Module-4 Chidanand Jadar

15CV4 Asst. Professor

Module - 4
CONSOLIDATION
FUNDAMENTS OF CONSOLIDATION
1. General Concepts of One-dimensional Consolidation

2. Theory of One-Dimensional Consolidation

According to Terzaghi (1943), “a decrease of water content of a saturated soil without

replacement of the water by air is called a process of consolidation.” When saturated clayey
soils-which have a low coefficient of permeability-are subjected to a compressive stress due to
a foundation loading, the ore water pressure will immediately increase; however, due to the
low permeability of the soil, there will be a time lag between the application of load and the
extrusion of the pore water and, thus, the settlement. This phenomenon is the subject of
discussion of this chapter.

FUNDAMENTS OF CONSOLIDATION

General Concepts of One-dimensional Consolidation

To understand the basic concepts of consolidation, consider a clay layer of thickness located
below the groundwater level and between two highly permeable sand layers as shown in
Figure 4.1. If a surcharge of intensity is applied at the ground surface over a very large
area, the pore water pressure in the clay layer will increase. For a surcharge of infinite extent,
the immediate increase of the pore water pressure, , at all depths of the clay layer will be
equal to the increase of the total stress, . Thus, immediately after the application of the
surcharge.

Civil Engg Dept., AIT, Bengaluru

Module-4 Chidanand Jadar
15CV4 Asst. Professor

Figure 4.1 Typical natural soil profile

Since the total stress is equal to the sum of the effective stress and the pore water pressure at
all depth soft the clay layer the increase of effective stress due to the surcharge (immediately
after application) will be equal to zero (i.e., where is the increase of the effective
stress). In other words, at time t = 0, the entire stress increase at all depths of the clay is taken
by the pore water pressure and none b y the soil skeleton. This is shown in Figure 4.2a. (It
must be pointed out that, for loads applied over a limited area, it may to be true that the increase
of the pore water pressure is equal to the increase of vertical stress at any depth at time t = 0.

Civil Engg Dept., AIT, Bengaluru

Module-4 Chidanand Jadar
15CV4 Asst. Professor

Figure 4.2 Change of pore water pressure and effective stress in the clay layer
shown in Figure 4. 1 due to the surcharge

After application of the surcharge (i.e., at time ), the water in the void spaces of the clay
layer will be squeezed out and will flow toward both the highly permeable sand layers, thereby
reducing the excess pore water pressure. This, in turn, will increase the effective stress by an
amount since . Thus, at
time ,

And

This fact is shown in Figure4.2b.

Theoretically, at time the excess pore water pressure at all depths of the clay layer will
be dissipated by gradual drainage. Thus, at time ,

And

This shown in Figure 4.2c.

Civil Engg Dept., AIT, Bengaluru

Module-4 Chidanand Jadar
15CV4 Asst. Professor
This gradual process of increase of effective stress in the clay layer due to the surcharge will
result in a settlement which is time-dependent and is referred to as the process of consolidation.
Theory of One-Dimensional Consolidation

The theory for the time rate of one-dimensional consolidation was first proposed by Terzaghi
(1925). The underlying assumption in the derivation of the mathematical equations are as
follows:

Figure 4.3 Clay layer undergoing consolidation

1. The clay layer is homogeneous.

2. The clay layer is saturated.
3. The compression of the soil layer is due to the change in volume only, which, in turn,
is due to the squeezing out of water from the void spaces.
4. Darcy’s law valid.
5. Deformation of soil occurs only in the direction of the load application.
6. The coefficient of consolidation [equation (15)] is constant during the consolidation.

With the above assumptions, let us consider a clay layer of thickness as shown in Figure
4.3. The layer is located between two highly permeable sand layers. In this case of one-
dimensional consolidation, the flow of water into and out of the soil element is in one direction
only, i.e., in the z direction. This means that are equal to zero, and thus
the rate of low into and out of the soil element can be given
by:

Civil Engg Dept., AIT, Bengaluru

Module-4 Chidanand Jadar
15CV4 Asst. Professor

(1)

Where (2)

we obtain

(3)

Where is the coefficient of permeability [k= ]. However,

(4)

where is the unit weight of water. Substitution of equation (4) and (3) and rearranging gives

(5)

During consolidation the rate of change of volume is equal to the rate of change of the void
volume. So,

(6)

Where is the volume of voids in the soil element. But

(7)

Where is the volume of soil solids in the element, which is constant, and is the void ratio.
So,

(8)

Substituting the above relation into equation (5), we get

(9)

The change in void ratio, , is due to the increase of effective stress; assuming that these are
linearly related, then

(10)

Combining equations (9) and (11),

(12)

Where (13)

Or (14)

Civil Engg Dept., AIT, Bengaluru

Module-4 Chidanand Jadar
15CV4 Asst. Professor

Where (15)

Equation (14) is the basic differential equation of Terzaghi’s consolidation theory and can be
solved with proper boundary conditions. To solve the equation, assume u to be the product of
two functions, i.e., the product of a function of z and a function of t, or

(16) So,

(17) And

(18)

From equations (14), (17), and (18),

or

(19)

The right-hand side of equation (19) is a function of z only and is independent of t; the left-
hand side of the equation is a function of t only and is independent of z. therefore, they must
be equal to a constant, say- .
So,

(20)

A solution to equation (20) can be given by

(21)

Where and are constants.

Again, the right-hand side of equation (19) may be written as

(22)

The solution to equation (22) is given by

(23)

Where is a constant. Combining equations (16), (21), and (23),

(24) Where .

The constants in equation (24) can be evaluated from the boundary conditions, which are as
follows:

Civil Engg Dept., AIT, Bengaluru

Module-4 Chidanand Jadar
15CV4 Asst. Professor
1. At time (initial excess pore water pressure at any
depth).
2. .
3. .

Note that H is the length of the longest drainage path. In this case, which is two-way drainage
condition (top and bottom of the clay layer), H is equal to half the total thickness of the clay
layer, .

The second boundary condition dictates that , and from the third boundary condition we
get

Where n is an integer. From the above, a general solution of equation (24) can be in given the
form

(25)

Where is the nondimensional time factor and is equal to

To satisfy the first boundary condition, we must have the coefficients of such that

(26)

Equation (26) is a Fourier sine series, and can be given by

(27)

Combining equations (25) and (27),

(28)

So far we have not made any assumptions regarding the variation of with the depth of the
clay layer. Several possible types of variation for are considered below.

Constant with depth. if is constant with depth – i.e., if (Figure 4.4) – referring
to equation
(28),

So, (29)

Civil Engg Dept., AIT, Bengaluru

Module-4 Chidanand Jadar
15CV4 Asst. Professor

Figure 4.4 Initial excess pore water pressure -constant with depth (double
drainage)

Note that the term in the above equation is zero for cases when n is even; therefore,
u is also zero. For the nonzero terms, it is convenient to substitute where m is an
integer. So equation (29) will no read

(30)

Where . At a given time, the degree of consolidation at any depth z is

defined as

(31)

Where is the increase of effective stress at a depth z due to consolidation. From equations
(30) and (31),

(32)

Figure 4.5 shows the variation of with depth for various values of the non-dimensional time
factor, ; these curves are called isocrones.

Civil Engg Dept., AIT, Bengaluru

Module-4 Chidanand Jadar
15CV4 Asst. Professor

Figure 4.5 Variation of with and

In most cases, however, we need to obtain the average degree of consolidation for the entire
layer. This is given by

(33)

The average degree of consolidation is also the ratio of consolidation settlement at any time to
maximum consolidation settlement. Note, in this case, that .

Combining equations (30) and (33),

(34)

Figure 4.6 gives the variation of (also see table 1)

Civil Engg Dept., AIT, Bengaluru

Module-4 Chidanand Jadar
15CV4 Asst. Professor

Figure 4.6 Variation of average degree of consolidation

Terzaghi suggested the following equations for to approximate the values obtained from
equation (34):

For (35)

For (36)

Sivaram and Swamee (1977) gave the following equation for varying from 0 to 100%:

(37)

Or (38)

Equations (37) and (38) give an error in of less than 1% for 0% and less than
3% for
90% .

Table 1 Variation of [equation (34)

0 0 60 0.287
10 0.008 65 0.342
20 0.031 70 0.403
30 0.071 75 0.478
35 0.096 80 0.567

Civil Engg Dept., AIT, Bengaluru

Module-4 Chidanand Jadar
15CV4 Asst. Professor

40 0.126 85 0.684
45 0.159 90 0.848
50 0.197 95 1.127
55 0.238 100
It must be pointed out that, if we have a situation of one-way drainage as shown in Figure 4.7a
and b, equation (34) would still be valid. Note, however, that the length of the drainage path
is equal to the total thickness of the clay layer.

Figure 4.7 Initial excess pore pressure distribution-one way drainage, constant with depth

Linear variation of . The linear variation of the initial excess pore water pressure, as shown
in Figure 8, may be written as
(39)

Substitution of the above relation for into equation (28) yields

Civil Engg Dept., AIT, Bengaluru

Module-4 Chidanand Jadar
15CV4 Asst. Professor

Figure 4.8 linearly varying initial excess pore water pressure distribution-two-way
drainage

Figure 4.9 Sinusoidal initial excess pore water pressure distribution-two-way drainage

(40)

The average degree of consolidation can be obtained by solving equations (40) and 33):

Civil Engg Dept., AIT, Bengaluru

Module-4 Chidanand Jadar
15CV4 Asst. Professor
This is identical to equation (34), which was for the case where the excess pore water pressure
is constant with depth, and so the same curves as given in Figure 4.6 can be used.

Sinusoidal variation of . Sinusoidal variation (Figure 4.9) can be represented by the

equation

(41)

The solution for the average degree of consolidation for this type of excess pore water pressure
distribution is of the form

(42)

The variation of for various values of is given in Figure 4.6.

Numerical Examples

1. A 3 m thick layer of saturated clay in the field under a surcharge loading will achieve
90% consolidation in 75 days in double drainage conditions. Find the coefficient of
consolidation of the clay.

2. A 3 m thick clay layer in the field under a given surcharge will undergo 7 cm of total
primary consolidation. If the first 4 cm of settlement takes 90 days, calculate the time required
for the first 2 cm of settlement.

3. For a laboratory consolidation test on a soil specimen that is drained on both sides, the
following were obtained:

Thickness of the clay specimen = 25 mm

σ1 = 50 kN/m2 ; e1 = 0.92

σ2 = 120 kN/m2 ;e2 = 0.78

Time for 50% consolidation = 2.5 min

Determine the soil permeability for the loading range.

4. The void ratio of a clay sample A decreased from 0.572 to 0.505 under a change in
pressure from122 to 180 kN/m2. The void ratio of another sample B decreased from 0.61 to
0.557 under the same increment of pressure. The thickness of sample A was 1.5 times that of
B. Nevertheless, the time taken for 50% consolidation was 3 times larger for sample B than for
A. What is the ratio of coefficient of permeability of sample A to that of Bl?

5. A 2.5 cm thick sample of clay was taken from the field for predicting the time of
settlement for a proposed building which exerts a uniform pressure of 100 kN/m2 over the clay
stratum. The sample was loaded to 100 kN/m2 and proper drainage was allowed from top and
bottom. It was seen that 50 percent of the total settlement occurred in 3 minutes. Find the time
required for 50 percent of the total settlement of the building, if it is to be constructed on a 6 m
thick layer of clay which extend from the ground surface and is underlain by sand.

Civil Engg Dept., AIT, Bengaluru

Module-4 Chidanand Jadar
15CV4 Asst. Professor
6. A stratum of normally consolidated clay of thickness 10 ft is drained on one side only.
It has a hydraulic conductivity of k = 1.863 x 108 in/sec and a coefficient of volume
compressibility mv = 8.6 x 10-4 in2/lb. Determine the ultimate value of the compression of the
stratum by assuming a uniformly distributed load of 5250 lb/ft2 and also determine the time
required for 20 percent and 80 percent consolidation.

7. The loading period for a new building extended from May 1995 to May 1997. In May
2000, the average measured settlement was found to be 11.43 cm. It is known that the ultimate
settlement will be about 35.56 cm. Estimate the settlement in May 2005. Assume double
drainage to occur.

8. An oedometer test is performed on a 2 cm thick clay sample. After 5 minutes, 50%

consolidation is reached. After how long a time would the same degree of consolidation be
achieved in the field where the clay layer is 3.70 m thick? Assume the sample and the clay
layer have the same drainage boundary conditions (double drainage).

9. A laboratory sample of clay 2 cm thick took 15 min to attain 60 percent consolidation

under a double drainage condition. What time will be required to attain the same degree of
consolidation for a clay layer 3 m thick under the foundation of a building for a similar loading
and drainage condition?

10. A bed of sand 10m thick is underlain by a compressible of clay 3 m thick under which
lies sand. The water table is at a depth of 4 m below the ground surface. The total unit weights
of sand below and above the water table are 20.5 and 17.7 kN/m3 respectively. The clay has a
natural water content of 42%, liquid limit 46% and specific gravity 2.76. Assuming the clay to
be normally consolidated, estimate the probable final settlement under an average excess
pressure of 100 kN/m2.

11. The effective overburden pressure at the middle of a saturated clay layer 12 ft thick is
2100 lb/ft2 and is drained on both sides. The overburden pressure at the middle of the clay
stratum is expected to be increased by 3150 lb/ft2 due to the load from a structure at the ground
surface. An undisturbed sample of clay 20 mm thick is tested in a consolidometer. The total
change in thickness of the specimen is 0.80 mm when the applied pressure is 2100 lb/ft2. The
final water content of the sample is 24 percent and the specific gravity of the solids is 2.72.
Estimate the probable final settlement of the proposed structure.

12. The thickness of a compressible layer, prior to placing of a fill covering a large area, is
30 ft. Its original void ratio was 1.0. Sometime after the fill was constructed measurements
indicated that the average void ratio was 0.8. Determine the compression of the soil layer.

13. The water content of a soft clay is 54.2% and the liquid limit is 57.3%. Estimate the
compression index according to field conditions

14. A layer of normally consolidated clay is 20 ft thick and lies under a recently constructed
building. The pressure of sand overlying the clay layer is 6300 lb/ft2, and the new construction
increases the overburden pressure at the middle of the clay layer by 2100 lb/ft2. If the
compression index is 0.5, compute the final settlement assuming wn = 45%, Gs = 2.70, and the
clay is submerged with the water table at the top of the clay stratum.

15. A 2.5 cm thick sample was tested in a consolidometer under saturated conditions with
drainage on both sides. 30 percent consolidation was reached under a load in 15 minutes. For

Civil Engg Dept., AIT, Bengaluru

Module-4 Chidanand Jadar
15CV4 Asst. Professor
the same conditions of stress but with only one way drainage, estimate the time in days it would
take for a 2 m thick layer of the same soil to consolidate in the field to attain the same degree
of consolidation.

Civil Engg Dept., AIT, Bengaluru