An air handling unit

Air Conditioning Systems and Control

Variable Air Volume Systems

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Basic control schematic of a single zone VAV system

In a VAV system, the
changes of the room RH
will be small, depending
S.A. flow rate is
on the degree of
S.A. temperature
varied to maintain variation of the room
is kept constant
room temperature sensible heat ratio.

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 VAV system allows saving in fan power. Consideration of supply air in VAV system:
‘Fixed’ supply air temperature at below 15oC will
ensure air dehumidification which is good for
% of fan power at design flow

Damper attaining small changes of room RH at part load;

Inlet vanes
Supply air flow is reduced at decreasing sensible
load;
Supply air flow rate limited by O.A. requirement
Variable
Fan law
and ADPI;
speed
FP  (Speed)3
Turn down ratio = Minimum flow / Design flow
% of system design flow

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Control at minimum flow for single zone VAV system Multi-zone VAV system with duct static pressure control

When minimum air

flow is reached,
chilled water flow is
controlled in
response to Tr so as
to retain control of
room temperature. Pressure sensor

( Fan speed is regulated to maintain static pressure set point P, so that

there will be adequate but little pressure fluctuation at VAV box inlets )
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Multi-zone VAV system with duct static pressure control
Types of VAV boxes

 Pressure dependent
 Pressure independent
 VAV with terminal reheat
 Fan powered

Ts is kept unchanged.
When Vs to any zone is reduced, P tends to rise, and
the fan speed is reduced to track the set point of P.
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Multi-zone VAV system Multi-zone VAV system with terminal reheat

 Temperature control of each zone by a terminal VAV box Heater
device - VAV box;
 Air flow to each zone controlled by a zone
thermostat to open or close the VAV box damper ;

A VAV Box
 Reheat is activated at further decrease of space sensible
load when the air flow rate has reached a pre-set minimum.
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 Heating Cooling
set point set point

19 20 21 23 24 25 (oC)

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 Pressure independent VAV box

velocity
sensor
Velocity
reset control

Pressure fluctuation at the ductwork will affect

DA: Direct acting, i.e. at higher room temperature signal, rate of air flow through a VAV box ;
higher control output for cooling.
Velocity sensor measures the air flow and reset
RA: Reverse acting, i.e. at lower room temperature signal,
the position control over the damper ;
higher control output for heating.
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Fan powered VAV box (parallel) Fan powered VAV box (parallel)

Capacity

100% Vmax
Hot water
valve

 A fan located outside but in parallel with the primary Cold

Fan ON supply air
air (PA) stream;
 At reduced cooling load and minimum PA, the fan Vmi
draws air from the ceiling plenum to mix with the PA; n

0%
 Get rid of the problem of unacceptably low airflow to
the room at low load, avoid reheat of cooled air. Heating Loop Dead Cooling Loop
band
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 VAV/Skin CAV system (dual conduit):
VAV/Skin CAV system (dual conduit system):
Air-duct layout
Where and why using it?
Air
damper
CC FAN VAV system
O.A.  Application:
Building with extensive floor area, internal zones which
VAV require cooling throughout the year, and perimeter zones
E.A.
which require either cooling or heating in winter.
CC HC
 VAV system provides cooling to serve the whole
O.A. Perimeter Interior
zone zone floor, while a CAV serves the perimeter zone.
CAV system

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VAV/Skin CAV system (dual conduit system): VAV / Skin CAV system :
VAV control
 Skin CAV system serves to offset the cooling load due to
Air
damper FAN conduction gain through external wall and window.
O.A. T (offset the heating load due to conduction loss)
P
CC  Other cooling load components (solar load, internal load,
VAV VAV
etc.) are catered for by the VAV system.
E.A.

 The overall control strategy is that CAV system is to

CC HC T
match the envelope conduction heat gain/loss.
O.A. Perimeter Interior
zone zone  Skin CAV’s supply air temperature is reset in accordance
with the outdoor air temperature.

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 Control of the skin CAV
VAV/Skin CAV system (dual conduit system):
Skin CAV control
Air
O.A.
damper CC FAN

E.A. VAV
VAV
Reset of supply air
temperature based on
CC HC Ti outdoor temperature.
Tx
Ts
O.A. Perimeter Interior
zone zone

c
c To (outdoor air)
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Skin CAV supply air temperature is the controlled variable, and VAV/Skin CAV system:
its set point (Tset ) is reset according to the outdoor temperature.
Ts is maintained by the control output in response to (Ts – Tset ).
Skin CAV supply air flow design
 Design data required:
- External wall and window areas (Ai) and Ui values;
Summer Winter
- Indoor design temp. (oC) Tr = 25 T’r = 20
- Outdoor design temp. (oC) To = 33 T’o = 8
Control output curve - CAV supply air temp. (oC) Ts = ? T’s = 35
shifted by reset, amount
of shift determined by  Design flow rate for the skin CAV to offset the
the reset schedule.
perimeter transmission heat gain (summer) and loss
(winter) due to outdoor-indoor-temperature-difference.

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 VAV/Skin CAV system: VAV/Skin CAV system:
Skin CAV supply air flow design
Skin CAV supply air flow design

 Conduction loss in winter > Conduction gain in summer

 Vs is determined based on winter conduction loss with
T’s = 35oC

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Skin CAV supply temperature reset-scheme: Skin CAV supply temperature reset-scheme:
 Skin CAV supply air temperature is reset based on
 In summer cooling mode:
outdoor air temperature;

 In winter heating mode: Ts = Tr - (ΣAi Ui) (To - Tr) / ρ Vs Cp

T’s = T’r + ( ΣAi Ui) (T’r - T’o) / ρ Vs Cp  Ts = c - b To
T’s changes with T’o , other parameters are fixed, Ts = 15oC when To = 33oC
 T’s = a’ - b’ T’o Ts = Tr = 25oC when To = Tr
o
T’s = 35 C when T’o = 8oC  c = 56.25 , b = 1.25
T’s = T’r = 20oC when T’o = T’r
 a’ = 45 , b’ = 1.25  Ts = 56.25 - 1.25 To
 T’s = 45 - 1.25 T’o
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  Ts reset-scheme for the above skin CAV example:
Skin CAV Ts reset and operation scheme:
Ts = 45 - 1.25 To for To  20oC
Ts = 56.25 - 1.25 To for To  25oC
(1) When To  20oC
 space temperature set point at 20oC;
 heating coil is activated;
 reset Ts = 45 - 1.25 To
 possible energy wastage at To of 16-20oC when
the building has still a net cooling load,
causing simultaneous cooling by VAV and
heating by skin CAV;

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Skin CAV Ts reset and operation scheme: Skin CAV Ts reset and operation scheme:

(2) When 20 < To < 25oC

(3) When To  25oC
 space temperature set point at 25oC;
 skin CAV operates with 100% outdoor air;  space temperature set point at 25oC;

 cooling and heating coils are deactivated;  coiling coil is activated;

 Ts = To  reset Ts = 56.25 - 1.25 To

 there may be some energy penalty if ho > hr ;

 problem of increased space latent load if the
outdoor air humidity is high.

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 Induction system Induction system
The primary air from an AHU and the secondary water
It is an air-water system;
are supplied to terminal induction units in the room;
The air conditioning process is enabled by two separate
thermal energy elements from the central plant,
primary air and secondary chilled water Floor mounted induction unit

to achieve cooling, heating, dehumidification, ventilation

and circulation of room air;
An alternative design to the VAV / skin CAV system.

Ceiling mounted induction unit

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Induction system Induction system

Primary air
1) Primary air stream discharged
at high velocity;  A mixture of outdoor air and return air, cooled (or heated)
and dehumidified, then delivered to the induction unit as
2) Air nozzle; primary air (typically at 12-14oC);
3) Secondary air stream induced  Provides cooled (or heated) air to offset transmission
to flow into the unit; gains (or losses) through the walls, roof and window;
4) Cooling / heating coil;  Provides dehumidified air to offset the space latent load;
5) Mixture of primary and  Provides outdoor air for occupants;
secondary air discharged into
the room.  Provides motivating energy to induce room air through
the secondary coil to enhance air circulation.

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 Induction system Dual duct VAV system

Secondary chilled water

 A mixture of primary chilled water and returned
chilled water, typically at 11oC, delivered to the
secondary coil of the induction unit;
 Provides cooling through the induction unit to offset
the heat gain from solar radiation, occupants, lights
and other internal sensible loads.

A mix of cool supply air at temperature tc and hot supply air at

th , controlled by a zone thermostat, is available to each zone.
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Dual duct VAV system

Dual duct VAV system

Fan capacity control;

Two static pressure sensors, one each at the cold
air and hot air duct;
Fan speed is regulated to maintain the set point for
the lower (Pmeasured - Psetpoint) of the two;
Temperatures of the cold air and hot air are
controlled separately by temperature controller;
In summer cooling, the hot air stream is simply
the mix of return and outdoor air without heating;
Values of (Pmeasured – Pset) at cold and hot ducts are compared,
and the lower is selected to regulate fan speed to maintain
the set point of P at the selected duct.
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 Dual duct VAV system

 Air supply through a VAV mixing box hot air

Air flow rate VAV mixing box

hot air
Mixed cold air
VAV mixing box
Min. air Cold air
flow rate
cold air Hot air Damper
controller

Room Room temperature Room

Damper
temperature temperature
controller
sensor sensor

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Dual duct VAV system Economizer cycle

Supply air flow rate Cooling effect of cool outdoor air is utilized to
cope with part or all cooling demand;
The purpose is to minimize the chiller energy
consumption;
Mixed
Minimum supply At summer conditions, minimum outdoor air;
flow rate
Hot air Cold air
supply supply At the intermediate seasons, all-outdoor air;

19oC 21oC 23oC 25oC

Room temperature
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 Economizer cycle operation

Based on outdoor / indoor air enthalpy,

ho > hi : normal cooling mode, minimum outdoor air;
ho < hi : 100% outdoor air, cooling energy is reduced;

to  tc : Cool outdoor air mixed with some return air to

cope with space cooling demand (i.e. free
cooling), no cooling at the coil;

to  tc : Minimum outdoor air, heating is provided;

tc tr

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Economizer cycle operation Economiser cycle system

Control devices and sensors:

 Motorized dampers at outdoor air intake, return and
exhaust air paths (Do, Dr, De);

 Temperature (T) and humidity (H) sensors at outdoor

and return air paths (measure to , o , ti and i);
Total
enthalpy
 Total enthalpy controller ; controller

 Flow meters (F) at the supply (Vs), main return (Vmr),

exhaust (Ve) and return (Vr) air paths; Flow controller;

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 Economizer cycle operation Economiser Cycle Operation

Control sequence (via enthalpy controller):

Calculate air enthalpy ho and hi based on measured t
and  ;

Compare ho , hi , to and ti to determine the modes of

operation (Zone I, II or III);

Control the dampers (open, close or modulate)

according to the modes of operation;

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Economizer cycle operation

Control sequence (via flow controller):

Control speed of return air fan based on Vs (e.g. make Vmr
to be a fraction of Vs if +ve space pressure is required);

Required amount of Vr is determined or calculated based

on Vs and the modes of operation; (Vr = Vs – Vo)

Position of De is modulated based on the signal of

(Vmr – Vr) such that Ve = Vmr – Vr is attained;

Underfloor Air Distribution System (Source: e-News Issue 49 2005)

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 Alternative designs of
underfloor air distribution system
 Fully mixed UFAD system;
 Displacement ventilation UFAD system;
 Hybrid of mixing and buoyancy UFAD system.

Conventional Ceiling Air Distribution System: uniform mixing

(Source: HPAC Engineering 2003)

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Conventional cooling air supply and return at ceiling:

STRUCTURE SLAB
OVERHEAD DUCKWORK

EVENLY MIXED

Displacement Ventilation System with floor supply

Comment: Good ventilation effectiveness, but stratification exists.
The plane of stratification height (SH) separates the upper and lower
zones, which features changes in gradient for both temperature and
STRUCTURE SLAB
pollutant concentrations. (Source: HPAC Engineering 2003)
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 STRUCTURE SLAB
More polluted 26oC
STRATIFICATION 25oC
24oC
Cleaner
UNDERFLOOR PLENUM
STRUCTURE SLAB
Floor supply at low velocity (cooling)
Underfloor vs. Ceiling Supply Design Issues
 Insulated underfloor air supply plenum;
 Cool air enters the occupied zone at low level;
 Higher supply air temperature, e.g. 18oC (cooling);
 Allows for occupant control;
 Reduced sensible cooling load at occupied zone;
 Perimeter zone solutions are critical;
 Air tightness of underfloor air plenum;
 Properly controlled stratification leads to reduced
energy use while maintaining comfort;
 Access floor improves flexibility and re-configurability.
Steep
temperature
gradient
18oC Underfloor Air Distribution System with swirl diffuser
Comment: A hybrid of uniform mixing and buoyancy. There are
two characteristic heights in the room – the Throw Height (TH) of
the floor diffuser and the Stratification Height (SH); even mixing
at the occupied zone. (Source: HPAC Engineering 2003)
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Potential benefits of UFAD system
 Improved occupant comfort and health;
 Improved ventilation effectiveness and indoor air quality;
 Reduced energy use (arguable, depends on climate,
insufficient dehumidification is a problem);
 Reduced life-cycle building cost (but higher initial cost);
 Improved flexibility for building services (arguable);
 Reduced floor-to-floor height in new construction
(questionable).
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 Underfloor air distribution system
 Supply air temperature (Ts) at 16-19oC, which is higher
than those for traditional ceiling supply system,
reducing the risk of uncomfortably cool temperature at
the occupied zone.
 Supply airflow rate (Vs) is determined based on:
Qs – Qc,uz – Qloss = ρ Vs Cpa (Tr – Ts)
Qs is the space sensible load for traditional system;
Qc,uz is the convective gains at upper zone;
Qloss is the heat loss transferred to the floor plenum;
 Supply airflow rate required is similar to that of
Passive Swirl Diffuser, adjustable face plate to allow traditional ceiling supply system.
for personal control , commonly used in UFAD system with
pressurized plenum. (Source: Trox, USA)
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17 L/s per m2
Underfloor air distribution system
10 L/s per m2
5 L/s per m2
To overcome the problems of stratification, cold
draft and humidity, we can use a VAV primary
supply AHU with fan-assisted terminals (FAT):

 The AHU will cool and dehumidify the primary supply

air adequate to offset the space latent load;
 Variable primary airflow to cope with sensible load
changes, but constant supply airflow by FAT;
(21oC) (24oC) (27oC)  Mixing of PA and RA at the FAT to raise supply air
temperature to avoid uncomfortably coolness at
occupied zones;
Underfloor Air Distribution System: Effect of room airflow variation
with floor supply swirl diffusers at constant load & interior zone.  Increased supply air flow to avoid stratification.

Comment: Stratification increases when room airflow is reduced.

(Source: HPAC Engineering 2003)
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 UFAD system with Fan-assisted Terminal Underfloor air distribution system

Using variable speed AHU with system balancing

Supply air Return air control strategy:
Return air
Controller temperature  Variable primary supply airflow by control of AHU
Raised sensor speed in response to return air temperature set point;
floor
 Variable mixing portions of primary air and return air
at the fan-assisted terminals in response to the PA
Primary temperature and the zone RA temperature;
air (increase PA portion at higher zone temperature)
Slab
 Make use of bypass air grilles for system flow and
pressure balance.
Reheater Volume control Primary air
Fan temperature
(optional) damper
sensor
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Arrangement of the R.A. E.A. EAD Solution for the Perimeter Zone:
AHU, ductwork and temperature
sensor FD Use underfloor variable speed fan terminal with heating
supply air plenum of Return Air coil to provide variable flow of cool or hot air depending
R.A Plenum
an UFAD system. on the outdoor temperature.

S.A - CH/HTW
S&R
OFFICE +

S.A R.A S.A R.A Condensate

FD

Bypass Air
Grilles
Electrical Fan-assisted FAD
Trunking terminal
FD

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 UFAD system: Control output of the variable speed fan terminal
with heating coil for the perimeter zone
variable volume variable temperature control
35oC

Variable airflow
at 16oC

Variable Constant airflow

airflow variable temperature
at 35oC
Minimum
airflow at 16oC
(Fan off)

16oC

73 (Source: The Regents of the University of California) 74

Possible reduction of fan power in an UFAD system

 Underfloor plenum is the primary air distribution
route;
 Use less ductwork than the conventional ceiling
supply system;
 Primary fan pressure is reduced (125 – 250 Pa);
 Substantial energy savings on primary fan
power possible, however this may be offset by
fan-assisted terminals used in perimeter zones.
When to use UFAD system
 Office buildings – all are possible but best for:
- Open office plan
- Owner occupied buildings
- Dry, mild climates (Energy benefit best in mild climates
without high humidity; little or no saving in humid climates)
 Churches, theaters, auditoriums (resemble displacement
ventilation if supplied under seats at low velocity) ;
 Tall spaces, e.g. banks;
 Libraries, court houses, institutional buildings.

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