Faculty of Linguistics and Cultures of

English speaking countries/ ULIS – VNU

Weeks 6 and 7
Word Formation Processes

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1. Derivation
2. Reduplication
3. Conversion or Function shift
4. Compounding
5. Blending
6. Back formation
7. Shortening
8. Root Creations

Introduction to Linguistics 1/ Morphology 1

Faculty of Linguistics and Cultures of
English speaking countries/ ULIS – VNU

1. Derivation
• Derivation is the addition of a derivational
(make the word longer than the original form by adding affix)
affix.
• Derivational affixes are either
………………..
prefixes or ……………………...
suffixes

• Examples:
prefixes
- ……………………. : un-, mis-, pre-,…
suffixes
- ……………………..: -ish, -ism, -ness, …
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The addition of a derivational affix to a root produces a new
word with one or more of the following changes:
phonological change: reduce → reduction, clear →
- A ………………….
clarity.
orthographic change to the root: pity → pitiful,
- An ………………….
deny → denial.
sematic
- A …………………. change, which may be fairly
complex: event → eventual, post → postage.
word class : rich (n) → enrich (v).
- A change in ………………….

Introduction to Linguistics 1/ Morphology 2

Faculty of Linguistics and Cultures of
English speaking countries/ ULIS – VNU

1. Derivation
• Most prefixes can change only the ……………
………………….
meaning of the root , not its class.

• Suffixes have two functions:

- Change the ………………….
meaning of the root

- Change the ………………….

part of speech .of the root

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s e
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• Only 3 prefixes can change the part of speech of
1

the root:
a- N/V→ Adj
…… ablaze, asleep, astir

……
be- N→V betoken, befriend

en- A/N → V
…… enlarge, ensure

• Other prefixes can change only the meaning of the

root.
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Introduction to Linguistics 1/ Morphology 3

Faculty of Linguistics and Cultures of
English speaking countries/ ULIS – VNU

Prefixes 1
• Prefixes fall into a number of ……………………
sematic classes

in English, depending on the meaning they

contribute to the roots.

• Some prefixes may fit into …………………

more than one

category.
more than one
• Prefixes may often attach to ……………… part
of speech.
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s e
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the root
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Change the meaning of Change the part of speech of
the root
1
when adding diminutive
suffixes, we make thing
smaller
eg: pig > piglet
Diminutive suffixes Adj/ V + Nominalizer → N
duck > duckling
-ling, -let, -y -dom, -ity/ -ment, -er
Feminine suffixes N/ Adj + Verbalizer → V
-ess, -ette, -rix, -ine -ify, -ize
Abstract suffixes N/V/ Adj + Adjectivalizer → Adj
-ship, -hood, -ism -ous, -ful/ -ive, -able/ -ish, -ly
Adj/ N + Adverbializer → Adv
-ward, -ly/ -way(s)
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Introduction to Linguistics 1/ Morphology 4

Faculty of Linguistics and Cultures of
English speaking countries/ ULIS – VNU

1. Derivation
• Derivation can be stated in terms of lexical rules

E.g.

mis- + align (V) + -ment → misalignment (N)

Image (N) + -ine + -ary → imaginary (Adj)

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s e
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2.
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• Reduplication is the process in which the
initial syllable of the entire word is
…………..…,
doubled
exactly or with a slight
phonological change. *lay toan phan*
*lay mot phan*

• 3 different kinds of reduplication

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Introduction to Linguistics 1/ Morphology 5

Faculty of Linguistics and Cultures of
English speaking countries/ ULIS – VNU

2. Reduplication
- …………..…
Exact reduplication: papa, mama, goody-
goody, so-so.

- …………..…
Ablaut reduplication in which the vowel
alternates while the consonants are identical: flip-
flop, zig-zag, ping-pong, wishy-washy.
keep the onset, change
the rhyme

- …………..…
Rhyme reduplication in which the
consonants change while the vowel remains the

y
change the onset, keep the rhyme
same: roly-poly, helter-skelter.
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3. Conversion/ Function shift
i n
• A function shift is the conversion of one part of
speech to another without the addition of a suffix.

• In other word, a ………………

zero derivational suffix is
added.

• The only concrete change that may occur is a

change in stress.

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Introduction to Linguistics 1/ Morphology 6

Faculty of Linguistics and Cultures of
English speaking countries/ ULIS – VNU

3. Conversion/ Function shift

• Kinds of function shift:

V -> N: (a) run, drive, walk, cut, break

N -> V: (to) head, shoulder, contact, ship

A ->V: (to) weary, better, empty

N -> A: blue-collar (worker), head (bookkeeper)

A ->N: poor, rich, daily, private

Particle -> V:
ly
n
down, up, off

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3. Conversion/ e Function shift
i n
• It is often difficult to know which is the original
(basic) form and which the converted form.

• Clues:

– Semantics or morphological modification.

inflection
– The regularity of …………..….
Stress change in the case of conversion of phrasal
– …………..…
V to N and Adj.

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Introduction to Linguistics 1/ Morphology 7

Faculty of Linguistics and Cultures of
English speaking countries/ ULIS – VNU

3. Conversion/ Function shift

• Commonization is a special kind of function shift
in which a proper noun is converted into a common
word.
no phonological
• With …………..…change
– N: cashmere, china; V: canter, welsh;
– Adj: frank, maudlin

• With a …………..………→
derivational suffix different part of speech
– N: chauvinism ; V: pasterize

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s e
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• Compounding is the combination of ………
…………...…
two or more
free roots (plus associated
affixes).

• Common English compounds: bookcase,

fingerprint, sunburn, textbook, wallpaper, gook-looking, fast
food.

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Introduction to Linguistics 1/ Morphology 8

Faculty of Linguistics and Cultures of
English speaking countries/ ULIS – VNU

4. Compounding
Compound Phrase
▪ Consists of …………..……
more than one free root

▪ May be semantically …………..…

cohesive?

Free roots are joined Free roots are joined in a

together as …………..… single syntactic unit but
remain …………..….

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s e
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4.
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Compound Phrase
…………..…
Externally modified …………..…
Internally modified
Manhole → manholes, Man-of-war → men-of-war
Not *menhole
External …………..…:
mobility can Part of the phrase can move
move into a sentence as a into the sentence
whole
Carries only …………..…
one Carries more than one
primary stress primary stress

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Introduction to Linguistics 1/ Morphology 9

Faculty of Linguistics and Cultures of
English speaking countries/ ULIS – VNU

4. Compounding
• The semantics of compounds are not simply
a …………..…
sum of the meaning of the parts:
– Homeland: land which is one’s home

– Homemade: something which is made at home

– Homestead: a place which is a home

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s e
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4.
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• The syntax of compounds is even more complex.

Principle:

- The word class is determined by the head of the

compound (rightmost)

- The primary stress is carried by the leftmost.

* Converted compounds are exceptions.

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Introduction to Linguistics 1/ Morphology 10

Faculty of Linguistics and Cultures of
English speaking countries/ ULIS – VNU

4. Compounding
Compound Phrasal Verb
- Have semantic …………..…
coherence

- The meaning is not …………..…

predictable from the
meaning of the part

…………..…
externally modified …………..…
internally modified
burned down

Carries only one primary Carries more than one

stress primary stress

y
Behaves syntactically like
phrases
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s e
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i n
• Blending is accomplished by taking only the
…………..…
beginning of one word and joining it to the

…………..…
end of the other word.

• E.g.
- gasso(line) + (alco)hol → gasohol
- Sm(oke) + (f)og → smog
- Mo(tor) + (ho)tel → motel

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Introduction to Linguistics 1/ Morphology 11

Faculty of Linguistics and Cultures of
English speaking countries/ ULIS – VNU

5. Blending
• Sometimes one or other morphemes is left intact.
E.g.

sky + (hi)jacker → skyjacker

docu(mentary) + drama → docudrama

In these cases, -jacker, docu-

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s e
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6.tBack formation
i n
• A word of one type is …………..…
reduced to form a word
of another type is called back formation.

• Back formation is the opposite of …………..…

derivation

• E.g.
- Emotion → emote
- Peddler → peddle
- Connotation → connote

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Introduction to Linguistics 1/ Morphology 12

Faculty of Linguistics and Cultures of
English speaking countries/ ULIS – VNU

7. Shortening
• Shortening is the …………..…
deletion of sound
segments without respect to morphological
boundaries.

• 3 types:
- Clipped forms

- Acronyms

- Initialism

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s e
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7.
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• Clipping: the result of deliberately …………..…
dropping

part of a word, usually either the …………..…

end or
the …………..…,
beginning while retaining the same
meaning and same word class.

• E.g.

- Fanatic → fan - Microphone → mike

- Mitten → ………….
mitt - Hamburger → ………….
burger

fridge
- Refrigerator → …………..…
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Introduction to Linguistics 1/ Morphology 13

Faculty of Linguistics and Cultures of
English speaking countries/ ULIS – VNU

7. Shortening
• Clipping:
• A word or …………..…a
part of word in a phrase is
clipped
narcotics agent → narc
moving picture → movie (a diminutive affix may be
attached to the clipped form)

• A clipping may leave behind a ……………

prefix or suffix
……………. rather than (part of) the …………….
root
ex-husband → ex

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s e
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i n
• Acronyms: The …………..… letters of words in a
initial

phrase are pronounced as a word.

• E.g.

- WASP: White Anglo Saxon Protestant.

- NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization

- Radar: radio detecting and ranging.

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Introduction to Linguistics 1/ Morphology 14

Faculty of Linguistics and Cultures of
English speaking countries/ ULIS – VNU

7. Shortening
• Initialism: The letters of words in a phrase are
pronounced as …………..…
letters .

• E.g. - a.m

- p.m

- B.C

- A.D

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s e
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8.
i n
• Root creation is the invention of an ………
……………..
entirely new root morpheme.

• E.g.: brand names

*tu tuong thanh*
– Onomatopoeic words: their pronunciation are
imitative of animal sounds or natural sounds.

– Literary coinages

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Introduction to Linguistics 1/ Morphology 15