or
masses of cloud.

Example 1: SCT035 BKN050

I Meaning: 3 to 4 oktas cloud at 3500 ft and 5 to 7 oktas at 5000 ft

The number of groups does not exceed three except that significant convective clouds, when

I
observed, are always reported. These include:

(a) Cumulonimbus cloud (CB);

(b) Cumulus congestus of great vertical extent (TCU). The contraction TCU, taken from the

I term "towering Cumulus", is an ICAO abbreviation used in aeronautical meteorology to

describe this cloud.

I
Example: BKN035CB SCT040TCU

The selection of forecast layers or masses of cloud to be included are made in accordance with
the following criteria:

I 1st group: the lowest individual layer (mass) of any amount, to be indicated as FEW,SCT,
BKN or OVC;

2nd group: the next individual layer (mass) covering more than two oktas, to be indicated

I as SCT, BKN or OVC;

3rd group: the next higher individual layer (mass) covering more than four oktas, to be in-
dicated as BKN or OVC;

I Additional: Cumulonimbus clouds (CB) when forecast if not already included in one of the
three groups above.

I The order of reporting the groups is always from lower to higher levels.
The height of the base of the forecast cloud layer (mass) is reported in increments of 100 ft.
When the cloud base is diffuse or ragged or fluctuating rapidly, the minimum height of the

I cloud, or cloud fragments, is given, followed by the relevant abbreviation "DIF" or "RAG" or
"FLUG". When an individual layer (mass) of cloud is composed of cumulonimbus and towering
cumulus clouds with a common cloud base, the type of cloud is reported as cumulonimbus only.

I Vertical Visibility
When the sky is expected to be obscured and information on vertical visibility is available, the
vertical visibility in units of hundreds of feet is reported.

I CAVOK

When it is expected that the following conditions will apply simultaneously, the code word

I
CAVOK is included in place of the groups Visibility, Present Weather and Cloud

I Private Pilot Licence

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© Avex Air Training 04/2007

I
I AVIATION WEATHER REPORTS AND FORECASTS

I
Page 18-5
(a) Visibility: 10 km or more;
(b) No cloud below 5000 ft or the Minimum Sector Altitude, whichever is the greater, and no
cumulonimbus;

I
(c) No significant weather (as in ICAO table 4678 - Figure 18-2 on page 18-4)
GROUP (7) - TEMPERATURE/DEW POINT

I
The observed air temperature and dew-point temperature rounded to the nearest whole degree
Celcius is shown. Observed values involving 0.5° shall be rounded up to the next higher Celsius
degree.

I
Example 1: 09/04

Meaning: Temperature +9°C and dewpoint +5°C.

Rounded whole degree values of air temperature and dew-point temperature of -9°C to +9°C are

I
preceded by 0; for example +9°C is reported as 09.

Temperatures below 0°C are immediately preceded by M, that is minus; for example -9°C is
reported as M09 and -0.5°C is reported as MOO.

I Example: 10/M08

Meaning: Temperature 10°C, Dewpoint -8°C.

I GROUP (8) - QNH

The observed QNH value rounded down to the nearest whole hectopascal is indicated, preceded

I
without a space, by the letter indicator Q.

If the value of QNH is less than 1 000 hPa, it is preceded by 0; for example QNH 995.6 is
reported as 00995.

I GROUP (9) SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

(a) RECENT WEATHER (RE)

I This refers to recent weather phenomena of operational significance. Only the following
phenomena will be reported as recent weather:

-freezing precipitation

I -moderate/heavy rain or snow

-moderate/heavy ice pellets/hail
-moderate/heavy blowing snow
-sandstorm or dust storm

I -thunderstorm
-volcanic ash fallout

Example 1: RESH

I Meaning: Recent showers

(b) WIND SHEAR (WS)

I If the wind shear along the take-off path or approach path is affecting all runways in the
airport, then the code WS ALL RWY is used.

I Also indicated will be any recorded wind shear activity, along the take-off path or approach
path between runway level and 1 600 ft, significant to aircraft operations.

Example: WSRWY21 R

I (c) TREND FORECAST (Two hours from time of observation)

In trend forecasts attached to METAR reports only three indicators are used:

I BECMG
TEMPO
NOSIG
becoming
temporary
no significant change

I Example 1: NOSIG

I Private Pilot Licence

Revsion: 08/2008
© Avex Air Training 04/2007

I
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AVIATION WEATHER REPORTS AND FORECASTS

I
Page 18-6
This will be followed, where appropriate, by the change and time group:
AT - at
FM from

I
TL until

These indicators will be followed by the time in hours and minutes UTC.

I Example: BECMG FM0830 TL0930 ...... .

Example: TEMPO AT 1045 ...... .

I This trend forecast will be concluded with the relevant weather information in METAR format and
could include forecast wind, visibility, weather and cloud.

5. CRITERIA FOR ISSUING SPECI REPORTS

I A SPECI is issued in the same format and sequence as a METAR. It is simply a special weather
report issued for a station as a result of the following changes:

I
(a) SURFACE WIND

(i) Direction

I
A change in wind direction of 30° or more from that given in the latest report.

(ii) Speed

I
A change in the mean surface wind speed of 10 kt or more from that given in the latest report.

(iii) Gusts

I
A change in the mean surface wind speed (gusts) of 10 kt or more from that given in the
latest report.

(b) VISIBILITY

I (i) Visibility

When visibility changes to or passes 1500, 3000 or 5000 metres.

I (ii) RVR

When the RVR changes to or passes 150, 350, 600 or 800 metres.

I (c) WEATHER

When a thunderstorm (with or without precipitation), freezing precipitation, freezing fog, moderate
or heavy precipitation (including showers), low drifting dust, sand or snow, blowing dust, sand or

I snow (including snowstorm), duststorm, sandstrorm, squall or funnel cloud (tornado or

waterspout) begins or ends or changes in intensity.

(d) CLOUD BASE

I When the height of the base of the lowest layer of cloud of BKN or OVC extent, changes to or
passes:

I (i) 100, 200, 500 or 1000 ft,

(ii) 1500 ft where a significant number of VFR flights occur.

(e) CLOUD AMOUNT

I When the amount of cloud below 1500 ft changes:

(i) SKC, FEW or SCT to BKN or OVC; or

I
(ii) BKN or OVC to SKC, FEW or SCT

(f) TEMPERATURE

I
An increase in air temperature or 2°c or more from that given in the latest report.

I Private Pilot Licence

Revs/on: 08/2008
© Avex Air Training 04/2007

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AVIATION WEATHER REPORTS AND FORECASTS

I
Page 18-7
EXAMPLES OF METAR

FABL 250500Z 07003KT CAVOK 16114 01022 NOSIG=

I FACT 041400Z 26004KT 9999 FEW045TCU SCT080 15/04 01021 =

FADN 0413302 12005KT CAVOK 24/15 01014 NOSIG=

I FADN 250500Z 35008KT 9999 FEW020 SCT120 22/18 01016 NOSIG=

FAEL 041330Z 21012KT 9999 BKN006 BKN015 17115 01018=

I FAGG 250500Z 25003KT 0200E R11 /0470V0590D PRFG OVC001

FAJS 041330Z 35006KT CAVOK 18IM03 01024 NOSIG

19118 01015=

I FAJS 250500Z 04007KT 3000 -DZRA BKN002FLUC OVC070 15/15 01023 TEMPO 1000=
FAPE 0413302 22009KT 3000W -RA BKN006 OVC018 13112 01019=

I FANC 25005002 AUTO 07003KT Ill/ II 1/1111 17/12 01022=

FANS 041400Z AUTO 04007KT JIii II Ill/// 25101 01019=

I FAWI 250500Z AUTO 03004KT /Ill JI Ill/I/ 16112 01023 RERA=

C. TAF - AERODROME FORECAST

I 1. INTRODUCTION

TAF is the international term used to indicate the code for an aerodrome forecast. They follow the
same format as METARs but may include such items as forecast temperatures, icing conditions and
I turbulence. They are updated every three hours and are generally accurate for three hours. An
amended TAF carries the prefix AMD.
2. FORMAT

I EXAMPLE:
TAF FADN 1606002 160918 17012KT 9999 FEW020 BCMG 1214 12015KT TEMPO 1518

I BKN015 TX29/122/TN12/18Z

3. DECODE

I Given that the format and codes used in TAF messages are the same as those used for METARs,
only those additional elements which are pertinent to TAF messages will be explained in this section.

The code name TAF is normally included at the beginning of the message, but where a bulletin is

I issued which contains more than one report the code name is only included in the first line.
GROUP (1) - REPORTING STATION

I GROUP (2) - DATE, TIME AND PERIOD OF VALIDITY

The time of observation in hours and minutes UTC followed, without a space, by the letter 2 and
the period for which the forecast is valid.

I Example 1: 160600Z 160918

Meaning: 16th at 0600Z, valid on the 16th from 0900 until 1800Z

I Note: If the forecast period commences at midnight it would be indicated as 00.

GROUP (3) - SURFACE WIND

I GROUP (4) - VISIBILITY

GROUP (5) - SIGNIFICANT WEATHEA

I GROUP (6) - SIGNIFICANT CHANGES IN FORECAST CONDITIONS

I
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AVIATION WEATHER REPORTS AND FORECASTS

I
Page 18-8
Any or all of the following terms may be used:

PROB - meaning the probability of change. This term is followed immediately by 30 or 40,

I meaning there is either a 30% or 40% chance of a change. A probability of less than 30% is not
considered to justify the use of PROB, whilst more than 40% justifies the use of BECMG.

BECMG - meaning becoming, followed by the time period of the forecast and the expected

I
change of condition.

Example 1: BCMG 1214 12015KT

I
Meaning: between 1200 and 14002 the forecast surface wind is 120/15.

TEMPO - which means a temporary fluctuation, (less than one hour), followed by the time period
of the forecast and the temporary condition.

I Example 1: TEMPO 1518 BKN015

Meaning: between 1500 and 1800Z, it is forecast that there will be broken (5 - 7 oktas) cloud at

I 1500 ft.

GROUP (?)-TEMPERATURE

I
The letters TX are used to indicate the maximum and the letters TN are used to indicate the
minimum temperatures, indicated by two digits in degrees C, followed by the time.

Example 1: TX29/12ZTN12/18Z

I Meaning: At 12002, the maximum temperature is forecast to be +29°C and at 18002, the
minimum temperature is forecast to be + 12°c.

I
The letter M is used to indicate minus temperatures.

Example: TM03/0600Z

I
Meaning: At 06002, the temperature is forecast to be -3°C.

ICING

I
When required, this group is repeated as often as necessary to indicate more than one type or
more than one layer of icing. The number 6 is used to signify icing data, which is then followed,
without a break, by the following icing information:

I
Code Meaning

0 No icing
1 Light icing

I
2 Light icing in cloud
3 Light icing in precipitation
4 Moderate icing
5 Moderate icing in cloud

I
6 Moderate icing in precipitation
7 Severe icing
8 Severe icing in cloud
9 Severe icing in precipitation

I Thereafter, the height of the base of the icing layer in units of 100 ft and then the thickness of
layer in thousands of feet. A Code Figure O (zero) indicates that icing extends to the top of the
cloud.

I Example: 620052

Meaning: Light icing in cloud, base of layer 500 ft agl. Thickness of layer 2000 ft.

I Example: 681200

Meaning: Severe icing in cloud starting at 12000 ft extending to the top of the cloud.

I
I Private Pilot Licence
Revsion: 08/2008
© Avex Air Training 04/2007

I
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AVIATION WEATHER REPORTS AND FORECASTS

I
Page 18-9
TURBULENCE

When required this group is repeated as often as necessary to indicate more than one type or

I
more than one layer of turbulence. The number 5 is used to signify turbulence data, which is
then followed, without a break, by the following turbulence information:

Code Meaning

I 0
1
2
None
Light turbulence
Moderate turbulence in clear air, occasional

I
3 Moderate turbulence
4 Moderate turbulence
5 Moderate turbulence
6 Severe turbulence in
in clear air, frequent
in cloud, occasional
in cloud, frequent
clear air, occasional

I
7 Severe turbulence in clear air, frequent
8 Severe turbulence in cloud, occasional
9 Severe turbulence in cloud, frequent

I
This is followed by the height of the base and then the thickness of the turbulence layer.

Example: 510303

Meaning: Light turbulence extending from 3000 ft AGL upward for 3000 ft.

I FULL DECODE OF A SAMPLE TAF

I
TAF FAGG 20020oz 200606 20017KT 8000 SCT025 T18/1000Z BECMG 0710 9999 SCT015 BKN020
TEMPO 1114 18020G30KT 4000 -DZ BKN004 OVC015 FM16 17015KT 9999 BKN020 BKN150=

Forecast FAGG (George), Date 20th, Time of issue 02002 / Period 20th 06002 to 21 st 06002 / Surface
Wind 200 deg (true) at 17kt / Visibility 8000m / 3 to 4 oktas cloud 2500' AGL / Temperature 18°C at

I 10002 / becoming between 0700 and 1000 visibility greater than 10km / 3 to 4 oktas cloud 1500' AGL
and 5 to 7 oktas 2000' AGL / temporarily between 11002 and 14002 wind 180 deg (true) at 20 gusting
30kt / visibility 4000m in light drizzle / 5 to 7 oktas at 400' AGL / 8 oktas at 1500' AGL / from 16002
surface wind 170 deg (true) at 15kt / visibility greater than 10km / cloud 5 to 7 oktas at 2000' AGL and

I 5 to 7 oktas at 15000' AGL.

EXAMPLES OFTAF

I FAAS 2503002 250615 2001 0KT 9999 BKN008 PROB30 TEMPO 0607 1000 BCFG BKN003
BECMG 0911 SCT015 TX23/12ZTN20/152=

I
FABL 2503002 250615 05010KT 9999 SCT035 BECMG 1012 FEW040CB PROB30 TEMPO
1215 7000 TSRA BKN035CB TX26/13ZTN23/152=

FACT 0412002 041524 24010KT 9999 SCT020 BKN050 PROB30 TEMPO 1524 2000 SHRA
SCT008 BKN020 TX13/15ZTN09/242=

I FADN 2406002 240918 18010KT 9999 BKN018 BKN025 TEMPO 1418 4000 RA BKN101
BCMG 1618 24005KT 9999 BKN018 BKN035 TX25/12ZTN22/182

I FAEL 0412002 041524 23014KT 9999 BKN020

TEMPO BKN005 T14/18ZTN07/242=
PROB40 TEMPO 5000 -RA BKN015 PROB30

FAGG 0412002 041524 26012KT 9999 BKN020 PROB30 TEMPO 1524 3000 SHRA SCT005

I OVC015 TX11/15ZTN06/242=

FAHS 2406002 240918 1601 0G20KT 9999 BKN015 BKN090 TEMPO 0918 4000 -RA BKN010
PROB30 1318 4000 TSRA SCT008 SCT040CB TX20/14ZTN14/182=

I FAJS 2503002 250615 04008KT 5000 -RA BKN005 BKN080 PROB40 TEMPO 0607 0900
FG/RA OVC002 BKN080 BE CMG 0709 0201 0KT 9999 BKN020 BECMG 1012 35012KT
FEW020CB BKN025 BKN080 PROB30 TEMPO 1315 5000 TSRA SCT020 FEW025CB

I BKN080 TX18/12ZTN15/152=

FAKM 2503002 250615 04012KT CAVOK BECMG 0809 9999 SCT040 BECMG 1112
FEW045CB PROB30 TEMPO 1315 7000 TSRA SCT045CB TX29/13ZTN23/152=

I FALA 2406002 240918 0201 0KT 9999 BKN018 BKN080 PROB40 TEMPO 0918 4000 SHRA

I Private Pilot Licence

Revsion: 08/2008
© Avex Air Training 04/2007

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I AVIATION WEATHER REPORTS AND FORECASTS

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Page 18-10
SCT008 FEW025CB TX28/12ZTN24/18Z=

FALT 2406002 240918 11005KT 12012KT 9999 BKN012 PROB30 TEMPO 0912 3000 DZ

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SCT008 BKN010 PROB30 TEMPO 1218 4000 SHRA FEW030CB TX29/14ZTN22/18Z=

FAMG 2406002 240918 18010KT 9999 BKN018 BKN025 TEMPO 1418 4000 RA BKN010
BECMG 1517 25005KT 9999 BKN018 BKN035 TX25/12ZTN18/18Z=

I FAMM 2406002 240918 02008KT 9999 SCT022 BKN085 PROB30 0912 4000 SHRA BKN018
BKN080 BECMG 1012 FEW040CB SCT045 PROB40 TEMPO 1218 4000 TSRA BKN080
TX25/12ZTN20/18Z=

I FANG 2406002 240918 VRB03KT 9999 BKN015 BKN100 TEMPO 1218 2000 RA BKN008
BECMG 0709 14005KT 9999 BKN015 BKN035 TX23/12ZTN16/15Z=

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FANS 2406002 240918 13007KT 9999 BKN012 BKN090 TEMPO 0918 4000 -RA BKN007
PROB30 1318 4000 TSRA SCT008 FEW040CB TX20/12ZTN15/18Z=

FAPB 2503002 250615 0501 0KT 9999 BKN010 BKN080 PROB30 TEMPO 0608 1000 FG/DZ
OVC002 BKN080=

I FAPE 250300Z 250615 1201 0KT 9999 BKN008 TEMPO 0607 1000 BCFG OVC002 BECMG
0709 SCT015 TX12/12ZTN08/15Z=

I FARB 0412002 041524 02015KT CAVOK BECMG 1921 33003KT 6000 SKC
TX21/18ZTN16/24Z=

FAUP 2503002 250615 31012KT CAVOK BECMG 1012 9999 FEW060CB TX35/13ZTN32/15Z=

I FAWB 0412002 041224 VRB03KT CAVOK T18/14ZTN08/24Z=

FAWM 2503002 250615 0401 0KT 9999 SCT035 BECMG 1012 SCT040CB PROB30 TEMPO

I 1315 6000 TSRA BKN035CB TX26/13ZTN21/15Z=

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I Private Pilot Licence © Avex Air Training 04/2007
Revsion: 08/2008

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I
CHAPTER 19 UPPER AIR CHARTS AND SYMBOLS

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Page 19-1

UPPER AIR CHARTS AND SYMBOLS

I A. INTRODUCTION

I
Upper air charts, obtainable at weather offices or through the Internet, enable pilots to establish a pic-
ture of the weather conditions affecting their flights. These charts include:

1. Significant Weather Prognostic Charts, comprising Significant Weather High (SWH), Medium (SWM)

I
and Low (SWL) which are issued every three hours. Only SWL is covered in these notes.
2. Upper Winds and Temperature Charts covering both South Africa and the whole of Africa.

I B. SIGNIFICANT WEATHER PROGNOSTIC CHARTS

The word prognostic simply means forecast, and the information indicated on these charts includes
frontal systems, freezing levels, visibility, position and type of cloud with the appropriate cover and up-

I per and lower limits, precipitation etc. A range of symbols, abbreviations and simple text is used, mak-
ing the charts self-explanatory.

For study and examination purposes it is not necessary to try and memorise these symbols.

I 1. SYMBOLS

Ill Ill
R" THUNDERSTORMS RAIN

I
Ill Ill
--- WIDESPREAD FOG v SHOWERS

*
4lll/P MOUNTAIN WAVES SNOW

I >1--'-'-- SEVERE LINE SQUALL

_A_
MODERATE TURBULENCE
+
CX)
WIDESPREAD BLOWING SNOW
WIDESPREAD HAZE
A.. -
--- WIDESPREAD MIST
I
SEVERE TURBULENCE
SLIGHT AIRCRAFT ICING r WIDESPREAD SMOKE
'--Iv' MODERATE AIRCRAFT ICING FREEZING PRECIPITATION

I 'ilv
9
SEVERE AIRCRAFT ICING
TROPICAL CYCLONE
-5-
s
SEVERE SAND OR DUST HAZE
WIDESPREAD SANDSTORM/DUSTSTORM

I 6. HAIL

'
DRIZZLE

Figure 19-1: Significant Weather Symbols

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I Private Pilot Licence
Revsion: 08/2008
© Avex Air Training 04/2007

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I UPPER AIR CHARTS AND SYMBOLS

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Page 19-2

......
2. NOTATIONS, FRONTS AND CONVERGENCE ZONES

I
I
--
........
• • T
I 370 I
T
COLD FRONT AT SURFACE
WARM FRONT AT THE SURFACE
OCCLUDED FRONT AT THE SURFACE
QUASI-STATIONARY FRONT AT THE SURFACE
TROPOPAUSE LEVEL

I G;J TROPOPAUSE HIGH

CTJ TROPOPAUSE LOW

I FL380
POSITION, SPEED AND LEVEL OF MAXIMUM WIND

I -- ii1~1 -FL3oo 11
11
.... FL340----

I THE DOUBLE BAR DENOTES CHANGES OF LEVEL BY 3000 FT OR LESS

AND/OR WIND SPEEDS BY 37 km/h - 20 kt. THIS EXAMPLE INDICATES THE
WIND SPEED IS 225 km/h - 120 kt AT THE DOUBLE BAR.

I
THE HEAVY LINE DELINEATING THE JET AXIS BEGINS/ENDS AT THE POINTS
WHERE A WIND SPEED OF 150 km/h - 80 kt IS FORECAST.

I II II[ INTERTROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE

'\" ////
'\~-
CONVERGENCE LINE

I I 0°: 120 I FREEZING LEVEL

I 3. ABBREVIATIONS FOR CLOUD TYPES

Figure 19-2: Notations

I (a)TYPE

Ci Cirrus As Altostratus St Stratus

Cc Cirrocumulus Ns Nimbostratus Cu Cumulus

I Cs
Ac

(b) AMOUNT
Cirrostratus
Altocumulus
Sc Stratocumulus Cb Cumulonimbus

I (i) Clouds except Cb SKC

FEW
SCT
Sky clear (0 oktas)
Few (1-2 oktas)
Scattered (3 - 4 oktas)

I (ii) Cb only ISOL

BKN
ovc
Broken (5 - 7 oktas)
Overcast (8 oktas)

Individual Cb's (isolated)

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OCNL Well separated Cb's (occasional)
FRO Cb's with little or no separation {frequent)
EMBD Cb's embedded in layers in other clouds
or

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concealed by haze (embedded)

(c) HEIGHTS

I
On all three charts, when XXX is used, tops or bases are outside the layer of the atmosphere to
which the chart applies.

I Private Pilot Licence

Revsion: 08/2008
© Avex Air Training 04/2007

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I
UPPER AIR CHARTS AND SYMBOLS

I
Page 19-3
In SWL charts:

(i) heights are indicated as altitudes above mean sea level;

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(ii) the abbreviation SFC is used to indicate ground level.

4. LINES AND SYSTEMS ON SPECIFIC CHARTS

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(a) MODEL SWL - Significant weather chart (low level)

X position of pressure centres given in hectopascals

L centre of low pressure

I
H centre of high pressure
Scalloped lines demarcation of area of significant weather
Dashed lines altitude of 0°C isotherm in feet (hectofeet) or metres
NOTE: 0°C level may also be indicated by 0° = 060 , ie 0°c
I Figures on arrows -
level is an altitude of 6000 ft
speed in Kt or or Km/h of movement of frontal systems,
depressions or anticyclones.

I (b) ARROWS AND FEATHERS

Arrows indicate direction. Number of pennants and/or feathers correspond to speed.

I Example: 270°/115 kt (213 km/h)

I
Pennants correspond to 50 kt (93 km/h)
Feathers correspond to 1O kt (18 km/h)
Half-feathers correspond to 5 kt (9 km/h)

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5. SELECTED FORECAST WEATHER ABBREVIATIONS
BCFG Fog patches FZDZ* Freezing drizzle RA* Rain

I
TS* Thunderstorm TSGR* Thunderstorm XXSH Heavy
with hail showers

ISOL Isolated OCNL Occasional FAQ Frequent

I EMBD

LSQ
Embedded
Line Squall
MTW

ws
Mountain Wave

Wind Shear
TURB Turbulence

I BR
DZ* Drizzle
Mist FZRA*

GR*
Freezing rain
Hail
RASH

SA
Showers

Dust or

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Sandstorm

FG Fog HZ Dust haze LYR Layer

FU Smoke MIFG Shallow fog SN* Snow

I LOC Local
MON Over mountains ESC Along escarpment CIT Urban areas

I VAL

MAR
In valleys

Maritime
HIV
COT
On Highveld

Coastal
LOV Over Lowveld

I NOTE

6. CHARTS
Items marked with an asterisk (*) may be preceded by XX, meaning HEAVY.

I An example of a Significant Weather Low (SWL) prognostic chart appears on the next page.

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I Private Pilot Licence
Revsion: 08/2008
© Avex Air Training 04/2007

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I UPPER AIR CHARTS AND SYMBOLS

I
Pa e 19-4
SIGNIFICANT WX LOW (MSL - FLl00) All heights above MSL
FIXED TIME PROGNOSTIC CHART VALID- 06H00 UT 2000/07/15

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COMPILED BY SAS. - ISSUED AT 02H00 VT 2000/07/15
Symbols t and CB imply moderate or severe turbulence, icing and hail.

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11)
(")

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I OILOO g
0
:g

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(")
(..)
en
z
::.::
en

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I 11)
C\I

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I
I :::>
(..)
010
!'---~
00

I
::.::
en

I 0
(")
11)
(")

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I Private Pilot Licence
Revsion: 08/2008
© Avex Air Training 04/2007

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I UPPER AIR CHARTS AND SYMBOLS

I
Page 19-5
C. UPPER WINDS AND TEMPERATURES
A fixed time prognostic chart for South Africa showing upper winds and temperatures at a range of alti-

I tudes is provided by the South African Weather Bureau.

Altitudes above MSL, temperatures in degrees C, wind directions in degrees true and speeds in knots
are grouped in a box and located at the intersection of lines of latitude and longitude. An example of

I this type of chart is shown on the next page, (page 19-7).

Referring to this chart, the wind at 17 000 feet at S20°00 00 E030° 00 00 is 130/10, whilst the tempera-
ture is -2°C.

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I Private Pilot Licence
Revsion: 08/2008
© Avex Air Training 04/2007

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 .. .. .. .. ..
- - ---- - -- - .. -
111111.. 11111 1111

:x, ,,
Cl) :::i
-=: .,_·
5-e!.
.. ,,
::s
0:::::
Cl) 15IE 20/E 25/E 30/E

Q) 0
N-
g~
Q) 24 130 5 -17 24 300 4 -16 24 40 4 -14 24 4 I 8 /
21 134 4 -11 21 300 1 -11 21 106 5 -9 0 -13
2 21 88 6 8

-
17 128 3 -3 17 113 2 -3 17 132 9 -2 10 -2 24 110 7 -13
17 130
15 85 2 1 _ _ _ _ _ 15 104 3 0 ----- 15 137 9 2 - 21 150 7 -8
20 S 13 43 3 5 13 97 3 5 13 142 8 6 ---
15 130 12 1
17 182 10 -1
13 130 14 5
10 20 6 13 10 90 4 12 10 150 8 12 17 11 15 186 13 1
10 130
7 7 3 22 7 90 4 21 7 150 6 21 7 136 17 17 - - - 13 188 16 5
10 190 21 10

\ I
24 260 11 -18
21 275 3
17 58 6
15 54 7
- 12
-4
0
21 231 6 -12
7 107
I
24 250 16 -18
-4
I
24 280 16 -18
21 277 8 -12 24 310
I
27 -17 24 290
7 190 23 14 - - -
5 190 25 18
3 190 17 22
1 190 14 26

/ 7
9 _14 UPPER WINDS, TEMPERATURES
1 5

-
13 52 9 4 _____ 15 98 O O _ _ _ _ 17 196 1 -4 21 297 17 -12 21 264 4 _9 FIXEDTIMEPROGNOSTICCHART
25 S 10 50 11 11 79 15 69 O O _ _ _ _ 17 249 9 -5 VALID 20010204 12UTC
13 2 4 17 162 6 _2
7 50 4 18 10 10 2 13 34 1 4 15 222 8 -1 15 155 10 O BASED ON: 20010204 OOUTC
11

I
5 310 0 24 7 60 10 30 2 12 13 195 9 3--- 13 152 13 4 NEXT ISSUE: 20010204 18UTC

I
2 18
3 44 4 28 7 44 3 22 10 170 13 9 10 150 19 9
1 248 3 33 7 142 11 15 7 157 24 13 ___
q 5 160 28 17
3 162 19 24
24 80 10 -20 1 174 19 24
21 91 6 -14
17 120 3 -5 24 150 12 -21 24 180 16 -22 /
15 95 3 O \ 21 153 9 -15 21 189 14 -15 24 270 26 -22 NATAL N.COAST

-
13 72 3 3 17 148 6 -6 _ _ _ _ 17 200 11 -6 21 260 25 -16 24 310 45 -19
30 S 10 50 4 11 15 125 6 0 15 200 8 -2 - - - - 17 250 24 -8 21 302 36 -13
@ 7 66 9 14 13 107 7 4 13 200 5 2 15 250 21 -4 17 289 25 -6 C
5 70 12 16 10 90 10 13 10 270 0 9 13 250 19 0 - - 15 285 20 -2 -0
l:=,, -0

!
l:=,,
3 127 6 17
1 146 12 18
7 79 9 17
I
7
I
200 1 18 10

/ I
7
250
222
15 6
6 10
13 279 14
10 250
1 191
7
14
1
7
10
-
m
::D

::;· ./ 5 180 22 13
::D
210 29 -2 2 / SE COAST 3 199 12 17
:;t 24 230 24 -21 24
219 26 -16__............ 24 220 32 -24 1 184 21 22 0
QI
s· 21 234 21 -15 21
230 23 -7 21 224 27 -18
::c
s· 17
15
240
240
16
13
-6~
-2
17
15 230 20 -3 17 230 22 -9
BOXES REFER TO SPOT WINDS DEGREES
TRUE AND KNOTS AT INTERSECTIONS OF ::D
(Q 230 17 O 15 230 21 -5 -I
13 240 9 1--- 13
230 12 7---_ 13 230 19 -1
THE LAT/LONG LINES COVERED BY THE en
35S__. I 10 240 4 8 10 BOX, TEMPERATURES DEGREES C,

i
7 238 6 7 10 230 17 5 HEIGHTS ABOVE MSL (THOUSANDS OF FEET)
7 357 3 10
5 270 2 7 7 230 14 6
5 20 6 12 0

~t~~----L--------------~~
223 8 11 5 230 12 8
...... 3 135 3 14 3
205 4 16 3 217 15 13 ""Oen
1
Ill -<
1 104 7 17

1______
1 199 13 18
0 3::
_ _ _ __j__ _ _ _ _ _ _ l_______ (!)
z
OJ
..... 0
-
'Pr
°' en
I QUESTIONS
CHAPTER 20

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Page 20-01

QUESTIONS
I 1. Density altitude and pressure altitude have the same value:

I (a) when the ISA temperature for the level under consideration is standard,
(b) under standard ISA conditions,
(c) when 1013,25 hPa is set on the subscale.

I 2. When QNH is set on the subscale of the pressure altimeter, the altimeter indicates:
(a) pressure at altitude,

I (b) altitude,
(c) density altitude at field elevation.

I 3. When an altimeter indicates a higher flight level than actually flown, the following condition is likely:
(a) the air temperature is warmer than standard,
(b) the aircraft is flying from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure,

I (c) the subscale has been decreased from ONE to QNH.

4. The earth's weather changes are primarily due to one of the following:

I (a) variations of solar energy received at the surface of the earth,

(b) movement of airmasses,
(c) pressure variations over the earth's surface.

I 5. The formation of cloud, mist or dew always occurs when:

I
(a) water vapour in the atmosphere is present,
(b) the dew point and the temperature are equal,
(c) the air is stable.

I 6. The dew point is:

(a) the difference in temperature between actual temperature and the temperature of evaporation,

I
(b) the temperature to which air must be cooled to produce condensation,
(c) the temperature to which air must be raised to produce evaporation.

I
7. Ice pellets at the surface indicate that:
(a) thunderstorms are present,
(b) a cold front has passed,

I
(c) there is freezing rain at higher altitudes.

8. The structure and formation of different cloud types which form as a result of air which has been

I
forced to rise, depends upon :

(b) the method br

(a) the stability of the air before it is forced to rise,
which the air is forced to rise,
(c) the amount o humidity present after lifting occurs.

I 9. Some of the characteristics of unstable air are:

I (a) turbulence and good surface visibility,

(b) nimbostratus cloud and poor surface visibility,
(c) stratus cloud and good surface visibility.

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I Private Pilot Ucence
Revsion: 08/2008
© Avex Air Training 04/2007

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I
QUESTIONS

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Page 20-Q2
10. Cumuliform type cloud associated with good visibility, rain showers and possible clear ice formation
is likely to result from:

I (a) stable moist air forced to rise orographically,

(b) unstable moist air forced to rise orographically,
(c) unstable dry air forced to rise orographically.

I 11. The characteristics of stable air are:

(a) poor visibility and steady precipitation from stratus type cloud,

I
(b) poor visibility and intermittent rain from cumuliform type cloud,
(c) good visibility and steady precipitation from cumuliform type cloud.

I
12. The type of cloud which could be expected to form when unstable moist air is forced to rise over a
mountain, is most likely to be:

(a) stratified clouds with intermittent showers,

I
(b) layer type cloud with little vertical development,
(c) vertical development type cloud.

I
13. Moist stable air flowing upslope may be expected to produce:

(a) stratus type cloud,

(b) thunderstorms and showers,

I
(c) a temperature inversion.

14. The four groups of cloud types are:

I (a) clouds formed by thermal uplift, orographic uplift, convective uplift and frontal uplift,
(b) high, middle and low cloud and those formed by extensive vertical development,
(c) stratus type, nimulus type, cumulus and cirrus.

I 15. Lenticular altocumulus standing clouds are likely to indicate:

(a) jet streams and strong winds,

I (b) heavy icing conditions,

(c) strong turbulence and winds.

I 16. The type of cloud with which strong turbulence may be expected is:

(a) altocumulus castellanus,

(b) nimbostratus,

I (c) cumulonimbus.

17. A cold air mass moving over a warm land mass will:

I (a) become stable,

(b) become unstable,
(c) will cause poor surface visibility.

I 18. Which weather phenomenon is always associated with the passage of a frontal system:

I
(a) an abrupt temperature decrease,
(b) a wind change,
(c) an abrupt pressure decrease.

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I
I Private Pilot Licence
Revsion: 08/2008
© Avex Air Training 04/2007

I
I QUESTIONS

I
Page 20-03
19. An important characteristic of wind shear is that it:

(a) may be associated with either a wind shift or a windspeed at any level in the atmosphere,

I
(b) occurs exclusively at lower levels and is associated with strong horizontal temperature
variations,
(c) usually only exists in the vicinity of thunderstorms, but may be found near a temperature
inversion.

I
20. When an aircraft encounters a rapid increase in headwind component on the final phase of the
approach to land, the aircraft will:
(a) overshoot the required glideslope,

I
(b) undershoot the required glideslope,
(c) remain on the glideslope as the IAS remains constant.

21. Which of the following statements best describes the action required by a light aircraft landing

I behind a heavy transport aircraft:

(a) aim to touchdown and stop before reaching the point of rotation of the other aircraft,
(b) aim to touchdown past the point of rotation of the other aircraft,

I (c) aim to touchdown before the rotation point of the other aircraft and continue rolling through this
point.

I 22. Frost on an aircraft is considered hazardous to flight operation because:

(a) the increased weight lengthens the take-off run,
(b) frost causes early airflow separation resulting in a loss of lift,

I (c) frost changes the basic aerofoil shape.

23. The requirements for the development of thunderstorms are:

I (a) sufficient moisture, an unstable lapse rate and trigger action,

(b) sufficient water vapour and orographic uplift,
(c) trigger action with a very shallow environmental lapse rate.

I 24. The indications that downdraughts have developed and a thunderstorm has reached the mature
stage, are:

I (a) a gust front occurs and thereafter precipitation begins to fall,

(b) the anvil top completes its development, associated with light rain,
(c) temperatures drop sharply and pressures increase rapidly.

I 25. In flight, rime ice would be expected when flying in:

I
(a) small supercooled water droplets with the aircraft surface temperatures below 0°C,
(b) towering cumuloform cloud with temperatures 0°C to -10°C,
(c) in rain at temperatures below 0°c.

I 26. During the life cycle of a thunderstorm, the stage which is characterised predominantly by
downdraughts is:

I
(a) the mature stage when precipitation begins to fall,
(b) the dissipating stage with the formation of the anvil,
(c) the cumulus stage.

I 27. The term, "embedded thunderstorms" means:

(a) thunderstorms are obscured by massive cloud layers,

(b) thunderstorms are predicted to form in stable air,

I (c) severe thunderstorms lie within a squall line.

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I Private Pilot Licence © Avex Air Training 04/2007
Revsion: 08/2008

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I QUESTIONS

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Page 20-04
28. Advection fog forms:

(a) over land and over sea,

I
(b) only over land,
(c) only over sea.

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29. The characteristics of advection fog, radiation fog and steam fog are:
(a) radiation fog results from cooling the air to its dew point, while advection and steam fog require
the addition of moisture to the air near the surface, through evaporation,

I
(b) advection fog deepens as wind speed increases up to 20 knots, while steam fo9 requires calm
or very light wind and radiation fog forms when the ground or water cools the air by radiation,
(c) radiation fog is restricted to land areas, while advection fog is most common along coastal
areas and steam fog forms over a water surface.

I 30. The conditions favouring the formation of radiation fog are:

(a) clear skies, 5-10 kt wind, small temperature/dew point spread over a land surface,

I (b) cloudy skies, light winds, large temperature/dew point spread and over land surface,
(c) moist air moving over a cold ground or water surface.

I 31. Which types of fog depend upon a wind for their formation:

(a) advection and upslope fog,

(b) steam and downslope fog,

I (c) tropical air fog.

32. Fog may be found in industrial areas because of:

I (a) an abundance of condensation nuclei from combustion products,

(b) a high concentration of steam from industrial plants,
(c) atmospheric stabilization around cities.

I 33. The Buster is characterised by the following phenomena:

I (a) strong south westerly winds following in the wake of a coastal low; stratiform cloud type with
intermittent drizzle,
(b) strong south easterly winds accompanied by overcast conditions and rain showers,
(c) strong south easterly winds accompanied by generally clear skies, giving a healthy effect on the

I environment.

34. With reference to surface horizontal visibility (W), the visibility as reported by code figure 75 is:

I (a) 25 km,
(b) 7,500 m,
(c) 750 m.

I 35. With reference to the height of the base of low cloud (h) what is the height of the base of low
cloud as reported by code figure 3:

I (a) 300 - 600 ft,

(b) 600 - 1000 ft,
(c) 1000 - 2000 ft.

I 36. The symbol BKN signifies:

(a) 5 to 7 Oktas cloud,

I (b) 1 to 4 Oktas cloud,

(c) 6 to 7 Oktas cloud,

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I Private Pilot Licence
Revsion: 08/2008
© Avex Air Training 04/2007

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I QUESTIONS

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Page 20-05
37. With reference to Synoptic Chart No. 1, what type of cloud is present at Mossel Bay 34°S 23°E:

(a) small cumulus,

I
(b) altostratus,
(c) thick altostratus, or nimbostratus.

I
38. What is the height of the ceiling as reported by Cape Town (C.T.):

(a) 1000 to 2000 feet,

(b) 600 to 1000 metres,

I
(c) 600 to 1000 feet.

39. What is the total cloud cover reported at Durban (DBN):

I (a) 7 Oktas,
(b) 5 Oktas,
(c) 6 Oktas.

I TAF
FAJS 212300Z 220615 02010KT 9999 SCT010 OVC040 TEMPO 0608 5000 -RA BECMG 1012 SCT050=

I 40. With reference to the above TAF, the forecast time period is:

(a) 0615 LMT to 2010 LMT,

I (b) 0600 UTC to 1500 UTC,

(c) 0600 LMT to 1500 UTC.

I 41. With reference to the above TAF, what is expected to develop between 0800 and 1000 local time:

(a) light rain,

(b) heavy rain, visibility 5000m,

I (c) scattered cloud at 5000'.

42. With reference to the above TAF, in relation to time, the word TEMPO means:

I (a) less than half an hour,

(b) less than one hour,
(c) between half an hour and one hour.

I 43. With reference to the above TAF, what is the expected minimum visibility:

I (a) 10 km,
(b) 4000m,
(c) 5 km.

I 44. With reference to the above TAF, what is expected between 1000 and 1200 ZULU:

(a) 3 to 4 Oktas at 5000' AGL,

I
(b) 3 to 4 Oktas at 5000' above mean sea level,
(c) 5 to 7 Oktas at 5000' above mean sea level.

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I Private Pilot Licence
Revsion: 08/2008
© Avex Air Training 04/2007

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AVEX AIR TRAINING (PTY) LIMITED

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a a a b a b
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b C b C a b C C C a b C

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a b C C a b C a b C a b C a b C

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I 311 I I I 321 I I I 331 I I I 341 I I I 351 I I I 361 I I I

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I
b C C b C C b C b C

371 I I I 381 I I I 391 I I I 401 I I I 411 I I I 421 I I I

I
a b C a b C a b C a b C a b C a b C

431 I I I 441 I I I 451 I I I 461 I I I 471 I I I 481 I I I

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Revsion: 08/2008
© Avex Air Training 04/2007

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AVEX AIR TRAINING (PTY) LIMITED

I METEOROLOGY - ANSWERS

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a b C a b C a b C a b C a b C a b C
1l•I l J-.21 l•l l-+ 3I 1•1 l-+ 41• 1 I J-. 51 l•I l-+ 61 l•I I
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a b C a b C a b C a b C a b C a b C

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431 I l•I 441•1 I I 451 I I I 461 I I I 471 I I 481 I I I

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I Private Pilot Licence
Revsion: 08/2008
© Avex Air Training 04/2007