JMEPEG (2020) 29:4872–4878 ÓASM International

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-020-04696-y 1059-9495/$19.00

Microstructure, Thermal Stability during Creep

and Fractography Study of Friction-Stir-Processed
AA2024-T3 Aluminum Alloy
Michael Regev and Stefano Spigarelli

(Submitted September 19, 2019; in revised form February 18, 2020; published online February 27, 2020)

Friction stir processing (FSP) makes it possible to obtain a stir zone with very fine grain size with the aid of
severe plastic deformation. Yet using FSP, it is impossible to obtain a uniform cross section as far as the
microstructure and mechanical properties are concerned. To reduce the effect of this limitation, in the
current study, the material was processed on both sides, thus yielding a wider, rectangular and more
homogenous stir zone. In a recent publication, the authors focused on the mechanical properties, thermal
stability and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) study of friction-stir-processed AA2024-T3, com-
paring this alloy to the parent material. While the previous study mentioned focused on the parent and on
the as friction-stir-processed material, the current study focuses on post-creep specimens and hence com-
pletes the previous one with microstructural processes occurring during creep. The current paper com-
pletes the above precipitate analysis using electron-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS) mapping of the
various precipitates reported after exposure to creep temperatures. The TEM study reported in the current
paper revealed the formation of dislocation structures during creep, in parallel to the dynamic recrystal-
lization (DRX) reported by the authors in the past. In addition, fractography study indicated premature
cracking as the prevailing failure mechanism as well as in the case of friction stir welded creep specimens.

et al. (Ref 4) focused on mechanical properties of FSP AA2024.

Keywords AA2024-T3, aluminum, creep, friction stir processing
1. Introduction
In 2000, FSP was derived from friction stir welding (FSW)
with the aim of using severe plastic deformation to obtain a stir
zone with very fine grain size (Ref 1, 2). FSP is identical to
FSW except that in FSP the rotating tool does not weld the parts
to one another. Thus, its operation may be referred to as a
‘‘bead on plate’’ process. Very few publications deal with FSP
of the 2024 aluminum alloy (Ref 2-10). Nadammal et al. (Ref
2) applied a bottom-up approach for optimizing the process
parameters; their results included mechanical properties and
residual stress analysis together with grain size and precipitate
studies conducted using scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
Charit and Mishra (Ref 3) studied the superplastic behavior of
friction-stir-processed AA2024-T4. Based on qualitative trans-
mission electron microscope (TEM) examination, they claimed
that the grain size obtained at the stir zone was 3.9 lm. Suri
This article is an invited submission to JMEP selected from
presentations at the Symposium ‘‘Joining and Related
Technologies,’’ belonging to the topic ‘‘Processing’’ at the European
Congress and Exhibition on Advanced Materials and Processes
(EUROMAT 2019), held September 1-5, 2019, in Stockholm,
Sweden, and has been expanded from the original presentation.
Michael Regev, Department of Mechanical Engineering, ORT Braude
College, P.O. Box 78, Karmiel 21982, Israel; and Stefano Spigarelli,
DIISM, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona 60131, Italy.
Contact e-mail: michaelr@braude.ac.il.
Cavaliere (Ref 5) also reported on the superplastic behavior of
friction-stir-processed 2024 Al alloy and further studied the
effect of the addition of Sc and Zr, reporting on the average
grain size of 1 lm at the stir zone. Nadammal et al. (Ref 6)
studied microstructure and texture evolution during single- and
multiple-pass FSP. They reported on the formation of equiaxed
grains with an average size of 4-5 lm at the stir zone, claiming
that dynamic recrystallization (DRX) was the dominant mech-
anism, while particle stimulated nucleation (PSN) was a
participating nucleation mechanism. Ren et al. (Ref 7) studied
crack repairing by FSP in the 2024 aluminum alloy. They used
optical microscopy for their microstructure study and provided
microhardness profiles, but they did not conduct any quanti-
tative analysis of the microstructure at the repaired zone.
Nevertheless, they did indicate that DRX was the process
taking place underneath the shoulder of the tool. Ghanbari et al.
(Ref 8) reported on single- and multi-pass FSP of AL2024/SiC
composite. They noted that optical microscopy revealed fine
equiaxed grains at the stir zone but did not report on the size of
these grains. Also, they referred to the influence of the number
of passes, between 1 and 4, on the hardness of the processed
material, noting a decrease in hardness as the number of passes
increased. El-Mahallawi et al. (Ref 9) reported on an increase in
hardness, from 94 HV in the case of the non-processed material
to 114.7 for material after undergoing FSP together with an
increase in the UTS. Nadammal et al. (Ref 10) studied
microstructure evolution during FSP of AA2024, AA2219 and
AA5086 using x-ray diffraction and electron backscattered
diffraction techniques. They emphasized the role of strain-
induced grain boundary migration (SIMB) and particle-stimu-
lated nucleation (PSN) that acted simultaneously as the
nucleation mechanisms for DRX in Al alloys during FSP,
while in the case of AA2024 PSN, large particles of Al2CuMg

4872—Volume 29(8) August 2020 Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

became nuclei for DRX. It seems that none of these publica-
tions conducted an analytical transmission electron microscopy
(TEM) study of the friction-stir-processed material, nor did they
study its aging behavior. Moreover, only two of them (Ref 6, 8)
dealt with multiple pass and its effect on the microstructure and
mechanical properties of the stir zone.
The stir zone of a friction-stir-processed material is as wide
as the diameter of the shoulder at the upper surface of the weld
and markedly narrower near its opposite surface. This property
as well as the differences between the advancing side and the
retreating side makes it impossible to obtain a uniform cross
section as far as the microstructure and mechanical properties
are concerned. For these reasons, in a recent publication, the
authors offered a new approach in which the material was
processed on both sides, thus yielding a wider, rectangular and
more homogenous stir zone (Ref 11) from which all the
specimens were machined out. Processing the material from
both sides eliminated any microstructural difference between
the upper and the lower side at least within the gage lengthÕs
cross section of the creep specimens. The authorsÕ aforemen-
Fig. 1 The FSP tool
tioned recent publication (Ref 11) focused on the mechanical
properties of friction-stir-processed material, on the materialÕs
thermal stability and on transmission electron microscopy
(TEM) studies of friction-stir-processed AA2024-T3 that
compared it to the parent material. As stated earlier, contrary
to the previous study (Ref 11) that dealt with the parent and
with the as friction-stir-processed material, the current study
focuses on post-creep specimens and hence completes the
previous one with microstructural processes occurring during
creep. The current paper completes the previous TEM study
with an investigation of friction-stir-processed AA2024-T3
after creep. The TEM study reported in the current paper
revealed the formation of dislocation structures during creep, in Fig. 2 The different zones obtained during a single-pass FSP
parallel to the dynamic recrystallization (DRX) reported in (Ref
11). The current paper adds precipitate analysis using electron- flipped and processed once again right above the first pass,
dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS) mapping of the various which was on the bottom side of the plate. The second pass was
precipitates after exposure to creep temperatures, hence relay- made so that the advancing side of the first pass became the
ing on a markedly broader statistics of precipitates than the retreating side of the second and vice versa. After trial and
previous publication (Ref 11). In addition, this paper presents error, the optimal welding parameters were found to be a
and discusses a fractography study of broken creep specimens. rotational speed of 800 rpm and a transverse speed of 80 mm/
min.
Grain size measurement was taken using Olympus Stream
Essentials image analysis software. Vickers microhardness
2. Experimental Procedure measurements were taken using a Seiki Matsuzawa microhard-
ness tester under a load of 200 gf. Creep specimens, having a
The material used for this study was commercial AA2024- 3 mm 9 3 mm square cross section and 25 mm gage length,
T3 aluminum alloy in the form of 200 mm 9 100 mm plates, were machined from the FSP-region of the plates. The
3.175 mm thick. The above plates were subjected to FSP using dimensions and the shape of these specimens were the same
a SHARNOA CNC milling machine. The H-13 steel welding/ as of those used in previous studies (Ref 11-14). The
processing tool used consisted of a conical pin with 4.5 mm top longitudinal axis of the samples was parallel to the FSP
diameter and 3 mm in height and a 20 mm diameter shoulder, direction, so that the whole body of the specimen was included
as shown in Fig. 1. in the stir zone. A three-zone furnace was used for heating the
Figure 2 depicts a general illustration showing the different samples up to testing temperature. Constant load creep
zones obtained during FSP. The only zone relevant for the experiments (CLE) were carried out on the samples at 250
current study was the stir zone. From this zone, the creep and and 315 °C under 30-140 and 12-60 MPa, respectively, in most
the tensile specimens were machined out, with their longitu- cases up to sample fracture. Additional variable load experi-
dinal axis parallel to the longitudinal axis of that zone. In ments (VLE) were carried out at the same temperature.
addition, the stir zone of a friction-stir-processed material is as Additional details regarding the creep tests were reported
wide as the diameter of the shoulder at the upper surface of the elsewhere (Ref 13). The TEM investigation was conducted
weld and markedly narrower near its opposite surface. In order using an FEI Tecnai G2 T20 TEM, while EDS mapping was
to make the stir zone as symmetrical and uniform as possible generated with the aid of an FEI Titan Themis G2 60-300 High-
while achieving an almost rectangular cross section, a single Resolution TEM (HRTEM). The fractography study was
pass was made on one side of the plate. The plate was then conducted on broken friction-stir-processed creep specimens

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance Volume 29(8) August 2020—4873

with the aid of an FEI Inspect SEM. TEM specimens were
prepared using an FEI Helios NanoLab G3 FIB (focused ion
beam).
3. Results
As stated earlier, in a recent publication (Ref 11), the authors
reported the tensile and microhardness properties of the
friction-stir-processed material compared to those of the parent
material. The main findings indicated that the processed
material showed inferior tensile properties relative to the parent
material. These inferior tensile properties together with their
wide scattering are related to defects introduced during the FSP.
The coarse elongated grains of the parent material changed into
fine equiaxed ones, and very coarse precipitates tens of microns
in size detected at the parent material were broken into
uniformly dispersed 0.1-1 lm precipitates. However, optical
metallography of the stir zone under higher magnifications
(Fig. 3) revealed that the grain size varies by more than an
order of magnitude. The average grain size was found to be 5.1
microns, the coarsest grains were found to be about 11 microns
in diameter, while the finest grains were found to be about two
microns in diameter according to the image analysis software
and less than one micron according to manual mean intercept
length measurements.
Figure 4 shows three microhardness profiles taken from the
stir zone. Keeping in mind that the width of the gage length of
the tensile/creep specimens was 3 mm, one can see that these
profiles demonstrate the hardness of the specimens. Profile 1
was taken as close as possible to the upper surface, profile 2
was taken at the middle of the cross section, and profile 3 was
taken near the lower surface. All the measurements were taken
across the stir zone, namely perpendicular to its longitudinal
axis, while maintaining a distance of 0.25 mm from one
indentation to another. Although the hardness of the stir zone is
higher than that measured in the case of the parent material, i.e.,
about 100 HV (Ref 11), a certain degree of hardness variation
is discernible. Figure 4 shows that the hardness values of the
stir zone vary from 108 to 130 HV.
Figure 5(a) depicts a high-angle annular dark-field scanning
transmission electron microscope (HAADF-STEM) image of a
specimen that crept for 53 min under 25 MPa at 315 °C. The
Fig. 3 A representative optical micrograph of the stir zone
4874—Volume 29(8) August 2020
grain boundary-decorating precipitates as well as the rod-
shaped and nano-sized precipitates reported in (Ref 11) are all
discernible in Fig. 5(a) and marked as precipitates 1, 2 and 3,
respectively. The region of interest (ROI) on which EDS
mapping was carried out as well as the different types of
precipitates is shown in Fig. 5(a). A DF image of the ROI is
shown in Fig. 5(b), while Fig. 5(c) and (d) depicts qualitative
Cu and Mg content, respectively. Note that all the precipitates
appearing in Fig. 5(b) contain Cu, while some of them contain
Mg and others do not.
Figure 6(a) is a bright field (BF) TEM micrograph of a
specimen that crept for 53 min under 25 MPa at 315 °C, taken
near <011> zone axis (z.a.), showing the dislocation structure
comprising sub-grain walls next to grain boundary precipitates.
These dislocation networks can be clearly seen under higher
magnification in Fig. 6(b), while Fig. 6(c) shows the respective
selected area electron diffraction patterns (SADP).
Figure 7(a) provides a general view of the fracture surface
of a friction-stir-processed specimen that crept to rupture under
40 MPa at 315 °C. Three different zones are depicted in
Fig. 7(a) and shown under higher magnification in Fig. 7(b)-
(d). The right side of the fracture surface (zone 1 in Fig. 7a and
b) is a ductile oxidized surface. The surface of the central zone
(zone 2 in Fig. 7a and c) looks like a strongly oxidized ductile
fracture surface. Typical dimples are shown in Fig. 7(b) and (c).
As for zone 3 in Fig. 7(a) (and Fig. 7d), besides having a more
brittle character, it also contains some striation-like marks that
can be clearly observed in Fig. 7(d). The arrow shown in
Fig. 7(e) points at a crack. This crack is assumed to be the
initiation point of the fracture, i.e., the fracture started at zone 1
and propagated to zone 2, while the cracking in zone 3 occurred
at the end of the process.
4. Discussion
One of the conclusions of the first part of this study (Ref 11)
was that the FSP conducted on both sides of the 3.125-mm-
thick AA2024-T3 plates yielded inferior tensile properties
relative to the parent material . The wide scattering of the
tensile results leads to the conclusion that defects introduced
during the FSP were responsible for the poor tensile properties.
The hardness variation inside the stir zone along each profile as
shown in Fig. 4 (the hardness of profile 1 varies from 121.2 to
129.9 HV, the hardness of profile 2 varies from 111.1 to
120.7 HV, and that of profile 3 varies from 107.8 to 120.2 HV)
can be related to the grain size difference observed in Fig. 3. As
stated earlier, the grain size varied by more than an order of
magnitude, from less than one micron to more than ten microns.
Keeping in mind the Hall–Petch dependence of strength on the
inverse square root of grain size, the above hardness variation
can be attributed to the differences in the grain size observed.
Consequently, further technological effort is still required in
order to obtain a completely homogeneous stir zone.
In the current study, also the creep properties were found to
be inferior, compared to those of the base material, namely in
its as-produced condition. For example, in the case of 315 °C
and 40 MPa, the minimum creep rate recorded for the base
material was 5.0 9 10 7 s 1 and the time to reach this
minimum creep rate was 8 h (Ref 14), while in the case of
Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance
Fig. 4 Microhardness profiles across the stir zone: 1—taken near the upper surface; 2—taken at the middle of the cross section; 3—taken near
the lower surface

Fig. 5 EDS mapping of a specimen that crept 53 min under 25 MPa at 315 °C: (a) HAADF-STEM micrograph showing 1—grain boundary
decoration, 2—rod-shaped precipitates, 3—nano-sized precipitates; (b) HAADF-STEM micrograph of the ROI; (c) qualitative EDS mapping
showing Cu concentration; (d) qualitative EDS mapping showing Mg concentration

the friction-stir-processed material the minimum creep rate was
1.0 9 10 5 s 1 and the whole test, until fracture occurred, took
0.42 h. In principle, the higher creep rates of the fine-grained
FSW material could be attributed to the occurrence of grain
boundary sliding (GBS). Yet, there are several reasons to rule
out any significant role of GBS, namely:
1. The high stress exponent n in the power law describing
the minimum creep rate dependence on applied stress,
which is well above the n = 2 value typical of GBS-con-
trolled creep (Ref 13).

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance Volume 29(8) August 2020—4875


Fig. 6 TEM micrographs of specimen that crept for 53 min under
25 MPa at 315 °C showing sub-grain boundaries taken near
<011> z.a.; (a, b) BF images under different magnifications; (c)
SADP of <011> z.a
2. The presence of an almost continuous chain of intergran-
ular precipitates (Fig. 5), which can effectively obstruct
any sliding along grain boundaries.
3. The formation of a substructure during creep, typical of
climb-controlled dislocation motion.
4876—Volume 29(8) August 2020
On these bases, one can safely conclude that also in the FSP
alloy, creep is controlled by dislocation motion, and that the
precipitate size and distribution play a significant role.
In previous studies (Ref 11, 12), the authors found that the
microstructure of the friction-stir-processed material (Ref 11) is
unstable, as is that of the parent AA2024 (Ref 12). Contrary to
the single precipitate analyses in the previous studies, the
systematic EDS mappings conducted on the friction-stir-
processed material during the current study unambiguously
indicated that the precipitates formed during creep can contain
either Cu, Mg and Al or just Cu and Al (see Fig. 5). This is in
line with the precipitate study of AA2024, which many
researchers continue to pursue and according to which two
different aging sequences take place—the h sequence in which
Al2Cu precipitates are formed and the S sequence that is
responsible for the Al2CuMg (Ref 11).
The TEM study reported in (Ref 11) revealed a low-angle
sub-grain structure with dislocation network boundaries in the
case of the parent metal. During FSP, these were replaced with
fine equiaxed grains having clean boundaries with no disloca-
tion tangles. As can be seen in Fig. 6, dislocation networks
appeared in the friction-stir-processed material after creep
appeared at the grains that underwent dynamic recrystallization
(DRX) during the FSP, namely the recrystallized grains with the
clean boundaries mentioned above. The authors previously
proposed (Ref 11) that the high stacking fault energy of Al,
which is responsible for dynamic recovery (DRV) during the
thermo-mechanical processing of the 2024 aluminum alloy
(i.e., rolling in the case of the parent material), leads in turn to
the arrangement of dislocations into sub-grain boundaries,
while the high strain rates of the FSP lead to DRX. Hence, it
may be claimed that the low creep strain rates, which are even
lower than those of the rolling process, are responsible for the
reappearance of the dislocation tangles in the crept friction-stir-
processed specimen. The material was also found to undergo
DRX during the creep process (Ref 12). Thus, it appears that
both DRX, which is responsible for ultra-fine grain formation,
and sub-grain formation act during creep. Further research,
however, is still required in order to clarify whether these two
mechanisms act simultaneously or one after another. One of the
possibilities is that DRX occurs at the beginning of the process,
while sub-grain formation takes place at a later stage. This can
be checked by conducting creep tests and interrupting them
after reaching various amounts of creep strain combined with
TEM study on the respective creep specimens.
In the current study, the creep results were found to be
inferior to those of the base material, namely in its as-produced
condition. For example, in the case of 315 °C and 40 MPa, the
minimum creep rate recorded for the base material was
5.0 9 10 7 s 1 and the time to reach this minimum creep rate
was 8 h (Ref 14), while in the case of the friction-stir-processed
material the minimum creep rate was 1.0 9 10 5 and the entire
test until fracture took 0.42 h. In a previous study that dealt
with FSW of AA2024-T3 (Ref 12), the authors found that an
open-to-surface cracking limited the creep resistance and
discussed its influence in detail. Figure 7(e) shows an identical
failure mechanism. Namely, failure starts with the formation of
an open-to-surface crack, which then propagates into the
material. The existence of this crack markedly limits the creep
resistance and leads to premature failure. It may be concluded,
therefore, that eliminating this cracking is essential to improve
creep resistance, though further research is required to corrob-
orate this conclusion. As for the striation-like phenomenon
Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance
Fig. 7 Fracture surface of a friction-stir-processed specimen that crept to rupture under 40 MPa at 315 °C: (a) general view; (b) zone 1 under
high magnification; (c) zone 2 under high magnification; (d) zone 3 under high magnification; (e) crack initiation
detected in zone 3 (see Fig. 7d), this is due to plastic
deformation bands resulting from the heavy plastic deformation
during FSP.
5. Conclusions
1. AA2024-T3 underwent friction stir processing on both
sides, thus yielding a wider, rectangular and more
homogenous stir zone.
2. Precipitate analysis conducted by using EDS mapping
provided evidence, which relied on quite broad precipi-
Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance
tate statistics, that both the h and the S sequences take
place during exposure to creep temperature
3. The TEM study provided evidence for sub-grain forma-
tion during creep inside the grains that had undergone
DRX during the FSP. This in turn indicates that, in addi-
tion to precipitation processes, both DRX and sub-grain
formation occur during creep. However, further research
is still required in order to clarify whether these two
mechanisms act simultaneously or one after another.
4. Cracking was found to take place during creep of the
friction-stir-processed material as well as in the case of
the friction stir welded material, hence reducing creep
resistance.
Volume 29(8) August 2020—4877
5. Further technological effort is required in order to elimi-
nate the cracking and improve the creep resistance of the
friction-stir-processed AA2024-T3 as well as to obtain a
completely homogeneous stir zone with a uniform grain
size. Such a possible solution can be multi-pass process-
ing on each side of the material.
Acknowledgments
The assistance of Dr. Alexander Katz-Demyanetz with the
fractography study is highly appreciated. The authors thank Dr. Y.
Kauffmann for his assistance with the TEM study and EDS
mapping and Dr. L. Popilevsky for TEM specimen preparation.
Funding
This research project is partially funded by Ort Braude College.
References
1. R.S. Mishra, M.W. Mahoney, S.X. McFadden, N.A. Mara, and A.K.
Mukherjee, High Strain Rate Superplasticity in a Friction Stir
Processed 7070 Al Alloy, Scr. Mater., 2000, 42(2), p 163–168
2. N. Nadammal, S.V. Kailas, and S. Suwash, A Bottom-Up Approach for
Optimization of Friction Stir Processing Parameters; a Study on
Aluminium 2024-T3 Alloy, Mater. Des., 2015, 65, p 127–138
3. I. Charit and R.S. Mishra, High Strain Rate Superplasticity in a
Commercial 2024 Al Alloy Via Friction Stir Processing, Mater. Sci.
Eng. A, 2003, 359(1–2), p 290–296
4. A. Suri, A. Sahai, K.H. Raj, and N.K. Gupta, Impact and Tensile
Testing of Al2024 Alloy Processed by Friction Stir Processing,
Procedia Eng., 2017, 173, p 679–685
5. P. Cavaliere, Effect of Minor Sc and Zr Addition on the Mechanical
Properties of Friction Stir Processed 2024 Aluminium Alloy, J. Mater.
Sci., 2006, 41(13), p 4299–4302
4878—Volume 29(8) August 2020
6. N. Nadammal, S.V. Kailas, J. Szpunar, and S. Suwas, Microstructure
and Texture Evolution during Single and Multiple-Pass Friction Stir
Processing of Heat-Treatable Aluminum Alloy 2024, Metall. Mater.
Trans. A, 2017, 48(9), p 4247–4261
7. J.G. Ren, L. Wang, D.K. Xu, L.Y. Xie, and Z.C. Zhang, Analysis and
Modeling of Friction Stir Processing-Based Crack Repairing in 2024
Aluminum Alloy, Acta Metall. Sin. (Engl. Lett.), 2017, 30(3), p 228–
237
8. D. Ghanbari, M. Kasiri Asgharani, and K. Amini, Investigating the
Effect of Passes Number on Microstructural and Mechanical Properties
of the Al2024/SiC Composite Produced by Friction Stir Processing,
Mechanika, 2015, 21(6), p 430–436
9. I. El-Mahallawi, M.M.Z. Ahmed, A.A. Mahdy, A.M.M. Abdelmota-
galy, W. Hoziefa, and M. Refat, Effect of Heat Treatment on Friction-
Stir-Processed Nanodispersed AA7075 and 2024 Al Alloys, Friction
Stir Welding and Processing IX, Friction Stir Welding and Processing
IX, The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society, 1st ed., Y. Hovanski, R.
Mishra, Y. Sato, P. Upadhyay, and D. Yan, Ed., Springer International
Publishing, San Diego, 2017, p 297–309
10. N. Nadammal, S.V. Kailas, J. Szpunar, and S. Suwas, Restoration
Mechanisms During the Friction Stir Processing, Metall. Mater. Trans.
A, 2015, 46(7), p 2823–2828
11. M. Regev and S. Spigarelli, Study of Mechanical, Microstructural and
Thermal Stability Properties of Friction Stir Processed Aluminum
2024-T3 Alloy, Kovove Mater., 2019, 57(4), p 229–236
12. M. Regev, T. Rashkovsky, M. Cabibbo, and S. Spigarelli, Microstruc-
ture Stability During Creep of Friction Stir Welded AA2024-T3 Alloy,
J. Mater. Eng. Perform., 2018, 27(10), p 5054–5063
13. E. Santecchia, M. Cabibbo, M. Ghat, M. Regev, and S. Spigarelli,
Physical Modeling of the Creep Response of an Al-Cu-Mg Alloy With
a Fine Microstructure Transformed by Friction Stir Processing, Mater.
Sci. Eng. A, 2020, 769, p Article 138521
14. C. Paoletti, M. Regev, and S. Spigarelli, Modelling of Creep in Alloys
Strengthened by Rod-Shaped Particles: Al-Cu-Mg Age-Hardenable
Alloys, Metals, 2018, 8(11), p 930-1–930-18
Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affilia-
tions.
Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance