Understanding Teaching ✓ Teaching may also mean the myriad of

activities associated to teaching (i.e.

Chapter 1 explains, asks, reviews, demonstrate,
• Teaching is more than just memorizing advises students, etc)
facts & knowing correct answer, it lies in ✓ Teaching is an act itself which involves
making learners truly understand the common activities in classroom & the
concepts under study. teaching strategies & techniques, but
• Teaching also require effective delivery focuses to make it work to the full
of the course contents, thus the need for advantage of the learner.
available varied strategies anchored on ✓ Teaching is a process or set of actions to
educational theories relative to the induce learning & eventually to succeed in
“how” of teaching. learning. This stresses planning for
• A teacher has become a facilitator , a far teaching, the process of teaching &
cry from what use to be teacher- achievement aspects. It is deliberate &
centered instruction. He simply guides does not just happens.
& provide learners opportunity to
develop creativity & come up with their
own discoveries . What is Teaching for understanding
• A teacher’s responsibility includes (TfU) Framework?
connecting students’ learning according - Blythe & associates (1989) made a
to what they know of value, thus he framework linked to what David Perkins
must know his student’s interests, called four cornerstone pedagogy
learning styles & background. consisting of four elements of planning
& instruction:
FOUR CENTRAL QUESTIONS TfU Elements
The Teaching Profession ABOUT TEACHING Addressing Each
• It is a noble profession and is one which Question
1. What shall we teach? Generative
can be rewarding and fulfilling no
Topics
matter what the odds are especially for 2. What is worth Understanding
people who regard it as a calling, more understanding? Goals
than commitment. 3. How shall we teach for Understanding
• It has been accentuated by the need for understanding? Performances
meeting the challenges of the times, 4. How can students and Ongoing
teacher know what assessment
which can be addressed through quality students understand and
teaching. how students can develop
• Demand for professional teacher who deeper understanding?
will stick with the profession despite the - It is a set of general guidelines, in which
constraints has been persistent. teacher is leading students toward being
• As a profession it produces something able to do a variety of thought-
significant and moving when the right provoking things with a topic, such as
ideas and beliefs are implemented. explaining, finding evidence in
• Love for teaching has served as a examples, generalizing, applying,
motivating factor to teachers who have making analogies, and representing the
not left behind much-touted idealism. topic in new ways.
• The teaching profession demands a total - TfU framework serves as guide to focus
commitment to total transformation of educational practices on the
the learning, a continuous dev’t of his development of student understanding.
potential for totally satisfying life as a The core dimensions of the framework
person and as a member of the reflect good teaching from perspective
community. of educators. The guidelines are
• The teacher need support system from applicable to teaching in all grade levels
the parents and the community. and even in higher education.
• Teacher plays a crucial role in the Generative Topics
continuous dev’t of the society as they - One of the most challenging task a
try to meet the challenges of the time. teacher faces is determining, reviewing
& deciding on course materials to use for
What is teaching? optimal learning.
- It is an organized, purposeful and - are issues, themes, concepts and ideas
deliberate efforts designed to bring that provide adequate depth,
about certain desirable ends in an significance, connections and variety of
individual. perspectives to nurture students’
- According to our authors it can be development in terms of powerful
understood from different contexts as: understanding or discernment.
✓ Teaching is an occupation- refers to
teaching as one does for living.
Guide when selecting the best possible
teaching topics:
➢ Central to one or more domains of
disciplines.
➢ Interesting to students
➢ Interesting to teachers
➢ Accessible
➢ Offer opportunities for multiple
connections
Steps for Planning Generative Topics:
➢ Brainstorming
➢ Create idea webs around ideas generated
➢ Choose from idea web
➢ Consult with other teachers and peers or
with community members.
Questions to ask when refining web of
ideas:
➢ Does the topic represent fundamental
concepts or themes in your domain?
➢ Do you think it will appeal to students and
to you?
➢ Does it provide opportunities for students
to connect learning possibilities to other
classes as well as life experience outside
school?
➢ Does it have related resources materials to
make topic accessible to students?
➢ Do you think you can present the topic to
your students in engaging way?
Understanding Goals
- Teachers can developed nested
understanding goals – unit sized goals
embedded with year-long overarching
goals or throughlines. Throughlines are
compounded goals of short topics for the
duration of a school year.
- These describe the most important
understanding that learners should
develop during the entire course.
Identifying Throughlines
➢ At the beginning of the semester, the
teacher might write down the most
important things his students may learn out
of the class. He also plans to revisit &
modify the list as lessons progresses during
the year.
➢ After trying several units, he looks for
related goals that appear more than once
or stands out from the rest. Unlike unit
understanding goals, throughlines need to
encompass the essence of the whole
course.
➢ Throughlines are often rooted in deeply
held but rarely articulated beliefs and
values about both subject matter and
teaching & learning process, thus they
often take longer to cultivate & polished.
Unit long goals can sometimes take several
years to be considered accomplished &
finetuned.
Planning Throughlines
In developing the teacher’s overarching
understanding goals, he usually asks himself,
“What are the most important things I want my
students to keep when they leave my class?” To
develop goals, following steps may be tried:
➢ Review several units that have been
planned (either using the framework or in
other ways). What common these emerge?
What understanding, skills or concepts
resurface time & again as you plan & teach?
➢ Ask the students what they hear being
focused on. As them what they think are
supposed to get from the class.
➢ As with unit long understanding goals, try
stating overarching goads as both
statement & question.
Performance of Understanding
➢ During the year the student should be
involved in activities that develop, express,
and supplement their current
understanding.
➢ Initial performance are initially simple like
discussing certain topic as a group.
➢ Eventually performance elevates from
simple to complex. Teachers as well
progress from offering high instructional
support to lower levels as students begin to
acquire understanding of the key concepts
independently.
➢ Eventually students might be able to
contribute in culminating performance of
understanding via activities such as
presentation or exhibition.
➢ Their learning opportunities are even more
enriched by different kinds of life
experiences. Even with knowledge acquire
from books & lectures, but without
opportunity to apply knowledge in various
situation with guidance from expert
facilitator, they are not likely to develop
understanding & have better appreciation
of what they have learned.
Planning performance of
Understanding
➢ Teacher may begin planning by
brainstorming ideas for possible
performance of understanding.
➢ After goals are identified, he looks at the
list of possibilities for performance of
understanding he generated & identifies
ones that best seem to support these goals.
If he has not identified goals yet, he tries
other possibilities & ask “Why do I want my
students to do this? This will help
articulating the understanding of goals.
The performance of understanding generated
are sequence so they occur throughout the
unit, from start to end, which are:
▪ Introductory performances.
▪ Guided-inquiry performances
▪ Culminating performances.
Ongoing Assessment
➢ It is the process of providing students with
clear responses to their performance of
understanding in a way that will help
improve their next performances. It
provides an actual gauge on their kind of
performance.
➢ Teachers should provide feedback, learning
criteria & opportunities for reflection
throughout the instruction, and not be at
the end of unit.
➢ When understanding is the purpose of
instruction, the process of assessment is
than just an evaluation making it a
substantive contribution to leaning. The
process needs to be able to validate & to
enlighten students & teachers about what
students currently understand & how to
continue with subsequent teaching &
learning.
Key Factors of ongoing assessment
➢ Criteria established for each performance
of understanding need to be a) clear; b)
relevant; and c) public
➢ Feedbacks need to:
✓ occur frequently from beginning to end of
the unit.
✓ offer students information not only about
how they perform but how to improve it
further.
✓ inform them about intended subsequent
classes & activities
✓ come from variety of perspective (student,
classmates & teacher)
Planning Ongoing assessment
➢ The teacher uses his understanding goals
to establish the criteria by which to assess
student’s performance. The test of
understanding is the most crucial.
➢ The teacher provides opportunities at the
beginning and throughout a unit for
assessing how well the students developed
their understanding. Assessment should be
ongoing process.
➢ Balance of both formal & informal
feedback is important & teacher should
make room for multi-perspective
assessment (self, peer and teacher).
The Learner
Chapter 2
➢ The learner as the first element of
teaching & learning is the focus on this
chapter.
➢ The learner is the core of the teaching-
learning processes. It is from him/her
that all activities related to classroom
activities revolves. He/She is either pupil
– learner in elementary level and a
student –learner who attends an
institution beyond the elementary level.
Factors Affecting Cognitive
Development of Children
• Biological Factors – are substances that
affect biological systems and are
necessary to produce a result or cause
activity of the body. These factors are
a) Senses b) Intelligence c) Heredity d)
maturation.
• Environmental – these includes
surroundings, conditions, or influences
that affects an organisms. These factors
are a) learning opportunities b)
Economic status c) Play is also
important in developing cognition d)
various types of stimuli e) family and
society.
(7) Characteristics of Independent
Learners
1. Curiosity –Seeking out ways to explore.
On their own, they look for additional
supplements.
2. Self-Motivation – intrinsic motivation
far surpasses any prize or reward
system, that is setting internal goals to
achieve provide motivation to
independent learners.
3. Self-examination- Independent learners
keep track of their achievements &
failures. They have proper evaluation of
their strengths & weaknesses.
4. Accountability- Knowing what you have
to do & doing it without anyone telling
you to, that is being responsible.
5. Critical Thinking – An attitude of
examining all possibilities & often come
up with multiple solutions. They do not
memorize, and they probe & analyze the
nature of things or situation.
6. Comprehension (with little instruction)
– this is the ability to read, visualize, or
kinesthetically instruct themselves.
They will find ways to understand
material thru application (normally trial
and error).
7. Persistence – An attitude of not giving
up being serious learning. They try to
comprehend a concept as much as
possible on their own before asking for
help. They apply self discipline when
faced with difficulty in finding answer to
a problem.
Approaches to Learning (Deep vs
Surface)
Deep Learning
➢ examining new facts and ideas critically,
trying them into existing cognitive
structures, and making numerous links
between ideas
➢ the student are aiming towards
understanding. It involves the critical &
in-depth analysis of new ideas, relating
them with already known concepts &
principle.
➢ It promotes understanding & long term
retention of concepts that are used in
problem solving. It is applied in real life
situation.
➢ Characteristics:
▪ Looking for meaning
▪ Focusing on the central argument of
concepts needed to solve a problem
▪ Interacting actively
▪ Distinguishing between argument
and evidence
▪ Making connections between
different modules
▪ Relating new to previous knowledge
▪ Linking course content to real life
➢ Encouraged by students:
▪ Having an intrinsic curiosity in the
subject
▪ Being determined to do well and
mentally engaged when doing
academic work
▪ Having the appropriate background
knowledge for a sound foundation
▪ Having time to pursue interests
through good time management
▪ Positive experience of confidence in
one’s ability to understand and
succeed
➢ Encouraged by teachers
▪ Relating new materials to what
students already know and
understand
▪ Allowing students to make mistakes
without penalty and rewarding effort
▪ Being consistent and fair in assessing
declared intended learning
outcomes, hence establishing trust
Surface Learning
➢ Accepting new facts and ideas
uncritically, and attempting to store them
as isolated, unconnected items
➢ the students are aiming to reproduce
material in test or exam rather than
actually understand it.
➢ It is the explicit recognition of
information & memorization. It leads to
superficial retention of materials for
examination.
➢ Characteristics:
▪ Relying on rote learning
▪ Focusing on outward signs and the
formulae needed to solve a problem
▪ Receiving information passively
▪ Failing to distinguish principles from
examples
▪ Treating parts of modules and
programs separately
▪ Not recognizing new materials as
building on previous work
▪ Seeing course content simply as
material to be learnt for the exam
➢ Encouraged by students:
▪ Studying a degree for the
qualification and not being
interested in the subject
▪ Not focusing on academic areas,
but emphasizing others (e.g.,
social, sport)
▪ Lacking background knowledge and
understanding necessary to
understand a material
▪ Not enough time/ too much
workload
▪ Cynical view on education believing
that factual recall is what is
required
➢ Encouraged by teachers
▪ Conveying disinterest or even
negative attitude to the material
▪ Presenting material so that it can
be perceived as a series of
unrelated facts and ideas
▪ Allowing students to be passive
▪ Assessing for independent facts
(short-answer questions)
▪ Rushing to cover too much material
▪ Emphasizing coverage at the
expense of depth
▪ Creating undue anxiety or low
expectations of success by
discouraging statements or
excessive workload
▪ Having a short assessment cycle
Designing for Deep Learning
➢ Students should be encourage to engage
in deep learning, no matter the difficulty.
➢ It is often argued that the explicit setting
of “straightforward assessments that
involve short questions to test separate
ideas encourages “surface learning.”.
➢ however, even the most apparently
simple assessment questions can require
students to demonstrate knowledge can
be applied
Putting Theory in Practice
➢ Clearly stated academic aims,
opportunities to exercise some choice &
well-aligned assessment strategies that
help students to build confidence can be
found among the factors identified as
encouraging deep approach to learning.
Example using problem based learning,
rather than producing assessments that
require rote application.
➢ Concentrate on key concepts, not only in
isolation, that is integrated approach to
teaching.
➢ While regular assessment is advantageous
to remain focused on the material,
memorization is not encouraged.
➢ The assessment process must not only give
students opportunity to receive feedback,
but also must make the assessment
relevant to the field of study.
Learning Styles & Preferences
➢ Learning can be done in different ways.
From students, it can by close
observation, seeing & hearing, working
 alone & in groups, logical reasoning &
intuitively, memorizing or visualizing &
modelling. Some prefer pictures than
text, other concrete before abstract.
➢ On the part of teacher, there are those
who lecture, others demonstrate or
discuss, some focus on principles & others
on applications.
➢ How much students’ learning in class
depends among other things on match
between student’s learning styles and
instructor’s teaching styles, thus there
should be jive with instructor’s teaching
style & student’s learning style.
Some guidelines about teaching styles:
• There is not single/definite learning
styles. There is a mix learning styles for
everyone.
• Some people have dominant style of
learning with far less use of the other
styles.
• Others may use different styles in
different circumstances. There is no
right combination.
• Styles that are developed can still be
further improved for learning
enhancement.
The 7 learning styles (Memletic styles)
1. Visual (spatial)–prefers using pictures, images,
graphs, charts, logic puzzles & spatial
understanding.
2. Aural (auditory-musical)–prefers using sound &
music.
3. Verbal (linguistic)–prefer using words, both speech &
writing.
4. Physical (kinesthetic)-prefers using body, hands &
touch.
5. Logical (mathematical)-prefers using logic,
reasoning & systems.
6. Social (interpersonal)-prefers to learn in groups or
with other people.
7. Solitary(intrapersonal)-prefers to work alone & use
self study.
The Basis of Learning Styles
➢ Learning styles change the way the
learner internally represents experiences,
recall information, and choose words to
explain things.
➢ According to research, learning styles
activates different parts of the brain.
Involving more of the brain during
learning capacitates learner more to
remember more of what he/she learns.
Key areas of the brain responsible for
learning style are as follows:
1. Visual-the occipital lobes at the back
of brain manage visual sense.
2. Aural-the temporal lobes handle
aural content. The right temporal
lobe is specially important for music.
3. Physical-the cerebellum & the motor
cortex (at the back of the frontal
lobe handle much of our physical
movement.
4. Logical-the parietal lobes especially
the left side, drive our logical
thinking.
5. Verbal-the temporal and frontal
lobes especially the two specialized
areas called Broca’s area and
Wernicke’s area (in the left
hemisphere of these two lobes)
govern the use of manually
articulated (i.e. signed) or vocally
articulated (i.e. spoken) language as
shown on Figure 2.
6. Social-The frontal & temporal lobes
handle much of our social activities.
The limbic system (not shown apart
from the hippocampus) also
influences both social & solitary
styles. The limbic system has a lot to
do with emotions, moods &
aggression.
The Dunn & Dunn Learning Style Model
➢ Learning style is the way person
processes, internalizes studies,
interprets, & changes new & challenging
materials.
➢ Most people can learn & each individual
has his own unique ways of mastering new
& difficult subject matter. This is the
cornerstone of Dun & Dunn Learning style.
➢ Dunn’s model is a complex &
encompasses five strands of 21 elements
affecting each individual’s learning. Some
of these elements are biological, and
others are developmental.
A summary of these elements as provided as
follows:
➢ Environmental- this strand refers to
these elements: lighting, sound,
temperature & seating arrangement.
People prefer a place to study that
facilitates more learning. Depending upon
which learning situation is more
compatible & conducive to learning.
➢ Emotional –this strand involve the
following elements: motivation,
persistence, responsibility & structure,
i.e. some people work best when
motivated & encouraged, or when
allowed to do multi-tasking (persistence),
while other feel motivated when assigned
to lead.
➢ Sociological- the strand represent
elements which make individual learn
while in association with other people. It
 can be a) alone or with peers; b) an
authoritative adult or with collegial
colleague; and c) learning a variety of
ways or routine patterns.
➢ Physiological-elements in this strand are:
perceptual (auditory, visual, tactile &
kinesthetic), time of the day energy
levels, intake (eating, or not while
studying), & mobility (sitting or moving
around).
➢ Psychological- the elements in this strand
correspond to the following psychological
processing: hemispheric, impulsive or
reflective and global versus analytic.
Hemispheric element refers to the left &
right brain processing modes. The
impulsive versus reflective style describe
how some people do something or resort
to doing something before thinking and
others scrutinize the situation before
moving an inch. Global & analytic
element are unique, as these two
elements are made up of clusters of
elements from the other four strands.
The elements are sound, light & seating
arrangement (environmental) and
persistence (emotional), sociological
preference & intake (physilogical).
Differences among Student’s leaning
styles
(4) Factors that significantly differ between
groups & among individuals
1. Global & analytic- Global learner prefers
to work in an environment with soft lighting &
informal setting; need breaks, mobility &
sound, while analytic learners prefers to work
in an environment with bright lights & formal
setting, work best when uninterrupted or with
few; prefer a quiet surrounding & little or no
snacking. C
2. Age-learning styles vary & change with age.
Some learning styles (sociological, motivation,
responsibility & internal vs external structure)
are developmental & change as people grow
older. Children prefer to work with peers than
being alone. The auditory & visual perceptual
elements strengthen with age for many.
3. Gender-Perceptual strengths of males are
often visual, tactile & kinesthetic. More mobile
than females & they function & achieve better
in an informal environment. On the other hand,
females tend to be more auditory, prefer quiet
atmosphere while studying, work best in
formal setting & need less mobility. They are
more conforming , authority oriented & parent
& self motivated & engaging than males.
4. High vs low academic achievement- High
& low achieving students learn in statistically
different ways from one another. Successful
teaching strategies for one group may not
produce similar outcomes in the other group,
thus teacher should remember that there are
various range of learners; one learning style
may apply to some but not to others.
Kolb’s Learning Style
This model sets out four distinct learning
style. The intersection of the processing &
perception dimension in this model creates a
set of learning style.
1. Social learner are leaders. They
learn best by analyzing & solving
problem using their intuition &
information from other people
rather from books or lectures.
2. Creative learners are imaginative.
They have open mind to new ideas &
offer multiple perspectives. They
value brainstorming with a group
although they often listen & observe
first before sharing their own ideas.
3. Intellectual learners are
organized, logical & precise. They
like to learn from lectures, reading &
contemplation. They find fact, ideas
& information fascinating &
challenging to people & emotions.
4. Practical learners are both
thinkers & doers. They are those
who learn through experimentation,
seeking out new ideas, & discovering
practical application for them. They
can focus intently on select subjects;
they favor technical challenges to
interpersonal matters.
Kolb explained that different people naturally
prefer a certain single different style & several
factors influence a person’s preferred style. In
Kolb’s ELT, he define three stages of person’s
development & suggested that propensity to
reconcile & successfully integrate the four
different learning styles improve as we mature.
1. Acquisition (birth to adolescence)-
development of basic abilities &
“cognitive structures”.
2. Specialization (schooling, early work
& personal experiences of
adulthood) – the development of
particular “specialized learning
style” shaped by social, educational
& organizational socialization.
3. Integration (mid-career thru later
life) – expression of non-dominant
learning style in work & personal life.

The Teacher
Chapter 3
➢ In this chapter, emphasis is on Teacher.
They are considered as the prime mover of
educational process and are the ones who
facilitate the whole process of learning.
➢ The teacher’s primary concern is to make
learning experience, whether inside or
outside the classroom effective,
productive & meaningful. For this reason,
he is obliged to make every learning
activity gratifying.
➢ Learning advocates have since
acknowledged the concept of individual
differences as a major consideration in
learning process, thus in learning process
the teachers assume every learner is
distinct & different from each other in
terms of interests, traits, abilities,
characteristics & maturity.
Varied Roles of a Teacher
➢ As a Manager -responsible for the effective
mgmt. of his class from start to finish
➢ As a Counselor -he counsels learner
especially when they are beset by
problems.
➢ As a Motivator –Encouraging & motivating
learners to study well & behave properly in
& outside classroom.
➢ As a Leader –a leader directs, coaches,
supports & delegate depending on the
need of situation.
➢ As a Model –a teacher is exemplar. He
serve as model to his learners. Learners
idolize their teacher; they believe the
things that they say, especially if they
show kindness & are approachable &
sympathetic to their needs
➢ As a Public Relation Specialist – The
credibility of the school is attributed most
of the time to the ways the teacher deals
with all the people outside the school, like
school benefactors, parents, church
leaders, government employees, and
others.
➢ As a Parent-surrogate –In school, the
teacher is the parent of the learners.
Parents have a feeling of security knowing
that their children are in good hands.
➢ As a Facilitator – He/she is the facilitator
of learning. The learners must be given a
chance to discuss things under the close
supervision & monitoring of the teacher.
➢ As an Instructor –the main function of
teacher is instruction. All the other role
aforementioned are corollary to teaching.
At the heart of teacher’s role is the
advancement of learning. Their duties
include the following:
• Know how to employ the most effective
teaching & learning strategies to
enable children & young people to
make progress.
• Evaluate what their learners know,
understand & can do; be able to use
this assessment to prepare future
teaching & learning activities.
• Have high expectation for all their
pupils of whatever class, race, gender
& ability
• Recognize how to motivate their
learners– to do this they need to be
effective role models for the students
they teach.
Professional Attributes for a Teacher
The following list describes affective
characteristics & behavior expected of a
profession educator:
Physical Characteristics
✓ Health & wellness- the candidate has the
physical & mental character, sufficient
motor coordination & energy, adequate
visual & auditory acuity & good health
needed to effectively & implement the
institutional & managerial duties
associated with teaching the levels &
fields for which he is being prepared.
✓ Appearance-the candidate takes pride in
his personal appearance; is well groomed
and present himself in a professional
manner appropriate to the age of students
being taught.
Personality Characteristics
✓ Cooperation –The candidate has a good
moral attitude; works cooperatively with
peers, site teachers, & faculty; contributes
constructively to the realization of group
objective; is vocal about his opinion,
avoids sarcasm.
✓ Tactfulness –The candidate is modest in
the use of words & actions upon others;
tempers his words in consideration of the
feelings of other people and avoids
situation which offend institutional &
community mores.
✓ Flexibility & patience –The candidate
displays a willingness & ability to adapt to
changes in events, conditions, activities,
innovation, and tasks & an overall patience
for circumstances & human interactions.
✓ Organization –The candidate monitors &
controls time, materials, and product
expectations; is good at classroom & time
management.
✓ Enthusiasm –The candidate displays energy
& enthusiasm and responds appropriately
to humor.
✓ Creativity –The candidate synthesizes
theory & practice into new personalized
adaptation & application.
✓ Initiative & risk taking - The candidate
displays independence & motivation & is
not resistant to undertake new activities &
assignments.
Responsibility Characteristics
✓ Responsibility -The candidate undertake &
completes assigned tasks, assume his
role/functions; attend to his position,
meet university & program requirements &
deadlines, anticipates problems & plans
ahead & adapts to professional standards
& policies; has a good moral ethics.
✓ Attendance & punctuality -The candidate
is always present & punctual for class &
appointments; arrange ahead of time with
all necessary individuals for unavoidable
delays or absences; and does not solicit
except for any but very special &
legitimate circumstances.
✓ Maturity- The candidate displays poise in
task completion & personal interactions,
acknowledges his own responsibility &
culpability, and does not pass on blame to
others or rationalize his own inadequate or
mission performance; has integrity & is
honest in professional dealings.
Communication Skills
✓ Oral communication -The candidate
reflects appropriate voice & speech
delivery; clarity, fluency and grammatical
correctness; uses standard English and
understandable accent; appropriate
formality to any situation’ and verbal
flexibility allowing rephrasing or
translating of ideas or questions until
instruction is clear to students.
✓ Written communication -The written
output of the candidate reflects
appropriate & accurate spelling, grammar,
punctuation, syntax, format, and English
usage; and demonstrate organization &
compositions that effectively communicate
ideas, directions, explanations, lesson
plans, messages and other teaching
related written output.
Professional Relationship Skills
✓ Demeanor- The candidate demonstrate
positive attitudes in interactions with
other professionals; collaborate with
peers; respect authority; complies with
rules & report problems with school &
university operations with reference to
specific evidence & reasonable courtesy.
✓ Rapport -The candidate relates easily &
appropriately to children, youth & other
responsible to him, providing leadership or
direction while involving others & listening
to and incorporating their desires &
concerns.
✓ Awareness -The candidate recognizes &
empathizes with human differences in
ethnicity, gender, physical ability &
intellectual ability and demonstrate
sensitivity to social expectations in varied
environments.
Commitment to Teaching Profession
✓ Professionalism -The candidate
demonstrates a passion for teaching;
recognizes, seeks, & applies the best
theory, research and practice in
professional activities; is proud to assert
his intention of becoming a teacher and
demonstrate a commitment to education
as a career.
✓ Withiness -The candidate exhibits
simultaneous awareness of all aspects of
the learning environment.
✓ Reflectivity -The candidate reflects and
evaluates professional experiences with
constructive criticism.
Qualities of a Good Teacher
Good teacher knows that by listening to &
working with colleagues, parents, other
professionals & community members, they can
inspire students & improve learning. Personal
qualities & skills that make a good teacher
includes:
➢ Being good at explaining things.
➢ Being a person who enjoys working with
wide range of people.
➢ Being enthusiastic.
➢ Having a strong knowledge in a particular
subject areas
➢ Being good at time management.
➢ The ability to work in a teams and uses his
own initiative.
➢ Keeping cool under pressure.
➢ Having patience & good sense of humor
➢ Being fair minded.
➢ Coping well with change and
➢ Enjoying a challenge
Personal Qualities of a Good Teacher
Dent (1961) enumerate the personal qualities
of a good teacher which are as follows:
➢ Firstly, the teacher’s personality should be
pleasantly active, dynamic & attractive.
This does not rule out physically plain or
even ugly as there are those such with
great personal charm but rules out types
like over-excited, melancholic, frigid,
sarcastic, cynical, frustrated, &
overbearing. It exclude all dull or purely
negative personality.
➢ Secondly, a teacher should have genuine
capacity for sympathy – a capacity to tune
in to the minds & feelings of other people,
especially those of the students. Closely
related is being tolerant on the frailty &
immaturity of the students, give allowance
to making mistakes.
➢ Thirdly, the teacher is both intellectually
& morally honest. He is should have an
honest assessment of his strengths &
limitations and can decide morally as
guidance of his life. At times a teacher
 need to be a bit of an actor, that at times
a need to put an act to enliven a lesson,
can correct a fault or dispense praise as
applicable.
➢ A teacher must remain mentally alert. He
should continue to advance intellectually
and not stagnate. He must be quick to
adapt to any situation, however difficult it
is & should be in a position to improvise, if
necessary at a short notice.
➢ Fourthly, a teacher must be infinitely
patient being part of his self discipline &
self training. He must be resilient as
teaching has great demands on nervous
energy. Dealing with children/ students
who by nature have naughtiness, thus he
need to endure mischief even unpleasant
behavior on day-to-day encounters.
➢ Fifthly a teacher should have mind for
continuous learning as teaching is field
where there are always something more to
learn. He has to contend with three (3)
principal objects of study: subjects,
methods by which to teach effectively &
the learner, the most important
component
Principles for Teachers
Conceptual understanding of core
knowledge
➢ Refers to teacher’s ability to communicate
& solve problems using central concepts,
tools of inquiry and structure of different
principles. This set of skills is
demonstrated respectively the ability to:
✓ define learning goals that reflect mastery
of the subject matter.
✓ design & effect the kind of instruction
that develops student’s conceptual
framework.
✓ provide meaningful learning activities to
improve learner’s communication &
quantitative skills
✓ model effective communication &
problem solving.
✓ apply variety of media & technology;
✓ distinguish high quality educational
materials and
✓ Write & speak with clarify for effective
communication
Reflective practice
➢ Refers to teacher’s ability to step outside
of the experiences that make up teaching,
relate such experiences and analyze &
critique the impact of such experience &
contextualize it from multiple perspective
is called reflective practice. Reflective
practice is the ability to:
✓ expound on the principles that guides
teaching.
✓ demonstrate teaching as inquiry process,
collecting & analyzing data about student’s
learning & generating plan designed to
support student’s learning.
✓ make available teach from multiple
perspective; do self-assessment from
multiple perspective
✓ gather information thru observation of
classroom interaction; evaluate learner’s
dev’t & knowledge
✓ utilize assessment processes appropriate
to learning outcomes; and
✓ encourage learners to employ multiple
approaches, solution & diverse pathways
to learning
Teaching for Understanding
➢ The ability of teacher draw on their
knowledge & framework structures to
plan, implement, supplement and assess
effective learning experience through
supportive social & physical contexts for
learning is termed teaching for
understanding. Furthermore, this is the
ability to:
✓ set clear goals for learning experience;
prepare suitable classroom routines.
✓ provide learners with meaningful choices;
create a collaborative, supportive social
environment.
✓ engage learners in generating knowledge
& testing hypothesis; develop learner’s
ability for ideas
✓ apply multiple strategies that engage
students in active learning; motivate
learners to see questions & interpret ideas
for themselves & their own learning.
✓ convince learners to assume responsibility
for themselves & their own learning.
✓ encourage all students to learn; provide
interactive learning environment.
✓ ask question that promote learning and
build on children’s prior knowledge.
Passion for teaching
➢ Refers to teacher’s ability to continually
develop their own complex content &
pedagogical knowledge to support the
development of student’s habit of
continual, purposeful learning is know as
passion for teaching. Also, this is the
ability to:
✓ summarize & teach complex concepts &
network of knowledge; consider learners’
intellectual, social & personal growth
✓ support learners with special needs;
include other disciplines to create
meaningful curriculum
✓ provide engagement activities thru
multiple ways of knowing;
✓ allow for high & positive expectations for
learner’s achievement; include other
disciplines to create meaningful
curriculum.
✓ provide learners opportunities to solve
community problems & make authentic
choices; provide learner’s access to
learning opportunities;
✓ collaborate with other professionals when
needed and engage in personal inquiry to
construct content knowledge & skills
Understanding school in context of society &
culture
➢ Refers to teacher’s ability to value & teach
about diversity, recognize the effect of
social, cultural, economic & political
 system on daily school life and to tap the
potential of school to minimize
inequalities. It consist of the ability to:
✓ be change agent; communicate in ways
that profess sensitivity to a broad range of
diversity.
✓ set as mediator when learners need help
to resolve problems or change attitude.
✓ Collaborate with parents, co-teacher,
administrators, and other community
members in school activities; get involve in
the lives of student.
✓ include knowledge of community into
teaching; and challenge negative attitude.
Principle of Professionalism
➢ Refers to teacher’s ability to be active
contributor/member of professional
communities that collaborate improve
teaching & student achievement by
developing a culture of trust, share ethics,
established standards, and research-based
practices. It is the ability to:
✓ live up to the ethical principles guiding
professional conduct; demonstrate &
document standards-based practices in the
classroom.
✓ remain updated in terms of research on
teaching & new developments in the
discipline; seek membership in
professional organizations & resource
networks beyond the school;
✓ include complex & difficult issues in
dialogue with colleagues; give
presentation to other professionals
✓ initiate & lead activities such as teacher
research, study groups, coaching among
others;
✓ enhance the teaching & learning of school
community; promote positive attitude.
✓ facilitate decision making and integrate
democratic principles in school operations
The Learning Environment
Chapter 4
➢ This chapter focuses on the learning
environment which includes classroom,
home, and community, where the social,
affect, physical, psychological, and
pedagogical contexts in learning occur and
which affect student achievement and
attributes.
➢ Learning environment is a venue for
social interaction that includes ways of
doing things, solving problems, and
acquiring information.
➢ It is where learners engage in a set of
behavior to be acquired. The classroom,
the home, and the community are
considered as the learning environment.
Classroom as Learning Environment
➢ Classroom is a place where the teacher
interacts with the learners with the
teachers. Formal interaction is usually
done in a classroom. Formal interaction is
usually done in a classroom.
➢ It provides for classroom learning
activities and affords the transfer of
learning from classroom to practice
➢ A good classroom has a stimulating
climate, one that results not only from
desirable physical surroundings and
healthful conditions, but also from social
relationships and emotional attitudes
according to Aquino (1988)
It encompasses the following:
▪ Physical environment. This is the
totality of the outside elements or the
physical make-up that influences the
learner.
▪ Intellectual climate. This refers to a
learning atmosphere characterized by
activities designed to challenge the
intellect of the leaners.
▪ Emotional climate. This refers to the
mental health and emotional
adjustment of all learners. Learners
have varied needs and interest, the
reason why the teacher has to
acknowledge the differences in
personality of the learners.
▪ Social climate. There are three types
of social climate existing in the
classroom: the autocratic, laissez faire,
and democratic
Three types of social climate:
▪ Autocratic climate - in here the teacher
directs and decides as to what activities
are to be done.
▪ Laissez faire climate, there is little
emphasis on group participation. The
individual acts on his own working for
the recognition of his accomplishments.
In the democratic climate, there is high
regard for group participation and cooperative
work. The teacher becomes a facilitator and
guides the learners in the accomplishment of a
common set of objectives.
The Role of the Teacher in the Classroom
Environment
➢ The teacher's behavior, including his
development, is part of classroom
environment, along with school culture. In
order to maintain an effective classroom,
there is a need for professional
development of teachers particularly the
less experienced. This includes intense
monitoring, advance studies, and teaching
partnership with colleagues
➢ Classroom rules and procedures should be
introduced and consequences should be
enforced consistently among students
throughout the school year.
➢ Routine and fairness have a positive
impact on behavior, as well as academic
quality. It has been acknowledged that
teachers who run respectful classrooms are
in turn more respected by their students.
➢ Teachers are encouraged to focus more on
the learning task than on the outcome or
grade assigned at the end of the task
Measuring Classroom Environment
The widely used Classroom Environment Scale
(Moos 1979) is based on three essential areas
of classroom environment:
1. Relationship dimension that focuses
on the interpersonal relationships
between students and students, and
the teacher in a classroom
2. Personal development dimension
which centers on individual
characteristics of the classroom
member
3. System maintenance and change
dimension that include attributes, such
as classroom control and order, as well
as responsiveness to change
Characteristics of the Learning Environment
It has the following:
➢ Welcoming to children
➢ Provides sufficient materials for all the
learners
➢ Allows children to find, use, and return
materials independently
➢ Encourages different types of play
➢ Allows learners to see and move easily
through all the areas of the classroom
➢ Flexible so that learners are free to
continue their play and being materials
from one area to another
➢ Provides materials that reflect the
diversity of the learner’s family and their
living environment
Dividing the Classroom into Interest Areas
➢ Space available can be divided into
interest area or learning centers equipped
and ready for distinct kinds of play, thus
chosen area are to reflect the learner's
natural interests and developmental
levels.
➢ Teachers can choose many open-ended
materials various materials, such as blocks
in all sizes, art materials, and fabric pieces
can be used in a number of wars.
➢ Teachers are also aware of the significance
of having access to real items that reflect
the environment where learners live in
(i.e. cooking utensils, small appliances
that no longer work or toy appliances,
dress-up clothes, & other objects). These
are usually seen around home and gardens.
Storage and Labeling
➢ Learning materials need to be within
learners’ reach thus they can be stored in
conspicuous places in the classroom. They
can also be arranged and labeled properly
on low shelves or on the floor or in see-
through containers.
➢ Shelves and containers have labels that
make sense to learners (i.e. labels might
contain words drawings, tracings of the
object, photos, or an example of the
actual object.
Learning Environment
➢ Traditionally, the learning environment
provided has been thought about in two
dominant forms: the physical and the
socio-cultural.
➢ The physical environment includes things
like chairs arranged in a circle or around a
square table, provision of residential
college, access to library and other
information resources, access to
laboratory or other discipline-specialist
environments, and so forth
➢ Nowadays, learning environment takes
two different dominant forms: the
physical and the virtual. Both allow space
to explore the socio-cultural.
➢ The physical environment is similar to
that of traditional learning environment.
➢ The virtual environment which
supplements the physical environment
offers the opportunity to work outside the
restrictions of time and place.
➢ The socio-cultural environment is less
straightforward, at least at first glance.
➢ The essence of much good teaching
practice and its role in shaping an
appropriate learning environment are
summed up or represented using only a
handful of key words. These key words
relate both to actions taken by the
teacher: modeling, coaching, scaffolding,
(and fading); and the actions requested
of the learner: articulating, reflecting,
and exploring.
➢ Good teachers sequence tasks and move
the goal posts in such a fashion that
students not only become increasingly
able, but also increasingly independent
learners.
➢ In addition to actions expected of teach is
the word "blending.” Blending learning is
a new art that focuses on good teaching by
using both physical and virtual learning
environments.
➢ Finding an appropriate blend or design is
often a process of iterative trial and error
informed by reflective practice (Highton
2011)
Home as Learning Environment
➢ Home provides an instructional process
that includes acquisition of behavioral
patterns, acceptance of standard norms,
and development of necessary traits.
➢ It is where the learners first cultivate
trust, attitude, and skills that will aid and
guide them as they embrace the world
enthusiastically.
➢ A home conducive to learning is where
there is love and encouragement from
family. It also has an atmosphere of
security, stimulation, and opportunity that
children need to feel consistently for them
to flourish as learners.
➢ At home, good parenting has been defined
as providing a secure and stable
environment, intellectual stimulation,
parent-child discussion, and high
aspirations (Desforges 2003).
➢ It is during babyhood when the vital
foundation for later learning is
established, and a secure attachment is
formed through sensitive, responsive care-
giving.
➢ A positive home learning environment
provides social interaction, attention, and
activities which promote the development
of a positive attitude to learning, as well
as the acquisition of physical, intellectual,
language, social and emotional skills.
➢ Parents can provide the building blocks
for literacy and cognitive development
by: chatting as much as possible during
normal life, using a wide vocabulary, and
praising rather than criticizing; talking to
children about things, using language with
a high information content; giving children
choices rather than simply directing them;
and listening and responding to what
children say.
Community as Learning Environment
➢ Community brings about a learning
environment that allows opportunities for
interaction among its members. In this
kind of environment, community provides
the interacts, while participation provides
the meaning of the experience.
➢ A Community is a group of people that
interacts, who is part of a shared
environment, and who may also share
common goals, values, beliefs, among
others. Community refer to the social
context of learners and their surroundings.
➢ “A community sets the standards of
expectation for the individual and provides
the atmosphere and environment wherein
remarkable things happen. Kuh &
colleagues refer these as "conditions that
matter for student success in college.
➢ A real community exists only when its
members interact in a meaningful way that
strengthens their understanding of each
other and leads to solid learning
experiences. It is here where the
learners—including faculty—are enriched
by collective meaning-making, mentorship,
encouragement, and an understanding of
their perspectives and unique qualities
that are also increasingly diverse.
➢ Learning institutions use community
meetings to address critical school issues
to teach values and to share information,
among other things. Meetings can also be
about simple fun and pleasures, such as
contests featuring advisers and students or
other activities that foster wholesome
entertainment or even edutainment.
➢ As with most aspects of high-quality
schools, community building begins with a
vision and takes shape because school
leaders and teachers intentionally design
structures and activities to reach their
vision. Upon graduation the new
professional’s challenge is for them is to
lead the formation of communities
wherever they go for the rest of their lives
and be productive and competent
members of communities.
Principle Underlying Teaching
Chapter 5
Introduction
This chapter covers various principles
underlying teaching from various author’s
perspective.
Below are the Theories of Learning:
Behavioral perspective. Analysis of applied
behavior has been found effective in educational
situations. For example, the reward system is said to
alter learner’s behavior.
Cognitive perspective. This perspective
considers cause relations of constructs like
beliefs, traits, memories, motivations, and
even emotions. From the cognitive theorists,
memory structures influence the perception,
processing, storage, and retrieval of
information.
Developmental perspective. The neo-
Piagetian theories of cognitive development
are anchored on developmental psychology
which operates on a number of important
assumptions related to education:
1. Human cognitive competence is viewed
from the psychology 00 of cognitive
development as a product of several
stages/phases of en development. It
assumes that education aims to help in
the learner's abwe acquisition of
knowledge and skills that is compatible
with their understanding and problem-
solving capabilities at different age
levels.
2. The psychology of cognitive development
involves the basic knowledge of how
cognitive change takes place along with
the recognition of other factors that give
way to cognitive competence.
3. The psychology of cognitive development
concerns itself with individual
differences, taking into account the
cognitive processes and abilities, rate
and prospect of change, as well as the
mechanism of change.
Social cognitive perspective. The social
cognitive theory is a successful blend of
behavioral, cognitive, and social elements
initially espoused by Albert Bandura in his
social learning theory. According to him, in the
observational learning process, a learner's
behavior changes as a result of observing
other's behavior and its corresponding
consequences.
 Constructive perspective. This theory that
emphasizes the prior knowledge and
experience of the learner that include the
social and cultural determinants of the
learning process. Lev Vygotsky's cultural
learning describes how positive interactions
are with more capable peers and use of
cognitive tools.
✓ Included in the constructivist
perspective are theories on
motivation. Motivation is an internal
state that enhances, prolongs, and
guides behavior that impacts
student's learning and behavior
toward a subject matter.
Principles of Teaching According to Various
Authors
James L. Mursell's Six Principles of Teaching
1. Principle of Context. When one talks
about knowledge management, however, it
becomes necessary to analyze the meaning
of the word "knowledge" from different
perspectives.
Fleming (1996) pointed to a number of
observations related to context
development.
He stressed the following: a) A collection
of data is not information. b) A collection
of information is not knowledge. c) A
collection of knowledge isn’t wisdom. d) A
collection of wisdom is not truth.
✓ Along this, its proper to as “What is the
meaning of the word "context"? Context
refers to words just before or after a
certain word sentence that help make clear
what it means. The idea that a reader gets
from a sentence simply provides
information, knowledge, and wisdom which
are simply collections; that is, without a
particular meaning attached to the piece of
information or detail through a system of
established associations, there can be no
meaning attributed to it.
✓ Further, a collection of data ceases to be
information in the absence of established
relations among them. The associations, in
turn, provide meaning that consequently
affords understanding on the part of one
who perceives the data and who employs
his ability to discern all existing
associations
✓ Wisdom is achieved when there is
understanding of the principle underlying
the patterns which represent knowledge.
Fleming (1996) further summarized such
observation by stressing that:
• information relates to description,
definition, or perspective (what,who,
when, where);
• knowledge comprises strategy,
practice, method, or approach (how);
and
• wisdom embodies principles, insight
moral, or archetype (why)
✓ The principle of context is categorized into
six levels as follows:
Level 1-Context consists of the textbook only
• Predominantly verbal
• No problem-solving experience
• Lacks dynamic appeal
• Limited verbal responses to verbal stimuli
Level 2 - Context consists of textbook,
together with collateral
• supplemental materials
• Wider in context
• More readings of expository
• Advocates more extensive reading
Level 3-Context consists of non-academic
and current materials (magazine articles,
newspaper clippings)
• Concrete, specific, actual, and immediate
• Reality vs. theory
• Leads to extensive discussion
Level 4-Context consists of multi-sensory
aids
• Effective when used as aid in learning
• Related to contemplated learning
• Ineffective if learner is passive.
Level 5-Context consists of demonstration
and presentation by the experts
• Concrete setting
• Learning beyond the classroom setting
Level 6-Field experiences: personal, social,
and community understanding.
• Concrete, abundant, dynamic, readily
apprehended setting for learning
• Goes beyond verbalization
• Concrete and firsthand experiences
2. Principle of Focus. Instruction can be
effective if there is a definite area of
concentration. The following are the four
levels of focus:
Level 1 - Focus established by page
assignment in textbook
• Uniform structure
• Learning without unity
• Memorization
Level 2 - Focus established by announced
topic, together with page or chapter
references
• Insight and understanding
• Varied learning pattern
Level 3 - Focus established by broad concepts
to be comprehended or problem to be solved
• Directed at the mental processes of the
learner
• More varied learning patterns
Level 4 - Focus established as a concept or a
problem to be solved, a skill to be acquired
to carry an undertaking
• Flexibility
• Acquisition of more facts and information.
3. Principle of Socialization. Classroom
learning offers a socio-cultural
phenomenon, a social process that
encompasses the ways of thinking,
interacting, and problem solving. The
 classroom is also viewed as a monitoring by the teacher who acts as a
conventionalized setting in which rule- facilitator.
bound interaction takes place between the ➢ Individualization through large units
learner and the teacher. Socialization has with optimal-related activity. This is the
three levels namely: kind of instruction where large topics or big
Level 1 - Social pattern characterized by blocks are divided into smaller units which
submission could be completed within a specified time
• Rudimentary level of socialization frame.
• No-group function ➢ Individualization through individual
• Teacher-controlled undertakings stemming from and
Level 2 - Social pattern characterized by contributing to the joint undertaking of
contribution the group of learners. Instruction is done
• Sympathetic and positive discipline to ensure cooperative learning while the
• Freedom group works on a specific learning activity.
• Lacks authority The task is divided among the members so
Level 3 - Social pattern characterized by that each member has a particular activity
cooperation to work on. In the end, the group output
• Goes beyond friendliness and sympathy becomes a product of the concerted effort
of the individual member of the group.
• Teacher as an organizer
• Positive team spirit
5. Principle of Sequence. Successful
instructions depend on the effective
4. Principle of Individualization. The
ordering of a series of learning tasks.
effectiveness of instruction must progress
Sequence is a movement from meaningless
in terms of the learner's own purposes,
to emergence of meaning, from immediate
aptitudes, abilities, and experimental
toward remote, from concrete toward
procedures.
symbolic, from the crude to the
The following are the scales of application of
discriminating.
the principle of individualization:
Scales of application of the principle of
➢ Individualization through different
sequence:
performance in uniform tasks. In this
➢ Sequence through logical succession of
setting, the teacher sets the lesson format
blocks of content (lesson and courses).
as part of his classroom structuring and sees
Teachers get disappointed with students
to it that while the task is the same to all,
who seem not able to apply the principles
he offers varied ways of doing the task
which have already been taught in class.
according to the learners' aptitude,
One way to increase the chance of making
interest, and capabilities.
learners absorb the lesson, whether
➢ Individualization through homogeneous
principles, theories, or mechanics, is to
grouping. Learners vary in age, ability, and
provide a learning sequence where
sex, and classrooms tend to lean toward
comprehension or understanding of
homogeneity. Except for some learners,
whatever is introduced is reinforced.
variables like race or social class, which
➢ Sequence through knotting, learning
educators find not acceptable in the
lesson / course, together by
homogeneous grouping, are acknowledged
introductions, previews, pre-tests,
by educators and are considered an
reviews. This is done by supplementing
advantage for effective instruction.
discussion/ studies/analysis of lesson by
➢ Individualization through contract plan.
introductions/ reviews related to the
One of the guiding principles of
lesson.
individualization asserts that the individual
➢ Sequence organized in terms of
must be the focus in the planning and
readiness. Effective instruction is achieved
delivery of services and support.
if the teacher is able to order or set the
✓ A contract plan may be a plan of study
particular learning task according to the
where the learner is provided a set of
readiness of the learners to understand or
activities to do and a time limit to
assimilate whatever material is to be given
accomplish the specific tasks. The plan may
to them.
involve encounters between the learner
➢ Sequence organized in terms of lines
and the teacher to evaluate the progress of
emerging meanings. This calls for planning
the assigned task which normally is
specific learning tasks that will depend on
structured according to the learner's
the ability of the learners to give meaning
interests and abilities.
to specific situations, deduce impressions
➢ Individualization through individual
from whatever is read to think of
instruction. This kind of instruction calls
possibilities as an end result of doing the
for a person-centered planning for learning
activity.
tasks normally adapted to the level of
capability of the learner. The class is usually
6. Principle of Evaluation. Evaluation is a
limited in number to provide for close
component of effective instruction. It is
necessary to determine whether the
 objectives of instruction have been carried
out, and learning or understanding of
lesson has taken place.
Types of Evaluation:
➢ Diagnostic evaluation. This is the
evaluation done at the beginning of the unit
or course to determine the different levels
to where the students can be grouped
whether slow, average, or fast.
➢ Formative evaluation. This evaluation is
intended to improve the delivery of
instruction in the classroom.
➢ Summative evaluation. From the word
itself, this phase of evaluation calls for
summing up all pertinent data related to
the performance of the individual learners.
John Dewey’s Educational Philosophy on
Principles of Teaching
(Gregorio & Gregorio 1979, as cited in Acero,
Javier, & Castro 2000)
The following are the acknowledged
principles of good teaching:
➢ Teaching is good when it is based on the
psychology of learning. This is based on the
concept that the child is made the center
of the educative process.
➢ Teaching is good when it is well planned
such that the activities and experiences of
the learner are continuously related and
interrelated into larger, more meaningful,
more inclusive, relation patterns.
➢ Teaching is good when the learner is made
conscious of the goals or aims to be
accomplished. This concept calls for proper
motivation.
➢ Learning is good when it provides learning
experiences or situations that will insure
understanding. Good teaching requires a
rich environment of instructional materials
and devices.
➢ Teaching is good when there is provision to
meet individual differences. This is based
on the psychological principle that
individuals differ from each other in their
learning potential.
➢ Teaching is good when it utilizes the past
experiences of the learner. This concept is
based on the principle of apperception. This
means that learning is easier when you start
from what the pupils already know.
➢ Teaching is good when the learner is
stimulated to think and to reason. The best
teaching method is that which liberates and
encourages thinking.
➢ Teaching is good when it is governed by
democratic principles. In democratic
teaching, social relationship is placed on a
plane of natural respect, cooperation,
tolerance, and fair play.
➢ Teaching is good when the method used is
supplemented by another method and
instructional devices. It is an accepted fact
that a good method is a synthesis of many
methods.
➢ Teaching is good when evaluation is made
an integral part of the teaching process.
Evaluation is part and parcel of teaching.
➢ Teaching is good when drill or review is
made an integral part of teaching and
learning. The teacher must bear in mind
that drill and review have different
meanings and functions.
Carnegie Mellon's Teaching Principles
(Mellon 2013)
Teaching is a multifaceted, activity, involving
multiple tasks and goals simultaneously and
flexibly.
The following set of principles can make
teaching both more effective and more
efficient:
➢ Effective teaching involves acquiring
relevant knowledge about the learners and
using that knowledge to inform the course
design and classroom teaching.
➢ Effective teaching involves aligning the
three major components of instruction:
learning objectives, assessments, and
instructional activities. The alignment of
the three major components of instruction
is shown below:
➢ Effective teaching involves articulating
explicit expectations regarding learning
objectives and policies. There is variation
expected of learners across classrooms and
within a given discipline.
➢ Effective teaching involves prioritizing the
knowledge and skills we choose to focus on.
Coverage of the course must have focus. A
single course must not have too many topics
that may work against student learning.
➢ Effective teaching involves recognizing and
overcoming blind spots. As experts,
teachers tend to access and apply
knowledge automatically and unconsciously
(make connections, draw on relevant
bodies of knowledge, and choose
appropriate strategies or techniques), and
so teachers often skip or combine critical
steps when teaching.
➢ Effective teaching involves adopting
appropriate teaching roles to support our
learning goals. The learners are supposed
to be responsible for their own learning, but
the teachers' roles are critical in guiding
their thinking and behavior. Moreover,
teachers may take on a variety of roles in
teaching-synthesizer, moderator,
challenger, or commentator.
➢ Effective teaching involves progressively
refining our courses based on reflection
and feedback. Teaching requires adapting.
 Teaching involves be making changes when
appropriate (when something is not working
bet try something new).
Principle of Teaching Based on
the Principle of Learning
Chapter 6
Introduction
➢ In this chapter, the principles of teaching
are based on the principles of learning.
➢ Principles are the bases in stimulating,
directing, guiding, and encouraging
teachers in their learning.
➢ Principles are workable only under normal
conditions. When classroom situations are
abnormal, common sense must be the
guiding factor.
➢ Common sense is the ability of a person to
do and say the right thing at the right time
in the right way to the right person.
Principles of Learning and Teaching
➢ Opportunity to learn. Learning
experiences give learners the chance to
observe and practice the actual processes,
products, skills, and values which are
expected of them.
➢ Connection and challenge. Learning
experience should connect with challenge
their current ways of thinking and acting.
➢ Action and Reflection. Learning
experiences should be meaningful and
encourage both action and reflection on the
part of the learner.
➢ Motivation and purpose. Learning
experiences should be motivating and their
purpose clear to the learners. They should
be provided with purposeful and relevant,
stimulating, and challenging activities
which are goal-oriented-goals which may
require more attention, time, and effort to
meet their needs.
➢ Inclusivity and difference. Learning
experiences should respect and
accommodate differences between
learners. Language. Culture, health,
location, values, abilities and disabilities,
and previous education shape students’
past experiences.
➢ Independence and collaboration. Learning
experiences should encourage student to
learn both independently and from and with
others. Students who want to become
autonomous leaners need to regularly
experience opportunities for both
individual and collaborative learning.
➢ Supportive environment. The school and
classroom setting should be safe and
conducive to effective learning.
Theory and Research-based Principles of
Learning
(Eberly Center n.d.)
➢ Learners’ prior knowledge can help or
hinder learning. Students get into courses
with knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes
gained in other courses, and even through
daily life. Whatever knowledge the learner
has serves as filter on how he interprets
current learning.
➢ How learners’ organize knowledge
influences how they learn and apply what
they know. Students naturally make
connections between pieces knowledge.
➢ Learners’ motivation determines, directs,
and sustains what they do to learn.
Motivation plays an important role in
setting the direction, intensity, persistence,
and quality of the learning behaviors in
which they engage in.
➢ To develop mastery, learners must acquire
component skills, practice integrating
them, and know when to apply what they
have learned. Students must develop not
only the component skills and knowledge
necessary to perform complex tasks but
must also practice.
➢ Goal-directed practice coupled with
targeted feedback enhances the quality of
students’ learning. Learning and
performance are best achieved when
students engage in practice that focuses on
a specific goal or criterion.
➢ Learners’ current level of development
interacts with the social, emotional, and
intellectual climate of the course to impact
learning. Students are social beings, more
than being intellectual and emotional.
➢ To become self-directed learners, students
must learn to monitor and adjust their
approaches to learning. Students engage in
various metacognitive processes that
involve assessment of the task at hand,
evaluation of personal strengths and
weaknesses, planning approaches, and
monitoring strategies.
Principles of Learning
(Horne & Pine 1990, in Corpuz & Salandanan
2007)
➢ Learning is an experience which occurs
inside the learner and is activated by the
learner. Learning takes place when the
learner allows it to happen in his mind.
➢ Learning is the discovery of the personal
meaning and relevance of ideas. This is
somewhat the same with principle number
one. Learners can easily understand
concepts if these are relevant to their
needs and problems.
➢ Learning is a consequence of experiences.
Students learn more and better if lessons
are anchored on past experience.
➢ Learning is a cooperative and collaborative
process. Learners will learn more if they are
given chances to work together and share
ideas. This is made possible by engaging
them in group activities.
➢ Learning is an evolutionary process.
Learning, especially if this means a change
in behavior, does not happen in an instant.
➢ Learning is sometimes a painful process.
This means that learning requires sacrifice,
hard work, and study time.
➢ One of the richest resources for learning is
the learner himself. The core of learning is
the learner. The discussion should be drawn
not only on the experiences of teachers, but
also on the learners’ experiences.
➢ The process of learning is emotional, as
well as intellectual. Learners cannot learn
that must if they are bothered, arising from
problems in or out of the classroom. Thus,
teachers should be sensitive the students’
problems.
➢ The process of problem solving, and
learning is highly unique and individual.
The use of different teaching strategies
that can cater multiple intelligences and
learning styles are highly recommended.
Management of Instruction
Chapter 7-Part 1
Introduction
The principles of learning which is vital for this
chapter on mgmt. of instruction. Topics
covered under this chapter are:
1. Objective derivation in lesson
planning
2. Objective specification
3. Sequencing objects
4. Determining, appropriate content,
and
5. Determining appropriate
instructional materials and methods.
Lesson Plan Preparation
➢ Lesson plans allow a teacher to set specific
student learning goals and identify the
concrete steps and activities to achieve
those aims.
➢ Teachers are taught instructions on
planning activities and organizing lesson
plans specific to their subject and
certification when going through a training
➢ All lesson plans serve as a guide to help
student learning through manageable
instruction. (Randall n.d.)
➢ The SMART—specific, measurable,
attainable, relevant, and timely— method
of lesson planning offers realistic goals and
outcomes for students.
➢ Pre-planning phase - The teacher
conceptualizes, envisions the possible
outcomes, and thinks of the best activities
and approaches to employ. It involves
listing down of the tentative plans for
teaching that will demand consideration
of the conditions that effect an effective
teaching-learning process.
➢ Active planning phase - This is the actual
writing of the lesson plan where final
decisions are made as to content,
strategies, activities, and instructional
materials.
• Review planning phase. At this phase,
the teacher addresses the need to find
out how well the objectives can
be carried out and if adjustments are to
be made in anticipation.
• Closure planning phase. This is where
planning for evaluation is done. A set of
criteria is drawn to facilitate pre-
identification of objectives and the
extent by which such objectives may be
attained.
OBJECTIVE DEVIATION
• The aims include the complete
transformation of the individual to
become an asset to the society. These
aims include the complete
transformation of the individual to
become an asset to the society.
• Education is also concerned with the
identification of moral and spiritual
values believed as important to be
taught in schools.
• Goals may be stated at various level of
specificity. Many school goals are
purposely broad for the people to
support the institution.
• Goals are defined and stated in terms of
student behavior. The more familiar
goals include health, command of the
fundamental processes, worthy home
membership vocation, citizenship, and
ethical character.
Levels of Generality and Specificity of Goals
1. Goals are broad and philosophical in
nature.
2. Goals are more specific than Level 1
goals. They seek to express in more
explicit terms the aspirations of the
school.
3. Goals that are behaviorally stated
specific to the classroom level and are
stated in terms of behavioral outcomes.
These objectives outline and define the
learning activities at classroom level.
Sources of Learning Objectives
Constitutional aims. All institutional
goals/objectives are geared toward a realization
of the national development goals as provided
by Batas Pambansa Blg. 232, otherwise known
as Education Act of 1982.
 ➢ To achieve and maintain an
accelerating rate of economic
development and social
progress
➢ To assure the maximum
participation of all people in the
attainment and enjoyment of the
benefits of such growth
➢ To achieve and strengthen
national unity and
consciousness and preserve,
develop, and promote desirable
cultural, moral, and spiritual
values in a changing world
• Institutional mission. This consists of the
objectives set by the institution to carry out its
vision.
• Curriculum Goals. These are determined by an
operational philosophy and carefully selected
learning activities presented in a meaningful
pattern. They are the goals and objectives
connected to programs.
▪ A Curriculum goal is a purpose or end
which is stated in general terms and
which does not reflect criteria for
achievement.
• Course / subject goals. These are derived from
program activities. The course goals organize
and categorize content, including concepts,
problems, or behaviors.
▪ They do not suggest an exact content to
be learned or instructional materials to
be used. Course objectives are usually
stated in the form of topics, concept, or
general behavior.
➢ Unit objectives. These are usually
formulated by the teacher. It is also
referred to as classroom objectives which
divide course into several units.
✓ It usually cover one to three weeks of
instruction and are organized
according to the expected outcome.
➢ Lesson objectives. These are otherwise
known as specific instructional
objectives.
✓ Instructional objectives include the
following:
• Expected behavior (specific
skills, tasks, attitudes)
• Content
• Outcomes
OBJECTIVES SPECIFICATION
Kinds of Objective
➢ An objective describes a performance
teachers expect from learners to exhibit
before they are considered competent.
➢ It describes an intended result of
instruction, rather than the process of
instruction itself. (University of Arkansas
for Medical Sciences n.d.)
➢ It is important to obtain familiarity with
Bloom's taxonomy, a hierarchical
classification of learning objectives. Bloom
recommends specific verbs to use when
writing learning objectives so that the
objectives can be measured.
Three Concepts of leaning domain
➢ Cognitive -these are objectives that deal
with the recall or recognition of knowledge
and the development of intellectual abilities
and skills. Learning in this aspect refers to
the mental processes like memorization
and ability to think, analyze, and solve
problems.
➢ Affective. Those that deal with the
development of attributes like genuine
interest, desirable attitudes, values, and
commitment as expected learning
outcomes, categorized as follows:
✓ Receiving. The student will listen to
classmates who express
opinions/views.
✓ Responding. The student will answer
a call for sand bagging at Bucayao
Riyer.
✓ Valuing. The student will express
appreciation for ancient Arnbahan
Mangyan poems.
✓ Organizing. The student will prefer
reading newspapers to playing video
games.
✓ Characterizing. The student will
follow the standard norms-- a set of
rules adapted in school.
➢ Psychomotor. Objectives that deal with
physical and kinesthetic skills (including
keyboarding, using technical instruments,
and other skills). This domain is
characterized by progressive levels of
behaviors from observation to mastery of a
physical skill.
✓ Perception. The student will identify
by its feel a type of visual aid.
✓ Set. The student will demonstrate
how to step on a gear.
✓ Guided response. The student will
imitate how a particular vowel sound
is produced.
✓ Mechanism. The student will set the
microscope for testing accumulation
of bacteria.
✓ Complex overt response. The
student will encode in the computer.
 ✓ Adaptation. The student will arrange
the exhibits according to subject
area.
✓ Origination. The student will create
steps for a new folk dance.
Criteria of Measurable Objectives
Meyer (2003) described the characteristics
of SMART goals in “Attitude Is Everything.”
1. Specific. The first criterion stresses the
need for a specific goal rather than a
more general one. This means the goal
is clear and unambiguous, without
unnecessary trimmings. A specific goal
will usually answer the five wh-questions.
2. Measurable. The second criterion
stresses the need for concrete standard
criteria for measuring progress toward
the attainment of the goal. If a goal is not
measurable, it is not possible to know
whether a team is making progress
toward successful completion.
A measurable goal will usually
answer questions, such as:
How much? How many?
How will I know when it is
accomplished?
3. Attainable. The third criterion points out
the importance of goals that are realistic
and attainable. While an attainable goal
may need more effort for a team in order
to achieve it, the goal is not extreme.
That is, the goals are neither out of reach
nor below standard performance, as
these maybe considered meaningless.
An attainable goal will usually
answer the question: "How can the goal
be accomplished?"
4. Relevant. The fourth criterion stresses
the importance of choosing goals that
matter. Many times, there is a need for
support to accomplish a goal: resources,
a champion voice, and someone to
overcome obstacle. Relevant goals are
purpose-driven. They make the team,
department and organization forward.
acles. Goals that are relevant will receive
that needed support.
A relevant goal can answer “yes” to
these questions:
✓ Does this seem worthwhile?
✓ Is this the right time?
✓ Does this match our other efforts/
needs?
✓ Are you the right person?
✓ Is it applicable in current socio-
economic-technical
environment?
5. Time-bound. The fifth criterion stresses
the importance of formulating goals
within a time frame, giving them a target
date. A commitment to a deadline helps a
team achieve and therefore complete the
goal on or before the due date.
A time-bound goal is intended to establish a
sense of urgency. A time-bound goal will
usually answer the questions:
✓ When?
✓ What can I do six months from
now?
✓ What can I do six weeks from
now? What can I do today?
Measurable objectives are utilized as
assessment tools. After the objective is
defined, this becomes the foundation for the
grading or assessment policy. In case the
grading policy is very different from the
behavioral objectives, then a reconsideration
of the policy is in order. In developing your
objectives, the following should be included:
a. Conditions (how or where the learner will
perform the task)
b. Behavioral verbs (describe learner
behavior)
c. Criteria (how well the learner performs the
behavior)
Criteria (How well the learner performs the
behavior?)
1. Learner's behavior. One of the challenges
associated with observing and evaluating
learner's behavior is the accuracy of results.
Therefore, establishing an observation
procedure is important so that it remains
consistent from one observation time to
another and from one observer to another.
2. Observable behavior. This kind of behavior
can be recognized through one of the
senses. It is usually described by action
words, such as touching, walking, saying, or
writing.
3. Measurable behavior. A behavior must first
be observable to be measurable. The
observer must be able to clearly determine
whether the behavior is occurring and then
the occurrences and the duration are
counted.
4. Behavioral problems, feelings, or
attitudes that are complex, such as anger
or sadness are not easy to characterize and
calculate. However, by identifying specific
observable and measurable behaviors
associated with feelings, the teacher can
measure and record progress easily and
accurately.
SEQUENCING OBJECTIVES
➢ While listing and arranging your objectives,
consider how each one links to another
goal.
➢ Finalize and decide how your sequencing
of objectives will support the achievement
of such goals and the requirements for
future assignments.
Levels of Cognitive objective
➢ These include information recall,
conceptual understanding, and problem
solving. The levels touch the knowledge
skill and inquiry objectives.
➢ Bloom identified six levels within the
cognitive domain, from simple recall or
 recognition of facts as the lowest level,
through increasingly more complex and
abstract mental levels, to the highest
level which was identified as
evaluation. See below Fig 8 (Left –
Bloom’s, R-Anderson’s)
In 1990 Anderson (Bloom’s former student) led
a team of psychologist to revisit the taxonomy
and came out with significant improvement to
Bloom’s original structure, refer Table 4 for
definition & applicable verbs:
Levels of Psychomotor objective
• The psychomotor domain of learning is
focused on process and skills involving
the mind and the body. It is the domain
of which classifies objectives dealing
with physical movements and
coordination (Arends 1994). The
objectives in the psychomotor domain
require significant motor performance.
See below table:
Levels of Affective objective
Krathwohl's affective domain taxonomy
is perhaps the best known of any of the
affective taxonomies. The taxonomy is
ordered according to the principle of
internalization. Internalization refers to
the process whereby a person's affect
toward an object passes from a general
awareness level to a point where the
affect is "internalized" and consistently
guides or controls the person's behavior.
1. Receiving is being aware of or
sensitive to the existence of certain
ideas, materials, or phenomena, and
being willing to tolerate them.
2. Responding is committed to taking
action or acting in response to the
ideas, materials, or phenomena
involved.
3. Valuing is perceived by others as
giving importance to specific
concepts, things, or experiences.
4. Organization is to associate the value
to those already held and bring it into
harmonious and internally reliable
viewpoints.
5. Characterization by value or value
set is to act consistently in agreement
with the values and beliefs one has
internalized. Examples are to revise,
to require, to be rated high in the
value, to avoid, to resist, to manage.
and to resolve.
Management of Instruction
Chapter 7-Part 2
DETERMINING APPROPRIATE CONTENTS
➢ An educational movement that was
initiated as early as the 1900 and eventually
has reached the public and private schools
echoed the need for setting standards in
content areas to increase educational
quality.
➢ Content standards are put up in accordance
with educational goals to have quality
programs and challenging courses.
➢ These content standards detail precisely
what learners should know and be able to
do in each subject at each year level.
➢ A call for adapting content standards was
echoed with the end in view of creating an
enriched and effective curriculum.
Structure of Subject Matter Content
➢ The subject matter structure points to the
interrelationships among the components
of a subject matter.
➢ This is where the content, skills, and other
affective elements are integrated.
➢ In Figure 10, affective (values) is the apex
of the triangle. Teaching of values connects
teaching of facts, skills, and concepts to the
life of the learners, thus acquiring meaning.

In Figure 11, cognitive is placed at the tip of
the triangle, emphasizing that facts, concepts,
principles, hypotheses, theories, and laws are
the core of the teaching-learning process.
• Figure 12 has skills at the top of the
triangle. It means that the emphasis of the
subject, say Physical Education, is more on
manipulative and body skills.
➢ In the preparation of the learning
objectives, teachers tend to emphasize the
three domains, namely, cognitive,
affective, and skills according to their
priorities.
➢ Very likely, in most of the public schools,
teachers subscribe to the knowledge
(cognitive), skills (manipulative), and
values (affective) in that order in the
matter of focus in teaching.
➢ However, the order of the three domains
may be interchangeably used depending
upon the learning objectives and the
subject matter content to be taught.
The cognitive element is concerned with:
✓ Facts / Procedures
✓ Concepts / Theories
✓ Generalizations / Laws
✓ Principles / Hypotheses
The skill element refers to the:
➢ Thinking Skills
✓ Divergent skills / Metaphoric
thinking
✓ Convergent thinking / Critical
thinking
✓ Problem solving / Creative
thinking
➢ Manipulative skills
Cognitive Domain Elements
The cognitive is concerned with facts,
concepts, generalizations, principles,
hypotheses, procedure and theories and laws.
➢ Fact is an idea or action that can be
verified.
➢ Concept is a categorization of events,
places, ideas.
➢ Generalization is a general statement of
idea.
➢ Principle is a rule, tenet, guide, an
essential element of quality, or basic source
or cause, a natural or original tendency.
➢ Hypotheses are educated guesses about
relationship/s.
➢ Procedure means process, algorithm, step-
by-step description, and seriation in the
teaching of content to achieve the best
results, procedure is done from the simple
to complex (inductive method).
➢ Theory is a set of facts, concepts, and
principles that describes underlying
unobservable mechanisms that regulate
human learning development and behavior.
➢ Laws are firmly established, thoroughly
tested principle or theory.
Skills Domain Elements
Thinking skills refer to skills beyond recall and
comprehension. They are skills concerned with
the application of what was learned (problem
solving or in real life) synthesis, evaluation and
critical and creative thinking.
➢ Divergent skills. This thinking refers to the
ability to come up with solutions to one
problem. It is the process oi idea
generation.
➢ Convergent skills. These skills ale about
narrowing down from many possible ideas
or opinions and ending up with the single
best thought or solution to a Convergent
thinking is used when an individual tries to
give one correct answer to a problem.
Thinking Skills
➢ Problem solving is a mental process that
involves discovering, analyzing, and solving
problems. The ultimate goal of problem
solving is to overcome obstacles and find a
solution that best resolves an issue.
✓ Algorithm. Solving a problem by the
use of an algorithm means following
specific, step-by-step instructions.
✓ Heuristics. General problem-solving
strategy is the informal, intuitive,
 speculative strategies that
sometimes lead to an effective
solution and sometimes do not.
➢ Metaphoric thinking. This type of thinking
uses analogical thinking, a figure of speech
where a word is used in a manner different
from its ordinary designation to suggest or
imply a parallelism or similarity.
➢ Critical thinking is the process of
independently analyzing, synthesizing, and
evaluating information as a guide to
behavior and beliefs
Critical thinking involves evaluating
information or arguments in terms of
their accuracy and worth (Bever 1985).
It takes a variety of forms:
✓ Verbal reasoning. An example is
evaluating the persuasive techniques
found in oral or language.
✓ Argument analysis. You are engaged
in this critical thinking process when
you discriminate between reasons
that do and do not support a
particular conclusion.
✓ Hypothesis testing. It is evaluating
the value of data and research
results in terms of the methods used
to obtain them and their potential
relevance to particular conclusions.
✓ Decision making. We are engaged in
critical thinking when the pros and
cons of each proposed alternative
approach are weighed.
➢ Creative thinking. This type of thinking
involves producing something that is both
original and worthwhile (Sternberg 2003). It
is original thinking, one type of divergent
thinking. It includes:
1. A state of mind. Creative thinking skills
are as much about attitude and self-
confidence as about talent. It is often less
ordered, structured and less predictable.
2. Creativity and emotions. Strong emotional
self-management is often needed to allow
conditions of creative thinking to emerge.
3. Creative thinking techniques. There is no
limit to ways of thinking creatively.
Some techniques include a) Brainstorm ideas
b) Allow oneself to play with an idea while you
go for a walk. c) Draw or paint a theory on
paper. d) Ask the same question at least
twenty times and try to give a different answer
each time. e) Combine some of the features of
two different objects ideas to see if you can
create some more. f) Change your routine. g)
Let your mind be influenced by new stimulus h)
Be open to ideas when they are still new. i) Ask
questions, such as "What if ....?" or "Supposing
4. Combine analytical and creative thinking
skills. Many important breakthroughs in
science and innovation have resulted
from: a) focusing on a subject in a logical,
b) focusing on a subject in a logical, c)
dreams or daydreams when the innovator
did not try so hard to find the answer.
5. Keep an idea book. Inspiration can strike
any time. Ideas can also slip away very
easily. Keep a small notebook on hand so
you can jot down your ideas straightaway.
Manipulative Skills
Manipulative Skills. These motor skills
involving an object. For small muscles, this
might mean a pencil or button. It includes: a)
Pushing b) Pulling; c) Lifting; d) Striking (e.g.
swinging a basketball bat or golf club to hit a
ball) e) Throwing ; f) kicking; g) rolling (a ball);
h) volleying; i) bouncing; j) catching; and k)
dribbling.
➢ When children first learn these skills, it is
important the initial goal is not perfection
or complete accuracy
➢ They need to practice and master the
action
➢ These abilities are dominantly skill
oriented.
Guiding Principles for Content Selection,
Validity, Significance, Balance, Self-
sufficiency, Interest, Utility, Learnability,
and Feasibility
➢ Content selection. Content must be
aligned with the goals of education and the
institution's vision and mission. It must
include varied and learning experiences.
Content must also afford a body of
knowledge that will help address the
societal needs.
➢ Validity. Content must be applicable to
different situations, Current trends and
issues, time and place. It must not show
manifestations of bias. In teaching the
content, we ought to teach according to the
national standards explicit in the
curriculum
➢ Significance. Content must be reflective of
the current needs of the community and the
society in general. It must provide or offer
solution to pressing problems.
➢ Self-sufficiency. Content preparation
should afford an opportunity for self-
learning. Language used provides better
understanding.
➢ Interest. Content should be able to develop
interest in the learner. Real facts and life
situations are made more meaningful.
➢ Utility. Content should provide the
necessary information for knowledge and
skills acquisition which could be utilized as
the needs arise. It will teach learners the
much-needed values.
➢ Learnability. Language used must be
simple, precise, and easily understood.
Graphics must provide for clearer
explanation/ discussion of topics.
➢ Feasibility. It is the capability of being
done with conditions as they are; likely
probable; capable of being used to meet
objectives; and capable of meeting success.
DETERMINING APPROPRIATE INSTRUCTIONAL
APPROACHES AND METHODS
➢ Through proper selection of instructional
approaches and methods, learning is
enhanced and made.
➢ Best approach which will work well for the
him and his learners are chosen by the
teacher.
➢ Approach becomes boring on the part of the
learners when a particular method is
constantly used.
➢ Anchored on how well the chosen methods
meet the instructional objectives is
determined by appropriate instructional
approach.
Different Approaches and Methods
➢ Teaching approach. This refers to one's
personal philosophy of teaching; his
understanding of the nature of education;
and the roles of the teacher, the student,
the administration, and the parents.
➢ Teaching Method. This is an organized,
orderly, or systematic, well-planned
procedure. It includes steps to follow to
achieve the objectives of instruction.
Direct expositive instruction methods
➢ Direct instruction. In this method, the
teacher provides information, facts, rules,
action sequences, and uses three of Bloom's
taxonomy: knowledge, comprehension, and
application.
➢ Expository instruction. This is a teaching
strategy where the teacher presents the
students with the subject matter
accompanying rules and examples for
illustration. The teacher expounds on
subject through illustration or use of visuals
and application and historical information.
➢ Deductive approach (Bilash 2011). The is
more teacher centered, in such the teacher
gives the learners a new concept, explains
it, and then asks them to practice using the
concept.
➢ Demonstration method. This is applicable
to any number of subjects, including
writing, art, and even sports. In most
instances, many learners find it useful to
watch a demonstration prior to trying it
themselves.
Guided / Exploratory Approach
➢ The approaches and methods under the
guided/ exploratory instruction are divided
into process-oriented methods and
cognitive-oriented methods
➢ Exploratory learning is based on
constructivist theories of learning and
teaching.
➢ In the discovery learning, there is student
interaction with the world through the
exploration and manipulation of objects,
wrestling with questions and controversies,
or performance of experiments. As a result,
learners may' more like a transmissionist
model.
➢ Models that are based upon discovery
include: guided discovery, problem-based
learning, simulation-based case-based
learning, incidental learning, among
others.
➢ Process-oriented methods. A Process-
Oriented Guided Inquiry Leaning (POGIL)
classroom or lab consists of any number of
students working in small groups using
designed guided inquiry materials. From
these materials, students get data or
information followed by leading questions
designed to guide them toward the
formulation of their oven valid conclusions.
✓ Process-oriented method is a step-
by-step acquisition of knowledge and
skills. Learners are actively engaged
in activities designed to develop
specific learning competencies.
➢ Inductive method (Bilash 2011). In contrast
with the deductive method, inductive
instruction makes use of student "noticing"
instead of explaining a given concept
followed by explanation through examples,
which shows how the concept is used. The
purpose is for the students to notice" by
way of examples how the concept works.
➢ Inquiry method. Inquiry as a teaching
method has its roots from Social Studies
teachers. Students were given data from
different countries and asked to analyze
the data to make generalizations and
predictions about the people of the
countries. Inquiry is a term used broadly to
refer to everything from pseudo-
experiments where the teacher has the
students reify (make real or concrete,
materialize) already taught concepts to one
in which they have virtually total control.
➢ Laboratory. This method is defined as a
teaching procedure that uses investigation
and experimentation. This is used not only
in the physical sciences, but also in home
economics and manual arts. It is a teaching
procedure that uses experimentation with
apparatus and materials to discover or
verify facts and to study scientific
relationship.
➢ Problem Solving (Teacher Vision n.d.).
Problem solving is the ability to identify
and solve problems by applying appropriate
skills systematically. It is a process—an
ongoing activity which starts from “what is
known” to discover “what is not yet known.”
✓ Problem Solving is, and should be, a
very real part of the curriculum. It
presupposes that students can take
on some of the responsibilities for
their own learning.
➢ Project method. Project method of
teaching according to Kilpatrick (1918) is a
whole-hearted purposeful activity
proceeding in a social environment.
✓ The cited the definition of Stevenson
(1908),” A project is a problematic
act carried to completion in its
natural setting.”
➢ Cognitive-oriented method. This method
emphasizes the development of thinking
 skills, which is also referred to as thinking
operations. The thinking skills that should
be taught directly are interpreting,
comparing, criticizing, classifying,
analyzing, summarizing & creating.
✓ Metacognitive. This is a method
that requires students not only to
acquire thinking skills, but also to
monitor and control their
commitment and attitude during the
learning process.
✓ Constructivism. This method
regards the learner as the core of the
learning process. He is at the center
of the educational stage.
✓ Reflective teaching. As the term
"reflect" denotes, this method
affords the students to reflect on
their own experiences to give new
meaning to them. The teacher's role
is to guide them to go about
analyzing learning experiences that
will lead to new learning and new
concepts that can be applied to new
learning situations.
➢ Structure-oriented methodologies. There
is a need to provide productive learning
environments which involve motivating
learners to participate in and persist with
academic tasks.
For that matter, teachers set
conditions for allocating time, managing
classroom groups, applying varied
teaching strategies like cooperative
learning, peer group, partner learning,
and inductive learning.
✓ Cooperative learning. In classrooms
using cooperative learning, students
work on activities in small
heterogeneous groups, and based on
performance, can receive rewards or
recognition. It is a cooperative
learning structure where students
depend on one another and work
together to achieve the shared goals.
✓ Peer-mediated. A method wherein
an older, brighter, and more
responsible member of the class is
requested to tutor, coach, instruct,
or teach other classmates.
✓ Partner learning. There are
students who do not feel
comfortable speaking out before a
big audience or even before their
classmates. In this method, they are
paired, usually with whom they are
familiar issue or lesson at hand.
✓ Peer partner learning is a
collaborative process in which
students experience learning
from and with each other for
individual purposes.
✓ Inductive learning. A kind of
learning method that allows learning
to arrive to a generalization after
starting from the specifics.
✓ Inductive learning gives way
to learning through examples.
This type of learning makes
use of specific examples or
activities to show how a
particular concept works.
CHAPTER THREE
TEACHER's PHILOSOPHY OF
EDUCATION
Philosophy is a reason for being. A
teacher's philosophy of education may mean
one's reason for being a teacher, and one’s
concepts of what education is.
When teachers enter an institution to teach,
they should consider themselves as part of that
institution and acquaint themselves with the
vision, mission, aims, and objectives of that
school. The ideals of that school must blend
with their own ideals, and their aims should
become imbued with the spirit which is
characteristic of that school, which is now
their school.
WHY IS ONE TEACHING?
"We cannot give what we do not have”, the old
saying goes. This particularly applies to us,
teachers. A teacher who is genuinely a
scholarly Christian gentleman or lady has an
incomparable positive influence on the
students. This influence is especially most
valuable during the students’ early adulthood
in school.
Many and varied are the reasons why a
professional, (who may be a doctor, a nurse, a
medical technologist, a lawyer, a CPA, an
architect, a businessman, a marine officer, an
engineer, or military man, and other
professionals) is teaching.
One’s reason for teaching may be to share
one’s knowledge and expertise with the youth,
who are in the process of searching for their
own individualities, and contribute to
preparing them to manage their own lives in
the future. This is placing our philosophy of
education on a higher plane, to a more sublime
objective.
Practical Philosophy of Education
for Teachers Today
Or some teaching in order to augment
the income to support their family. And still,
others may teach to personal growth and
fulfillment, to be updated with the academic
trends in their profession. Whatever their
reason or reasons are, they are NOW teachers.
As such, their philosophy of education must be
aligned with the school's philosophy of
education.
 As already stated, the teacher's personal
philosophy of education must blend with the
school's philosophy of education. Basically,
education aims to develop the total person.
This means that we do not only educate the
mind, but also the spiritual, social, and
physical self of man. This is development
education. The total development of these
different aspects of the student's personality
will produce what we call the educated
professional.
1. The "final product” of education is the
one great test and proof of the
effectiveness, thoroughness, and degree
of quality that such an education
produces. Young professionals will never
be able to stand up for their convictions
and express their opinions unless they
are trained to do so in the course of
their years of education. This fruit of
education is not the responsibility of any
particular teacher, department, or
college school.
2. This outcome of education is every
single teacher’s responsibility. Each
teacher must see to it that the student’s
ability to be assertive, dynamic,
analytical, and articulate is developed
as far as possible within the scope of the
particular course or subject offering. A
teacher must be an agent of change.
Change is the language of the time. It is
ever constant.
3. In the life of a student, the teacher's
influence is a very strong diver for
change. It is, therefore, a grave
responsibility for teachers that such an
influence should lean more toward the
positive side of change.
THE CROWNING GLORY OF TEACHERS
The crowning glory of teachers is the success
of their students.
True teaching has its own reward
imbedded in the grateful hearts of the students
whom they had helped gain knowledge and
become better persons. Great is the students’
gratitude to their teachers who pushed them
not only in achieving success in school then
eventually in their respective careers, but also
in being able to manage their lives more
productively.
BE A REAL TEACHER
• Teachers should have a personal interest
in their students. In these days of
technologies and over-emphasis on
wealth as a measure of economic
growth, there is a danger of schools
hiring too many subject lecturers and
classroom technicians and very few
teachers. Real teachers should be
personally interested in their students'
total development. Their time in class
should not be measured by the clock.
• They should not equate the intensity of
their devotion to teaching by the
amount of compensation they receive.
In other words, true teachers regard
their professional work in the classroom
as a vocation and not merely as a job for
which they receive monetary
remuneration. Teaching for them is
enjoyment rather than work.
• A teacher is the main factor in providing
opportunities for education by
facilitating learning for students. St.
John Baptist De La Salle, the patron
saint of teachers, says that teaching is a
great vocation that carries with it a
grave moral responsibility of molding
the character, the mind, and the spirit
of the young St. La Salle compares the
teacher to the Good Shepherd. He says
that like the Good Shepherd, the
teacher must know each of his or her
students to be able to determine how to
act toward them.
We must realize that students cannot be
trained in the same manner. Some can be
handled with mildness, others with firmness. A
teacher, therefore, must have the ability to
discern a student's character. The Good
Shepherd so loves his or her flock, so must a
teacher do towards his or her students.
Love and understanding can motivate effective
learning rather than detached and impersonal
approaches. Teaching is the most socially
oriented profession. As such, much person-skill
is required of a true teacher.
"He is like a tree planted by the water, sending
out its roots towards the stream. He has no fear
when the heat comes, his or her leaves are
always green; the year of drought is no problem
and he or she can always bear fruit."
- Jeremiah 17:8
PSYCHOLOGY IN THE CLASSROOM
CHAPTER 4
The Learning Process in Capsule
According to psychologists, learners in the
classroom have a unique combination of
abilities and experience. These abilities and
experience will determine their readiness for
learning in any course. They are at the same
time motivated by their drives and desires to
seek goals. They explore the environment they
are in and act in ways that may help them
attain their goals. Finally, they react to the
consequences of their acts. Acts that are
positively affecting their lead to their goals,
and these acts are more likely to be repeated
in similar situations. But positively or
negatively, if the learners have changed in
their behavior, we may say they have learned.
Learning connotes change. But developmental
learning should be for growth.
A teacher must recognize the fact that
learners in his or her class differ in readiness
for learning. In the varied activities that a
teacher may have, this difference in readiness
will be manifested. Such activities may be in
the formation of teams or groups, divisions of
responsibility, recommending sources of study
of varying levels of difficulty, and many others.
Knowing these differences, the teacher would
be able to guide a student better. More
advanced students can be made to lead a team
or group in order to be of help to the less
capable ones.
As much as possible, a teacher should
provide more opportunities for success in class
rather than more failures. The little successes
and affirmations from the teacher will
contribute to building up the confidence level
of students and their motivation to learn more.
Let us consider a little more of these
concepts on readiness, motivation and goals
explorations and action, and reaction to
consequences as they would help us
understand better the learning process inside
our classrooms.
Readiness
• To aid teachers in determining the
readiness of their students in their
respective subjects, they should ask these
questions:
1. What must a student need to know
before he or she can learn this new thing in
the manner that I plan to teach it?
2. What is the extent that my students
would know of this prerequisite knowledge
and ability?
• Perhaps at the start of the term, the
teachers have no way of knowing the
answers to these questions. But within a
short period of time, by interacting with
their students, they can somehow gauge the
level of readiness of their students to be
able to make some revisions in their
approaches in teaching their respective
subjects. Making adjustments is necessary
If they want all or majority of their students
to learn the subject matter.
• Readiness, however, is never for a subject
or topic itself but for specific requirements
that vary with the way a teacher teaches.
In learning to draw, for instance, a student
is expected to be able to distinguish lines
and circles, and colors in the color chart.
• A teacher must recognize the importance of
the readiness of a student for new learning.
For without this readiness, the student
cannot hope to progress satisfactorily until
his or her deficiencies are identified and
overcome or until a way is found o reach
him or her on his or her level. A teacher
should aim to use the concept of readiness
in the organization of his or her instruction
to minimize difficulty on the part of the
student.
• If a teacher helps to make a student ready
for a task, the students progress would be
smooth and easy.
Motivation and Goals
• Motives are defined as internal states that
direct our activity toward related goals or
conditions. The motives that teachers use -
such as those for achievement or
advancement, approval or social
acceptance, and activity or curiosity-may
be learned in the process of meeting
physiological needs. The trend in
psychology today, however, is toward
accepting a wide range of motives as part
of our original human nature.
• Our motives determine the goals that we
have, whatever may be the origin of such
motives. At any one time, we have not
merely one but many goals. Students’ goals
may be for the near future or for the far
distant future.
• One fact that a teacher should realize, is
that motives reside within the learner,
but these motives can be influenced from
without. The principal motivational
activities of teachers could be:
1. Controlling opportunities for the
operation of motives and the choice of
goals.
2. Offering incentives to learners.
• The control of opportunities has both its
positive and negative aspects. Positively,
the teacher arranges for students to find
goals related to their existing motives in
school activities. Or a related positive
approach is to tie school tasks to the
attainment of the students' already
recognized short or long-term personal
goals, thus making the completion of the
tasks important sub-goals for them. For
instance, better communication skills are
always a step toward vocational success.
• Negatively, the teacher must also restrict
students’ opportunities to work toward
goals that are irrelevant to the immediate
objectives of instruction. This is a matter of
selection of concentration, attention, and
effort. Teachers make extensive use of
incentives designed to intensify learning
 activity. The positive incentives would
include:
a. Promise of prizes
b. Privileges
c. Praise
d. High grades
Negative incentives would be:
a. Threats
b. Demands that imply threats
c. The promise of low grades
• Although these types of incentives are
used by teachers, research has shown that
learning proceeds better under the
influence of positive rather than negative
incentives.
• Positive incentives, however, should not
distract students from the intrinsic values
of school subjects and learning activities.
They should be made to recognize that
there is a need for them to acquire worthy
ways of satisfying their motives as well as
knowledge and skill.
• Another important note to remember is
that the use of motivation that is too
intense disturbing and distracting is often
less effective than moderate motivation.
This is especially true of fear or anxiety
aroused by threats or competition.
Exploration and Activity of the Learner
• The exploration of a situation by a learner
may be covert or overt, conscious or
unconscious, brief or prolonged, superficial
or thorough, random or purposeful. At this
stage of learning, his or her personal
characteristics and a number of variables
the environment affect what he or she
does.
• Exploration may be at a minimum, it the
teacher give information or supplies correct
answers. However, we must also recognize
the fact, that even in the simple activity of
lecturing sometimes students take notes
that are slightly different from the view of
the teacher. This may be true, as there are
many different ways of listening and taking
down notes. Perhaps what the student is
taking down is in relation to his or her own
goals.
• Learning by listening may be referred to as
reception learning. This type of learning
exploration is very minimal exploration is
more obvious or evident in active learning
or problem solving. Still, if a problem is a
simple one and similar to others with which
learners have had experience, they may act
quickly and without apparent hesitation. Of
course, when a habitual response is
adequate, they may deliberately analyze
the situation, relate their impressions to
their past experience, and predict the
probable results of various actions open to
them; at least they may appear to do this.
If the situation is very complex and foreign
to their experience, they may just try a
number of things apparently at random.
• Learners' exploration and activity are
guided by teachers in both direct and
indirect ways. Indirectly, guidance is given
when materials are selected, organized,
and presented in ways that make
appropriate responses more probable.
Indirectly as well, teachers must be models
for the learning behavior of students who
have learned that one way to achieve their
goals is to imitate someone who seems to
attain those goals.
• In the school environment, teachers who
demonstrate interest, enthusiasm, and
desirable habits may encourage the
development of these characteristics in
students.
• It is for the teacher to determine just how
much direct guidance should be given to the
learners, and when and in what form.
• In direct guidance of learner exploration
and activity, information is given, methods
of work are suggested or demonstrated, and
students are prompted to help them
identify and overcome their difficulties.
Most often, it is better to allow students to
draw their own inferences from specific
data or problems. This would develop the
attitudes and skills of independent inquiry
in the students, which are important
educational outcomes.
• When teaching discovery, the teacher
should help in a form that requires some
activity on the part of the students rather
than making such activity unnecessary.
Learners should not be given answers to
their problems, but a good reference book
or a thought-provoking question. Increases
in teacher assistance of this type result in
quicker and surer inferences from
experience, without eliminating the
essential features of discovery methods.
The learners still search, and the final
inferences become their own. Truly, real
problems for which no one knows the
answers are the most challenging. After
direct guidance, the teacher's role shifts to
that of a monitor and evaluator.
• Teachers must also know that flexible,
creative exploration is essential for
continued success in teaching. Originality in
students' thinking is encouraged by simply
showing an interest in their more novel
ideas and listening to them. Novel
approaches are encouraged when students
 are led to put aside criticism and evaluation
for the moment and "brainstorm” for new
ideas. To prevent a loss of originality or
flexibility in exploration and activity,
students should always be urged to seek and
use a variety of methods in their work.
Reaction to Consequences by Learners
• In the process of learners attaining their
goals, the most important consequences
are those that indicate how well they
succeeded and how they might still do
better. These indications provide feedback,
knowledge of results, or other stimuli that
allow them to check and redirect their
action. In being so informed, the
consequences of an act may either
encourage or discourage its repetition
because they are either pleasant or
unpleasant. When this occurs, learners
reinforce their resolve to act or not to act.
In the practical management of
consequences, reinforcement and
knowledge of results are inseparable.
• When success is achieved by learners and
they have attained their goals, their
learning process may be considered
complete. From one point of view, they
have gained new knowledge; from another
aspect, they have merely acquired the
tendency to respond to situations that will
affect their activities in the future. Then
they are ready to turn to other goals
• Knowledge of results and other
consequences is most effective when they
are given attention promptly and when
their relations to the acts, they are
intended to encourage can be made clear.
Consequences that are too long delayed
lose much of their value to the learners if
they are no longer motivated or if they are
unable to connect the results with the
specific acts that caused them. Students
frequently need to be helped to find the
specific causes of consequences. Praising
students writing is encouraging to them but
pointing to its originality will boost their
morale more.
• Teachers should remember that success and
recognition for success, when deserved,
encourage positive attitudes toward the
teacher, the course content, and education
in general. Failure and punishment for
failure on the other hand, although
deserved, lead to negative attitudes,
especially if students believe that they are
doing their best. Occasional failures may
not affect the rapid learners, the well-
adjusted and the extroverted, since past
successes have helped them develop a
tolerance for difficulties.
• Teachers, therefore, should develop in
students' healthy attitudes toward
successes and failures. If they put
satisfactory progress within the reach of all
and make penalties of failure less severe
and traumatic, they will encourage healthy
reactions to failure among students.
Furthermore, they will prevent emotional
responses that would interfere with the
learning of students.
How Is Learning Retained?
• One of the basic rules of learning is that
acts or knowledge do not automatically
become a permanent part of our behavior,
which we can readily use or avail of any
time in the future. New learning may
interfere with or replace the products of
previous learning. According to Robert C.
Craig, the ability to recall or independently
reproduce the products of previous learning
declines more rapidly and reaches a lower
level than the ability to recognize the
correctness or the significance of previously
learned symbols when we encounter them
later. Research on the adequacy of the
retention of school learning concludes that
the results vary with the way it is measured.
One other way of measuring retention is the
"savings” or reduction in the time required
to relearn material or skills when we need
them.
• The "facts” of retention is presented in the
"curve of forgetting, which states that
forgetting declines very rapidly at first and
then levels off at about one-fifth of the
original learning in just a few hours or days.
Such curves are usually obtained by
measuring the recall of isolated, often
meaningless associations.
• But optimistically, we can say that there
are more lasting benefits obtained through
education. In one study, the more general
outcomes of a college course the ability to
apply generally useful principles and
interpret experimentally results- showed no
decline, some increase, a year after the
course. We may also expect that many "lost"
facts could be relearned rather rapidly.
Among the different factors affecting
retention, we say that the most important
factor is the adequacy of initial learning.
Therefore, the statements on readiness,
motivation exploration and action, and
consequences are significant
Meaning or understanding and positive
consequences during initial learning are
especially crucial.
When material or responses are to be
memorized, learning beyond the level of a
perfect recitation or "over learning often
recommended, too.
Short review periods, scheduled frequently
at first and then at increasingly longer intervals
are best. Review periods may be considerably
longer for meaningful material than for rote
learning. As every student knows, even
"cramming' or the massing of review just before
a test may be effective for the immediate
recall of meaningful material. Nevertheless,
for continued or delayed retention, spaced
review is still much more effective.
Research also showed that there is evidence
to prove that our memory is selective and
influenced by attitudes, beliefs, and motives.
The announcements of a test or other
instructions that establish intent to remember
make a difference in both learning and
retention. After reading a controversial
material or listening to a speech, we tend to
remember the in formation that agrees with
our beliefs better than that which is opposed
to them.
Ultimately, we may find that we have
"convenient" memory, which is inclined to
forget unpleasant assignment or experiences,
debts, and doctors' appointments.
"I have come to believe that a great teacher
is a great artist and that there are as few as
there are any other great artists. Teaching
might even be the greatest of the arts since the
medium is the human mind and spirit."
- John Steinbeck
Learning Activities, Instructional
Materials & Tool and Evaluation
Instrument
Chapter 8
➢ The learning activity should serve the
purpose for which it is done.
➢ The learning materials should be prepared
and must be appropriate for the activity.
➢ The most appropriate instructional
materials are the real-life experiences
which cannot be supplied in the classroom.
➢ A teacher chooses the instructional aids
best adapted to a particular learning
activity.
Different Types of Learning Activities
➢ Introductory activities. These activities
are usually done at the start of the school
year or at the start of every new lesson.
✓ Developmental activities. These are
activities intended to enhance acquired
knowledge, improve on skills learned, apply
put to good use the information acquired.
>Application activities. These are
activities that are done during the
application of the concepts. The
intention is to enable the learners to
master and improve their performance
>Creative and expressive activities.
These activities provide the use of
imagination and expression of one’s
feelings, thoughts, and ideas about the
insights acquired.
✓ Data gathering activity. Teachers now use
a great number of tools for learning can
engage in. in the hands-on approach to
learning, learners are given a free hand in
the selection of tools for data gathering.
✓ Organizing and summarizing activities.
Teachers draw plan or structure the lesson
plan by assigning impromptu activities. This
can be done by vocabulary word enrichment
or drawing an object or animal related to
the lesson proper. Riddles and puzzles can
also be used for a start-up.
➢ Concluding activities. Usually, these are
activities learners engaged in as part of the
application of the newly acquired
knowledge. They may come in the form of
a wrap up, after which they submit the
summary for the day.
Different Types of Instructional Materials and
Tools
➢ Realia is making use of real-life
representations such as objects into the
classroom and learning environment to
enhance the learner’s knowledge about the
topic and/or concept.
➢ Sound and visual resources. Video
technology has made available several
video systems that allow audio-visual
experiences to be stored, retrieved, and
produced as needed.
➢ Videotapes. When applied to instructions,
they are used to demonstrate, explain,
record, and replay data. These can be made
available in the classrooms, libraries,
resource centers, and even at home.
➢ Videocassettes. They are easier to use
since they are lighter. They can be used to
collect, store, and reuse information. They
are handy and less expensive.
➢ Videodiscs. Recordings can also be done
through videodiscs. They resemble long-
playing records but they have a larger
storage capacity.
➢ Video games. Make use of a microcomputer
to respond to a player’s move with a move
of its own, thus interactive.
➢ Microcomputer resources. Computers
have been integrated into instructional
methods to build a sense of inquiry among
learners to explore and improve their
thinking skills.
➢ Pictures and pictorial representation.
Two-dimensional materials are visual
appearing to have height and width such as
the flat picture which is sometimes referred
to as a universal language since everybody
can read pictures.
➢ Symbolic and graphic representation.
These are variety of visual forms which
serve as instructional tools, such as graphs,
charts, posters, comic strips, maps, and
globes. These provide summarized
information and are effective tools for
instruction.
➢ Projects, viewers, players, recorders.
These are instructional materials enlarged
on a viewing screen using a machine that
throws images.
 ✓ Projector. These projects images of
transparencies on a screen, wall or
chalkboard. Transparency is place on
the glass or on top of the projector.
✓ Players and recorders. These are
auditory materials used to provide
learning experiences through pure
listening.
➢ Media resources. Sources of information
facilitated through electronic media,
teleconference, teletext system, print and
broadcast media, PowerPoint Presentation,
and overhead projector.
✓ Electronic media. Information
exchange us made possible by
electronic media which include
television programs, telephone, and
cellular phones. Schools can now
select television programs developed
for educational purposes.
✓ Teletext system. This is one-way
system in which information is sent
to receivers through TV broadcast.
✓ Teleconference. Now, it is possible
to communicate and interact with
people in different places, crossing
boundaries through television
connections.
✓ >P>Broadcast media. These provide
information to the public through
radio broadcast and television
programs.
>(2) types of television programming
1. Educational television uses
brief, engaging episodes, lessons
learned from commercials.
2. Instructional television
programs for special teaching
purposes.
✓ >PowerPoint Presentation. It had
its beginning from Microsoft
Software program and was officially
launched on May 22, 1990.
✓ >Overhead projector. It is a
teaching device that throws an
enlarged image of a transparency on
a surface above and behind the
person using it.
Principles in the Selection of Instructional
Materials
➢ All instructional materials are aids to
instruct but they do not replace the
teacher
➢ Choose the best instructional material
that suits the instructional objectives.
➢ Avoid using too many materials that will
confuse students.
➢ Check instructional materials before the
class starts to be sure it is working
properly.
➢ For results, abide by the following general
utilization guides on the use of media
given:
- Learn how to use the instructional
materials
- Prepare introductory remarks,
questions, or initial comments that you
may use to increase motivations.
- Provide a conducive learning
environment.
- Explain the objectives of the lesson.
- Stress what to be watched or listened to
carefully.
- State what the students are expected to
do with the information they will learn.
- Summarize or review the experience
Determining Appropriate Evaluation
Instruments
Evaluation Instruments Instruction
1. Determine the entire scope and range of
the project for evaluation by writing down
all of the variables included, the people
involved, instructional, materials, training
tools, and the level of the participants’
ability before and after training or
intervention.
2. Select a simple instrument preferably a
survey that asks participants about their
present attitude toward training, or a
multiple-choice needs inventory to identify
which resources are currently used.
3. Review the criteria for administering the
project or program, such as what is
expected from participants and what their
overall objectives are.
4. Develop a survey to ask the participants
about the type of information they will
need at the project’s conclusion before
moving forward or taking the project to the
next level
5. Review the needs assessment and survey
data to determine which evaluation tool to
use. If there is a need for more time to plan
for implementation, the evaluation tools
must be one that allows more information,
such as through surveys, checklist, and
questionnaires.
6. Conduct Internet search for each identified
evaluation instrument when conducting a
survey; research for similar surveys already
used in similar organizations or for similar
programs.
7. Prepare a report outlining each evaluation
instrument and explaining the need for it.
Pre-Assessment Knowledge
(Eberly Center n.d)
➢ Students have pre-existing knowledge
which they bring to the classroom and
influence how they attend, interpret, and
organize incoming information.
➢ It is accepted that new knowledge and skill
are dependent on pre-existing knowledge
and skill.
➢ Assessment of prior knowledge and skills
brings about a range of potential responses,
depending upon the type of course, the
uniformity of results, and the availability
 and type of supplemental materials and
alternative.
➢ If most students demonstrate proficiency in
a skill which is part of the plan, such may
be dropped and replaced with another skill
that they have not yet developed or
adjusted to the level of complexity or time
to spend on.
➢ Individual students lacking many of the
prerequisite skills and knowledge could be
encouraged to take prerequisite courses or
be forewarned that they need to develop
proficiency in areas on their own if they are
to succeed in the course.
Examples of Methods for Assessing Prior
Knowledge and Skills
Below are links to some methods that
instructors have employed:
➢ Concept inventories. These are multiple-
choice or show-answer test that zero in on
fundamental concepts within a domain.
➢ Concept maps. Concept map activities can
reveal the underlying structure or
organization of student’s knowledge of a
concept or constellation of concepts.
➢ Self-assessment probes. These are
indirect methods of self-assessment that
ask students to reflect and comment on
their level of knowledge and skill across a
range of items.
Formative Assessment
(McManus 2008)
➢ Formative assessment is a process used by
teachers and students during instruction
that provides feedback for possible
adjustment to ongoing teaching and
learning to help students improve their
achievement of intended instructional
outcomes.
➢ Formative assessment is done at the
classroom level and happens minute to
minute or in short cycles. Usually, this
assessment is not graded or used in
accountability system.
➢ Formative assessment can be an exciting
and productive approach to learning.
Summative assessment
(University of Manchester n.d.)
➢ Summative assessments enable tutors to
evaluate and assign a mark to their
students’ learning at a particular point in
time.
➢ The most important things when completing
any form of assessment or examination is to
establish what the goal posts are by looking
at:
✓ >The exact details of the assignment,
including instructions about format,
presentation, and structure.
✓ >The marking criteria for the assessment;
and
✓ >The “intended learning outcomes” for the
course, that is, what the tutor has stated as
expectations from students to demonstrate
to finish the course
Modes of Instruction
Chapter 9
• The Constitution expressly provides for
the grant of basic services to the people.
One of these is the grant of equal
opportunities for education to all
citizens, rich and poor.
• Designed to afford every citizen equal
access to opportunities for intellectual
growth and otherwise, the Education
Law is intended to meet the concerns of
the educational system, both public and
private in terms of the needed
educational reforms and the modes of
delivery of Philippine education.
• Atty. Ulpiano P. Sarmiento III identifies
two distinct modes of delivery, namely,
formal education and the non-formal
Technical Vocational and Training (TVET)
system.
• Electronic communication has reduced
the world into a global village. The
speed of information exchange between
distant locations is in real time.
• There are open universities in the
Philippines, however, that offer degree
programs that can be taken in parts or
in its entirety online.
Example of schools offering online courses in
the Philippines
1. University of the Philippines Open
University
2. Pangasinan State University
3. Polytechnic University of the Philippines
Open University
4. Cavite State University Open Learning
College
5. Benguet State University Open
University University of Northern
Philippines Open University
6. Visayas State University Open University
7. Central Luzon State University Open
University Philippine Normal University
Open University
8. DLSU-Manila's Center for Educational
Multimedia (CREM)
9. Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State
University Open University
10. Concordia College
Example of schools offering online courses
abroad for free
1. Harvard University
2. Utah State University Stanford
University
3. University of Notre Dame
4. Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT) University of California, Berkeley
 5. University of Washington
6. University of New South Wales Australia
7. Carnegie Mellon University Open
Learning Initiative
8. University of Pennsylvania
9. University of Southern Queensland
10. Yale University
11. Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of
Public Health
12. Oxford University
13. University of Michigan
14. University of Massachusetts Boston
15. University of Nottingham
Formal Education
It refers to the hierarchically structured
and chronologically graded learning organized
and provided by the formal school system and
for which certification is required in order for
the learner to progress through the grades or
move to higher levels. The following are the
levels:
• Elementary education - the first stage
of compulsory, formal education
primarily concerned with providing basic
education and usually corresponding to
six or seven grades, including pre-school
programs
• Secondary education - the state of
formal education following the
elementary level concerned primarily
with continuing basic education and
expanding it to include the learning of
employable gainful skills, usually
corresponding to four years of high
school
• Tertiary education - post-secondary
schooling is higher education leading to
a degree in a specific profession or
discipline
Non-formal Education
➢ The State likewise recognizes its
responsibility to provide non-formal
education within the context of a formal
system for certain social sectors, such as
out-of-school youths and adults, the
illiterate, and handicapped individuals.
➢ Article XIV, Sec. 2 of the 1987 Constitution
declares that the State shall:
(4) Encourage non-formal,
informal, and indigenous learning
systems, as well as self-learning,
independent, and out-of-school
study programs, particularly those
that respond to community needs,
and
(5) Provide adult citizens, the
disabled, and out-of-school youth
with training in civics, vocational
efficiency, and other skills."
The Nature of Non-formal Technical
Vocational and Training (TVET)
• The Constitution mandates that the State
shall encourage non-formal, informal, and
indigenous learning systems, as well as
self-learning, independent, and out-of-
school study programs, particularly those
that respond to community needs and
provide adult citizens, the disabled, and
the out-of-school youth.
• Non-formal technical vocational
education and training shall refer to any
organized program of instruction on
technical knowledge and skills proficiency
aimed at attaining specific learning
objectives for a particular clientele.
• To implement this mandate, the Authority
shall provide direction, policies, and
guidelines for effective implementation
of non-formal technical vocational
education and training.
• The concept of specialized educational
services is built on the premise that
education should also be made available
to those who require differentiated
techniques and facilities for learning.
• The concept of specialized educational
services is built on the premise that
education should also be made available
to those who require differentiated
techniques and facilities for learning.
• Linkages with end-users of non-formal
education output need be established and
strengthened to ensure absorption of its
graduates. This is the principal purpose
for the passage of Republic Act No. 7686,
otherwise known as the "Dual Training
System Act of 1994.“
• The Dual Training System shall be adopted
in duly accredited vocational and
technical schools in cooperation with
accredited agricultural, industrial, and
business establishments.
• Aside from formal education, DepEd
offers alternative delivery mode of
interventions to meet the needs of young
people in different communities.
• Alternative Learning System is a
ladderized, modular non-formal
education program in the Philippines for
dropouts in elementary and secondary
schools, out-of-school youths, non-
readers, working Filipinos, and even
senior citizens. It is an alternative to the
regular classroom studies where Filipino
students are required to attend daily.
• The program has two different schematics
for conducting instruction school-based
and community-based. On the school-
based program, instruction are conducted
in school campuses while in the
community-based program, forma
instructions are conducted in community
halls or in private places.
• The ALS program follows a uniformed
lesson modules for all academic subjects
covering the sciences, mathematics,
 English, Filipino, social studies, current
events among others.
Alternative Delivery Modes (ADMs)
The ADMs in formal basic education are
implemented to enhance certain performance
indicators in order to achieve the 2015 targets
of Education For All (EFA) and the Millennium
Development Goal (MDG) on achieving the
universal primary education.
The ADMs are aimed at resolving the
learning needs of the marginalized pupils and
those learners at risk of dropping out so they
can be helped in overcoming social and
economic constraints
ADMs in Elementary Levels
• Multigrade instruction. At the
elementary level, it is an alternative
delivery of formal education whereby
there is one teacher for two, three, or
four different grade levels.
• Modified in School Off School
Approach (MISOSA). It can be
considered a liberating approach. It
releases children from the confines of
the classroom. It allows and actually
promotes learning while at home or in
the community.
• Instructional Management by Parents,
the Community, and Teachers
(IMPACT). It is a management system
where the parents, teachers, and
community collaborate to provide
children with quality education at less
cost
Multigrade Instruction
• There are several approaches or
strategies used in multigrade classes to
ensure the quality of instruction. One
approach is the differentiated
instruction wherein teachers plan
strategically to address various learning
needs of pupils.
• Another strategy is to group pupils by
ability or mixed ability depending on the
teacher's intention or objective for
instruction.
• There is also the modular approach
involving the division of the curriculum
into specific objectives and the creation
of associated learning materials in
modules or sections.
Modified in School Off School Approach
(MISOSA)
• MISOSA combines formal and non-formal
learning activities to meet the needs for
classrooms, learning materials, and'
teachers.
• Under MISOSA, a class of pupils is
divided into two groups. Group 1 spends
time learning outside the school while
Group 2 attends formal classes and then
alternately after a week. At certain
times, the two groups are gathered in
one class to learn together as one group.
• MISOSA uses self-instructional materials
(SIMS) that contain the lessons to be
learned for the day.
• MISOSA has also enrichment activities
utilizing the community resources as a
laboratory for learning aside from the
classroom, that is, half of the class stays
with the teacher while the other half
stays with the teacher-facilitator in the
community school.
Benefits in implementing MISOSA:
MISOSA implementation may also
contribute to the following aside from
addressing congestion:
• Resolving the problem of shortage of
instructional materials
• Improving classroom management
• Promoting equal access and opportunity
for learning
• Institutionalizing systematic monitoring
• Developing pupils' study habits, love for
learning, and self-esteem
• Attending to the unique needs of
individual pupils
Instructional Management by Parents, the
Community, and Teachers (IMPACT).
➢ The extension of educational services
beyond formal elementary education is
also provided by IMPACT. This was
developed by SEAMEO INNOTECH to
address high student population and high
percentage of dropouts.
➢ Learning materials are based on the
national curriculum standards of the
Department of Education. The programs
use audio and video tapes in English,
Science, Mathematics, Filipino, and
Information and Communications
Technology (ICT) in teaching the lessons.
➢ IMPACT offers three delivery modes: (1)
programmed teaching or employing bright
pupils as programmed teachers who use
specific teaching procedures, (2) peer-
group learning or the grouping of 6 to 8
pupils who are heterogeneous in ability
but who are studying the same core
modules, and (3) individual study or self-
instruction that allows the learner to
learn at his/her own pace.
IMPACT
It also uses collaborative and self-directed
approaches:
• a technology-enhanced alternative
delivery mode;
• developed to address high student
population and high percentage of
dropouts; and
• management system where the parents,
teachers, and community collaborate to
provide the child with quality education
at less cost.
It has three primary modes of delivery:
• Programmed teaching
 • Peer group learning
• Individual study
ADMs in Secondary Levels
➢ Effective and Affordable Secondary
Education (EASE). This is one of the ADMs
designed and implemented program to
complement the existing formal system.
EASE is applicable to students who cannot
attend schools for a short while or can
only attend classes seasonally due to
socio-economic, geographical, and
physical conditions.
➢ Open High School System (OHSP). This
program is for high school students who
incur long-term absences or who are
permanently unable to attend school due
to time, distance, and financial
constraints; social and family problems;
or physical impairment. It uses the
concept of distance education as it offers
self-regulating and adaptable study
programs using self-instructional learning
materials.
➢ Dropout Reduction Program (DORP).
Under the DORP, Students at risk of
dropping out (SARDOs) are provided three
modes of learning to enable them to
continue schooling even without
attending formal classes. They are:
1. Modular system wherein students
are given learning modules which
they can bring home for self-study;
2. Internet-based learning which is
an online learning that is still being
piloted; and
3. Blended technology which is a
merger of the modular and Internet
based modes of teaching and
learning (K TO 12 TOOLKIT
Reference Guide for Teacher
Educators, School Administrators,
and Teachers 2012).
➢ ALS Programs. Currently, the DepEd
offers ALS Programs through the Bureau
of Alternative Learning. The Programs
are:
✓ Basic Literacy Program caters to
those with little or no education.
It is a community-based
educational program for out-of-
school children, youth, and adults
to help them develop basic
literacy skills.
✓ Accreditation and Equivalency
(A&E) Program is offered for
literates who have not completed
10 years of basic education. A&E is
a certification of learning for out-
of-school youth and adults aged 15
years old and above, who are
unable to avail of the formal
school system, or who have
dropped out of formal elementary
or secondary education.
After passing the A&E examination,
passers have the following opportunities:
• Enter college/university
• Enter other non-formal training
programs
• Enter formal training programs
• Enter/re-enter the world of work
• Enter/re-enter elementary or
secondary formal school system
• Learn essential life skills to
participate more fully and
actively in the political, social,
and economic lives in the
community.
➢ ALS Programs. Currently, the DepEd
offers ALS Programs through the Bureau of
Alternative Learning. The Programs are:
✓ Indigenous Peoples (IP)Education
is a program that aims to develop an
IP culture-sensitive core
curriculum, learning materials and
assessment tools/instruments (K TO
12 TOOLKIT Reference Guide for
Teacher Educators, School
Administrators, and Teachers 2012).
For IP Education, the core areas of
the curriculum are: a) family life
b) civic consciousness c)
environment d) health, sanitation,
& nutrition and e)economics and
income
✓ Informal Education Program
provides opportunities for
adolescents, parents, and street
children to gain knowledge and
skills, and to help them improve
their character, attitude, and values
from daily experiences at home, at
work, at play, and from life itself.
Distance Learning, Open Learning, and
Flexible Learning
The terms "open learning," "flexible learning,"
and "distance learning" are often used
synonymously.
➢ Open learning is a term used to describe
the courses flexibly designed to meet
individual requirements. It often refers to
provisions for removing barriers that
prevent attendance in more traditionally-
organized classes.
➢ Distance learning implies separation in
space and time of the learner and the
teacher. It has similar characteristics with
open and flexible learning.
➢ Flexible learning has been used to
promote a shift from formal, whole class
didactic teaching toward individual or
group-managed learning. This is achieved
through provision by the facilitator of
resource materials and opportunities for
the negotiation of tasks, self- and peer
assessment and collaborative group work.
Since flexible learning is intended to
maximize learning and to make the
student actively involved in his own
 learning, the twin goals of the approach
are learning and student autonomy.
Online Educational Delivery Models:
A Descriptive View
➢ The creation of online education occurred
just over a decade and a half ago-a
relatively short time in academic terms.
Early course delivery via the web had
started by 1994, soon followed by a more
structured approach.
➢ A new concept called Massive Open
Online Courses (MOOCs) has generated
widespread interest in higher education
circles. Most significantly, it has given way
to strategic discussions in higher
education cabinets and boardrooms about
online education.
➢ All too often, the public discussion has
become stuck in a false dichotomy of
traditional vs. online-a dichotomy that
treats all online models as similar and
that ignores blended or hybrid
approaches.
➢ Educational technology is interacting with
innovative educational courses and
programs to create not only new language
but also multiple models for delivering
education (Langstaff 2013).
Ad Hoc Online Courses and Programs
➢ Many of the ad hoc on individual faculty
members' contention that there are
better results and learning outcomes
using online tools courses are anchored.
Notwithstanding most faculty members'
skeptical view of the quality of online
education.
➢ According to a study by Inside Higher Ed
and the Babson Survey Research Group,
fully two-thirds of faculty members say
that learning outcomes from online
education are inferior compared with
outcomes from traditional courses.
➢ Faculty members teaching ad hoc online
courses are one of the most important yet
overlooked sources of knowledge and
experience regarding online education.
However, ad hoc online courses and
programs are typically not planned for
a large number of sections or students.
Fully Online Programs
➢ The fully online programs are from the
for-profit sector and from online-only
organizations created by nonprofit
institutions. These online programs
evolved around an idea called the
master course, which changes the
educational delivery methods of an
institution, and is perhaps the biggest
differentiator among traditional, for-
profit, and even nonprofit fully online
organizations.
➢ A master course is turned into multiple,
relatively consistent sections in a
repeatable manner. In this approach,
instructional design teams, including
multimedia experts, quality-assurance
people, and instructional designers work
with faculty members and/or subject-
matter consultants or experts to design a
master course.
➢ The master-course concept changes the
assumptions on who owns the course,
and it leads to different processes for
designing, delivering, and updating
courses. These do not exist in traditional
education and the implications of this
approach are significant.
School-as-a-Service
➢ Another approach to overcoming the
barrier between traditional education and
scalable online education is outsourcing
to or partnering with an external
company for online content, curriculum,
and/or student services.
➢ These companies, while bringing
experiences, increase capabilities to help
schools implement a master-course
concept and the associated operations
while providing these courses through
the traditional institution.
➢ There is also a burgeoning industry built
around outsourced, for-profit service
providers-companies that provide the
curriculum and course development, as
well as the operations, of an online
program.
Educational Partnerships
➢ In this model, external organizations
provide portions of their online
courses, and communities of practice,
including a network of peer-instructors
worldwide, work on similar programs.
➢ The educational institution offers the
courses within its curriculum, allowing
students to pursue industry-relevant
certifications and even to use the
courses as part of their degree programs.
Part of the requisites for schools is the
availability of a lab space and
equipment.
➢ Networking Academy as Cisco's "largest
and longest-running Corporate Social
Responsibility (CSR) program" does not
charge public and nonprofit institutions
since it is a non-profit educational
program.
Competency-based Education
➢ A potential innovation within higher
education is to move from credit hours
to competency assessment, as a gauge of
whether a course has been completed.
➢ “It is based on the broader concept of
outcomes-based education (OBE), which
starts with the desired outcomes and
moves to the learning experiences that
 should lead students to produce
outcomes.” SPT Malan wrote. The
outcomes in CBE are more closely tied to
job skills or employment needs, and the
methods are typically self-paced.
➢ The current growth in CBE models are
driven by the desire to provide lower
cost education options through flexible
programs.
➢ This unique competency-based model
allows students to start classes
anytime they like, work at their own
pace, and earn credit for whatever they
already know Students can
demonstrate college-level
competencies--no matter where they
learned the material as soon as they can
prove that they know it.
Blended/Hybrid Courses and the Flipped
Classroom
➢ These are a combination of online and
face-to-face class time that are carried
out in a controlled or organized manner.
While there is a variety of content
delivery and interactive activities in this
approach, the logical extension is
sometimes called the "flipped
classroom." The flipped classroom model
involves courses that deviate from the
traditional lecture or content
dissemination and chooses online delivery
outside of class time. The face-to-face
class time is used for practice and
application rather than for introducing
the content being studied.
➢ There are many other examples of
blended and hybrid approaches. The
common theme is to make face-to-face
class time more effective, using it to
provide much of the instructor
feedback and interactive skills portion
of a class while pushing content delivery
into more efficient online tools.\
MOOC’s moving forward
To become truly transformative for higher
education, the MOOC’s concept must
accomplish the following goals:
➢ Develop revenue models that will make
the concept self-sustaining.
➢ Deliver valuable signifiers of completion
such as credentials, badges, or
acceptance into accredited programs.
➢ Provide an experience and perceived
value that enables higher course
completion rates (in most MOOCs today,
less than 10 percent of registered
students actually complete the course)
➢ Authenticate students so that
accrediting institutions or hiring
companies are satisfied that a student's
identity is known"
Lessons for Traditional Institutions
The recent developments surrounding
the growth in online education and the
emergence of new educational delivery models
lead to four key lessons for traditional higher
education institutions:
• Online education consists of multiple
educational delivery models.
• The new legitimacy of online education
can lead to new pressures.
• Online education should lower, not raise
student costs.
• Online education will increase
competition.
Effective Instructional Techniques
Chapter 11
➢ Teachers set the mood for teaching. They
provide the learners clear understanding of
what they are expected to learn.
➢ Academic structuring is important to make
both the teachers and learners know the
directions they are headed to. It serves as a
road map of where they are going.
➢ Effective instructional technique stems
from the desire of the teacher to deliver
effectively the topics needed to be
discussed to give the learners deeper
insights about the teaching-learning
process.
Motivation
Experienced teachers resort to the use of
motivation to promote a more active
interaction, involving both personal and social
dimensions of classroom life.
➢ In this, the teacher creates an "anticipatory
set" to encourage learners to listen
attentively and attend to the lesson.
➢ Effective instruction stems from the ability
of the teacher to structure learning
activities that require learners'
involvement.
➢ It is to be noted, however, that flow of
experiences corresponds to the learners'
skill and is adapted to the objectives of the
lesson.
Discussion
Discussion refers to the free exchange of
ideas between the teacher and the students
and among the students as well. Usually, it is
used for clarifying ideas, explaining a point,
and generating opinions.
➢ Learners are encouraged to voice out their
sentiments and express their thoughts on
the topic for the day. In the process, critical
thinking ability is honed. Some refer to the
verbal exchange as thinking aloud.
Effective Questioning
Skillful questioning can elicit the correct
response from learners, arouse their curiosity,
stimulate their imagination, and motivate
them to engage in the lesson and the particular
learning experiences that form part of the
learning tasks.
➢ Effective questioning necessitates an
orderly sequencing according to the
thinking process which means that question
starts from the low to high level so that
learners are able to respond.
➢ Low-level questions emphasize memory and
simple recall of information, WHILE high-
level questions go beyond simple recall and
factual information.
➢ According to the type of answers required,
convergent questions tend to have one
correct or best answer; hence, they are
often identified as low-level and
knowledge questions.
➢ Convergent questions can deal with logic
and complex data, abstract ideas,
analogies, and multiple relationships.
➢ Divergent questions are often open-ended
and usually have many appropriate,
different answers. Stating a "right" answer
is not always most important, rather, it is
how the learners arrive at their answer.
➢ Divergent questions are associated with
high-level thinking processes and can
encourage creative thinking and discovery
learning. They start with how and why.
Model for clarifying the values of learners.
1. Choosing freely - adapting an optimistic
posture about the choices which are
deemed essential to values
classification.
2. Choosing from alternatives - ability to
select from given options as part of the
decision-making process.
3. Choosing after considering the
consequences of each alternative -
ensuring the fairness of decision
involving conflicting interests that
accrue from the choice of alternatives.
4. Prizing and cherishing - awareness of the
belief and behavior learners value
according to personal preference
5. Affirming the choice to others - act of
asserting a particular stance on an issue
through personal beliefs, attitudes, and
actions.
6. Acting upon choices - actual
demonstration of beliefs through
personal engagement in school activities
7. Repeating-display of a repetitive
behavior that reflects values
Bloom’s Taxonomy
➢ It is hierarchial ordering of cognitive skills
that can, among countless other uses, help
teachers teach and students learn.
➢ There are six levels of Bloom's Taxonomy,
and questions at each level require the
person responding to use a different kind of
thought process.
Six levels of Bloom's Taxonomy
Level 1 - Knowledge
➢ Knowledge, requires the learners to
recognize or recall information. The learner
is not asked to manipulate information, but
merely to remember it just as it was
learned.
➢ Recently, it has become the trend to scoff
at questions which ask the learner to rely
only on memory. However, memorization of
material is important for several reasons.
➢ Some words frequently found in knowledge
questions are listed below:
Define - Recognize – who, where
Recall - Remember - what, when
Level 2 - Comprehension
➢ Questions in this level require the learner
to demonstrate sufficient understanding to
organize and arrange materials mentally. In
order to answer a comprehension level
question, he must demonstrate personal
grasp of the material by being able to
rephrase it, to give a description in his own
words, and to use it in making comparisons.
➢ It is important to remember that the
information necessary to answer
comprehension questions should have been
provided to the learner.
➢ Words or phrases often found in
comprehension questions include:
Describe - rephrase - in your own words
Compare - Contrast - explain the main idea
Level 3 - Application
➢ A question that asks a learner to apply
previously learned information in order to
reach an answer to a problem.
➢ Application questions require learners to
apply a rule or process to a problem and
thereby determine the single right answer
to that problem.
➢ Words/phrases often found in the
application questions are:
Apply - choose - solve
Classify - employ - how many
Use - write an example - which/what is
Level 4 - Analysis
➢ Higher-level questions that require the
learners to think critically. Three kinds of
cognitive processes are: 1) To identify the
motives, reasons, and/or causes for a
specific occurrence. 2) To consider and
analyze available information in order to
reach a conclusion, an inference, or a
generalization based on this information. 3)
To analyze a conclusion, inference, or
generalization to find evidence to support
or refute it.
➢ These questions cannot be answered
quickly or without careful thought. The
fact that several answers are possible and
that sufficient time is needed to answer
them is an indication that analysis questions
are higher-order ones.
➢ Words frequently found in analysis
questions:
identify motives or causes - draw conclusions -
analyze
determine evidence – support - why
Level 5 - Synthesis
➢ Higher-order questions that ask learners to
perform original and creative thinking.
These kinds of questions require learners
to: a) produce original communications;
b) make predictions; and c) solve problems.
➢ Although application questions also require
students to solve problems, synthesis
questions differ in that they do not require
a single correct answer, but instead allow a
variety of creative answers.
➢ Words, phrases, and questions often found
in synthesis questions:
Predict/Produce/write - how can we improve -
can you devise
design/Develop/construct - what would
happen if - how can we solve
Level 6 - Evaluation
➢ Evaluation questions do not have a single
correct answer. They require the learners
to judge the merit of an idea, a solution to
a problem, or an aesthetic word. They may
also ask the learners to offer an opinion on
an issue.
➢ In order to express your opinion on an issue
or to make a judgment on the merit of an
idea, solution, or aesthetic work, you must
use some criteria. You must use either
objective standards or a personal set of
values to make an evaluation.
➢ Words or phrases often used in evaluation
questions consist:
judge/give your opinion - decide/do you agree
argue/ which is the better picture -
evaluate/assess/would it be better
Handling Learners' Response
➢ While questioning is deemed a key or tool
for learning, teachers should provide
opportunities for equal access to classroom
questions and academic interaction in the
form of response to questions.
➢ The more assertive members of the class
monopolize the discussion to the
disadvantage of the shy and the less
assertive.
➢ Teachers should provide for equal
participation. Rules should be set.
➢ The wait to-be-recognized rule would
instill discipline, promote an effective
participation, and make the learning
experiences productive and meaningful.
The teacher makes his professional decision
to decide whom to be called upon to answer
the question.
Techniques in Handling Learners' Response
➢ Teachers should be appreciative of the
students' answers.
➢ Teachers should check on wrong answers
and not allow them to slip by to avoid
learning wrong facts and concepts.
➢ Teachers should be ready to give
encouraging remarks or praises for correct
answers.
➢ Every point expressed by the student must
be clarified through teacher's insistence.
➢ Teachers should not allow students to
answer in chorus. If so, they will meet
problems related to discipline.
➢ Teachers should encourage students to
speak clearly and loudly for every member
of the class to hear.
➢ Students should be encouraged to observe
correct grammar and answer in complete
sentences.
➢ Teachers are discouraged to refrain from
marking the students in his record book
during recitation.
Classroom Management
Chapter 10
➢ Effective teaching is equated to classroom
management. Traditional interventions like
reprimands, suspensions, and even calls to
parents are not proven to be effective as
motivating students with disruptive
behavior.
➢ Learning being two-way tract, does not
assume to the teacher the full responsibility
for the students' learning. However, it is
suitable upon the teacher to exhibit the
appropriate behavior he wants the students
to emulate.
➢ Six topics will be discussed in this chapter:
Management of time, management of
instruction, management of relationship,
management of discipline, management of
physical environment, and management of
routine
Management of Time
➢ Time is of the essence in learning.
Learner’s achievement depends on time
they spend for learning and on the quality
of instruction and the learning tasks. NO
matter how much time is spent, no learning
takes place if there is poor instruction and
poorly devised learning tasks.
➢ An effective teacher is able to allocate and
control the time for instruction and the rate
of student engagement in the learning
activities.
➢ It is said that the key to successful
management is the ability of the teacher to
maximize the time of students in engaging
in worthwhile, productive academic
endeavor.
Principle of Time Management
➢ Use of substantive interaction.
➢ Use of monitoring.
➢ Provisions of opportunities for skills
development necessary for the completion
of the task, access to necessary materials,
and protection from possible disruption.
➢ Giving of clear-cut instructions on how to
do a particular activity as well as posting
directions in writing
➢ There are several ways a teacher manages
his classroom time
There are several ways a teacher manages his
classroom:
➢ Planned time. Teachers fill in plan books to
set a side certain amount of time for
different subjects and activities. This is
referred to as planned time.
➢ Allocated Time. Also referred to as
opportunity to learn. This is the amount of
time a teacher actually spends on a
particular task / activity in the classroom
for a specific subject area. Learning is a
supposed to be measured in terms of the
amount of time the students spend for an
academic task.
➢ Engaged time. This is otherwise known as
time on task usually measured in terms of
on-task and off-task behavior. The on-task
is the time spent for the classroom activity.
The off-task is that which student spends on
talking about something outside of the
activity with another student.
➢ Academic learning time. This is the
amount of time a student spends on a
particular task where he is successful.
➢ Time needed. This is the time needed by
the individual to be able to master a task.
Management of Time Sample Analysis
Inventory
Do I plan my lesson to include findings from
effective teaching research by:
✓ including an introduction;
✓ clearly presenting the content;
✓ checking for student understanding;
✓ Providing for closure & summarization;
✓ conducting periodic reviews.
✓ Do I maximize both allocated and
engagement time in learning?
✓ Do I begin and end lessons on time?
✓ Do I apportion time equally to cover all
subject matter or lessons?
✓ Do I set schedule for evaluation?
Management of Instruction
➢ While it is true that teacher have little
control of over changes in environment like
home, community & the school, they have
full control over their instructional
competence.
➢ When instruction is characterized by a high
degree of competence, the chances of
controlling the effects of misbehavior and
all others that deter learning are great.
Principle of Management of instruction
➢ Instructional competence lessens the
effects of negative forces from the
environment.
➢ Recurring misbehavior results from poor
instruction.
➢ The use of positive approaches/ techniques
in teaching, arising from complete
awareness of the underlying causes of
misbehavior brings about better learning
results.
➢ Understanding by the teacher of the basic
human needs, such as food, security,
belongings, and recognition, eliminates
behavior problems in the classroom
➢ Teachers must be willing to recognize
students' needs for the instruction to be
more fulfilling.
➢ Teacher's behavior facilitates
students' achievement.
➢ Effective teaching enhances the
teachers' instructional competence
and helps prevent classroom
management problem.
Management of Instruction Sample
Analysis Inventory
➢ Do I heighten student motivation to learn by
taking into account student interests,
needs, attributions, feelings, and success;
unique, fresh, and varied instructions; and
encouragement and feedback?
➢ Do I convey high expectations or aspirations
for learning and behavior by balancing
response opportunities, sharing timely
advice and constructive feedback, and
dealing with each student with personal
regard?
➢ Do I question the active involvement of
students in the learning process by asking
questions at different cognitive levels and
using probing questions, wait time, a
variety of technique to elicit response, and
a variety of positive reinforcements?
➢ Do I teach in ways that allow students to
demonstrate their knowledge using all the
eight types of human intelligence?
➢ Do I provide clear directions and
expectations?
Management of Relationship
➢ One of the important facets of successful
teaching is building learning communities in
the classroom.
➢ While focus before is individual growth,
new dimensions in teaching have been
considered with the introduction of
cooperative learning.
➢ From this process has evolved a more
productive learning environment.
Related principles of classroom communities
➢ Designing lessons that involve students in
cooperative learning activities based on a
shared set of common characteristics.
Three elements are involved:
✓ Face-to-face intervention requires placing
students in close proximity to each other to
be able to talk to each other to complete
task
✓ Positive interdependence is a rehearsal on
the notion that each individual can achieve
a particular learning goal only if all the
 learners in the group achieve the learning
goal.
✓ Individual accountability refers to the
feeling on the part of each group member
that he is responsible for completing the
task individually and cannot simply rely on
the other members of the group to work for
him.
➢ Cooperative learning can have a positive
impact on student motivation and behavior.
➢ Teaching social skills enhances
opportunities for effective learning.
➢ Processing group functioning. Teacher
adapts "strategies whereby groups are made
to function, accomplish learning by helping
each other, and contribute to the
realization of objectives of the learning
task.
➢ Processing group functioning. Teacher
adapts strategies whereby groups are made
to function, accomplish learning tasks by
helping each other, and contribute to the
realization of objectives of the learning
task
Sample of Management of Relationship
Analysis Inventory
➢ Do I regard (and to what extent) my
students' cultural values, customs, and
behavioral expectations when setting
classroom guidelines and regulations and
when interpreting students' behavior?
➢ Do I use cooperative learning activities
and teach social skills to create group
norms that will uphold pro-social behavior
and involvement in more learning
opportunities and pursuits?
➢ Do I use activities that contain the vital
components of cooperative learning?
➢ Do I utilize personal goal-setting and
fitting ascriptions for student
performance to intensify motivation in
learning and to encourage high self-
efficacy?
➢ Do I use my feelings and emotions in a
certain way?
Management of Discipline
➢ A major aspect of classroom management
relates to the proper conduct of the
learners in the classroom.
➢ Discipline in classrooms refers to all the
standard behaviors in the classroom.
➢ The teacher should understand that there
are rules and regulations to follow.
➢ As in effective teaching, classroom
management is also involved in the use of
pre-planned behaviors guided by the
learning principles including child
development theory designed to effect a
positive change in student behavior.
Related principles in classroom discipline
management
➢ Whenever a particular behavior interferes
in the teaching act, hinders other
students' right to learn, becomes
destructive, makes the classroom
atmosphere psychologically or physically
unsafe, then there is a discipline problem.
➢ There can only be effective teaching in a
situation where behavior problems exist if
the teacher is competent in minimizing
effects of misbehavior and maximizing
instead the time spent for learning.
➢ Student achievement is measured by how'
much a teacher is able to manage the
classroom effectively, thereby producing
mor learning and reducing problems on
discipline.
Suggestions and Tips for Classroom Discipline
➢ Serve as example for the students to
emulate.
➢ Have a wholesome, winning personality.
➢ Establish good routine habits.
➢ Demonstrate fairness in imposing
punishment.
➢ Adjust punishment according to the
character of the offender and the nature of
the offense.
➢ Show enthusiasm in teaching.
➢ Manifest genuine interest in the welfare of
the learners.
➢ Maintain wholesome work attitude to
encourage participation of the learners.
➢ Be consistent in the matter of disciplining
students.
➢ Learn to smile to ease tension.
Sample of Management of Discipline
Analysis Inventory
➢ Do the behaviors I am trying to remedy
represent discipline problems as described
in the text?
➢ Do they intervene with teaching or the
rights of others to learn and be educated?
➢ Do my behaviors play a part in any discipline
dilemma?
➢ Do my behaviors make the best use of the
time students have and actually spend on
learning?
➢ Do I handle motivational behavior problems
after the rest of the class is engaged in
learning activities?
➢ Do I contemplate and evaluate how my
behavior also has an impact on student
behavior?
Physical Environment
(from Chapter 10)
➢ A quiet atmosphere is a must in classroom
learning. For learning to be effective, noise
should be minimized, if not, totally
eradicated.
➢ At times notice can not be avoided
(i.e.yelling and pushing in corridors). This is
further aggravated by high levels of noise
outside the school like low-flying airplane,
nearby train, and sound of power mowers in
nearby subdivisions.
➢ Another aspect of physical environment is
density which can either be social and
spatial. Social refers to the size of the group
 in a given space and spatial where the size
of the group remains the same, but the size
of the space varies (i.e. a big class size of
40, an 18 or fewer students have more
positive effects in terms of achievement).
➢ Other physical characteristics, relate to
reducing vandalism and ensuring a well-
ventilated and clean atmosphere.
Management of Physical Environment
➢ At times problems is attributed to students'
lack of awareness of the type of behavior
expected of them in the classroom, same is
being compounded when the teacher feels
at loss as to what particular behavior he
expects from his students.
➢ An effective classroom management
demands of the teacher the ability to
structure the learning environment to get
rid of the unwanted behavior that disrupts
learning.
➢ The influence of cultural background for
both the teacher and students becomes a
major consideration.
Relevant principles to Management of Physical
Environment
➢ Disruptive behavior is minimized given that
the environmental condition is appropriate
for learning.
➢ Classroom guidelines are better followed by
students when teachers model appropriate
behavior.
➢ Clear communication of guidelines and
their relationship to learning promotes
appropriate Classroom behavior.
➢ Enforcement of teacher's expectations by
teaching/ inculcating the concept of
responsibility among students help them
realize the consequence of misbehavior to
learning.
➢ Classroom guidelines match students'
culture of home and community to avoid
conflicting notions of appropriate behavior
Sample of Management of Physical
Environment
Analysis Inventory
➢ Do I make my room physically relaxing and
conducive to learning by considering proper
lighting, sufficient ventilation, and minimal
(or no) noise?
➢ Do I have seating arrangements that can
accommodate various learning activities?
➢ Do I use my bulletin boards to acknowledge
students and to promote more
opportunities for active participation?
➢ Do I explore the classroom environment to
determine the regulations needed to
preserve and sustain teaching, learning,
safety, and property?
➢ Does the seating arrangement guarantee
that each student can see and participate
in the instructional activities; that the
teacher has immediate access to each
student; and that the seats are not placed
in high-traffic areas or are not prone to
distraction?
Management of Routine
➢ The frequency of surface disruptions
attributed to disruptive behavior in the
classroom can be overcome or reduced by
proper planning.
➢ Teachers can manage student behavior
through non-intrusive techniques whereby
students are given opportunity to control
their own behavior and proceed through
intrusive strategies where the teacher
assumes responsibility for controlling
student behavior.
Relevant principles to Routine Management
➢ Classroom management techniques must be
consistent with the goal of producing self-
directed individuals.
➢ The use of pre-planned hierarchy of skills,
planned ignoring signal interference,
proximity control, and touch control
improves the teachers' ability to manage
misbehavior.
➢ The use of coping skills like non-intrusive,
non-verbal teacher behaviors gives students
the opportunity for self-control, minimizes
disruption of teaching-learning process,
reduces likelihood of student
confrontation, protects students' safety,
and maximizes the teachers’ management
activities.
Sample of Management of Routine
Analysis Inventory
• Do I develop and teach procedures for
everyday routines?
• Do I observe the same set of rules and
regulations?
• Do I religiously check the attendance
of the students?
• Do I consistently assign work
activities?
• Do I regularly evaluate results?
Routines
(from Chapter 10)
These are the normal sequence of events
like lesson contexts, processes, schedules, and
other structures considered prerequisite for
academic performance. Here are some to
consider:
➢ Establishing classroom activities. Early
class sessions of the school year will involve
defining order and procedures, and
sustaining order is worked out.
➢ Rules and procedures. Specific formats for
opening, closing and conducting lessons are
laid down.
➢ Academic work and activities. Students are
oriented on what activities to do, starting
at the first day of classes.
➢ Enacting processes are rule system which
carries lesson contexts.
➢ Hidden curriculum. Emphasis is given on
authority responsibility orderliness, and
task orientation.
➢ Monitoring. This includes watching what is
happening in the room watching the
conduct or behavior of the students and
looking into the pace rhythm and duration
of classroom events.
➢ Maintaining group lessons. Use of grouping
and questioning as an instructional strategy.
Materials and activities provide a group
focus.
➢ Seatwork. The teacher roams around as
students work on activities after the lesson
proper.
➢ Transitions. Students are made to work
from one task to another while the teacher
monitors and gives possible directions.
➢ Engaged time. Assigning of specific task to
fill the scheduled time. This includes well-
planned assignments intended to keep the
students busy.
➢ Cueing. Cues and messages
(verbal/nonverbal) that teachers use to
instill order and discipline when
unnecessary disruption occurs.
➢ Maintaining academic work. To achieve
order, tasks given to students are selected
to lower the risk for mistakes.
➢ Cooperative learning. Class is divided into
small groups where individuals are made
accountable for performance.
➢ Subject matter as procedure. Subject
matter is presented with emphasis on
practice and drill
Chapter 11~ RESEARCH IN TEACHING
Chapter 12 ~QUALITIES OF A GOOD TEACHER
Chapter 13 ~CODE OF ETHICS FOR TEACHERS
A Guide to Teaching for Professionals
RESEARCH IN TEACHING
Research is operationally defined as a
scientific or scholarly investigation or
inquiry. Or it could also be taken in the
context of the process of a continuing search
for knowledge, based on experiments or from
what has been compiled from past studies of
scholars as they relate to the development,
problem, or issues of the present.
A certain writer said: "If you borrowed ideas
from one or two persons, you are a plagiarist;
if you borrowed ideas from three to ten
persons, you are a researcher; but if you
borrowed ideas from more than a hundred
persons, you are a scholar.”
Teachers are expected to be scholarly in their
teachings to students. Therefore, knowledge of
principles, concepts, and applications of those
concepts, should not only come from one point
of view. Teachers should be able to present
the different angles or aspects of a theory or
principle to the student. This method would
instill in the students: an appreciation for the
analysis of contrast, relationships of
variables, and integration of factors that get
into the process of proving the validity of a
concept or principle.
Where would teachers source the different
points of view, if not from research? Referring
to different scholarly works in a particular field
or discipline is a sign of intellectual humility
and intellectual curiosity. By looking into and
citing the research done by different authors
or writers, teachers would be able to make
their own evaluations, and analyses, or even
contribute to the improvement of the subject
or principle through their own research or
experiments, findings, and conclusions.
There is such a thing as the "universality of the
human mind. Somehow, the credit for
originality is given to le person who first spoke
and documented the result of his or her
research or experiments. But it does not mean
that other people in other parts of the world
did not have the idea or thought.
Research and Evaluation
In education, teachers evaluate
academic achievement, aptitude, interest,
and ability. Or shall we ask: Do teachers really
evaluate these elements that affect the
learning of students? Perhaps, for teachers
who are degree holders in an Education Course,
they do evaluate the aptitude, interest, and
even abilities of students, through tests that
are standardized to achieve the desired
results. But for professional teachers, these
tests other than the academic achievement
tests are alien matters.
The question is: Is there a need for professional
teachers to be able to somehow evaluate their
students’ aptitude, interest, and ability in
relation to their subject or course of study? Will
knowing how to evaluate these matters affect
the validity of their evaluation of the student’s
academic achievement? Educational
psychologists have argued that indeed, there
is a need to evaluate students’ aptitude,
interest, and ability (as these are manifested
in their behavior), for without evaluating
these in some way, teachers will not
sufficiently be able to know if they have
accomplished their teaching goals and
objectives.
Now, the next question is now shall the
evaluation be made to become meaningful and
relevant. Bringing back to mind the concept of
teaching by objective as discussed in Chapter
2, it is pointed out that a teacher should lead
the students into appreciating the learning
objectives or goals of a lesson or topic in order
to affect or cause learning.
RESEARCH AND EVALUATION
That is, to cause a desirable change in
the learner or student. Therefore, the proper
evaluation of instructional programs or
modules and students’ learning can determine
whether the learning objectives have been
met.
A teacher must understand planning that
planning teaching and learning objectives
and planning a teaching program or module
are integral parts of the same process and
these are accomplished most efficiently
through research!
Teachers can be confident in their evaluation
of the student's performance if they have the
working knowledge of being able to determine
quite objectively, the academic achievement
of the students in relation to their desired
behavioral change. A behavior can be seen and
measured. Objectives should involve behavior.
They should not involve the absence of
behaviors or not-behaviors. The evaluation also
provides feedback as to whether goals are
attained or not. Professional teachers should
do research to widen their knowledge in
knowing how to measure changes in behavior
as they relate to the planned teaching and
learning objectives.
RESEARCH AND TEACHING-LEARNING FOR
MASTERY
Teachers will make their teaching
psychologically conducive to the learner if they
have the initial assumption that students have
the capability to learn what is expected of
them.
The teachers, however, also recognize the fact
that there is a need for them to guide the
students through different learning stages to
reach the same behavioral objectives.
Teachers then must know each student in the
same way they know their subject matter.
If teachers aim to teach with mastery, they
must reinforce their knowledge from the
writings of many scholars. If they want their
students to master what they are teaching
them, then they must constantly evaluate and
involve the students in using feedback to
determine their weaknesses to correct or
strengthen such weaknesses; and to highlight
their strengths and achieve mastery.
Research will elevate students’ esteem for
their teachers: A scholarly teacher should
not teach only in the textbook. His or her
explanations and discussions must be
supplemented by other readings from the
safe or related fields. A research-oriented
teacher can cat induce students to do
research as well.
RESEARCH AS A FUNCTION OF EDUCATION
In most Philippine colleges and
universities, college teachers use western
materials in their teaching. Most often, these
materials are totally adopted, when they
should be adapted to suit local needs,
requirements, and conditions. This reliance on
imported knowledge is primarily due to the
absence of available materials from local
research or it could be in the total absence of
local research. Developing local research in our
Philippine colleges and universities would
greatly enrich instruction with course contents
that are relevant, applicable, and familiar to
the students. Teachers should embark on doing
research works, not only as supplements of
knowledge but also as improvements or
discoveries of new knowledge.
Many colleges and universities encourage and
support the research of teachers. With the lack
of textbooks especially in specialized fields in
the local market, teachers should write books.
Foreign books are too expensive for students to
afford. With the very high cost of tuition fees
locally written books adapted to local
environments will greatly enhance the learning
process of the students, aside from lessening
the cost of their education to affordable levels.
Many studies have shown that the teaching
effectiveness of teachers is enhanced when
they do research work. Their ability to organize
materials aids in better planning and teaching
strategies.
RESEARCH AS A FUNCTION OF EDUCATION
The Commission on Higher Education
of the Philippines CHED), has included
research as a function of citations, together
with teaching, community service or
extension universities. work, and
productivity for the public colleges and
Oliver P. Kolstoe wrote: "If you can't
teach, do good research; and if you can't do
good research, teach good”. However, a
teacher interprets this, the essence is,
research indeed is a teacher's beacon light to
becoming knowledgeable and effective.
If teachers want to benefit from the
research program of the school, then they must
familiarize themselves with the requirements
or rules of the institution on how to make
research proposals, especially for those
researches that would need funding, either
from the institution or from outside funding
agencies.
"Teach a child the way he or she should
go, he or she will not stray from it while he or
she lives."
QUALITIES EXPECTED OF A TEACHER
The Teachers from the Eyes of the
Students
Teachers have a very grave
responsibility, by the very nature of their work.
They mold and develop the mind, character,
and physical self of students to make them
positively different persons in preparation for
their future. In the teacher's hands lie the
direction the world will take in the future.
Tomorrow's glory will depend on how our
young people of today are educated and
trained to manage themselves so that they can
manage the world of tomorrow. Teachers are
active participants in this process of shaping
the minds of the future.
Because of too complicated activities of
making a living in this modern world, the task
of shaping the minds and hearts of the youth
has been relegated by parents to the school,
and to the teachers.
Students look up to their teachers from early
childhood as models of virtue, professional
maturity, and refinement. As virtuous persons,
they are in the eyes of a young person, full of
wisdom, who knows just how to draw the
pattern and shape of their lives.
Students may not learn too much about
academics from their teachers, but from their
virtues. They are an abiding reflection of all
the worthwhile things for which humankind
lives.
Such virtues of meekness, humility,
piety, prudence, patience, zeal, vigilance,
reserve, and generosity are what students look
for in teachers. Maybe a teacher may not have
all these qualities but if his or her character
has tints of all of these, then to the eyes of his
or her students, she is a model teacher
Professionalism in attitude towards
work; relationship with students, peers, and
superiors; even professionalism in play and
leisure must be expected of a professionally
mature teacher. Professional maturity, other
things being equal, will be fullest when
spiritual maturity is present; for a spiritually
mature individual aim for nothing but what is
good, beautiful, and true.
In behavior, a good teacher is refined. True
refinement must be embedded in the core of
one’s existence, in the very essence of one’s
soul. Students recognize refinement as a
quality of a teacher which makes a strong
impression on them. Refinement is
manifested in bearing, language, and
manners. Dignity or refinement marks a
teacher from among a crowd. It is a sign of
professionalism if a teacher will once in a
while make some self-evaluation: how
effective he or she is in his or her vocation as
a teacher, with the many aspects of his or her
work. It is also an indication of superior
intelligence and strength of character when a
teacher is able to discern his or her weaknesses
and resolves to improve himself.
The following pages is a sample of some areas
where a teacher may evaluate himself, and
work for growth and excellence.
Finally, the teacher should make an in-
depth regular self-examination, whether, in
the process of performing his or her functions
as a teacher, he or she is able to fulfill the basic
objectives or functions of education which are
instruction, research, and community service.
CODE OF ETHICS FOR TEACHERS
Teaching is the most socially-oriented
profession. As such the prestige that a teacher
enjoys is what we can consider higher in
esteem than other professions. Students,
parents, and the community at large look up to
a teacher as models of good behavior,
unquestionable reputation, above par
intelligence, and everything that a refined,
cultured person stands for. Being such
influential, either consciously or unconsciously,
the teacher should be guided by a set of rules
of conduct or code of ethics.
The code of ethics for teachers could be
described as consisting of his or her
relationship with self, with students, with
peers, with administrators, and the
community.
a. Teacher’s professional attitude
1. The teacher should consider his or her
profession as a noble one; hence, he
or she should manifest genuine
enthusiasm and pride in his or her
vocation
2. A most important duty of a teacher is
to conscientiously plan, prepare, and
present lessons in accordance with
the mission/vision of the school
where he or she is employed
3. It is the responsibility of a teacher to
constantly strive to broaden his or her
cultural outlook and deepen his or her
professional knowledge by:
a. A regular program of
professional reading;
b. Advance studies;
c. Attendance at seminars,
lectures, concerts, dramas, etc.
d. Group discussions on
contemporary ideas, methods,
and approaches;
e. Membership and participation in
educational associations;
f. Developing a mind open to
constructive criticism.
4. A teacher is bound by legal obligation
to fulfill the conditions of his or her
contract with the school which he or
she has signed.
5. A teacher should endeavor to enhance
and grow in his or her present position
meanwhile maturing in his or her
nobility of character and refinement
of behavior.
6. A teacher should be a model of
dignity, poise and respectability in
dress, in manners, and language at all
times.