Air Conditioning Systems and Control

Variable Air Volume Systems

An air handling unit

1
 Basic control schematic of a single zone VAV system

Supply
S.A. flow rate is Chilled water temperature S.A. temperature
varied to maintain control valve controller
is kept constant
room temperature

Tr Ts

Cooling coil

Power
supply
Fan speed Frequency
controller inverter
3

In a VAV system, the

changes of the room RH
will be small, depending o
Part-load cycle:
on the degree of m’-c-s-r’
variation of the room
=50%

sensible heat ratio. m

r'
r wr
c s
95% Full-load cycle: m-c-s-r

tr – ts

ts tr

2
 VAV system allows saving in fan power.

% of fan power at design flow

Damper

Inlet vanes

Variable
Fan law
speed
FP  (Speed)3

% of system design flow

Consideration of supply air in VAV system:

‘Fixed’ supply air temperature at below 15oC will
ensure air dehumidification which is good for
attaining small changes of room RH at part load;
Supply air flow is reduced at decreasing sensible
load;
Supply air flow rate limited by O.A. requirement
and ADPI;
Turn down ratio = Minimum flow / Design flow

3
 Control at minimum flow for single zone VAV system

Supply
Lower-of-two temperature
selector switch controller
When minimum air
Chilled water flow is reached,
control valve chilled water flow is
controlled in
response to Tr so as
to retain control of
Tr Ts
room temperature.

Cooling coil

Power
Fan speed supply
controller Frequency inverter
7

Multi-zone VAV system with duct static pressure control

Supply temperature
controller

Chilled water VAV

control valve box

Ts

Cooling coil Pressure sensor P

Power VAV
supply box
Frequency
inverter Fan speed controller
( Fan speed is regulated to maintain static pressure set point P, so that
there will be adequate but little pressure fluctuation at VAV box inlets )
8

4
Multi-zone VAV system with duct static pressure control

AHU Ts P

O.A.

VAV
Box
VCD
T T
Zone 1 Zone 2
E.A.

Ts is kept unchanged.
When Vs to any zone is reduced, P tends to rise, and
the fan speed is reduced to track the set point of P.
9

Types of VAV boxes

 Pressure dependent
 Pressure independent
 VAV with terminal reheat
 Fan powered

10

5
 Multi-zone VAV system
 Temperature control of each zone by a terminal
device - VAV box;
 Air flow to each zone controlled by a zone
thermostat to open or close the VAV box damper ;

A VAV Box

11

Multi-zone VAV system with terminal reheat

VAV box Heater

 Reheat is activated at further decrease of space sensible

load when the air flow rate has reached a pre-set minimum.
12

6
VAV system with
terminal reheat
o

Air conditioning cycle m

at design conditions

r
r'
c s h
Zone reheat at part load
and minimum flow
=50%

25oC

13

Heating Cooling
set point set point

19 20 21 23 24 25 (oC)

14

7
Control Signal

Deadband VAV box damper

fully open
Cooling setpoint
VAV box damper
at min. position

Heating valve closed

Heating setpoint

Heating valve full open

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Zone Temperature oC

15

Throttling Throttling
range Deadband range

Cool - Max.

Zero Cooling/Heating
Cooling
Heating setpoint
setpoint
Heat - Max.

Heat Addition Heat Extraction

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Zone Temperature oC

16

8
Output

Heating (R.A.) Cooling (D.A.)

Room Air Temperature

DA: Direct acting, i.e. at higher room temperature signal,

higher control output for cooling.
RA: Reverse acting, i.e. at lower room temperature signal,
higher control output for heating.
17

Pressure independent VAV box

velocity
sensor
Velocity
reset control

Pressure fluctuation at the ductwork will affect

rate of air flow through a VAV box ;
Velocity sensor measures the air flow and reset
the position control over the damper ;
18

9
Fan powered VAV box (parallel)

 A fan located outside but in parallel with the primary

air (PA) stream;
 At reduced cooling load and minimum PA, the fan
draws air from the ceiling plenum to mix with the PA;
 Get rid of the problem of unacceptably low airflow to
the room at low load, avoid reheat of cooled air.
19

Fan powered VAV box (parallel)

Capacity

100% Vmax
Hot water
valve
Cold
Fan ON supply air

Vmi
n

0%

Heating Loop Dead Cooling Loop

band
20

10
 VAV/Skin CAV system (dual conduit):
Air-duct layout

Air
damper
CC FAN VAV system
O.A.

VAV
E.A.

CC HC

O.A. Perimeter Interior

zone zone

CAV system

21

VAV/Skin CAV system (dual conduit system):

Where and why using it?

 Application:
Building with extensive floor area, internal zones which
require cooling throughout the year, and perimeter zones
which require either cooling or heating in winter.

 VAV system provides cooling to serve the whole

floor, while a CAV serves the perimeter zone.

22

11
 VAV/Skin CAV system (dual conduit system):
VAV control
Air
damper FAN
O.A. T
P
CC
VAV VAV
E.A.

CC HC T

O.A. Perimeter Interior

zone zone

23

VAV / Skin CAV system :

 Skin CAV system serves to offset the cooling load due to

conduction gain through external wall and window.
(offset the heating load due to conduction loss)
 Other cooling load components (solar load, internal load,
etc.) are catered for by the VAV system.
 The overall control strategy is that CAV system is to
match the envelope conduction heat gain/loss.
 Skin CAV’s supply air temperature is reset in accordance
with the outdoor air temperature.

24

12
 VAV/Skin CAV system (dual conduit system):
Skin CAV control
Air
O.A.
damper CC FAN

E.A. VAV
VAV

CC HC Tx Ti
Ts
O.A. Perimeter Interior
zone zone

c
c To (outdoor air)
25

Control of the skin CAV

To
D.A.
Reset

R.A. Ch.W. R.
Reset
H.W. R.
Reset of supply air Ch.W.S.
temperature based on H.W.S.
outdoor temperature.
Supply
Ts air

Cooling / Heating Coil

26

13
Skin CAV supply air temperature is the controlled variable, and
its set point (Tset ) is reset according to the outdoor temperature.
Ts is maintained by the control output in response to (Ts – Tset ).

Output Larger cooling output

(control valve open wider) Reverse
at larger (Ts – Tset) acting

Control output curve

shifted by reset, amount
of shift determined by
the reset schedule.
Cooling Heating

T set Supply Air Temperature

27

VAV/Skin CAV system:

Skin CAV supply air flow design
 Design data required:
- External wall and window areas (Ai) and Ui values;
Summer Winter
- Indoor design temp. (oC) Tr = 25 T’r = 20
- Outdoor design temp. (oC) To = 33 T’o = 8
- CAV supply air temp. (oC) Ts = ? T’s = 35

 Design flow rate for the skin CAV to offset the

perimeter transmission heat gain (summer) and loss
(winter) due to outdoor-indoor-temperature-difference.

28

14
 VAV/Skin CAV system:
Skin CAV supply air flow design
 C (T - T )   U A (T - T )
Summer gain : Vs p r s i i o r

Winter loss :  C (T' - T' )   U A (T' - T' )

Vs p s r i i r o

 V
  U i A i (To - Tr )

U i A i (T' r - T' o )
 C p (Tr - Ts )  C p (T' s - T' r )
s

(To - Tr ) (T' r - T' o )

Hence, 
(Tr - Ts ) (T' s - T' r )

29

VAV/Skin CAV system:

Skin CAV supply air flow design

 Conduction loss in winter > Conduction gain in summer

 Vs is determined based on winter conduction loss with
T’s = 35oC

 
Hence, V
U i A i (20 - 8)
 C p (35 - 20)
s

(33 - 25) (20 - 8)

  Ts  15 o C
(25 - Ts ) (35 - 20)

30

15
 Skin CAV supply temperature reset-scheme:

 Skin CAV supply air temperature is reset based on

outdoor air temperature;

 In winter heating mode:

T’s = T’r + ( ΣAi Ui) (T’r - T’o) / ρ Vs Cp
T’s changes with T’o , other parameters are fixed,
 T’s = a’ - b’ T’o
T’s = 35oC when T’o = 8oC
T’s = T’r = 20oC when T’o = T’r
 a’ = 45 , b’ = 1.25
 T’s = 45 - 1.25 T’o
31

Skin CAV supply temperature reset-scheme:

 In summer cooling mode:

Ts = Tr - (ΣAi Ui) (To - Tr) / ρ Vs Cp

 Ts = c - b To
Ts = 15oC when To = 33oC
Ts = Tr = 25oC when To = Tr
 c = 56.25 , b = 1.25
 Ts = 56.25 - 1.25 To

32

16
 Ts reset-scheme for the above skin CAV example:

Ts = 45 - 1.25 To for To  20oC

Ts = 56.25 - 1.25 To for To  25oC
40
Ts (oC)
Ts = 45 - 1.25 To

30

Ts = 56.25 - 1.25
T
20
Ts = To

10

To (oC)
0
10 20 30 40

33

Skin CAV Ts reset and operation scheme:

(1) When To  20oC

 space temperature set point at 20oC;
 heating coil is activated;
 reset Ts = 45 - 1.25 To
 possible energy wastage at To of 16-20oC when
the building has still a net cooling load,
causing simultaneous cooling by VAV and
heating by skin CAV;

34

17
Skin CAV Ts reset and operation scheme:

(2) When 20 < To < 25oC

 space temperature set point at 25oC;
 skin CAV operates with 100% outdoor air;
 cooling and heating coils are deactivated;
 Ts = To
 there may be some energy penalty if ho > hr ;
 problem of increased space latent load if the
outdoor air humidity is high.

35

Skin CAV Ts reset and operation scheme:

(3) When To  25oC

 space temperature set point at 25oC;
 coiling coil is activated;
 reset Ts = 56.25 - 1.25 To

36

18
 Induction system

It is an air-water system;
The air conditioning process is enabled by two separate
thermal energy elements from the central plant,
primary air and secondary chilled water
to achieve cooling, heating, dehumidification, ventilation
and circulation of room air;
An alternative design to the VAV / skin CAV system.

37

Induction system
The primary air from an AHU and the secondary water
are supplied to terminal induction units in the room;

Floor mounted induction unit

Ceiling mounted induction unit

38

19
 Induction system

1) Primary air stream discharged

at high velocity;
2) Air nozzle;
3) Secondary air stream induced
to flow into the unit;
4) Cooling / heating coil;
5) Mixture of primary and
secondary air discharged into
the room.

39

Induction system
Primary air
 A mixture of outdoor air and return air, cooled (or heated)
and dehumidified, then delivered to the induction unit as
primary air (typically at 12-14oC);
 Provides cooled (or heated) air to offset transmission
gains (or losses) through the walls, roof and window;
 Provides dehumidified air to offset the space latent load;
 Provides outdoor air for occupants;
 Provides motivating energy to induce room air through
the secondary coil to enhance air circulation.

40

20
 Induction system

Secondary chilled water

 A mixture of primary chilled water and returned
chilled water, typically at 11oC, delivered to the
secondary coil of the induction unit;
 Provides cooling through the induction unit to offset
the heat gain from solar radiation, occupants, lights
and other internal sensible loads.

41

Dual duct VAV system

Heating
coil
H th

Supply fan C
O.A.
C tc
C
Recirculate Cooling
air coil
VCD
T T
Zone 1 Zone 2

E.A.

A mix of cool supply air at temperature tc and hot supply air at

th , controlled by a zone thermostat, is available to each zone.
42

21
 Dual duct VAV system Hot duct temperature
controller

Hot water
control valve

Heating Hot duct Th

coil
P set, h
Chilled water Cold duct
control valve temperature
controller

Cold duct Tc
Power
supply
Cooling
Lower of two coil P set, c
selector switch

Fan speed
controller

Values of (Pmeasured – Pset) at cold and hot ducts are compared,

and the lower is selected to regulate fan speed to maintain
the set point of P at the selected duct.
43

Dual duct VAV system

Fan capacity control;

Two static pressure sensors, one each at the cold
air and hot air duct;
Fan speed is regulated to maintain the set point for
the lower (Pmeasured - Psetpoint) of the two;
Temperatures of the cold air and hot air are
controlled separately by temperature controller;
In summer cooling, the hot air stream is simply
the mix of return and outdoor air without heating;

44

22
 Dual duct VAV system

 Air supply through a VAV mixing box

Air flow rate

hot air
Mixed
VAV mixing box
Min. air Cold air
flow rate
cold air Hot air

Room Room temperature

Damper
controller temperature
sensor

45

hot air

VAV mixing box

cold air

Damper
controller

Room
temperature
sensor

46

23
 Dual duct VAV system

Supply air flow rate

Mixed
Minimum supply
flow rate
Hot air Cold air
supply supply

19oC 21oC 23oC 25oC

Room temperature
47

Economizer cycle

Cooling effect of cool outdoor air is utilized to

cope with part or all cooling demand;
The purpose is to minimize the chiller energy
consumption;
At summer conditions, minimum outdoor air;
At the intermediate seasons, all-outdoor air;

48

24
 Envelope of
possible outdoor
o air conditions
hr
Zone 1

r
c s Zone 2

Zone 3

tc tr (oC)

49

Economizer cycle operation

Based on outdoor / indoor air enthalpy,

ho > hi : normal cooling mode, minimum outdoor air;
ho < hi : 100% outdoor air, cooling energy is reduced;

to  tc : Cool outdoor air mixed with some return air to

cope with space cooling demand (i.e. free
cooling), no cooling at the coil;

to  tc : Minimum outdoor air, heating is provided;

50

25
 Economizer cycle operation

Control devices and sensors:

 Motorized dampers at outdoor air intake, return and
exhaust air paths (Do, Dr, De);

 Temperature (T) and humidity (H) sensors at outdoor

and return air paths (measure to , o , ti and i);

 Total enthalpy controller ;

 Flow meters (F) at the supply (Vs), main return (Vmr),

exhaust (Ve) and return (Vr) air paths; Flow controller;

51

Economiser cycle system

Cont

F1 P
AHU T3
O.A.
Vo Vs
T1 H1
F3

Vr Cont
F F

Cont VAV Cont Cont

Total Cont
enthalpy terminal
T T
controller
Zone 1 Zone 2
Ve F2
E.A.
Vmr
H2 T2
Cont Controller

52

26
 Economizer cycle operation

Control sequence (via enthalpy controller):

Calculate air enthalpy ho and hi based on measured t
and  ;

Compare ho , hi , to and ti to determine the modes of

operation (Zone I, II or III);

Control the dampers (open, close or modulate)

according to the modes of operation;

53

Economiser Cycle Operation

Zone In / Out Damper Position

Conditions Do Dr De

I ho > h r min. open min.

II ho < h r open closed open

& to > tc
III to < tc Under modulating control

to  tc min. open min.

54

27
 Economizer cycle operation

Control sequence (via flow controller):

Control speed of return air fan based on Vs (e.g. make Vmr
to be a fraction of Vs if +ve space pressure is required);

Required amount of Vr is determined or calculated based

on Vs and the modes of operation; (Vr = Vs – Vo)

Position of De is modulated based on the signal of

(Vmr – Vr) such that Ve = Vmr – Vr is attained;

55

Underfloor Air Distribution System (Source: e-News Issue 49 2005)

56

28
 Alternative designs of
underfloor air distribution system
 Fully mixed UFAD system;
 Displacement ventilation UFAD system;
 Hybrid of mixing and buoyancy UFAD system.

57

Conventional Ceiling Air Distribution System: uniform mixing

(Source: HPAC Engineering 2003)

58

29
 Conventional cooling air supply and return at ceiling:

STRUCTURE SLAB
OVERHEAD DUCKWORK

EVENLY MIXED

STRUCTURE SLAB
59

Displacement Ventilation System with floor supply

Comment: Good ventilation effectiveness, but stratification exists.
The plane of stratification height (SH) separates the upper and lower
zones, which features changes in gradient for both temperature and
pollutant concentrations. (Source: HPAC Engineering 2003)
60

30
 STRUCTURE SLAB

More polluted 26oC

STRATIFICATION 25oC

24oC
Steep
temperature
Cleaner gradient

UNDERFLOOR PLENUM 18oC

STRUCTURE SLAB

Floor supply at low velocity (cooling)

61

Underfloor Air Distribution System with swirl diffuser

Comment: A hybrid of uniform mixing and buoyancy. There are
two characteristic heights in the room – the Throw Height (TH) of
the floor diffuser and the Stratification Height (SH); even mixing
at the occupied zone. (Source: HPAC Engineering 2003)
62

31
Underfloor vs. Ceiling Supply Design Issues
 Insulated underfloor air supply plenum;
 Cool air enters the occupied zone at low level;
 Higher supply air temperature, e.g. 18oC (cooling);
 Allows for occupant control;
 Reduced sensible cooling load at occupied zone;
 Perimeter zone solutions are critical;
 Air tightness of underfloor air plenum;
 Properly controlled stratification leads to reduced
energy use while maintaining comfort;
 Access floor improves flexibility and re-configurability.

63

Potential benefits of UFAD system

 Improved occupant comfort and health;
 Improved ventilation effectiveness and indoor air quality;
 Reduced energy use (arguable, depends on climate,
insufficient dehumidification is a problem);

 Reduced life-cycle building cost (but higher initial cost);

 Improved flexibility for building services (arguable);
 Reduced floor-to-floor height in new construction
(questionable).

64

32
 Passive Swirl Diffuser, adjustable face plate to allow
for personal control , commonly used in UFAD system with
pressurized plenum. (Source: Trox, USA)
65

Underfloor air distribution system

 Supply air temperature (Ts) at 16-19oC, which is higher
than those for traditional ceiling supply system,
reducing the risk of uncomfortably cool temperature at
the occupied zone.
 Supply airflow rate (Vs) is determined based on:
Qs – Qc,uz – Qloss = ρ Vs Cpa (Tr – Ts)
Qs is the space sensible load for traditional system;
Qc,uz is the convective gains at upper zone;
Qloss is the heat loss transferred to the floor plenum;
 Supply airflow rate required is similar to that of
traditional ceiling supply system.

66

33
 17 L/s per m2
10 L/s per m2
5 L/s per m2

(21oC) (24oC) (27oC)

Underfloor Air Distribution System: Effect of room airflow variation

with floor supply swirl diffusers at constant load & interior zone.
Comment: Stratification increases when room airflow is reduced.
(Source: HPAC Engineering 2003)
67

Underfloor air distribution system

To overcome the problems of stratification, cold
draft and humidity, we can use a VAV primary
supply AHU with fan-assisted terminals (FAT):

 The AHU will cool and dehumidify the primary supply

air adequate to offset the space latent load;
 Variable primary airflow to cope with sensible load
changes, but constant supply airflow by FAT;
 Mixing of PA and RA at the FAT to raise supply air
temperature to avoid uncomfortably coolness at
occupied zones;
 Increased supply air flow to avoid stratification.

68

34
 UFAD system with Fan-assisted Terminal

Supply air Return air

Return air
Controller temperature
Raised sensor
floor

Primary
air
Slab

Reheater Volume control Primary air

Fan temperature
(optional) damper
sensor
69

Underfloor air distribution system

Using variable speed AHU with system balancing
control strategy:

 Variable primary supply airflow by control of AHU

speed in response to return air temperature set point;
 Variable mixing portions of primary air and return air
at the fan-assisted terminals in response to the PA
temperature and the zone RA temperature;
(increase PA portion at higher zone temperature)
 Make use of bypass air grilles for system flow and
pressure balance.

70

35
Arrangement of the R.A. E.A. EAD
AHU, ductwork and temperature
FD
sensor
supply air plenum of Return Air
an UFAD system. R.A Plenum

S.A - CH/HTW
S&R
OFFICE +

S.A R.A S.A R.A Condensate

FD

Bypass Air
Grilles
Electrical Fan-assisted FAD
Trunking terminal
FD

71

Solution for the Perimeter Zone:

Use underfloor variable speed fan terminal with heating
coil to provide variable flow of cool or hot air depending
on the outdoor temperature.

72

36
 73

UFAD system: Control output of the variable speed fan terminal

with heating coil for the perimeter zone
variable volume variable temperature control
35oC

Variable airflow
at 16oC

Variable Constant airflow

airflow variable temperature
at 35oC
Minimum
airflow at 16oC
(Fan off)

16oC

(Source: The Regents of the University of California) 74

37
Possible reduction of fan power in an UFAD system

 Underfloor plenum is the primary air distribution

route;
 Use less ductwork than the conventional ceiling
supply system;
 Primary fan pressure is reduced (125 – 250 Pa);
 Substantial energy savings on primary fan
power possible, however this may be offset by
fan-assisted terminals used in perimeter zones.

75

When to use UFAD system

 Office buildings – all are possible but best for:
- Open office plan
- Owner occupied buildings
- Dry, mild climates (Energy benefit best in mild climates
without high humidity; little or no saving in humid climates)
 Churches, theaters, auditoriums (resemble displacement
ventilation if supplied under seats at low velocity) ;

 Tall spaces, e.g. banks;

 Libraries, court houses, institutional buildings.

76

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77

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