DUCT FLOW WITH HEAT

RAYLEIGH FLOW TRANSFER AND NEGLIGIBLE

FRICTION
INTRODUCTION
Certain Compressible flow problems involve
combustion, nuclear reactions, evaporation, heat gain
or heat loss.

Such problems are difficult to analyze exactly since

they may involve significant changes in chemical
composition during flow, and the conversion of latent,
chemical, and nuclear energies to thermal energy.

A simplified model is Rayleigh flow - Can simplify
these complex problems by modelling
generation/absorption of thermal energy as heat
transfer through the duct wall at the same rate.
Rayleigh flows: Steady one-
dimensional flow of an ideal gas with
constant specific heats through a
constant-area duct with heat transfer,
but with negligible friction. Named
after Lord Rayleigh (1842-1919)
 Continuity equation
x-Momentum equation

Energy equation

Entropy change

Equation of state Control volume for flow in a constant-

area duct with heat transfer and
negligible friction.

Consider a gas with known properties R, k, and cp. For a specified inlet state 1, the inlet
properties P1, T1, 1, V1, and s1 are known. The five exit properties P2, T2, 2, V2, and s2 can be
determined from the above equations for any specified value of heat transfer q.
 From the Rayleigh line and the
equations
Infinite number of downstream states are possible
corresponding to a given upstate state 1

Determine these by assume values of T2 and

calculate the other properties

1. All the states that satisfy the conservation of mass,

momentum, and energy equations as well as the
property relations are on the Rayleigh line.
2. Entropy increases with heat gain, and thus we
proceed to the right on the Rayleigh line as heat is
transferred to the fluid.
3. Heating increases the Mach number for subsonic
flow, but decreases it for supersonic flow.
4. Heating increases the stagnation temperature T0
for both subsonic and supersonic flows, and
cooling decreases it.
5. Velocity and static pressure have opposite trends.
6. Density and velocity are inversely proportional.
T-s diagram for flow in a constant-area
duct with heat transfer and negligible
friction (Rayleigh flow).
7. Lower arm of line is steeper than the upper arm
- the entropy change corresponding to a
specified temperature change (and thus a given
amount of heat transfer) is larger in supersonic
flow. 4
 Heating increases the
Mach number for subsonic
flow, but decreases it for
supersonic flow. The flow
Mach number approaches
M=1 in both cases during
heating

Infinite number of downstream states are possible

corresponding to a given upstate state 1

Determine these by assume values of T2 and

calculate the other properties

Figure: T-s Diagram for flow in a constant area duct with

heat transfer
IMPORTANT OBSERVATIONS
•All the states that satisfy the conservation of mass, momentum and energy
equations as well as the property relations are on the Raleigh line.
•For a given initial state, the fluid cannot exist at any downstream state
outside the Raleigh line on a T-s diagram.
•Raleigh line is thus the locus of all physically attainable downstream states
corresponding to an initial state.
•The states on the upper arm of the Rayleigh line above point a are
subsonic, while the states on the lower arm below point a is supersonic.
 Thus a process must proceed to the right on the Rayleigh line with heat addition and to the left with heat
rejection regardless of the initial value of the Mach number
Heating increases the Mach number for subsonic flow, but decreases it for supersonic flow
From the energy equation, it can be seen that heating increases the stagnation temperature (T0) for both
subsonic and supersonic flow, and cooling decreases it (The maximum value of T0 occurs at M = 1)

Both temperature and the Mach number increases for

subsonic flow, but T reaches a maximum at Ma = 1/√k, and
then decreases again.

The cooling effect in this region is due to the large increase in

fluid velocity and the accompanying drop in temperature.

Heat rejection in this area causes the fluid temperature to

decrease.
During heating, fluid temperature always increases if
the Rayleigh flow is supersonic, but the temperature
may actually drop if the flow is subsonic.

Heating or cooling has opposite effects on

most properties. Also, the stagnation
pressure decreases during heating and
increases during cooling regardless of
whether the flow is subsonic or supersonic.

8
DERIVATION – EXTREMA OF A RAYLEIGH LINE
(TEXTBOOK)
Consider the T-s diagram of Rayleigh flow as shown
in the Figure. Using the differential forms of the
conservation equations and property relations, show
that the Mach number is Ma = 1 at the point of
maximum entropy (point a) and Ma = 1√k at the
point of maximum temperature (point b)

The textbook gives the outline, make sure you can do

the full derivation with all the steps in-between
 EFFECT OF HEAT TRANSFER ON MACH NUMBER
This graph shows T0 and T versus Mach
number in the duct.

Heating increases T0, and cooling decreases it.

Maximum possible T0 occurs at M = 1. Heating
(whether subsonic or supersonic) drives the Mach
number towards unity. Analogous to effect of
friction in fanno flow.
PROPERTY RELATIONS FOR RAYLEIGH FLOW
Determine ratios of flow parameters at ANY two sections of the flow in
terms of the Mach numbers at these sections:
RATIO OF FLOW PARAMETERS BETWEEN ANY SECTION OF
THE DUCT AND THE CRITICAL SECTION
Flow properties at sonic conditions are usually easy to determine, and the critical
state corresponding to Ma =1 serves as a convenient reference point

Tables may be used for flow

which is not choked. The Critical
Conditions (P* etc) then apply to
some hypothetical extension of
the duct to M=1

Ratios are tabulated for k=1.4

 CHOKED RAYLEIGH FLOW
As discussed previously, subsonic flow in a duct may
accelerate to M=1 with heating.

What happens if heat continues to be added to the fluid?

Examine the Rayleigh line – fluid at the critical state cannot
be accelerated to supersonic velocities by heating (then
entropy decreases again) – thus the flow is choked
Analogous to not being able to accelerate a fluid to
supersonic velocities in a converging nozzle by simply
extending the converging flow section.
 If keep heating the fluid – the critical state moves further downstream and reduce the
flowrate (fluid density at the critical state will now be lower)

Thus, for a given inlet state, the corresponding critical state fixes the maximum
possible heat transfer for steady flow:

• Further heating will cause choking, and the inlet state to change, and the flow no
longer follows the same Rayleigh line.
• Cooling Subsonic Rayleigh flow reduces the velocity, and the Mach number
approaches zero.
• The stagnation Temperature T0 is the maximum at the critical state of M=1.
Supersonic flow – heating decreases the flow velocity.
Further heating simply increases the temperature and moves the critical state farther
downstream – thus reducing the mass flow rate
Supersonic flow cannot be cooled indefinitely, there is a limit:

Thus if the critical stagnation temperature is 1000K, air cannot be cooled below 490K in
Rayleigh flow – i.e. velocity reaches infinity by the time the temperature reaches 490K –
physical impossible!

When supersonic flow cannot be sustained, the flow undergoes a normal shock wave and
becomes subsonic.
EXAMPLE 1 (SHAMES)
Air is moving as a steady flow through a duct having a constant rectangular cross
section measuring 0.6m by 0.3m. At a position 6m from the end, the pressure is
12kPa gauge, and the temperature is 260°C. The fluid leaves the duct subsonically
at a pressure of 101.4kPa. If there is 18 kg/s of fluid flow, what is the heat transfer
per kilogram of fluid between the aforementioned section and the exit?