Flour Production Varieties and Nutrition 1536137618 - Compress

FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
FLOUR
PRODUCTION, VARIETIES AND NUTRITION
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FLOUR
PRODUCTION, VARIETIES AND NUTRITION
MARÍA DOLORES TORRES PÉREZ

EDITOR
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CONTENTS
Preface vii
Chapter 1 Gluten-Containing Flours versus Alternative Gluten-Free Flours 1
María D. Torres Pérez, Frédéric Baudouin and Javier Seijo
Chapter 2 Burdock (Arctium lappa L.) Root Flour Production:
Technological, Nutritional, and Functional Characterization 17
Thaísa de Menezes Alves Moro, Ana Paula Aparecida Pereira,
Glaucia Maria Pastore and Maria Teresa Pedrosa Silva Clerici
Chapter 3 The Nutritional and Functional Properties of Wheat 31
Hacer Levent
Chapter 4 In Vitro Starch Digestibility of Snack Bar Formulated with Green
Banana (musa acuminata × balbisiana ABB cv. Awak) Flour 47
Lee-Hoon Ho, Norhidayah Che Dahri and Thuan-Chew Tan
Chapter 5 Betel Leaves (Piper Betle L.) Powder: Production, Nutritional
Quality, Physico-Chemical and Functional Properties 69
Lee-Hoon Ho, Mazaitul Akma Suhaimi and Thuan-Chew Tan
Chapter 6 The Characterisation of Banana (Musa Acuminata × Balbisiana
ABB cv. Awak) Pseudo-Stem Flour 97
Lee-Hoon Ho, Noor Aziah Abdul Aziz and Thuan-Chew Tan
Chapter 7 Oyster Mushroom Flour and Its Composite Steamed Bun:
Nutritional Quality, Physical Properties,
and Sensory Acceptability Aspects 121
Lee-Hoon Ho, Nur Syahidah Mohamed, Noroul Asyikeen Zulkifli,
Thuan-Chew Tan and Nalini Arumugam
Chapter 8 Composite Flour as a New Approach to Improve the Nutritional
Value of Foods: Product Quality Challenges 141
Lee-Hoon Ho, Li-Choo Chong and Thuan-Chew Tan
Chapter 9 Chinese Steamed Bread and Novel Wheat Products 175
Zhengmao Zhang, Qinhui Xing and Yuxiu Liu
vi Contents
Chapter 10 Whole Grain Wheat Flour: Definitions, Production,

Nutritional, Technological and Microbiological Aspects
for Application in Bakery and Pasta Products 185
Georgia A. R. Sehn, Fernanda Ortolan,
Elizabeth H. Nabeshima and Caroline J. Steel
Chapter 11 A Comprehensive Review About Cereal Crops,
Flour Varieties and Nutritional Aspects 215
Camelia Vizireanu, Eugenia Mihaela Pricop
and Daniela Ionela Istrati
Chapter 12 Mesquite (Prosopis alba) Flour:
Composition and Use in Breadmaking 259
L. P. Sciammaro, F. Bigne, M. S. Giacomino,
M. C. Puppo and C. Ferrero
Chapter 13 Flour: Nutritional Composition and Functional Properties of
Nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus L.) Varieties 273
Issoufou Amadou
Chapter 14 The Nutritional Value of Cereal Flours 287
Abdelrahman, R. Ahmed and Haiam O. Elkatry
Chapter 15 Vegetable Waste as a Raw Material for Flour:
Nutritional Values and Its Applications 315
Luan Ramos da Silva, Micaella Ferraz
and Farayde Matta Fakhouri
About the Editor 333
Index 335
PREFACE
The authors of this volume discuss traditional and alternative flours for different
application fields. The chapters include discussions on gluten-containing flours versus
alternative gluten-free flours; burdock (Arctium lappa, L) root flour production:
technological, nutritional, and functional characterization; the nutritional and functional
properties of wheat; in vitro starch digestibility of snack bar formulated with green banana
(Musa acuminata × balbisiana ABB cv. Awak) flour; Betel (Piper betle L.) leaves flour:
production, nutritional quality, physico-chemical, and functional properties; characterization
of banana (Musa acuminata × balbisiana ABB cv. AWAK) pseudo-stem flour; oyster
mushroom flour and its composite steamed bun: nutritional quality, physical properties, and
sensory acceptability aspects; composite flour as a good new approach for improving
nutritional values of food products and its challenges on product’s quality; Chinese steamed
bread and novel wheat products; whole grain wheat flour: definitions, production, nutritional,
technological and microbiological aspects for application in bakery and pasta products; flour:
production, varieties and nutrition; Mesquite (Prosopis alba) flour: composition and use in
breadmaking; Flour: nutritional composition and functional properties of nutsedge (Cyperus
esculentus l.) varieties; nutritional value of cereal flours; vegetable waste as raw material for
flours: functional and nutritional value and its application.
Chapter 1 - This chapter deals with the study of the most relevant differences between
gluten and gluten-free flours. For this purpose, an overview of the main characteristics of
wheat, as one of the most used grains to make gluten flours, as well as a wide range of
alternative gluten-free sources obtained from cereals (rice, corn or sorghum), pseudo-cereals
(quinoa, buckwheat or amaranth) and non-cereals (pulses, vegetables, fruits or seeds) are
described. Particular focus is put on rice, as one of the most employed cereals to make gluten-
free flours and being extensively studied in the recent literature. The production of above
flours as well as the use of by-products from the food industry, as an environmental friendly
manner to obtain alternative gluten-free flours, are also discussed. Special emphasis is given
to the physicochemical properties, thermo-mechanical characteristics reported in the literature
for studied flours. A comprehensive review on the nutritional characteristics is also addressed.
The main products developed with above different types of flours are also identified. Finally,
future trends to improve the technological aptitude of doughs obtained from above flour
doughs are also discussed.
Chapter 2 - Burdock is a member of the Asteraceae family, originated in China and
Europe, with ideal growing temperature ranging from 10 and 25 ºC. The leaves and fruits are
viii María D. Torres Pérez
used as phytotherapeutic compounds, while the roots can be used in infusions, salads, and
soups. Although the burdock roots are considered as a source of prebiotic fibers, they are not
exploited commercially as occurring with other roots from its family, including chicory,
Jerusalem artichoke, and yacon. The burdock root also has a high content of phenolic
compounds, mainly chlorogenic acid, with important antioxidant activity. Due to the high
moisture content (80%) of the fresh roots, the reduction of water activity using drying
methods can be an effective alternative to improve its commercialization and use. This
chapter discusses the benefits of processing burdock roots into flour by the conventional
drying and freeze-drying processes, and the main technological, nutritional, and functional
characteristics, exploring possible uses of flour in bakery products.
Chapter 3 - Wheat is the most important food for humans and it is grown in the field
more than any other commercial product in the world. Wheat is the basic raw material of
foods such as bread, pasta, noodle, biscuit, muffin, cracker, breakfast cereals. The wheat and
wheat based products are an important energy source based on the high content of protein and
carbohydrate for humans. Beyond being a basic energy source, whole wheat products is an
excellent source of vitamins, minerals, dietary fibers and bioactive phytochemicals such as
antioxidant compounds. Products prepared from refined white flour have lower micronutrient
content than whole-wheat products. There is an increasing evidence that whole wheat and
wheat products have the ability to enhance health. The regular consumption of whole grain
products reduce the risks of obesity, cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes and other
chronic diseases. Due to the healthier food demands of consumers, there is a growing interest
in whole wheat products all over the world.
Chapter 4 - Novel low glycaemic index (GI) snack bars were prepared using green
banana (Musa acuminata × balbisiana ABB cv. Awak) flour (GBF). Oat was partially
substituted with GBF at 5, 10, 15, and 20% (w/w) to prepare SGBF5, SGBF10, SGBF15, and
SGBF20, respectively. Snack bar without GBF served as control. Prepared snack bars were
evaluated for the dietary fibre content (i.e. soluble dietary fibre, insoluble dietary fibre, and
total dietary fibre), starch content (i.e. total starch, resistant starch, and digestible starch), GI,
and sensory attributes. Prepared snack bars containing GBF had significantly higher (P<0.05)
level of insoluble dietary fibre (4.31–10.07%), soluble dietary fibre (4.35–4.58%), total
dietary fibre (8.66–14.65%), total starch (74.98–76.12%), and resistant starch (6.22–7.49%)
than that of control snack bar (1.12, 4.23, 5.35, 73.88, and 4.72%, respectively). A slow starch
hydrolysis rate was recorded with a subsequent reduction of hydrolysis index (13.52–11.22%)
and estimated GI (47.6–46.38) in snack bars containing GBF. Sensory evaluation indicated
that the snack bar containing 15% (w/w) of GBF (i.e.SGBF15) had the highest overall
acceptability (score>6). As this is a novel snack bar developed with low GI value, it is
expected to benefit consumers, especially for those in weight management, as well as for
diabetic patients.
Chapter 5 - Betel (Piper betle L.) vines are cultivated for its health benefits. However, the
main problem with betel leaves commercialization is due to its highly perishable nature.
Therefore, the current study aimed to investigate the effect of different drying conditions, i.e.,
hot-air oven drying at 40 (HAD-40), 50 (HAD-50), and 60 °C(HAD-60) and freeze drying
(FD), on nutritional values, physical, chemical, and functional properties of betel leaves flour.
Hot-air oven drying at 60 °C was the most effective method to preserve the nutrient of dried
betel leaves with proximate compositions of 8.80% moisture, 22.81% crude protein, 5.40%
crude fat, 12.02% crude fibre, 12.09% ash, 50.91% total carbohydrate, and 343.44 kcal/100 g
Preface ix
energy. Results of physical analyses showed that HAD-40 had higher yield and lower water
activity (aw) compared to other flours, while HAD-60 demonstrated highest bulk density
value. FD showed the highest lightness, greenness, and yellowness values. For chemical
properties, HAD-40 had the highest pH and total titratable acidity values while the total
soluble solid of all samples were insignificantly (P>0.05) different. The functional properties
analyses results demonstrated that HAD-40 had the highest water holding capacity and the
lowest oil holding capacity. HAD-40 betel leaves flour appeared to be the best drying method
as it showed the highest value for total phenolic and total flavonoid contents and ferric-
reducing antioxidant potential assay. However, in 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl free radical-
scavenging ability, FD techniques recorded the highest value. Overall, the suitable drying
method in the production of betel leaves flour can be identified for their further applications
as food ingredients, depending on the required end product characteristics and quality.
Chapter 6 - The banana pseudo-stem obtained from banana plant is not widely used in the
food industry. However, it possesses several important bioactive substances that have
potential as a source of less expensive functional food. There are important characteristics to
understand prior to the development of new formulation for food product such as bakery
products. Therefore, the objective of the present study is to compare the physico-chemical
properties and microstructure of banana pseudo-stem flour (BPF) with the commercial wheat
flour (CWF). The matured banana (Musa acuminata × balbisiana ABB cv. Awak) pseudo-
stem from base to the shoot long length of the plant was used to process into flour prior
analysis. High protein (13.5%) commercial wheat flour was used to compare their
composition with BPF. The macro and micro elements, total, insoluble, and soluble dietary
fibres, total sugars, pentosans, total phenolics content, antioxidants activity, pH, total soluble
solids, and titratable acidity were significantly higher (P<0.05) in BPF than those in CWF.
The scanning electron microscope image of BPF obtained in the present study showed starch
granule with an oval and irregular or cuboidal shape, while the starch granules of CWF were
observed to have two types: A-type granules with disk-like or lenticular shape and B-type
granules with roughly spherical or polygonal in shape. Hence, it can be concluded that the
high content of chemical compositions in BPF is an indication of its potential application in
food products to increase the nutritional intake in the daily diet.
Chapter 7 - Oyster mushroom is an edible mushroom that gained popularity lately due to
its good nutritional values. This study was conducted to determine the proximate
compositions of grey and white oyster mushroom flour. Composite steamed buns by partially
substituting grey or white oyster mushroom flour for wheat steamed buns, i.e., control, at 3%
(3GOM and 3WOM, respectively) and 5% (5GOM and 5WOM, respectively) levels were
prepared and investigated for the physical properties (water activity, weight, volume, specific
volume, and texture profile), nutritional values (proximate composition, total starch, and
resistant starch), and sensory attributes. Result showed no significant difference (P>0.05) in
all proximate compositions (moisture, ash, crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber, total
carbohydrate, and calories) between grey and white oyster mushroom flours. All the
composite steamed buns indicated significantly higher (P<0.05) ash, crude protein, crude fat,
and crude fibre. However, total carbohydrate was significantly lower (P<0.05) than that of
control. Steamed buns containing grey or white oyster mushroom flour resulted in a
significant increase (P<0.05) in resistant starch. Composite steamed buns showed darker skin
and crumb colour, lower volume and specific volume, and higher hardness values. Sensory
evaluation indicated that the substitution of grey or white oyster mushroom flour for wheat
x María D. Torres Pérez
flour at 3 and 5% levels did not significantly affect (P>0.05) the overall acceptability on
steamed bun by sensory panelists. Overall, the nutritional quality of the steamed bun can be
improved by partial substituting grey or white oyster mushroom flour for wheat flour.
Chapter 8 - Composite flour is the blend of wheat flour and non-wheat flour for making
food products. Initially, composite flour was introduced to address the global wheat shortage
and the high rising price of wheat, but later, with today’s ever-changing lifestyles, the use of
composite flour has shifted to improve the nutritional and functional values of foods. This
review highlights the current applied processing methods to produce composite flours and the
effects of composite flour on the nutritional value, physicochemical properties, and functional
characteristics of food products. This review also focuses on the applications of composite
flour obtained from locally available agricultural sources to produce food products,
particularly wheat-based products, such as bread, cake, and biscuits. Various challenges
facing from the use of composite flour on the quality, i.e., nutritional values, physical,
functional, consumer acceptability, and shelf life, of baked products are discussed. Many
afford has been employed in recent years to encounter the problem facing during processing
of composite food products especially in baked products are also outlined. This review also
discusses the effect of blending of wheat flour with composite flour processed from wheat-
less sources, such as fruits, vegetables, roots, tubers, and legumes, on the pasting profile,
thermal profile, dough mixing properties, and dough rheology properties. Based on the
understanding of the properties of flour blends, food technologists can predict the physical
quality of the end products. Overall, through this review, the information from composite
flour production until the composite end products could benefits the social and economics,
especially bakery industry in producing the desired quality and nutritious final product.
Chapter 9 - Wheat is one of the most important agricultural crops globally, and the third-
largest food crop after rice and maize in China, in particular, wheat is primary provisions in
human diets in northern china. Researches on the quality of wheat flour are important for
wheat food. Steam bread was one of staple food in the north part of China due to the
combination of unique cultures and dietary habits in China. Chinese steamed bread-making
process was a complex system. There is significance value in researching on the aroma
characteristics of wheat flour, fermented dough, and final steamed bread. The solid phase
micro-extraction (SPME) GC-MS was used to investigating the compounds of volatile aroma
in gelatinized-flour. Volatile compounds of steamed bread varied the content of gluten in
wheat flour. In the three physical stages of making Chinese steamed bread, the quantity of
hydrocarbons and aldehydes first decreased and then increased. Chinese steamed bread made
from wheat flour with adding 3% of stachyose, had the greatest elasticity and extensibility,
and had the highest scores when it was conducted to the sensory evaluation, thus making
nutrients fortified steamed bread. Along with developing and applying of modern food
process technology, wheat also can be made for novel wheat products with different flavors,
such as wheat bran, wheat germ flour, wheat germ oil and “popwheat” and further caramel
treats. In addition, volatile compounds of wheat bran and germ were differed between high
gluten, middle gluten and low gluten flour. Therefore, the research on the processing quality
of wheat dough has been a hot topic.
Chapter 10 - There has been growing interest in the use of whole grain wheat flour by the
bakery and pasta industry, as a high added value ingredient, to improve the nutritional quality
of products and bring health benefits to consumers, as it is rich in dietary fiber, vitamins,
minerals, and antioxidants. However, the industry faces challenges in the elaboration of the
Preface xi
different products that incorporate this flour to partially or totally replace refined wheat flour.
These challenges involve the need to change process parameters and to solve end product
quality problems, such as volume reduction, and color, appearance, flavor, and texture
changes in breads and biscuits; and texture and cooking quality in pasta. This chapter will
deal with the definitions of whole grain wheat flour in different countries (e.g., Brazil,
Argentina, Canada, and USA), differentiating whole grain wheat flour from reconstituted
whole grain wheat flour; obtainment processes (stone mills, roller mills, reconstitution, etc.);
nutritional, technological and microbiological aspects. Another relevant aspect when working
with whole grain wheat flour is to define its quality for specific applications. This chapter will
discuss how traditional evaluation methods, used for refined wheat flour, which use
equipment such as the farinograph, the extensograph and the alveograph are altered when
analyzing whole grain wheat flour. In addition, the chapter will describe the application of
whole grain wheat flour in different bakery and pasta products, with examples of the
resources available to enhance product quality, including ingredients such as vital wheat
gluten, sourdough, additives such as oxidants and emulsifiers, and processing aids such as
enzymes. With this, we intend to give a broad overview of the production and use of this
flour.
Chapter 11 - There has been growing interest in the use of whole grain wheat flour by the
bakery and pasta industry, as a high added value ingredient, to improve the nutritional quality
of products and bring health benefits to consumers, as it is rich in dietary fiber, vitamins,
minerals, and antioxidants. However, the industry faces challenges in the elaboration of the
different products that incorporate this flour to partially or totally replace refined wheat flour.
These challenges involve the need to change process parameters and to solve end product
quality problems, such as volume reduction, and color, appearance, flavor, and texture
changes in breads and biscuits; and texture and cooking quality in pasta. This chapter will
deal with the definitions of whole grain wheat flour in different countries (e.g., Brazil,
Argentina, Canada, and USA), differentiating whole grain wheat flour from reconstituted
whole grain wheat flour; obtainment processes (stone mills, roller mills, reconstitution, etc.);
nutritional, technological and microbiological aspects. Another relevant aspect when working
with whole grain wheat flour is to define its quality for specific applications. This chapter will
discuss how traditional evaluation methods, used for refined wheat flour, which use
equipment such as the farinograph, the extensograph and the alveograph are altered when
analyzing whole grain wheat flour. In addition, the chapter will describe the application of
whole grain wheat flour in different bakery and pasta products, with examples of the
resources available to enhance product quality, including ingredients such as vital wheat
gluten, sourdough, additives such as oxidants and emulsifiers, and processing aids such as
enzymes. With this, we intend to give a broad overview of the production and use of this
flour.
Chapter 12 - Prosopis spp (mesquite) is a legume tree growing in semiarid zones of
Africa, Asia and America, from the United States to Argentina. The fruit is a pod used in
many ways: as cattle food, for preparing a typical fermented beverage (aloja), and as a
versatile ingredient for human meals. Flours from the whole pod, pericarp and seeds, from the
wide spread species Prosopis alba were analyzed. P. alba flours had high content of soluble
sugars (mainly sucrose) and also a high amount of total dietary fiber (23 g/100g). Protein
content was the highest in seeds (33.6 g/100g) while the whole pod contained 5.81 g/100g.
Aminoacidic profile presented high content of aspartic plus glutamic acids and also arginin
xii María D. Torres Pérez
converting this flour in an adequate ingredient for athletes due to these aminoacids are
important in the increase of the muscular mass. Antioxidant activity (mainly related to
polyphenol content) was higher in the whole pod and seeds. The whole pod flour contained
potassium as the major mineral and also high amounts of calcium, magnesium, iron and zinc.
For assessing the aptitude of the whole pod flour for breadmaking, composite breads from
wheat and P. alba flours were formulated at different levels of substitution. Technological
characteristics and nutritional quality were evaluated showing the suitability of mesquite as a
bakery ingredient.
Chapter 13 - Nutsedge is commonly known as “earth almond” the seeds (tubers) are
edible with a slightly sweet and nutty flavor. Yellow nutsedge is one of the most widely
distributed species in the world, traditionally two varieties of Cyperus esculentus L. find their
importance in the processing with substantial nutritional values in human diet, that are the
var. esculentus L. and var. sativus Boeckeler. This work was designated to study the
nutritional and the functional properties of nutsedge flour, and effect of processing on the
flour product characteristics. Ways of nutsedge tubers flour products processing methods
were described. Literatures revealed various changes of nutritional composition and the
functional properties of nutsedge flour with effect of different methods of processing and
varieties. It is a fact that Nutsedge flour. In the expanding world nutsedge flour become an
important ingredient the composite flour aiming to get new products to satisfy consumer’s
exigencies health wise. Few products are already exposed in the market either local or
modern, such are Chufa milk, Dakuwa, Kunun aya, chinchin and bread.
Chapter 14 - Flour plays a major role in our daily lives as a primary source of human
nutrition because it is the main part of the diet for a large part of the world population. Most
grains are grinded to flour and then mixed in dough to make bread, biscuits, cakes, pastries or
to dry as pasta. There are different types of flour available from different sources such as
wheat, corn, rice and soybeans. Traditionally, the most widespread flour is grinded from
wheat. Refined wheat flour is low in the content of thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, iron, and folic
acid. Whole wheat flour naturally contains vitamins B and iron, in addition to selenium,
potassium and magnesium. They are also good sources of fiber. Wheat is closely related to
human food uses. It is estimated that nearly two-thirds of the world's wheat is used for food;
the remaining one-third is used for fodder, seeds and non-food applications. This chapter will
discuss the different varieties of flour and their uses in technology. It will also discuss the
different methods of production and the effect of extraction rate on the type of products.
Finally, we provide an overview of the nutritional value of a different kind of flour and
gluten-induced troubles for some peoples (Celiac disease patients).
Chapter 15 - An analysis is carried out to study the flow and heat transfer to analyze the
effect of thermal radiation on combined free and forced convection flow in a parallel-plate
vertical channel taking into account the effect of porous medium with symmetric and
asymmetric wall heating conditions. Three types of thermal boundary conditions are
described. These thermal boundary conditions are isothermal- isothermal, isoflux-isothermal
and isothermal-isoflux for the left-right walls of the channel. The results are represented by
graphically for various governing parameters such as porous parameter, the ratio of Grashof
number to Reynolds number, radiation parameter, Brinkman number and perturbation
parameter for equal and different wall temperatures. The coupled non linear governing
equations are also solved analytically using regular perturbation method. It is also found that
both the analytical and differential transform method solutions agree very well for small
Preface xiii
values of the perturbation parameter. In the present study, the DTM and perturbation method
were used to find analytical solutions of mixed convection problem in the presence of porous
medium, radiation effect and viscous dissipation. It was found that DTM is powerful method
for solving problems consisting of systems of non linear differential equations. A comparison
was made between perturbation method solutions, available published results and the present
approximate solutions. The numerical results indicate that the DTM gives more accurate in
comparison to shown methods. The method has been applied directly without requiring
linearization, discretization or perturbation. The obtained results certify the reliability of the
algorithm and give it a wider applicability to non linear differential equations. Also some
major observations are: the velocity and temperature increases for mixed convection
parameter and perturbation parameter where as it decreases for increasing the porous medium
and radiation parameter.
In: Flour: Production, Varieties and Nutrition ISBN: 978-1-53613-761-3
Editor: María Dolores Torres Pérez © 2018 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 1
GLUTEN-CONTAINING FLOURS VERSUS

ALTERNATIVE GLUTEN-FREE FLOURS
María D. Torres Pérez 1,*, Frédéric Baudouin2 and Javier Seijo3

1
Chemical Engineering Department, University of Cambridge,
Lope Gómez de Marzoa St, Santiago de Compostela, E-15782, Spain
2
School of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
3
Long Road Sixth Form College, Long Road, Cambridge CB2 8PX, UK
ABSTRACT
This chapter deals with the study of the most relevant differences between gluten and
gluten-free flours. For this purpose, an overview of the main characteristics of wheat, as
one of the most used grains to make gluten flours, as well as a wide range of alternative
gluten-free sources obtained from cereals (rice, corn or sorghum), pseudo-cereals
(quinoa, buckwheat or amaranth) and non-cereals (pulses, vegetables, fruits or seeds) are
described. Particular focus is put on rice, as one of the most employed cereals to make
gluten-free flours and being extensively studied in the recent literature. The production of
above flours as well as the use of by-products from the food industry, as an
environmental friendly manner to obtain alternative gluten-free flours, are also discussed.
Special emphasis is given to the physicochemical properties, thermo-mechanical
characteristics reported in the literature for studied flours. A comprehensive review on
the nutritional characteristics is also addressed. The main products developed with above
different types of flours are also identified. Finally, future trends to improve the
technological aptitude of doughs obtained from above flour doughs are also discussed.
Keywords: coeliac, dough rheology, rice flour, starch, wheat flour
*
Corresponding Author Email: mariadolores.torres.perez@usc.es.
2 María D. Torres Pérez, Frédéric Baudouin and Javier Seijo
INTRODUCTION
Historically, gluten was defined by Beccari as the water-insoluble mass obtained after
washing out wheat flour with water (Beach 1961). Nowadays, the term ‘gluten’ is somewhat
ambiguous. It is either used to refer to “the main storage protein of wheat grains”
(Biesiekierski 2017), “the fraction isolated from wheat, which is enriched in gluten proteins
but also contains non-proteic material” (Van Der Borght et al. 2005) or “the protein fraction
from wheat, rye, barley, oats […] to which some persons are intolerant” (Codex Alimentarius
Commission 2008). For this chapter, ‘gluten’ is defined as the storage proteins from cereals
which exhibit some viscoelastic behaviour after hydration and trigger undesirable reactions in
susceptible individuals.
Wheat contains a complex blend of proteins with very diverse properties. The most
important wheat protein fractions in quantity and functionality are gliadins and glutenins.
These two fractions, named together prolamins, are characterised by their insolubility in
water, their high molecular weight and their richness in proline and glutamine. Proteins with
similar characteristics can be found in barley (hordein), rye (secalin) and oats (avenin). There
is evidence that peptides are responsible for coeliac disease and gluten allergy. Nevertheless,
other forms of gluten intolerances and non-coeliac gluten sensitivity have been related to
other components present in wheat products as reported in a recent comprehensive review
(Rosell et al. 2014).
The unique visco-elastic properties of gliadins and glutenins confer wheat flour its ability
to be used for bread, biscuit and pasta production. Wheat and other gluten-containing cereals
are important staple foods because of these technological properties, but also for their high
yield, easy storage and nutritional quality (Biesiekierski 2017). Wheat proteins are also
known for being involved in several disorders like coeliac disease and wheat allergy. The
growing awareness of these diseases in the recent years has led to the development of
alternative bakery products made from gluten-free flours. The replacement of wheat by
gluten-free flours is yet a challenge due to the complex functionality of wheat proteins in
bakery applications (Gallagher, Gormley, and Arendt 2004).
Gluten-free alternatives commonly used include cereals (rice, corn or sorghum), minor
cereals (millets, fonio or teff) and pseudo-cereals (buckwheat, amaranth or quinoa) (Taylor et
al. 2014). Some oats varieties have been lately considered for inclusion in gluten-free
foodstuffs, despite an ongoing debate regarding the toxicity of some of the oat proteins for
coeliac people. Likewise, a broad range of non-cereals ingredients (lentils, peas, bananas,
potato, chestnuts and almonds, among others) also provides gluten-free flours and can even
increase the cereal products nutritional profile (Rosell et al. 2014; Witczak et al. 2015). By-
products (between 15 and 30%) from rice, corn, banana or chestnut industries could also
expand the range of the flours usable in gluten-free products, with consequent economical and
environmental benefits.
In this context, this study aims at presenting an overview of the essential differences
between gluten and gluten-free flours in terms of production, chemical composition, common
applications as well as rheological, nutritional and allergenic features.
Gluten-Containing Flours versus Alternative Gluten-Free Flours 3
ADVERSE REACTIONS TO GLUTEN-CONTAINING FLOURS

Coeliac disease is an autoimmune disorder in which the consumption of gluten-
containing cereals causes damage in the small-intestinal mucosa. The constituent involved in
the coeliac disease is usually α-gliadin. Wheat, barley and rye are known to trigger the coeliac
disease, whereas the effect of oat is controversial. To date, the only treatment for this
condition is a complete gluten-free diet. It is estimated that about 1% of the worldwide
population is affected by the coeliac disease, though it is often undiagnosed (C Catassi et al.
1994).
Wheat allergy is an Immunoglobulin E mediated reaction to the gliadins (Inomata 2009).
Symptoms appear quickly after ingestion and include swelling, skin rash and gastrointestinal
symptoms. It can result from food ingestion or from inhalation (baker’s asthma).
Non-coeliac gluten sensitivity (NCGS) is a distinct condition from coeliac disease, in
which the ingestion of gluten-containing food would cause intestinal and extra-intestinal
symptoms (bloating, diarrhoea/constipation, headache, muscle pain…). This disorder is still
controversial, as no diagnostic criteria have yet been agreed on and its agent is still unknown
(Carlo Catassi et al. 2013). While NCGS is defined as a sensitivity to gluten, clinical trials
with self-reported patient with NCGS have shown that gluten had no effect on this condition
(Biesiekierski et al. 2013). Some authors suggest that NCGS would be triggered by short-
chain carbohydrates and not by gluten (Molina-Infante et al. 2014; Carlo Catassi et al. 2013).
It is worth to note here that short-chain carbohydrates are not specific to gluten-containing
cereals, but are also present in a variety of other food (pulses, milk, fruits…), making
traditional gluten-free alternatives not relevant for NCGS patients.
Table 1. Main cereals production and uses
Global production
Cereal Examples of applications
(million T)*
Barley 144 Alcoholic beverages (beer, whisky),
animal feed
Maize 1038 Animal feed, breakfast cereals, flat bread
(tortilla), starch
Millet 28 Animal feed
Oats 23 Porridge, breakfast cereals, animal feed
Rice 741 Eaten whole, alcoholic beverage (Sake)
Rye 15 livestock feed, alcoholic beverage
(American bourbon)
Sorghum 69 livestock feed, alcoholic beverages (beer,
whisky)
Triticale 17 Animal feed
Wheat 729 Bread, biscuit, pasta, pastry, starch/gluten
industry, animal feed, alcoholic beverages
(beer, vodka)
*Global production corresponds to 2014 (FAO, 2017).
CEREAL AND FLOUR PRODUCTION

Wheat is the cereal the most cultivated globally after maize and rice (FAO 2017) (Table
1). About two-third of wheat production is used for food applications such as bread, pasta,
biscuits, couscous, noodles or pastry (Arendt and Zannini 2013). Wheat is also used for
animal feed and marginally for the starch industry (Van Der Borght et al. 2005). The use of
wheat proteins for agro-plastics applications is also under investigation (Domenek et al.
2004).
The diversity of wheat flour uses is due to the capacity of gluten proteins to form a visco-
elastic dough after hydration. Other cereals contain storage proteins similar to wheat gluten
(barley, oat, rye and triticale) but have little to none breadmaking ability. Rye is the only
cereal other than wheat which can be used to produce leavened breads (Bushuk 2001).
Cereals other than wheat are used for animal feed, malt production, breakfast cereals,
porridge, snacks, and countless local specialties (Table 1).
Botanically, cereal grains are dry fruits from the family Poaceae named caryopses. They
are composed of three regions:
 The germ (3% of grain weight), which is the reproductive part of the plant and is
formed of an embryo and scutellum.
 The endosperm (80-85%), which surrounds the germ and provides energy for
germination. Wheat endosperm contains mostly starch and proteins.
 The bran, which is the outer layer of grain and protects the grain. It is composed of
several layers and contains high levels of fibres and minerals.
The production of flour from grains (milling) consists in the elimination of bran and germ
and the size reduction of endosperm into a fine powder. Wheat, rye and triticale grains differ
from rice and maize by the presence of a longitudinal crease that extends to the centre of the
grain. This crease prevents the removal of bran by abrasion methods used for rice processing.
To separate wheat and rye bran from the endosperm, a small quantity of water is firstly added
to the grain to soften the bran. The grains then pass through a series of rollers in which the
soft, wet bran is separated from the dry, brittle starchy endosperm (Arendt and Zannini 2013).
A fine powder containing the endosperm material is then obtained.
Common wheat flour particles have a size range comprised between 30 and 200 µm. The
degree of purity of a flour is normally estimated from its mineral content (ashes). As minerals
are essentially contained in the bran, the mineral content of a flour is linked to bran content.
The mineral content of wheat flours varies roughly from 0.4% (patent flour) to 2% (whole
flour).
FLOUR COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES

Starch
Starch is the main storage polysaccharide in cereals and represents approximately 60% of
cereals grain (Koehler and Wieser 2013). Starch is synthetized in the cereal endosperm in a
granular form. At the molecular scale, starch is formed of two polymers: amylose and
amylopectin. Amylose is a linear polymer of D-glucose units connected by α-1-4 linkages and
very few α-1-6 linkages. Amylopectin is also a polymer of D-glucose units but differs by its
highly branched structure caused by the presence of many α-1-6 linkages (Koehler and
Wieser 2013).
Native starch is semi-crystalline and insoluble in cold water. Starch crystallinity is
exclusively associated with amylopectin, while the amorphous regions mainly contain
amylose (Singh et al. 2003). When heated in water, starch granules lose their crystallinity,
swell and eventually break. The amylose gets in solution and forms a network that increases
liquid viscosity. This phenomenon, named starch gelatinization, is an essential transformation
during the baking of cereal products.
Starch has an important role in bakery applications. During dough preparation, starch
would absorb almost half of the water added to the flour (Goesaert et al. 2005). It also acts as
filler and dilutes the gluten network. During proofing, it constitutes a sugar source for yeast
fermentation through the action of amylase (Hoseney et al. 1971). It then gelatinizes and
swells during the baking phase. Starch retrogradation (the spontaneous recrystallization of
amylopectin at low temperature) is an essential part of the bread staling, though this
phenomenon would also involve changes in the gluten network (Gray and Bemiller 2003).
Starch morphology and physicochemical properties vary greatly among cereals. Wheat
starch is constituted of two types of granules: A-type granules are big (25-40 µm) and
lenticular, whereas B-type granules are smaller (5-10 µm) and spherical (Arendt and Zannini
2013). Wheat starch contains about 25% amylose and 75% amylopectin and gelatinizes
around 56°C (Fredriksson et al. 1998). Rye and barley starch granules also have a bimodal
size distribution and a gelatinisation temperature relatively close to wheat (Fredriksson et al.
1998).
Starches from gluten-free sources differ more significantly. Although most starches
contain around 20-30% amylose and 70-80% amylopectin, there are amylomaizes with more
than 50% amylose, while waxy maize produces almost pure amylopectin with less than 3%
amylose (Singh et al. 2016). Concerning particle size, rice starch is much smaller than wheat
(3-5 µm) (Singh et al. 2003). Starch gelatinisation temperatures are also higher for rice and
maize (65-70°C) (Singh et al. 2003) or other alternative gluten-free sources as chestnut flour
(69-80ºC) (Paciulli et al. 2016).
The differences in starch morphology, amylose / amylopectin content and gelatinization
temperature impact the functionality of the starches and makes the substitution of wheat
complex. It has been shown for instance that breads made with a blend of wheat gluten and
rice starch had lower breadmaking quality than breads made from a blend of gluten and wheat
starch (Hoseney et al. 1971). This illustrates the importance of flour components other than
gluten in bakery applications.
Proteins
Proteins represent about 10-15% of wheat flour, depending on cultivar, origin and
environmental conditions. Wheat proteins represent an heterogenous groups of proteins in
terms of size, solubility and functionality.
The traditional classification of wheat proteins is based on solubility in different solvents

(Osborne 1907). In this classification, albumins are soluble in water, globulins soluble in salt
solution, gliadins soluble in ethanolic solutions and glutenin partially soluble in dilute acidic
solutions. A significant fraction of glutenin is insoluble in the above solutions and requires
destructive treatments like sonication to be extracted (Morel and Bar-L’Helgouac’h 2000).
Albumin and gliadin represent 15-20% of wheat flour proteins and are generally
considered as functional and metabolic proteins. These proteins have varied biologic
functions: metabolic enzymes, enzyme inhibitors, lipoprotein from the cellular membranes. In
food systems, these proteins have emulsifying and foaming properties.
Gliadin and glutenins constitute about 80% of wheat flour proteins and are the storage
proteins of wheat grains. Gliadins (the protein fraction involved in the coeliac disease) are a
group of monomeric proteins with a molecular size between 30 kDa and 80 kDa (Bietz and
Wall 1972). They are characterised by their richness in proline and glutamine and poorness in
charged amino acids. Glutenins are polymeric proteins of molecular size between 80 kDa and
10,000 kDa. Their amino acid composition is similar to gliadins, but they differ from them by
their polymeric structure caused by disulphide intermolecular bonds between glutenin
subunits. Because of their insolubility in most solvents, the structure of gluten proteins is still
largely unknown.
Gliadin and glutenin have different roles in bakery applications. During dough mixing,
glutenin would provide resistance to extension while gliadins would act as a plasticiser
(Wrigley 1996). The ratio between gliadin and glutenin is one of the factor of wheat flour
quality (Uthayakumaran et al. 1999).
Analysis of amino acid composition and sequences have shown that the storage proteins
of rye and barley are closely related to wheat, whereas oat storage proteins are significantly
different (Koehler and Wieser 2013). However, storage proteins from barley, rye and oat lack
the ability to form a viscoelastic gluten and have limited to none breadmaking capacity
(Cauvain and Young 2007).
In contrast, gluten-free flours exhibit low proteins content. In general, the protein
composition of gluten-free bakery products available in the market varies from 2.5 to 6%
(Capriles et al., 2016). Even rice, one of the most consumed gluten free cereal, has a lower
protein content than wheat. Like the other cereals, rice is also deficient in the essential amino
acid lysine. However, because of the ratio of its protein fractions, this deficiency is less
important. Significant differences have also been reported in amino acid pattern among some
rice varieties.
Rice proteins are unable to form the viscoelastic dough necessary to hold the carbon
dioxide produced during proofing of yeast-leavened bread-like products. The low content of
prolamins in rice flours results in the lack of formation of a protein network when rice flour is
kneaded with water. Consequently, the carbon dioxide produced during fermentation cannot
be retained, leading to a product with low specific volume and a very compact crumb which
does not resemble the soft and open structure of common wheat dough. Even though, rice is
considered the most suitable commodity for bakery applications due to its bland taste, white
colour, digestibility and hypoallergenic properties (Rosell et al., 2014). Different proteins
have been proposed as alternative for both playing the polymer role and rising the nutritional
value of gluten-free products as reported in a recent review (Comino et al., 2013).
Fibre
Arabinoxylans (AX) are non-starch polysaccharides that constitute the cell walls of the
grain endosperm. AX are linear chains of xylose units linked by β -(1,4) links and associated
with arabinose residues. They represent about 2% of wheat and up to 8% of rye. AX are often
divided into two groups: water-extractable arabinoxylans (WEAX) and water-unextractable
arabinoxylans (WUAX).
One of the main characteristics of AX is their ability to retain high amount of water, up to
20 times their own weight (Koehler and Wieser 2013). WEAX also have a very high intrinsic
viscosity (Saulnier, Peneau, and Thibault 1995).
Even though AX are minor components of wheat flour, they have an important role in
breadmaking. It is generally considered that WEAX are beneficial to breadmaking and
WUAX detrimental. WEAX would increase the viscosity of the aqueous phase of the dough,
which would contribute to dough gas retention and facilitate the creation of high volume
bread with a uniform crumb structure. On the opposite, WUAX are present in large cell wall
fragments that may physically destabilise the gas cells. They also absorb high amounts of
water, which is then not accessible for gluten. (Courtin and Delcour 2002).
In animal feed (an important application for cereals other than wheat), WEAX from
barley and rye are considered antinutritional components (Choct, Annison, and Trimble
1992). WEAX would make starch and protein less digestible, possibly because of their
viscosity, and consequently decrease the growth rates of poultry.
The fibre content of gluten-free flours varies significantly depending on the amount of
internal teguments, when present. In general, fibre consists of the remnants of edible part cell
polysaccharides, lignin and other substances resistant to digestion by the alimentary human
enzymes. Some studies on rice flour have revealed that B-type hemicellulose of rice bran
exhibits a higher ability to bind water and fat compared with standard dietary fibres (Rahaie
et al. 2016). Other works indicated that dietary fibre isolated from pulse legumes could bring
a new perspective in the production of gluten-free products due to its specific features
(Capriles et al. 2016). The enrichment of gluten-free bakery goods with other additives as
dietary fibres has been reported as necessary to improve the products quality. According to
the literature, coeliac people have commonly a low intake of fibres due to their gluten-free
diet. From this perspective, the use of flours with high fibre content in gluten-free doughs
seems a promising approach. Although fibre itself cannot replace hydrocolloids in gluten-free
formulations, they could certainly enhance their nutritional profile (Lazaridou et al., 2007).
Lipids
Lipids are present in small quantities in gluten-containing flours. Lipid content is about
2% in wheat, barley and rye flours, with some variations due to environmental and genetic
factors and milling conditions. Oat lipid content is significantly higher, approximately 7%
(Koehler and Wieser 2013).
Wheat lipids can be divided into polar and non-polar lipids. Polar lipids constitute about
75% of total wheat flour lipids and are mostly present in the endosperm, whereas non-polar
lipids are more present in germ and aleurone.
Gluten-free products available in the market are usually richer in lipids (around 10%)
than their gluten counterparts (2 - 4% of fats) (Jan et al. 2016). However, some gluten-free
flours as those obtained from nuts contain notable amounts of essential fatty acids. These
lipids are important because of their role in diverse physiological processes affecting normal
health and chronic diseases, such as regulation of plasma lipid levels, cardiovascular and
immune function, insulin action and neuronal development and visual function. The
consumption of omega-3 fatty acids can slow the growth of cancerous cells, increase the
efficacy of chemotherapy and reduce the side effects of chemotherapy for cancer (Benatti et
al., 2004).
Lipids interact with starch and proteins and play a role in breadmaking. The polar lipids
would form a lipid monolayer at the liquid/gas interface and improve the foamability of the
dough (Gan, Ellis, and Schofield 1995). Lipids would also impact dough handling properties
(Graybosch et al. 1993).
An overview between composition of wheat and several commonly used gluten-free
flours can be found in Table 2 (Rosell et al. 2014). It can be noticed that rice and corn are low
in protein, fibre, and folate, whereas quinoa, amaranth and buckwheat present a favourable
fatty acid composition and are high in protein. Rice flour is the most suitable commodity for
bakery applications as aforementioned due to its organoleptic properties. Other features as the
low content of protein and sodium and the presence of easily digested carbohydrates are
additional benefits
COMMON FLOURS APPLICATIONS

Wheat flours (Table 1) and gluten-free flours are used in numerous food products. An
exhaustive review of cereal-based food products is beyond the scope of this review. Below
are given some examples of common food products that illustrate the versatility of wheat
flour uses and the necessities of gluten-free diets.
Table 2. Proximate composition of representative gluten-free flours compared

with wheat (Rosell et al. 2014). Data obtained from National Nutrient Database for
Standard Reference
Component Wheat Rice Corn Quinoa Amaranth Buckwheat Sorghum

Carbohyd. (%) 75.90 77.20 74.30 64.20 65.70 71.50 74.6
Fibre (%) 12.20 3.50 7.30 7.00 6.70 10 6.3
Proteins (%) 11.30 7.90 9.40 14.10 13.60 13.20 11.3
Fats (%) 1.70 2.90 4.70 6.10 7.00 3.40 3.3
Calcium (mg) 32 23 7 47 159 18 28
Iron (mg) 4.6 1.5 2.7 4.6 7.6 2.2 4.4
Mg (mg) 93 143 127 197 248 231
Folate (mg) 38 20 19 184 82 30
Bread
Bread is one of the oldest processed food and still one of the most staple food in the
world. Over the centuries, bread has evolved to many local variations such as French
baguette, Irish soda bread, Middle-East flat breads or Chinese steamed bread. Despite their
diversity, the variations of bread are all based on the ability of wheat flour to produce a
viscoelastic dough after hydration and kneading.
Four components are essential to produce a wheat dough (Arendt and Zannini 2013):
 Wheat flour provides the gluten structure able to retain gas during leavening. Starch
is a source of sugar for fermentation and contributes to crumb structure after
gelatinisation;
 Water hydrates the flour components and provides a dough with appropriate
rheological behaviour;
 A leavening agent (yeast, sodium bicarbonate, sourdough) enables the production of
a leavened bread;
 Salt strengthens the dough, increase product shelf-life and improves palatability.
Other non-essential ingredients are commonly added to improve bread quality: ascorbic
acid (increases dough elasticity and bread volume), amylase (activates fermentation),
hemicellulase and pentosanases (improve dough rheology and bread volume, particularly for
wholemeal flours and rye flour with high pentosane content) (Cauvain and Young 2007).
Breadmaking starts with the hydration of wheat flour components, which turns gluten
protein into their rubbery state. Mixing (kneading) enables the homogenisation of the
ingredients, the development of the gluten network and the incorporation of air bubbles that
will act as nuclei during proofing. After mixing, dough is left to rest to enable first
fermentation. It is then cut into pieces and put into an oven. Due to the increase of
temperature, gas cells expand quickly, then fermentation causes a secondary expansion. The
increase of bread volume stops when the starch has gelatinised. Bread is then left to cool.
Bread is essentially a foam comprised of a gaseous phase entrapped in a solid matrix
(protein and gelatinised starch). Wheat (and to a smaller extent rye) are the only flours able to
produce such a product (Bushuk 2001) because of the capacity of gluten proteins to form a
viscoelastic phase able to retain air during fermentation. The use of gluten-free flours to
produce analogues products to bread requires the use of hydrocolloids able to stabilise air
bubbles.
Following a strict gluten-free diet is challenging, since the most commonly baked
products, such as breads, cakes, biscuits, pizzas and pasta, are usually made of wheat flour
and are consumed everyday by many people. Hence, the absence of gluten results in great
problems for bakers and its replacement is a main challenge to the food scientists and
technologists (Capriles et al. 2016). Gluten-free breads are one of the most difficult bakery
products to obtain with suitable properties. Commonly used additives in gluten-free bakery
products include hydrocolloids, oils, modified starches, proteins, fibres, emulsifiers, enzymes
or combinations of them (Gallagher et al. 2004). Current works (Capriles et al. 2016) are
focused on the increase of nutrient and bioactive compound content of gluten-free bread,
highlighting the need to use nutrient dense alternative raw materials, nutritional and
functional ingredients, and their combinations.
Pasta
Pasta and noodles are another ancient and staple application of wheat, closely associated
with Italian and Chinese cuisine (Serventi and Sabban 2002). Italian pasta differs from
Chinese noodles by the variety of wheat used: pastas are normally made from Durum wheat
semolina (Triticum durum) whereas Chinese noodles are made from common wheat flour
(Triticum aestivium).
Durum wheat (Triticum durum) differs from common wheat by the higher protein content
of its grain and the bigger particles it produces after milling (semolina). To produce pasta,
semolina is firstly mixed with approximately 30% water. The addition of water moves wheat
proteins from their glassy state to their rubbery state, making the resulting dough malleable.
Dough is then compressed and structured into a variety of shapes in an extruder. A drying
stage moves back the wheat proteins to their glassy date (Zweifel et al. 2003), which
stabilises the pasta and gives them a long shelf-life. In pastas, gluten forms a continuous
matrix that entraps starch granules, so the pasta surface does not become sticky after cooking
(Arendt and Zannini 2013).
Recently, the use of pseudocereals like amaranthus and quinoa have been considered for
the preparation of gluten-free pasta because they do not trigger adverse reactions to celiac
patients and have high nutritional value (Comino et al., 2013). Rice spaghetti or noodles made
with several hydrocolloids as xanthan gum, guar gum or hydroxipropilmethilcellulose and
dietary fibre have been also proposed as a suitable alternative for coeliac people (Rahaie et al.
2014).
Biscuit
Biscuit is another common application of wheat flour. It differs from bread by the
inclusion of other ingredients (sugar, fat and eggs or milk) which contribute to biscuit
structure. Contrary to bread, the formation of a gluten network is undesired in biscuit
applications. The texture of biscuits is essentially due to starch gelatinization and supercooled
sugar rather than a protein/starch structure. Consequently, the development of gluten-free
biscuits is relatively easier (Gallagher et al. 2004). In this context, several formulations have
been proposed to obtain gluten-free biscuits, cookies or flakes with suitable thermo-
rheological, textural and sensorial features. Some recent works nicely summarise these
achievements like those performed by Chauhan and co-workers (2015) who made gluten-free
cookies from raw and germinated amaranth flours or those carried out by Chávez-Santoscoy
et al. (2016) who prepared maize tortillas and cookies from nixtamalized flour enriched with
anthocyanins, flavonoids and saponins extracted from black bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) seed
coats. Rice flakes were also obtained in a similar way to wheat and corn flakes: the rice is
cooked and coated with nutritious ingredients (skimmed milk) and then partially dried,
tempered and passed through flaking rolls before toasting in an oven (Capriles et al. 2016).
DOUGH RHEOLOGY
Rheology is the study of the flow deformation of materials. It applies to scientific fields
as diverse as materials science, geology and food science. Rheology has many implications in
food applications. Flow properties impact both food manufacturing (mixing operations,
flowability in pipework, dosing) and food perception during consumption (mouthfeel,
digestion) (Fischer and Windhab 2011). In bakery applications, rheology concepts can be
applied to analyse the behaviour of dough during the different stages of breadmaking
(Dobraszczyk and Morgenstern 2003) as well as the final product quality.
The rheological characterisation of a material is typically performed by the application of
a force (stress) and the measurement of the resulting deformation (strain). Two types of stress
can be applied to a material: perpendicular to the cross-section of the material, causing an
extension or a compression (extensional stress) or parallel to the cross-section of the material,
causing a shear or a distortion (shear stress).
During breadmaking, dough undergoes both shear stress (during kneading) and
extensional stress (during proofing and baking). The rate of the deformation varies on a wide
scale, from 10-3 – 10-4 s-1 during proofing up to 70 s-1 during kneading (Dobraszczyk 1997).
For an elastic material, strain is proportional to shear applied, independently of shear rate.
The energy spent to deform the material is accumulated and recovered when shear is no
longer applied, so material recovers its initial shape. For a viscous material, energy spent to
deform the material is dissipated by heat, so material remains in its final shape when shear is
no longer applied.
Dough is a complex material with both viscous and elastic properties: it is therefore said
to be viscoelastic. The elastic properties of the dough is attributed to glutenins, whereas
gliadins are associated to its viscous behaviour (Belton 1999). Gluten proteins are therefore
essential to the rheological behaviour of the dough.
Fundamental rheology tests have been extensively performed on dough systems to gain
better understanding of the breadmaking process or to find the determinants of wheat quality.
However, deformations applied during fundamental rheology tests are very different to those
experienced during breadmaking, making the results sometimes irrelevant (Dobraszczyk and
Morgenstern 2003). Fundamental rheometers are also expensive and complex to use. Over the
years, many alternative devices have been designed to mimic the different stages of
breadmaking and measure dough rheology empirically (Mixograph, Farinograph,
Alveograph, Extensograph…). These empirical tools don’t provide fundamental rheology
parameters but give characteristics intrinsic to each equipment. These empirical tools are
routinely used for flour quality testing and process control.
NUTRITIONAL ASPECTS
Wheat is a very important part of the world population’s diet due to its high yield,
adaptability to a wide range of environments and unique technological properties. It is
estimated that wheat contributes to 20% of the dietary calories and proteins intake to the
world population (Shiferaw et al. 2013), which is bigger than any other cereal.
The high starch content of wheat flour (approx. 70%) makes it primarily a source of
calorie and carbohydrate. Despite its relatively low protein content (12%), the importance of
wheat in diet makes it an important source of protein. Wheat is a good source of many
essential amino acids and is only deficient in lysine (Shewry 2009), like the other cereals.
Other plants rich in lysine like pulses are often advised to complement a cereal-based diet.
Wheat and cereals are also a significant source of minerals, phenolic compounds, fibres
and vitamins (Ragaee, Abdel-Aal, and Noaman 2006). These compounds are present in
bigger quantities in the external layers of the grains, and are therefore more present in whole
grains than in refined flours. The external layers of grains however also contain phytates,
which may limit the absorption of minerals.
Because of their widespread consumption, bread and wheat products are also used as
vectors to deliver micronutrients. Several countries have implemented the fortification of
wheat flours with minerals (iron, calcium) and vitamins (Rosell 2012).
Recently, the demand for high-quality gluten-free foodstuffs has also notably rose, due to
an increase in diagnosed coeliac patients. As aforementioned, the formulations used to
prepare these products involve a large number of alternative flour types like corn, cassava,
rice, soybean, chickpea or amaranth flours as well as its blends (Torres et al. 2014). However,
many gluten-free products available on the market are based on formulations with low
organoleptic and nutritional quality, especially when compared with their wheat counterparts.
Most of gluten-free products do not contain sufficient amounts of proteins, essential amino
acids, minerals, vitamins or dietary fibre. In contrast, they present higher fat and sugar
content. In general, rice flour is one of the most common cereal grain flour used for the
production of gluten-free products due to its bland taste, white colour, digestibility, lightness
and hypoallergenic properties. In addition, other attributes such as the low content of protein,
sodium and fat or the presence of easily digested carbohydrates make rice the flour preferred
for patients suffering from food allergies (Rosell et al. 2014).
FUTURE TRENDS
As reported in a contemporary review (Torres et al. 2017), the future applications in the
gluten and gluten-free world are focused on the increase of natural bioactive compounds in
bakery products. Dziki et al. (2014) also indicated that this is a hot topic with a wide range of
possibilities, focusing on supplementing the wheat bread with natural raw materials rich in
phenolic antioxidants. The addition of different sources of cereal and pseudocereal flours;
sprouted cereals/pseudocereals; fruits; legumes or vegetables (garlic, grape, cherry, plums,
among others); seaweeds; bee pollen and by-products from the food industry; could be used
to increase the antioxidant capacity and sensory acceptability of the breadmaking or
pastrimaking products (Acosta-Estrada et al., 2014). Commonly, a compromise between
nutritional and sensorial features is reached via wheat flour enrichment by 10%-30% with
other cereals and/or pseudocereals and up to 5% of other natural bioactive compounds (Dziki
et al., 2014). A challenge for the coming years would be to introduce these and other novel
additives with attractive antioxidant properties in gluten-free products, optimizing processing
conditions and doses of the compounds.
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Chapter 2
BURDOCK (ARCTIUM LAPPA L.) ROOT FLOUR

PRODUCTION: TECHNOLOGICAL, NUTRITIONAL,
AND FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERIZATION
Thaísa de Menezes Alves Moro1,, Ana Paula Aparecida Pereira2,

Glaucia Maria Pastore2 and Maria Teresa Pedrosa Silva Clerici1
1
Department of Food Technology, School of Food Engineering,
University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, Brazil
2
Department of Food Science, School of Food Engineering,
University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, Brazil
ABSTRACT
Burdock is a member of the Asteraceae family, originated in China and Europe, with
ideal growing temperature ranging from 10 to 25 ºC. The leaves and fruits are used as
phytotherapeutic compounds, while the roots can be used in infusions, salads, and soups.
Although the burdock roots are considered as a source of prebiotic fibers, they are not
exploited commercially as occurring with other roots from its family, including chicory,
Jerusalem artichoke, and yacon. The burdock root also has a high content of phenolic
compounds, mainly chlorogenic acid, with important antioxidant activity. Due to the high
moisture content (80%) of the fresh roots, the reduction of water activity using drying
methods can be an effective alternative to improve its commercialization and use. This
chapter discusses the benefits of processing burdock roots into flour by the conventional
drying and freeze-drying processes, and the main technological, nutritional, and
functional characteristics, exploring possible uses of flour in bakery products.
Keywords: functional ingredient, fructooligosaccharides, chlorogenic acid

Corresponding Author Email: thaisamoro@hotmail.com.
18 Thaísa de Menezes Alves Moro, Ana P. Aparecida Pereira, Glaucia M. Pastore et al.
INTRODUCTION
Burdock root (Arctium lappa L.) is native to China and Europe and widely consumed in
Asian countries. In other countries with different consumption patterns, the roots are grown
and marketed to meet the demands of Asians residing in these regions (Tobyn, Denham, and
Whitelegg 2011).
While the starch-rich tubers are used for the commercial extraction of this compound,
such as cassava (Manihot esculenta) and potato (Solanum tuberosum), the burdock roots
belong to the Asteraceae family and are rich in fructooligosaccharides, as well as chicory
roots, Jerusalem artichoke tuber, and yacon tuber. All these species have the oligosaccharides
as the major reserve carbohydrates, made up of bound fructose (1,2) molecules. The
variation of chain lengths confer different characteristics to each source of
fructooligosaccharides and can generate different technological applications for each
botanical species (Roberfroid and Slavin 2010; Hao et al. 2005).
Despite its great potential, the fresh burdock roots have a high moisture content (about
80%) and enzymatic activity, which limits its shelf life. Although it is a common practice
drying the roots to make infusions, processing of burdock roots into flour can provide
numerous opportunities for use, in addition to being low cost when compared to other
preservation techniques (Murao et al. 1993).
The processing of tubers into flour is considered a low-cost alternative and can be done
by agro-ecological cooperatives and family farms, which can reduce crop losses, storage, and
transportation costs, with the possibility to market a higher added value product, thus
increasing the revenues.
According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA, 2015), the raw and
fresh burdock root has 80% moisture content; 1.5% protein; 0.15% lipids; 3.3% total dietary
fiber; 2.9% total sugars, and 17.3% other carbohydrates and minerals, including potassium
(308 mg.100 g-1), calcium (41 mg.100 g-1), and magnesium (38 mg.100 g-1); vitamin C
(3 mg.100 g-1) and folic acid (23 g.100 g-1).
The oligosaccharides are carbohydrates of interest found in the burdock roots, which has
been investigated by Li et al. (2008) for their prebiotic properties. Those authors reported a
positive effect in vivo in rats fed a diet with 5% burdock root extract as a substitute for other
carbohydrates, with an improvement in gut bacteria, thus demonstrating the functionality of
the root as a prebiotic.
Phenolic compounds can be divided into phenolic acids, flavonoids, lignans, and tannins,
some of which with antioxidant activity in vivo (Cheynier, Sarni-Manchado, and Quideau
2012). The burdock roots have a high antioxidant capacity and its main phenolic compounds
are: lignans, with 20 to 40 mg. 100 g-1 within the root, and 130 to 210 mg.100 g-1 found in the
peel (Liu et al. 2012), chlorogenic acids from 180 and 476 mg.100 g-1 (Predes et al. 2011);
and the flavonoids, such as quercetin and luteolin, which has been identified rather than
quantified in the roots (Ferracane et al. 2010).
Chen, Wu, and Chen (2004) reported the role of burdock peel to the chlorogenic acid
levels and antioxidant activity of the roots, who found a 40% reduction in the content of this
acid (and consequently antioxidant capacity) in the peeled roots when compared to the whole
root. Therefore, the maintenance of the peel during root processing can contribute to
increasing the antioxidant capacity of the burdock root flour.
Burdock (Arctium lappa, L) Root Flour Production 19
This chapter aims to produce flour from the burdock roots by using two drying processes
(conventional and freeze-drying) and to characterize the flour for its technological,
nutritional, and functional properties.
MATERIAL AND METHODS

Material
Burdock roots were donated from a family farm located in Mogi das Cruzes-SP
(Latitude: -23.561864, Longitude: -46.186739), Brazil.
Methods
Burdock Root Flour Processing

The processing flowchart is shown in Figure 1 and some pictures of burdock flour
processing can be seen in Figure 2.
Figure 1. Flowchart of burdock roots flour processing

Figure 2. Drying processes of burdock roots: (a) Fresh burdock roots, (b) fresh pieces on the tray,
(c) dried pieces in the oven, and (d) dried pieces after the freeze-drying process
Prior to processing, the burdock roots were washed in tap water, sanitized in chlorinated
solution (100 ppm) for 15 min and rinsed in running water. Then, they were cut into
approximately 1 cm2 pieces (with the peel) and subjected to blanching in 0.5% citric acid for
20 min. The pieces were placed in trays and subjected to drying as follows:
a) Conventional drying: performed in a drying oven with forced air circulation at 57 ºC

for 7 h and 35 ºC for 13 h. The dried material was ground a hammer/knife mill to be
converted into flour.
b) Freeze drying: the sample was subjected to ultra-freezing (- 40 ºC) and then to the
freeze-dryer at a minimum temperature of -20 ºC and pressure of 14 Pa for 84 h. The
freeze-dried material was ground in a food processor to be converted into flour.
Flours obtained by conventional drying (CDF) and freeze-drying (FDF) were packed
under vacuum with photoprotection to preserve their characteristics during storage.
Burdock Root Characterization
Technological Characterization
The particle size distribution was determined by measuring the mean diameter by laser
diffraction in an LV-950 V2 particle size distribution analyzer (Horiba, Calif., USA) at
25 ± 0.5°C, using absolute ethanol as the dispersion medium.
The pH was determined according to the methodology 981.12 (AOAC 2006).
Color measurements of the flours were performed in a colorimeter using the Lab system,
with illuminant D65 (CIE 1976).
Water solubility index (WSI) and water absorption index (WAI) were determined
according to the methodology of Anderson, Conway, and Peplinski (1970). The
measurements were performed after 18 h of rest of the hydrated samples until reaching the
equilibrium, as reported by Robertson et al. (2000).
Nutritional Characterization
The proximate composition was determined according to AOAC (2006) using the
following methods: 925.09 for moisture; 920.39 for lipids; 960.52 for proteins using the
conversion factor 6.25; and 923.03 for ash. The total dietary fiber was determined according
to AOAC (2006) and AACCI (2010), methodology 985.29 and 32-05.01, respectively. The
digestible carbohydrates were calculated by difference.
Bioactive Compounds
The oligosaccharides 1-kestose (GF2), 1-nystose (GF3) and frutofuranosyl nystose (GF4)
present in flours were determined by high-performance anion-exchange chromatography
coupled with a pulsed amperometric detector (HPAEC-PAD), according to Sancho et al.
(2017). Total fructooligosaccharides were calculated by the sum of the GF2, GF3, and GF4
levels.
High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC-DAD) was used to identify the
compounds chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, and caffeine as reported by Magalhães et al.
(2016).
Blends of Whole Wheat Flour, Refined Wheat Flour, and Burdock Flour:
Pasting Properties
The following formulations were studied: control blend made with whole wheat flour
(51%) and refined wheat flour (49%); the blends CDF 10, CDF 20, and CDF 30 made with
replacement of 10, 20, and 30% refined wheat flour by the CDF, respectively; and the blends
FDF 10, FDF 20, and FDF 30, made with replacement of 10, 20, and 30% refined wheat flour
by the FDF, respectively. The methodology 76-21.01 was used to carry out the analyses and
to determine the pasting viscosity profiles (AACCI 2010). The following parameters were
considered using the “Standard 1” profile analysis from the Perten® software.
a) Pasting Temperature (ºC): the temperature where viscosity first increases by at least
25 cp over a 20 s period
b) Peak viscosity (cP): the maximum viscosity during heating
c) Minimum viscosity (cP): the minimum viscosity after the heating ramp
d) Breakdown (cP): the difference between the peak viscosity and the minimum
viscosity
e) Final viscosity (cP): the viscosity at the end of the analysis (at 50ºC)
f) Setback (cP): the difference between the final viscosity and the minimum viscosity
after the heating ramp
Statistical Analysis
All analyses were performed at least in triplicate and the results were expressed as the
mean ± standard deviation. Student's t-test was performed for the comparison of the results of
the CDF and FDF at a significance level of 5% (p < 0.05). The analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was used to compare the results of pasting properties using the Scott-Knott test, at
a significance level of 5% (p < 0.05).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Burdock Flour Characteristics
Technological Properties
Flour yield was close to the dry matter content of the fresh roots (20% average yield for
both flours), suggesting no changes during processing. The complete utilization of the roots
without peeling also contributed to this result, since there was only the removal of the root
collar (connection with the aerial section of the plant) during the cutting stage, with no
generation of other solid residues.
Besides the importance of flour yield, new types of flour should have physicochemical
characteristics that enable their application, including a suitable particle size, color,
absorption properties, and water solubility. In addition, the nutrients and trace elements
should be unchanged after processing. The main technological characteristics of the processed
flours and the composition of nutrients and functional compounds are presented in Table 1.
The particle size distribution (Table 1) showed that the sample CDF had significantly
higher particle size when compared to the FDF. One of the most important characteristics of
heat drying processes is the shrinkage of the material (by the movement of the solutes) with a
consequent increase in density. This modification of the raw material can impair the grinding
process, which may have contributed to generating larger particles in the CDF. On the other
hand, the sublimation during freeze-drying leads to a low movement of solutes and formation
of channels and pores, which remain in the dried material, facilitating the grinding, which
may have generated smaller particles of FDF.
The color characteristics and the images of the flours are shown in Table 1 and Figure 3,
respectively. A more intense Maillard reaction was observed in flour obtained by the
conventional drying (CDF), probably due to the carbohydrate and protein contents of the
roots, generating a dark yellow color, which was not observed in the FDF that exhibited a
light brown coloration.
Figure 3. Image of conventional-dried burdock root flour (CDF) and freeze-dried burdock root flour
(FDF), respectively
Table 1. Physicochemical characteristics of burdock flours obtained by conventional

drying (CDF) and freeze-drying (FDF)
Floursa CDF FDF

Technological properties
Particle size:
D10 (m) 16.82 ± 0.41† 8.40 ± 0.05†
D50 (m) 65.99 ± 2.85† 36.33 ±0.53†
†
D90 (m) 292.19 ± 23.93 148.97 ± 7.29†
Color
L* 66.69 ± 0.57† 89.81 ± 0.27†
†
a* 5.33 ± 0.08 1.23 ± 0.04†
b* 24.33 ± 0.27† 9.54 ± 0.26†
†
pH 4.29 ± 0.01 4.03 ± 0.01†
†
WSI (%) 60.68 ± 1.33 71.47 ± 0.74†
WAI 2.95 ± 0.23 2.91 ± 0.10
Nutritional properties
Protein (g.100 g-1) 8.54 ± 0.57 8.25 ± 0.42
Ash (g.100 g-1) 3.41 ± 0.07 3.53 ± 0.04
Lipids (g.100 g-1) 0.22 ± 0.02† 0.31 ± 0.04†
†
Total dietary fiber (g.100 g )-1
44.69 ± 3.19 31.80 ± 1.06†
-1
Carbohydrates (g.100 g ) 43.14 56.11
Bioactive compounds
Chlorogenic acid (mg.100 g-1) 181.73 ± 8.79† 284.76 ± 20.34†
-1
Cafeic acid (mg.100 g ) n.d. n.d.
Caffeine (mg.100 g-1) 23.05 ± 1.50 26.67 ± 1.64
GF2 (g.100 g-1) 2.39 ± 0.22 2.29 ± 0.16
-1
GF3 (g.100 g ) 1.89 ± 0.16 2.13 ± 0.16
GF4 (g.100 g-1) 1.91 ± 0.16 2.21 ± 0.15
Total fructooligosaccharides (g.100 g-1) 6.19 ± 0.54 6.63 ± 0.48
a
Expressed as mean ± standard deviation on a dry basis. † in the line represents significant differences
by the Student's t-test (p < 0.05). Moisture contents: 10.14 ± 0.05 g.100g-1 and 4.14 ± 0.23 g.100g-
1
, for CDF and FDF, respectively. n.d.: not determined. WSI: water solubility index; WAI: water
absorption index. Total fructooligosaccharides = GF2 + GF3 + GF4. GF2: Kestose; GF3: Nystose;
and GF4: Fructofuranosyl-nystose.
The results of pH indicate that both flours can be classified as an acidic food
(4.0 > pH < 4.5), which is a good indicator of stability during the storage, along with the low
water activity of the dried product. No significant differences were observed for the water
absorption index (WAI) of the flours. The water solubility index (WSI) was higher in the
freeze-dried flour, probably due to the higher porosity of the particles generated in the
processing, which facilitated its rehydration, thus affecting the solubility.
Nutritional Properties
The proximate composition of the flours CDF and FDF is presented in Table 1. Different
moisture contents were observed for the two flours due to the different processing conditions,
once in the freeze-drying process, water desorption can also occur strongly linked to the raw
material, which led to a reduction of the final moisture content of the FDF. Burdock roots
have low lipids content, which was also observed for the burdock flours, with values lower
than 0.5 g.100 g-1. No significant differences were observed for the protein and ash contents
of the flours. The total dietary fiber of CDF was significantly higher when compared to FDF.
The products of the Maillard reaction during processing of the CDF are non-digestible and
may have contributed to increasing the total dietary fiber, as reported by Morales, Somoza,
and Fogliano (2012).
As shown in Table 1, there was no significant difference between the oligosaccharides
levels, thus the differences in the flour processing did not lead to changes in these
carbohydrates. In addition to the quantified oligosaccharides represented by the peaks GF2,
GF3, and GF4 in Figure 4, there may also be other unquantified oligosaccharides (peaks after
12 min), which according to Li et al. (2013) may be found in burdock roots.
Burdock roots contain other functional compounds besides carbohydrates, with biological
activity in studies in vivo (Tousch et al. 2014; Yang et al. 2016). As shown in Table 1, the
root presented chlorogenic acid (quantified by 5-CQA), composed of caffeic acid and quinic
acid. Although the caffeic acid alone was detected, it was not quantified. The use of heat,
even at a low temperature (< 60ºC), may have influenced the chlorogenic acid content of the
CDF, with a 36% reduction in relation to FDF. Caffeine, which is a compound with higher
thermal stability, did not decrease during the manufacturing process of both flours.
Figure 4. HPAEC-PAD chromatograms with the identified peaks GF2, GF3, and GF4 of the
conventional-dried flour (CDF) and freeze-dried flour (FDF)
Addition of Burdock Flour to Blends of Whole and Refined Wheat Flour:

Pasting Properties
The food application of burdock flour obtained by the conventional drying has already
been studied by Tae, Kim, and Yook (2015), who replaced the refined wheat flour by up to
15% burdock flour in pan bread formulations. Although the authors found differences in the
technological characteristics of bread such as increased hardness and reduced fracturability
and cohesiveness, there was a good consumer acceptance of bread formulations containing
5% burdock flour.
In view of this, the interactions of burdock flours (CDF and FDF) in the blends made
with whole wheat flour and refined wheat flour were evaluated. Substitutions of 0 to 30% of
refined wheat flour by burdock flours were evaluated for pasting properties, and the results
are shown in Table 2.
The addition of high-fiber flour into the wheat flour blends can lead to important changes
in the pasting properties, such as the reduction of starch present in the blend, which reduces
the viscosity, once the oligosaccharides found in these flours cannot form gels under the
similar conditions of starch. This dilution effect has already been reported by Ragaee &
Abdel-Aal (2006), who replaced part of the refined wheat flour with whole wheat, barley, rye,
and sorghum flours (fiber-rich ingredients).
When fibers are added to flour blends containing native starch, they tend to compete for
water during the heating step. This event can be seen in Table 2, with a significant increase in
the pasting temperature of the blends with the addition of the burdock flour. The viscosity
profile curves can be seen in Figure 5.
Figure 5. Viscosity profile curves of the whole wheat flour (51%) and refined wheat flour (49%) with
partial substitutions (0, 10, 20, and 30%) of burdock flour obtained by conventional drying (CDF) and
freeze-drying (FDF)
Table 2. Pasting properties of the blends* made with whole wheat flour (51%) and refined wheat flour (49%) with partial replacement
by burdock flour obtained by conventional drying (CDF) and freeze-drying (FDF)
Peak Viscosity (cP) Minimum Viscosity (cP) Breakdown (cP) Final Viscosity (cP) Setback (cP) Pasting Temperature (ºC)
Control 2926 ± 228a 1727 ± 175a 1199 ± 53a 3681 ± 273a 1955 ± 100a 84.7 ± 8.8b
CDF10 2098 ± 27b 1295 ± 3b 803 ± 25b 2880 ± 47b 1585 ± 45b 86.38 ± 0.06a
c d d d d
CDF20 1454 ± 59 952 ± 33 502 ± 26 1980 ± 116 1028 ± 83 87.63 ± 0.60a
d d e e e
CDF30 1159 ± 27 854 ± 22 305 ± 6 1550 ± 47 696 ± 26 88.57 ± 0.41a
b b c c c
FDF10 1947 ± 24 1210 ± 23 737 ± 11 2569 ± 5 1359 ± 26 86.40 ± 0.09a
FDF20 1556 ± 18c 1070 ± 17c 486 ± 29d 2010 ± 4d 940 ± 20 d 87.18 ± 0.03a
d d e e e
FDF30 1134 ± 32 805 ± 9 329 ± 23 1425 ± 37 620 ± 29 87.72 ± 0.45a
*
Results expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Different letters in the column differ by the Scott-Knott test (p < 0.05). Whole wheat flour: refined wheat flour
ratios: conventional-dried flour (CDF): freeze-dried flour (FDF); Control (51:49:0:0), CDF10 (51:39:10:0), CDF20 (51:29:20:0), CDF30 (51:19:30:0),
FDF10 (51:39:0:10), FDF (51:29:0:20), FDF30 (51:19:0:30).
Starch retrogradation is a phenomenon that begins during cooling and extends throughout
the shelf life of various starch-containing foods. In bakery products, it leads to aging of bread
and cakes (staling) and breaking of the structure of some types of biscuits (Cauvain and
Young 2009). The tendency of starch particles to retrograde can be evaluated by the
parameter setback in RVA measurements, once the higher the setback, the greater the
tendency to retrograde. In this study, the use of burdock flour can contribute to the reduction
of this parameter, once a setback up to 68% lower than the control was observed with
substitution levels of up to 30%.
FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
 Burdock roots, known for easy planting and harvesting, can also be processed into
flour as shown in this chapter. The flour yield relative to the initial moisture content
is one of the advantages in obtaining flour from fresh roots, which have a limited
shelf life of less than seven days after harvest, without changing its physicochemical
characteristics.
 The installation of drying lines in farms and root producer cooperatives may enable
the consumption of roots by the populations far away from the production centers,
expanding knowledge and marketing, which will increase the demand and stimulate
the burdock cultivation by other producers.
 Due to its high fiber content, there is a very strong nutritional appeal to the use of
burdock roots as a substitute for flours high in starch (such as the refined wheat
flour) to develop products with lower energy value and possibly lower glycemic
index, which is a trend in the bakery products market.
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Chapter 3
THE NUTRITIONAL AND

FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF WHEAT
Hacer Levent*
Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Health Sciences Faculty,
Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey University, Karaman, Turkey
ABSTRACT
Wheat is the most important food for humans and is grown in more fields than any
other commercial product in the world. Wheat is the basic raw material of foods such as
bread, pasta, noodles, biscuits, muffins, crackers and breakfast cereals. Wheat and wheat
based products are an important source of energy for humans based on high protein and
carbohydrate content. Beyond being a basic energy source, whole wheat products are an
excellent source of vitamins, minerals, dietary fibers and bioactive phytochemicals such
as antioxidant compounds. Products made from refined white flour have lower
micronutrient content than whole wheat products. There is growing evidence that whole
wheat and wheat products have the ability to enhance health. Regular consumption of
whole grain products reduces the risk of obesity, cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes
and other chronic diseases. Due to healtier food demands of consumers, there is a
growing interest in whole wheat products all over the world.
Keywords: wheat, functional, nutritional, dietary fiber, bioactive compounds
INTRODUCTION
Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the major cereal grains cultivated in the world and
is an important component of the human diet (Adom et al. 2003; Van Hung et al. 2009; Kim
and Kim 2016). Three cereal crops, wheat, maize (corn), and rice dominate the world’s
agricultural production (Shewry et al. 2013). The total annual output of these three cereal
*
Corresponding Author Email: hacerlevent@kmu.edu.tr.
32 Hacer Levent
crops is 2550 million tons in 2016. Global wheat production is 733 million tons in 2014, 737
million tons in 2015 and 749 million tons in 2016 (http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC).
In general, the steady increase in wheat production indicates that the wheat-based diet has
not changed in the world (Topal et al. 2011). Grain-based foods have an important place in
the diet, especially in low- and middle- income countries, and grain deficiency means
starvation and malnutrition (Poutanen et al. 2012).
The size of the wheat kernel varies depending on cultivar and their location on the spike
and it is about 5-8 mm in length and 2.5-4.5 mm in width (Pomeranz, 1988; Elgün and
Ertugay, 1995; Sidhu et. al. 2007). Commercially there are two important types of wheat,
Triticum aestivum vulgare (common or bread wheat) and Triticum turgidum durum (pasta
wheat) (Macrae et al. 1993; Shaidi and Liyana-Pathirana, 2008; Stevenson et al. 2012).
Wheat is used as a whole in bulgur production or it is used in the production of bread,
pasta, noodles, muffins, biscuits, cookies, pizza, breakfast cereals etc. by grinding in the form
of semolina or flour (Šramková et al. 2009; Van Hung et al. 2009). Wheat provides between a
fifth and a quarter of the energy and protein in the worldwide human diet. It also contains
significant quantities of other nutrients (vitamins, minerals and dietary fiber) that are needed
for human health (Gooding 2009; Sidhu et al. 1999).
It has been widely accepted that there is a relationship between nutrition and health; diet
can significantly alter the overall health and quality of life (Siro et al. 2008; Yu, 2008). Whole
grains are rich in dietary fiber, resistant starch, vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals not found
in some fruits and vegetables and many other micronutrients, which are mainly found in the
germ and the bran of wheat (Hung et al. 2007; Tsao, 2008). Many studies indicate that
consumption of whole grain and whole grain products reduces the risk of various chronic
diseases. The health enhancing bioactive components found in wheat help to prevent
digestive disorders and cancer, also provide protection against cardiovascular diseases and
help to reduce various health problems such as constipation, obesity, diabetes and
appendicitis (Afzal et al. 2013). Foodstuffs prepared from white flour have less health
benefits than those made from whole wheat flour, because they lack natural bioactive
components (Tsao, 2008).
Today, foods are consumed not only to satisfy hunger and provide nutrients but also to
prevent nutrition-related diseases and increase physical and mental well-being of humans
(Menrad, 2003; Siro et al. 2008). In another words, consumers prefer to eat healtier foods.
The natural bioactive components found in wheat make whole grain wheat a potential source
of functional food ingredients. These findings have led to a great consumer interest in whole
wheat and whole wheat products (Mpofu et al. 2006; Tsao, 2008).
The objective of this chapter is to summarize information about the nutritional and
functional properties wheat and health promoting effects of functional wheat components.
WHEAT GRAIN
Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grains consist of about 82% endosperm, 12% bran and 3%
germ (Pomeranz, 1988; Sidhu et. al. 2007). Endosperm is the inner part which is starch and
functioning protein storage area of the kernel. Bran is the outer layer that protects the grain
and germ is the kernel’s reproduction system (Chunjian et al. 2008). The endosperm is
The Nutritional and Functional Properties of Wheat 33
composed of starchy endosperm and the aleurone layer surrounds the endosperm and germ. In
the milling process the bran and germ are separated from the starchy endosperm which is
ground into flour (Pedersen et al. 1989). Wheat has a crease which extends almost to the
center of the kernel and this crease makes it difficult to separate the endosperm and the germ
from the outer fibrous layers named as bran (Posner, 2000; Sidhu et al. 2007). Aleurone layer
is rich in carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, lipids, vitamins (especially B complex vitamins)
and phenolic compounds. The aleurone layer is botanically is a part of endosperm but often
separated along with bran in modern flour milling (Slavin et al. 2000; Chunjian et al. 2008;
Aprodu and Banu, 2012). Wheat bran is rich in dietary fiber, minerals, antioxidants, lignans,
and other phytochemicals (Slavin, 2004)
The wheat germ is a rich source of vitamins, minerals, unsaturated fatty acids, free sugars
and functional phytochemicals including ferulic acid, phytic acid, glutathione and
phytosterols (Kevin, 1995; Al-Hooti et al. 2002; Sidhu et al. 2007; Dewettinc et al. 2008) and
it also provides high nutritive value protein comparable to animal proteins. It has significant
quantity of essential amino acids especially lysine, methionine and threonine which are
deficient in many cereals (Rao et al. 1980; Ge et al. 2000).
Wheat grains used as raw material of bakery foods such as bread, biscuits, muffins, pasta
etc. must be processed. Milling is the most common processing technique for wheat grains
(Chunjian et al. 2008). Wheat flour is characterized by the extraction rate, which is defined as
the proportion of flour by weight milled from a known quantity of grains. Whole meal flour is
produced when the extraction rate approaches 100%. As the extraction rate decreases, wheat
flour contains less bran particles. White flour is produced when the extraction rate is 75% or
less (Clydesdale, 1994; Slavin et al. 2000). If the extraction rate is less than 100%, a
commercial flour mill yields at least two products straight grade flour (patent and clear flour)
and a milling by-product which includes germ, bran (coarse), shorts (fine bran) and red dog
(finer bran and unreduced endosperm) (Chunjian et al. 2008). These by-products obtained
during the milling of wheat are mostly used for low-value animal feed instead of human food
ingredient (Yu, 2008).
The chemical components in the wheat kernels differ in their distribution within the grain
as a result the composition of the mill streams changes. The distribution of the major
components in the main morphological layer of the wheat is given in Table 1. In the refining
process, the bran and germ are seperated from the starchy endosperm that forms the flour
(Slavin et al. 2000). The milling process of white flour concentrates the starch and sugar and
decreases protein, fat, dietary fiber, vitamins and minerals content of whole wheat. Whole
grains retain the nutritious bran and germ (Slavin et al. 2000).
Table 1. Distribution of the major components in the main morphological layer of

the wheat (Elgün and Ertugay, 1995)
MORPHOLOGICAL LAYERS
COMPONENTS (%) Bran (Outer layers +aleuron) Starchy endosperm Germ
Starch 0 100 0
Protein 20 72 8
Cellulose 89 8 3
Fat 30 50 20
Ash 67 23 10
34 Hacer Levent
The phytochemical content of wheat bran/germ fractions is much higher than endosperm
(Adom et al. 2005). Therefore, whole grain products are important sources for nutrients and
phytochemical compounds (Slavin, 2001). On average, the total phenolic content of the
bran/germ fractions of wheat was reported to be 15 to 18 times more than the endosperm
fractions (Adom et al. 2005). The total phenolic contents of whole grain, flour, germ and bran
were found as 46.9, 24.1, 70.8 and 66.9 mg ferulic acid equivalent/g, in soft wheat,
respectively (Liyana-Pathirana and Shaidi, 2006).
HEALTH BENEFICIAL COMPONENTS OF WHEAT

Wheat contains many health beneficial compounds such as dietary fiber, resistant starch,
vitamins, minerals, phenolic acids, polyphenols (lignans and flavonoids), carotenoids, tocols
(tocopherols and tocotrienols), phytosterols/phytostanols and phytic acid. Wheat variety,
environmental factors and processing conditions affect the phytochemical composition of the
wheat (Tsao, 2008).
Dietary Fiber
Dietary fibre is the edible part of plants that resist hydrolysis by alimentary enzymes.
Dietary fibre includes polysaccharides, oligosaccharides, lignin and associated plant
substances (Dihingra et al. 2012). Dietary fibre can be divided into two categories according
to their water solubility (Charalampopoulos et al. 2002). Soluble dietary fibre includes
pectins, gums and mucilages. It forms a viscous solution and slows intestinal transit, delays
gastric emptying and reduces glucose and sterol absorption by the intestine
(Charalampopoulos et al. 2002; Šramková et al. 2009; Dihingra et al. 2012). Insoluble dietary
fibre includes cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin. They are marginally fermented and serve
exclusively as bulking agents and increase fecal mass and decrease intestinal transit time
(Roberfroid, 1993).
The consumption whole grain foods and dietary fiber reduces the risk of heart disease,
colorectal cancer, metabolic and inflammatory bowel diseases such as diabetes and
diverticulis by binding and eliminating cholesterol, binding bile acids, stimulating of the
immune system, facilitating toxicant transit through the digestive tract, producing of short
chain fatty acids in the colon, lowering caloric content and glycemic index of foods,
improving insulin response, providing bulk in foods and scavenging free radicals (Van Hung
et al. 2009; Liu 2007).
Wheat, barley, rye and oat whole grain flours are recognized as good sources of dietary
fibers (Ragaee et al. 2011). Wheat dietary fibers include arabinoxylan, cellulose, lignin and
β-glucan (Henry, 1987; Ragaee et al. 2011). Glucuronoarabinoxylan, cellulose + lignin and
β-glucan contents of wheat bran were reported as 28.0, 25.2 and 1.8%, respectively (Maes
and Delcour, 2001). Dietary fiber is significantly reduced by wheat milling process. Refined
flour contains no lignin and much less insoluble fiber than whole wheat flour (Slavin et al.
2000). The total dietary fibre, insoluble fibre and soluble fibre contents of wheat grain, wheat
bran and wheat flour are given in Table 2.
Table 2. Amount of (g/100 g) total, soluble and insoluble dietary fibre in wheat, wheat
bran and white wheat flour (Esposito et al. 2005; Vitaglione et al. 2008; Seyer and
Gélinas 2009; Ragaee et al. 2011; Stevenson et al. 2012)
Total fibre Soluble fibre (g/100g) Insoluble fibre

(g/100g) (g/100g)
Wheat grain 11.6-17.0 1.4-3.8 9.4-14.7
Wheat bran 35.0-52.4 1.5-6.0 35.0-48.4
Wheat flour 3.4-5.1 2.1-3.0 1.4-2.2
Resistant starch is defined as a portion of starch and starch products which are resist to
digestion in the small intestine of humans (Nugent, 2005; Fuentes-Zarazoga et al. 2010).
Resistant starch is found naturally in cereal grains, seeds and heated starches or foods
containing starch (Charalampopoulos et al. 2002). Resistant starch that reaches the large
intestine may serve as a substrate for microbial fermentation and short chain fatty acids,
desirable metabolite, in the colon (Charalampopoulos et al. 2002; Nugent, 2005). It has
positive effects on digestive tract functions, microbial flora, blood cholesterol level and
glycemic index and reduces the risk of diabetes, cancer, hemorrhoids, diverticulosis and
constipation (Sharma et al. 2008; Fuentes-Zarazoga et al. 2010).
Vitamins and Minerals
Wheat is also a source of vitamins and minerals but refining process reduces the content
of vitamins and minerals in wheat. When white flour was obtained with an extraction rate of
66%, thiamin, riboflavin, pyridoxine, folate, biotin and niacin contents of whole wheat flour
decreased from 5.8, 0.95, 7.5, 0.57, 116, 25.2 µg/g to 1.4, 0.37, 1.3, 0.06, 25 and 3.4 µg/g,
respectively. Similarly, whole wheat flour contains 1.9 times more Ca, 3.2 times more P, 3.6
times more Zn, 3.1 times more Cu and 3.5 times more Fe than white flour with 66%
extraction rates (Pedersen et al. 1989; Slavin et al. 2000). The compositions of wheat and
other cereal grains are given in Table 3.
Phenolic Acids
Phenolic acids are a group of natural compounds commonly found in many cereal grains.
These compounds are present at high concentrations in the external layers of the grain and the
phenolic acids in wheat grains are mostly in bound form (Kim et al. 2006; Adom and Liu,
2002, Van Hung et al. 2009). Phenolic acids can be subdivided into two major groups,
hydroxybenzoic acids and hydroxycinnamic acids (Liu, 2004). Wheat phenolic acids are
generally either benzoic acid or cinnamic acid derivatives having different numbers of
hydroxyl and/or methoxyl substituents at different positions of the phenyl ring (Yu and Cheng
2008).
36 Hacer Levent
Table 3. Compositions of cereal grains (Elgün and Ertugay, 1995)
Wheat Corn Rice Sorghum Barley Rye

Water (%) 10.0 15.0 11.4 10.6 10.6 10.5
Protein (%)* 14.3 10.2 9.2 12.5 13.0 13.4
Fat (%) 1.9 4.3 1.3 3.4 2.1 1.8
Cellulose (%) 3.4 2.3 2.2 2.2 5.6 2.2
Ash (%) 1.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.7 1.9
Thiamin (mg/kg) 5.5 4.6 3.2 4.6 5.7 4.4
Riboflavin (mg/kg) 1.3 1.3 0.7 1.5 2.2 1.8
Niacin (mg/kg) 63.6 26.6 40 48.4 64.5 1.3
Pantothenic acid (mg/kg) 13.6 5.9 7.0 12.5 7.3 7.7
Ca (mg/100g DM) 51 29 6 22 50 31
P (mg/100g DM) 380 322 190 445 440 359
Mg (mg/100g DM) 157 121 4 105 180 92
K (mg/100g DM) 453 339 118 330 580 412
Fe (mg/100g DM) 5 3.6 3.2 8 5 2.7
Zn (mg/100g DM) 5 - - 9 - -
Cu (mg/100g DM) 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.08 0.5 0.6
*:Nx6.25 DM:Dry matter.
Several phenolic acids have been detected in wheat grain, including ferulic, vanillic,
syringic, p-coumaric acid, salicylic, caffeic, protocatechuic, gentistic, chlorogenic, and
p-hydroxybenzoic acids (Onyeneho and Hettiarachchy, 1992; Moore et al. 2005; Kim et al.
2006; Yu and Cheng 2008). Onyeneho and Hettiarachchy (1992) reported that among the
identified free phenolics in durum wheat bran, ferulic, vanillic, and p–coumaric acids were
present in the highest amounts. Moore et al. (2005) examined 8 soft wheat varieties grown in
Maryland for their tocopherol, carotenoids, total phenolics and phenolic acids contents and
their antioxidant properties. In the same study, vanillic, syringic, p-coumaric and ferulic acids
were found in soluble free, soluble conjugated and insoluble bound forms in grain extracts.
Ferulic acid was found as the predominant phenolic acid. Adom and Liu (2002) examined the
complete phytochemical profiles in free, soluble conjugated and insoluble bound forms in
whole grains and reported that the major portion of phenolics in grains (75% in wheat)
existed in bound form and bound phytochemicals were the major contributors to the total
antioxidant activity (90% in wheat). Vaher et al. (2010) found that bran layer of different
wheat varieties contained more caffeic, ferulic, p-coumaric, syringic, vanillic and sinapic acid
than whole grain and flour made from endosperm.
Phenolic compounds possess antioxidant activity that protects living organisms from
various deleterious events and diseases by neutralising excess free radicals, chelating
transition metals, reducing peroxides and stimulating the antioxidative defense enzyme
activities (Yu 2001; Yu et al. 2002; Zhou and Yu, 2004; Shaidi and Liyana-Pathirana, 2008).
Wheat is a rich source of natural antioxidants that are important for the prevention of various
diseases and for the promotion of health (Zhou and Yu, 2004).
Polyphenols
Lignans
Lignans, a group of dipolyphenolic compounds, are found in the outer fibre containing
layers of the grains. The major lignan in wheat bran is secoisolariciresinol (SECO) (Mazur,
1998). Lignans are found widely in grains (especially wheat and rye), fruit and vegetables and
the richest source of lignans in plants is flaxseed (linseed) (Mazur, 1998; Davies et al. 1999).
Flaxseed has been found to contain the highest concentrations of SECO (28800-
369000 µg/100 g) of any food (Meagher and Beecher, 2000).
Begum et al. (2004) reported that secoisolariciresinol (SECO, 142 µg/100g), matairesinol
(MAT, 9.4 µg/100g), isolariciresinol (ISOL, 297 µg/100g), lariciresinol (LAR, 257 µg/100g),
pinoresinol (PIN, 106 µg/100g) and syringaresinol (SYR, 1953 µg/100g) were found in wheat
bran. Lignans reduce the risk of breast and prostate cancer, osteoporosis or cardiovascular
diseases with their hormone-altering, oestrogenic/anti-oestrogenic, anti-oxidative, anti-
carcinogenic, cardioprotective, anti-atherogenic, hypocholesterolaemic, bone-maintaining
effects (Adlercreutz and Mazur, 1997; Kurzer and Xu, 1997; Mazur, 1998; Murkies et al.
1998; Adlercreutz, 2002).
Flavonoids
Flavonoids are antioxidant phytochemicals found in cereal grains as well as wheat (Vaher
et al. 2010). These components are found in free, soluble conjugated and insoluble forms in
cereals and have anti-carcinogenic, anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic properties (Brown,
1980; Adom and Liu, 2002; Adom et al. 2003; Sidhu et al. 2007). Two flavonoid apigenin-C-
diglycosides and their Wessely–Moser isomers, together with their sinapic acid esters, were
isolated and identified in wheat by Asenstorfer et al. (2006). Cyanidin-3-glycosides and
peonidin 3-glycoside, anthocyanins, were found in blue and purple wheat varieties (Abdel-
Aal and Hucl, 2003). Adom et al. (2005) reported that flavonoid contents of endosperm
and bran/germ fractions of three different wheat varieties were 60-80 µmol catechin
equivalent/100 g and 740-940 µmol catechin equivalent/100 g, respectively.
Van Hung et al. (2009) reported that the total phenolic and flavonoid contents of whole
waxy wheat milling fractions gradually increased from the inside to the outer fractions. Total
flavonoid contents of bran from five wheat varieties were found as 262-304 µg epicatechin
equivalent/g bran (Iqbal et al.2007). Total flavonoid contents of 11 diverse wheat varieties
were reported as 105.8-141.8 µmol catechin equivalent/100 g of wheat (Adom et al. 2003).
Free, bound and total flavonoids contents of wheat samples were found as 0.18, 2.16 and 2.34
mg catechin equivalent/g, respectively (Kim and Kim, 2016).
Carotenoids
Carotenoids are another group of phytochemicals responsible for many of the red, orange
and yellow colours in nature and have received great interest due to their role as both
provitamin and antioxidant (Humpries et al. 2004; Liu; 2004; Tsao, 2008). Carotenoid
concentration in wheat is low when compared to fruits and vegetables (Humpries et al. 2004).
Lutein and β-carotene were reported to be the main components mainly responsible for the
38 Hacer Levent
yellow colour in wheat grains (Fratianni et al. 2005). The major wheat flour carotenoids are
lutein (xanthophyll) and its esters, a monoester and a diester (Lepage and Sims (1968). Panfili
et al. (2004) reported that α and β-carotene and zeaxanthin were concentrated in germ, lutein
was equally distributed along the kernel in cereals. Adom et al. (2005) reported that the
bran/germ fraction contributed 51% of the total lutein, 78% of the total zeaxanthin, 42% of
the total β-cryptoxanthin content in whole wheat flour.
Carotenoids can reduce the risk of various types of cancer. Epidemiologic and
experimental studies strongly suggest that β-carotene with provitamin A activity, can prevent
the onset of cancers, especially lung cancer (Astorg, 1997). Carotenoids without provitamin A
activity, also have anticarcinogenic effecs (Edge et al. 1997). As well as cancer prevention,
carotenoids with their potential antioxidant properties may help to inhibit the onset of other
diseases such as atherosclerosis, cataracts, age-related macular degeneration and multiple
sclerosis, initiated by free radicals (Edge et al. 1997)
Moore et al. (2005) studied eight soft wheat varieties for their potential beneficial
components and reported that lutein was the primary carotenoid present in the grain samples
at a level of 0.82-1.14 µg/g along with significant amounts of zeaxanthin and β-carotene.
Fratianni et al. (2005) evaluated the carotenoid content in whole-meals and respective
semolina samples produced from wheat samples cultivated in two years and found that in
whole meals, total carotenoids, determined by HPLC, were about 3.0-3.5 µg/g dry weight and
about 3.0-3.2 µg/g in corresponding semolina samples.
Lutein, β-carotene and total carotenoid contents were found as 3.00, 0.03 and 3.02 µg/g
dry weight in Triticum turgidum and 1.90, 0.11 and 2.12 µg/g dry weight in Triticum
aestivum samples (Hidalgo et al. 2006).
Humphries et al. (2004) examined the bread and durum wheats and triticale varieties
grown under irrigation from the 1995-1996 harvest and found a strong positive correlation
(r2 > 0.75) between CIE b* values and lutein concentration in all groups. Furthermore, CIE b*
values were strongly correlated to both α- and β-carotene concentration and high CIE b*
values indicated high concentrations of these provitamin A carotenoids as well as lutein.
Zhou et al. (2004) examined bran samples of seven wheat varieties from four different
countries and found lutein (0.50-1.80 µg/g) and cryptoxanthin (0.18-0.64 µg/g) in all of the
tested bran samples, zeaxanthin (max 2.19 µg/g) in the six and β-carotene (0.09-0.40 µg/g) in
four bran samples.
Tocols
Tocols, lipid-soluble antioxidants, are classified as tocopherols (saturated phytyl group)

or tocotrienols (triunsaturated phytyl group) (Hidalgo et al. 2006). Tocopherols and
tocotrienols have four isomers (α, β, δ and γ) according to the number of methyl groups and
their positions on the chromanol ring (Šramková et al. 2009). The term vitamin E is a generic
name description for all tocopherol and tocotrienol derivatives (Theriault et al. 1999; Yoshida
et al. 2003).
α-tocopherol is the most active form in the Vitamin E complex (Šramková et al. 2009).
Yoshida et al. (2003) reported that α, β, δ and γ tocopherols and tocotrienols exerted the same
reactivities toward radicals and the same antioxidant activities against lipid peroxidation in
solution and liposomal membranes (Yoshida et al. 2003).
Tocopherol and tocotrienols are essential dietary components because they are not
synthesized by animals and are well known for their antioxidative effect (Theriault et al.
1999; Hidalgo et al. 2006). Tocols have the ability to quench free radicals by their antioxidant
property and reduce cardiovascular disease and cancer risks which are the two leading causes
of mortality in western industrialized society (Meydani, 1995; Theriault et al. 1999).
Hidalgo et al. (2006) found that β-tocotrienol (48.22 µg/g dry weight) was the most
abundantly available tocol in einkorn samples from different geographical areas. In the same
study, the mean total tocol contents of Triticum turgidum and Triticum aestivum samples
were found to be 52.91 and 62.75 µg/g dry weight, respectively.
Zhou et al. (2004) examined bran samples of seven wheat varieties from four different
countries and α-, δ- and γ- tocopherols were found as 1.28-21.29, 0.23-7.0 and
0.92-6.90 µg/g, respectively.
Phytosterols/Phytostanols
Cereals are excellent natural sources of sterols and stanols in the diet (Alignan et al.
2009). Phytosterols in cereals are present in two forms: sterols and their completely saturated
forms, stanols (Piironen et al. 2000; Alignan et al. 2009). Pytosterols are minor constituents
of lipids and have a similar chemical structure with cholesterol (Piironen et al., 2000; Nurmi
et al. 2010). Pytosterols are known to inhibit the absorption of cholesterol from the small
intestine and are effective in lowering plasma total and low density lipoprotein (LDL)
cholesterol (Pascal and Segal, 2006). In addition to cardiovascular diseases phytosterols also
have anti-cancer properties (Jones and AbuMweis, 2009; Nurmi et al. 2010).
Phytosterols are found in large quantities in vegetable oils, in grains, in fruits and
vegetables. Phytostanols are found in much less than phytosterols and common sources of
phytostanols are corn, wheat, rye and rice (Pascal and Segal, 2006).
Piironen et al. (2002) reported that sitosterol was the main sterol in all cereal grain and
milling product samples, and that it was lower in the most refined wheat flours ((≈15%) than
in the bran fractions (≈30% in the bran with 4% ash content).
Phytosterols content of wheat germ, wheat bran and durum wheat lipids were found as
21.3, 17.7 and 15.1 mg/g in their lipid extracts. Wheat bran and durum wheat lipids had
slightly lower phytosterol levels than wheat germ lipid sample (Jiang and Wang, 2005).
Total stanols and total sterols + stanols content of 23 genotypes of bread wheat grown in
France were found as 14.4 and 65.6 mg/100 g dry weight, respectively (Alignan et al. 2009).
Phytic Acid
Phytic acid is the major storage compounds of phosphorus in most seeds and cereal
grains and accounts for more than 70% of the total phosphorus (Zhou and Erdman, 1995).
Phytic acid has the ability to bind minerals, proteins and starch. This binding alters the
solubility, functionality, digestion, and absorption of these food components (Oatway et al.
2001). For this reason, it is considered to be antinutrient, and great effort has been made to
reduce the amount of phytate in foods by different methods (Rickard and Thompson, 1997;
Bilgiçli et al. 2006; Kumar et al. 2010).
40 Hacer Levent
However, many researchers have reported that phytic acid has healthful effects. It has
antioxidant effect and its consumption provides protection against a variety of cancers. It has
also been shown to reduce blood glucose and insulin responses to starchy foods, serum
cholesterol and triglycerides (Jariwalla et al. 1990; Graf and Eaton, 1993; Thompson, 1993;
Rickard and Thompson, 1997; Kumar et al. 2010). Otake et al. (1999) reported anti-HIV-1
activity of phytic acid. It has been also reported that it prevents renal stone development
(Grases et al. 2000). Due to these healthful effects, the term “untinutrient” used for phytic
acid needs to be re-evaluated (Thompson, 1993; Rickard and Thompson, 1997).
CONCLUSION
Wheat and wheat based products are the staple foods of humans providing a significant
amount of energy. Beyond supplying energy and basic nutrients, wheat contains valuable
bioactive components. Wheat grain provides a variety of beneficial components including
dietary fiber, resistant starch, vitamins, minerals, phenolic acids, polyphenols (lignans and
flavonoids), carotenoids, tocols, phytosterols/phytostanols and phytic acid. The bran and germ
of wheats contain the majority of these health beneficial components. Whole grains retain the
nutritious bran and germ and therefore whole wheat flours have more health benefits than
refined flour. Many studies indicate that consumption of whole grain products reduces the
risk of various chronic diseases. Whole grain and whole-grain products should be included in
our diet because of their health beneficial components and their positive health effects.
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Chapter 4
IN VITRO STARCH DIGESTIBILITY OF SNACK BAR

FORMULATED WITH GREEN BANANA
(MUSA ACUMINATA × BALBISIANA ABB CV. AWAK)
FLOUR
Lee-Hoon Ho1,*, Norhidayah Che Dahri1 and Thuan-Chew Tan2

1
Department of Food Industry, Faculty of Bioresources and Food Industry,
Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin,
Besut Campus, Besut, Terengganu, Malaysia
2
Food Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology,
Universiti Sains Malaysia, USM, Penang, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Novel low glycaemic index (GI) snack bars were prepared using green banana (Musa
acuminata × balbisiana ABB cv. Awak) flour (GBF). Oat was partially substituted with
GBF at 5, 10, 15, and 20% (w/w) to prepare SGBF5, SGBF10, SGBF15, and SGBF20,
respectively. Snack bar without GBF served as control. Prepared snack bars were
evaluated for dietary fibre content (i.e., soluble dietary fibre, insoluble dietary fibre, and
total dietary fibre), starch content (i.e., total starch, resistant starch, and digestible starch),
estimated glycaemic index (eGI), and sensory attributes. Prepared snack bars containing
GBF had significantly higher (P < 0.05) level of insoluble dietary fibre (4.31–10.07%),
soluble dietary fibre (4.35–4.58%), total dietary fibre (8.66–14.65%), total starch (74.98–
76.12%), and resistant starch (6.22–7.49%) than that of control (1.12, 4.23, 5.35, 73.88,
and 4.72%, respectively). A slow starch hydrolysis rate was recorded with a subsequent
reduction of hydrolysis index (13.52–11.22%) and eGI (47.6–46.38) in snack bars
containing GBF. Sensory evaluation indicated that snack bar containing 15% (w/w) of
GBF (i.e., SGBF15) had the highest overall acceptability (score > 6). As this is a novel
snack bar developed with low eGI value, it is expected to benefit consumers, especially
those following weight management programme, as well as for diabetic patients.
Keywords: green banana flour, snack bar, dietary fibre, resistant starch, low glycaemic index
*
Corresponding Author Email: holeehoon@yahoo.com and holeehoon@unisza.edu.my, Tel.: +60 9699 3605
48 Lee-Hoon Ho, Norhidayah Che Dahri and Thuan-Chew Tan
INTRODUCTION
In the development of new food products, food industry search for new ingredients to
meet consumers’ demand for products with right balance between sensory and nutritional
quality associated to health benefits (Bower and Whitten, 2000). The demand for a healthier
life associated with rapid and practical ways of eating has led to a continuous search for an
alternative product that can offer both convenience and nutritional balance. The ingestion of a
balanced diet is the most effective and the safest way to avoid health problems like diabetes,
malnutrition, obesity, and heart diseases (Gutkoski et al., 2007). In recent years, snack bars
have gained more importance and popularity in the global market and today the market is
offering a wide variety of snack bar products. Snack bar is a convenient snack, with long shelf
life and complete nutrition content (Bower and Whitten, 2000). Currently, consumers are
more interested in functional foods produced from natural materials and foods with low
glycaemic index (GI). There are several means to produce low glycaemic foods. Production
of foods containing high level of resistant starch (RS) is one of the methods to produce food
with low GI.
The association between snack bars and wholesomeness foodstuffs is a well-documented
tendency in industrial food (Boustani and Mitchell, 1990). However, most of the snack bars
available in the market are of high sugar content and high GI that cause powerful spikes in
blood sugar. Snack products are usually perceived to be unhealthy and lack of essential
nutritional components, such as dietary fibre, vitamins, and minerals. Snack bars act as
convenience and suitable food product that can delivers a perfect delivery system for nutrients
and functional ingredients required to meet the daily human nutrient requirements (Sun-
Waterhouse et al., 2010). With increasing consumer demand for natural, convenient, and
nutritious food products, numerous attempts have to be made to modify, innovate, and
improve the nutritive composition of snack bars for health benefits (Williams et al., 2006;
Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2010; Mridula et al., 2013).
Banana is one of the most cultivated fruit crops in the tropical and subtropical climate
countries and it represents fourth most important agricultural commodity in the world
(Sarawong et al., 2014; Gomes et al., 2016). The nutritional and functional properties of
bananas are known to provide good health. It is usually transported during its unripe stage in
large amount. Bad handling of green bananas during pre- and post- harvesting causes it to
deteriorate and this lead to huge losses (Zhang et al., 2005). Large quantities of green banana
rejection usually consists of below-grade fruit and/or fruit with skin appearance defects
(Aurore et al., 2009). Moreover, banana has very short shelf life, which leads to product
losses and deterioration. The qualities of fresh banana decrease rapidly after harvesting and
this will reduce the market value of the banana (Ng et al., 2014). Hence, one of the popular
ways to reduce the waste of this fruit is by encouraging the use of banana in green stage,
pursuing it into flour since its shelf life becomes longer. Green banana flour (GBF) can then
be used in the development of innovative food products to encourage consumption of banana
and thus contribute to health benefits for humans (Daramola and Osanyinlusi, 2006; Bezerra
et al., 2013). Nowadays, new economical strategies are being proposed to encourage the use
of green banana in the development of functional food ingredients as a mean to minimise
banana wastes (Zhang et al., 2005).
In Vitro Starch Digestibility of Snack Bar Formulated with Green Banana … 49
Nutritionally, green banana (Musa acuminata × balbisiana Colla cv. Awak) exhibited
nutritional potential as an alternative source of indigestible carbohydrates and interesting
bioactive compounds (Mota et al., 2000; Faisant et al., 1995). Several studies have suggested
that consumption of unripe bananas confers beneficial effects for human health, associated
with its indigestible components (up to 60–80%), such as cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin,
starch, dietary fibre, and RS (Mota et al., 2000; Saifullah et al., 2009; Haslinda et al., 2009;
Menezes et al., 2011). Matured green banana consists of high proportion of undigestible
compounds, such as RS (17.5%), and non-starch polysaccharides, including dietary fibre
content (14.5%) (Juárez-García et al., 2006). Matured green banana is rich in RS, which is
resistant to α-amylase and glucoamylase due to its high degree of crystalline intrinsic
structure (Zhang et al, 2005).
The nutritional potential of unripe banana starch and fibre can be expected to confer
beneficial health benefits for humans (Rodriguez-Ambriz, et al., 2008). Dietary fibre is an
important component in a healthy diet. Dietary fibre consists of cellulose, hemicellulose,
lignin, pectin, β-glucans, and gums (Howarth et al., 2001). Nowadays, interest in foods rich in
dietary fibre is on the rise, and the importance of this food constituent has led to the
development of a large market for fibre-rich products and ingredients. A high-dietary fibre
intake has been reported to have beneficial effects on human health, including physiological
and metabolic effects, and play an important role in the prevention and treatment of obesity,
atherosclerosis, coronary heart diseases, colorectal cancer, and diabetes (Champ and Guillon,
2000; Rehiman et al., 2004; Rodriguez et al., 2006). Because of the highly competitive
market of fibre-enriched food products, exploration of alternative source of dietary fibre food
product is in high demand (Elleuch et al., 2010). The fruit fibre has better quality than other
fibre sources due to its high total and soluble fibre contents, water and oil holding capacities,
colonic fermentability, and caloric value content (Figuerola et al., 2005).
Starch is one of the most important glycaemic carbohydrates in cereals, roots, tubers, and
unripe fruits that are consumed by humans worldwide. Starch digestibility can be classified
into rapidly digestible, slowly digestible, and RS fractions (Englyst et al., 1992; Björck et al.,
1994). Different digestibility is associated with a number of physiological functions and thus
have different effects on human health, such as reduction of the glycaemic and insulinemic
responses to food, hypocholesterolemic action, and protective effects against colorectal
cancer (Asp et al., 1996). There is a nutritional trend to reduce the consumption of glycaemic
carbohydrates in food products in order to increase the level of indigestible carbohydrates and
increase the content of slowly digestible starch due to its beneficial health effects (WHO,
2003).
A substantial percentage of starch in bananas consists of RS, which has the potential to
provide significant health benefits similar to those derived from dietary fibre (Nimsung et al.,
2007). RS is a fraction of the starch that is not broken down and not digested by enzymes in
the upper gastrointestinal tract (i.e., small intestine). However, it is fermented by
microorganisms in the colon (i.e., colonic microflora) to produce short chain fatty acids
(SCFA) that encourage the growth of beneficial bacteria (Aurore et al., 2009). RS is generally
considered to be one of the components that make up total dietary fibre (TDF). RS plays a
major role in the health food industry with similar properties to soluble (SDF) and insoluble
dietary fibre (IDF) in the gastrointestinal tract (Englyst et al., 1992). Since it is resistance to
human digestive enzymes, it is digested slowly throughout the entire small intestine providing
sustained glucose release and subsequently produced prolonged-release of glucose, thus act as
an evident for a low GI of the non-digested starch (Croghan, 2004). This can help to reduce
post-prandial response, improve glucose regulation in diabetes, facilitate weight control for
the obese, and reduction of the glycemic and insulinemic responses to food (Ohr, 2004;
Jideani and Jideani, 2011; Odenigbo et al., 2013). Several studies had demonstrated that the
increase in RS content in food products incorporated with unripe banana substitution to
different foods, such as pasta, bread and cookies (Aparicio-Saguilán et al., 2007; Juárez-
García et al., 2006; Ovando-Martinez et al., 2009; Saifullah et al., 2009). In addition, Agama-
Acevedo et al., (2012) found lower eGI in cookies substituted with unripe banana flour when
compared to that of control. Production of foods containing high level of RS is one of the
methods to lower the GI of the food (Tiboonbun et al., 2011; Agama-Acevedo et al., 2012;
Odenigbo et al., 2013).
The rate of digestion and absorption of glucose in small intestine determines the GI of
starchy foods (Englyst and Hudson, 1996; Englyst et al., 1999). Recently, there has been a
considerable interest in the possibility of improving glycaemic control of diabetic patients by
altering the glycaemic impact of the carbohydrates ingested in the food product. According to
Jenkins et al., (1981), GI is one of the preferred tools for ranking foods with respect to the
rate of blood glucose absorption level after food consumption, which leads to the selection of
slow carbohydrate foods in diets (Englyst et al., 1992).
Low GI properties is usually linked to the RS content, and food products containing high
levels of RS might well qualified as functional foods and have market potential (Truswell,
1992; Johnson and Gee, 1996). Low GI foods may favourably influence blood glucose,
insulin sensitivity, insulin secretion, blood lipids, and appetite (Frost et al., 1998; Frost et al.,
1999; Wolever and Mehling, 2002; Brand-Miller et al., 2003; Agama-Acevedo et al., 2012).
There are several researches indicate that to prevent chronic diseases, the food product should
be of low GI, which result in “slow-increase” of blood glucose level (Jenkins et al., 2002).
Moreover, foods containing slow-digesting carbohydrates exert prolonged satiating effects,
thus increasing the time elapsed between meals due to the compactness of the product to
retard enzymatic hydrolysis. On the other hand, soluble fibre from oat (Avena sativa L.) has
been reported to have positive effects on glycaemic control and insulin and cholesterol
responses to foods as it could form viscous solution in the digestive system (Wood et al.,
1990).
Therefore, there is a need to innovate and develop products that anticipate these needs to
fulfil the consumer demands and capture market share (Barboza et al., 2003). Based on these
aspects, food industries need to develop new formulations of snack bar that could meet the
demands of the consumers. The current nutrition trends are consumption of low-carbohydrate
diets, including slow-digested food products, increase in the intake of functional foods, and
reduce in the overall consumption of sugars and foods that promote high glucose responses
(WHO, 2003; Hurs and Martin, 2005). Therefore, snack bars are ideal food products for
delivery of important nutritional nutrient. There are several studies on snack bars, e.g., high-
protein snack bars contain high-quality protein, snack bars with high dietary fibre and
polyphenol contents, snack bar with high isoflavone and soy protein content, cereal bars with
prebiotic properties, apricot-date bars, and formulated cereal bars using exotic fruit (Dutcosky
et al., 2006; Loveday et al., 2009; Sun-waterhouse et al., 2010; Lobato et al., 2012). However,
none of these studies report on low GI snack bar from GBF. It is feasible to produce
nutritional cereal-bars with GBF. In addition, there are no reports on the utilisation of GBF in
making snack bars. The partial substitution with GBF, which has been proven to contain high
sources of fibre and essential nutrients, into bakery products has great potential to enhance
consumers’ health (Juarez-Garcia et al., 2006; Ovando-Martinez et al., 2009).
With the increasing interest in the consumption of functional foods, snack bars with high
nutritional and sensory properties have been produced with the partial-substitution of oat with
GBF. Therefore, this study was conducted to investigate the effect of GBF in snack bars in
terms of its nutritional and sensory attributes. In addition, this study deems to determine the
feasibility of using GBF as a source of dietary fibre in snack bars and starch fractions.
Besides that, the influence of GBF on rate starch digestibility, hydrolysis index, and eGI of
snack bars were also investigated.
METHODS
Materials
All ingredients (i.e., rolled oats, skimmed milk powder, goji berries, pumpkin seeds, and
sorbitol) with the exception of GBF were purchased in a local wet market, in Bachok,
Kelantan, Malaysia (‘Jelawat’ Wet Market). All the chemicals used in this study were of
analytical reagent grade.
Green Banana Flour Preparation
Unripe green bananas (without yellow/brown spot) were used to produce GBF. The
banana skin was peeled manually with a sterile knife. The pulps were then cut into small
pieces prior to soaking in the sodium metabisulfite solution (1:1,000). Then, the pulps were
sliced using fruit slicer (Santos, Vegetable Slicer 48, Lyon, France) before drying in a
ventilated dryer at 60°C (Tech-Lab, FDD-720, Selangor, Malaysia) for overnight. The dried
slices were grounded using laboratory mill (Panasonic, MX-801S, Selangor, Malaysia) to
produce fine powder and then kept in an airtight plastic container and stored in chiller prior to
use.
Snack Bars Preparation
Table 1. Formulations of snack bars preparation
Ingredients Types of Snack Bar

SBF0 SBF5 SBF10 SBF15 SBF20
Toasted rolled oats (g) 30 28.5 27 25.5 24
Green banana flour (g) - 1.5 3.0 4.5 6
Skimmed milk powder (g) 20 20 20 20 20
Goji berry (g) 20 20 20 20 20
Pumpkin seeds (g) 10 10 10 10 10
Sorbitol (mL) 20 20 20 20 20
Snack bars were prepared according to the method as described by Silva et al., (2014)
with modification on the size of the snack bar. Snack bars were prepared according to the
formulations shown in Table 1. Toasted rolled oats were partially replaced by increasing
amounts of GBF (5, 10, 15, and 20%) to prepared SBF5, SBF10, SBF15, and SBF20,
respectively. Snack bar without GBF served as control. Dry ingredients, such as toasted rolled
oats, GBF, skimmed milk powder, goji berries, and pumpkin seeds, were mixed using blender
(Waring Commercial Blender, 7011HS, Osaka, Japan). Sorbitol syrup was then added into the
dry mixture and blended until a uniform mixture was obtained. The mixture was shaped into
shapes of cuboid (3 cm × 9 cm × 0.8 cm) prior to drying using ventilated dryer (Tech-Lab,
FDD-720, Selangor, Malaysia) at 40°C for 3 h. The snack bars were then packed in
aluminium-coated cellophane and kept in airtight container at ambient temperature prior of
analysis.
Total Starch Determination
Total starch (TS) of the samples was determined according to the method described by
Goñi et al., (1997). A 50 mg of the sample was weighed into a 50-mL centrifuge tube and
then added with 6 mL of 2M KOH. The mixture was incubated in a shaking water bath
(Memmert, WNB14, Schwabach, Germany) at 27°C for 30 min. Sodium acetate buffer
(1 mL, 0.4 M, pH 4.75) and 60 µL of amyloglucosidase from Aspergillus niger (ref. A9913,
Sigma) were added to the suspension and incubated at 60°C for 45 min in a water bath under
constant shaking to hydrolyse the digested starch to glucose. The sample was centrifuged
(Sigma 3-K16, Northern Ireland, UK) at 3,000 × g for 15 min. The supernatant was decanted
and transferred into 1,000-mL volumetric flask and made up to the volume with distilled
water.
Glucose concentration was measured by using glucose oxidase-peroxidase kit (ref. GL
2614, Randox). A 0.5 mL of water (blank), sample, and glucose standard were pipetted into
test tubes containing 1 mL of glucose oxidase-peroxidase reagent and the mixture was then
incubated at 37°C for 30 min. The absorbance of the sample was read at 500 nm using a UV-
VIS spectrophotometer (Shimadzu, UV mini-1240, Kyoto, Japan). The amount of glucose
was determined by reference to a standard curve prepared with solutions containing up to
50 mg/L of D-glucose and the TS was calculated as glucose (mg) × 0.9.
Resistant Starch and Digestible Starch Determination
Resistant starch (RS) of the samples was determined according to the method described
by Goñi et al., (1996). Sample (100 mg) was weighed into a 50-mL centrifuge tube and added
with 10 mL of hydrochloric acid-potassium chloride (KCl-HCl) buffer (pH 1.5) and 0.2 mL
of pepsin (Cat No P-7012; Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Missouri, USA) solution (1 g pepsin/
10 mL KCl-HCl buffer). The mixture was then incubated in a water bath at 40oC for 60 min.
After the incubation period, 9 mL of 0.1 M Tris-maleate buffer (pH 6.9) and 1 mL of
pancreatic α-amylase (ref. A-3176, Sigma) was added. The mixture was further incubated for
16 h in a water bath at 37°C. The sample was centrifuged (Sigma 3-K16, Northern Ireland,
UK) at 3,000 × g for 15 min and the supernatant was discarded. Sample was washed twice
with 10 mL of distilled water and lastly 3 mL of distilled water was added to the residue. To
this, 3 mL of 4 M KOH was added and incubated at 37°C for 30 min in a water bath under
constant shaking. After that, an approximately 5.5 mL of 2M HCl, 3 mL of 4 M sodium
acetate buffer (pH 4.75), and 80 µL of amyloglucosidase from Aspergillus niger (ref. A9913,
Sigma) were added into the mixture. The mixture was left in a water bath at 60°C for 45 min
under constant shaking. The sample was then centrifuged at 3,000 × g for 15 min. The
supernatant was decanted and transferred into 1,000-mL volumetric flask. The residues were
washed with 10 mL distilled water and centrifuged at 3,000 ×g for 15 min, and this process
was repeated for 3 times. All the supernatants were combined and the volume of a volumetric
flask was made up to the volume with distilled water.
Glucose concentration was measured by using glucose oxidase-peroxidase kit (ref. GL
2614, Randox). A 0.5 mL of water (blank), sample, and glucose standard were pipetted into
test tubes containing 1 mL of the glucose oxidase-peroxidase reagent and the mixtures were
then incubated at 37°C for 30 min. The absorbance of the sample was read at 500 nm using
UV mini-1240 UV-VIS spectrophotometer. The amount of glucose was determined by
reference to a standard curve prepared with solutions containing up to 50 mg/L of D-glucose.
The resistant starch was calculated as glucose (mg) × 0.9.
Digestible starch (DS) was calculated by difference between TS and RS (% Digestible
starch = % Total starch − % Resistant starch).
Total Dietary Fibre, Soluble Dietary Fibre, and Insoluble Dietary Fibre
The total, soluble, and insoluble dietary fibres were evaluated by enzymatic–gravimetric
method using total dietary fibre assay kit (Sigma-Aldrich, TDF100A, St. Louis, MO, USA)
following AOAC Method 985.29 (AOAC, 1997). Sample (0.5 g) was added into phosphate
buffer (50 mL, pH 6.0) and 0.10 mL of α-amylase (Product Code A 3306) were added into
the mixture and mixed well and then placed in a boiling water bath. After 15 min, 10 mL of
0.275 N NaOH was added to the solution (adjusted to pH7.5). Then, 0.1 mL of protease was
added and incubated at 60°C in a water bath under continuous agitation. After 30 min, the
solution was allowed to cool to room temperature prior to addition of 10 mL of 0.325 M HCl
(adjusted the pH to between 4.0 and 4.6). Then, 0.1 mL of amyloglucosidase (Product Code A
9913) was added and incubated at 60°C in a water bath under continuous agitation for 30 min.
For insoluble dietary fibre, the solutions were filtered and redistribute the bed of celite in
crucible using 78% ethanol. The precipitates were transferred by gentle suction and
suspension from each beaker to its respective crucible. The residues were washed with three
20 mL portions of 78% ethanol, two 10 mL portions of 95% ethanol, and two 10 mL portions
of acetone. The oven dried residues were analyse for protein and ash content.
For the soluble dietary fibre, the filtrate was added with four volumes of 95% ethanol and
the solutions were allowed stand for overnight. The solution was filtered again. The oven
dried residues were analyse for protein and ash contents.
Glycaemic Index Determination
In vitro starch digestibility of the samples was measured according to the method
proposed by Goñi et al., (1997). A 50 mg of sample was suspended into 10 mL HCl-KCl
buffer (pH 1.5). Then, 0.2 mL of pepsin (Cat No P-7012; Sigma-Aldrich) solution (1 g of
pepsin in 10 mL HCl-KCl buffer) was added to each sample and incubated in a shaking water
bath at 40°C for 1 h. Then, 15 mL of Tris-Maleate buffer (pH 6.9) and 5 mL of α-amylase
solution (2.6 UI in Tris-Maleate buffer) were added into the mixture and incubated at 37°C in
a shaking water bath. A 1 mL aliquot sample was taken at every 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, and 180
min and incubated in a shaking boiling water bath (100°C) for 5 min to inactivate the enzyme
and refrigerated until the end of incubation time of all samples. Then, 3 mL of 0.4 M sodium
acetate buffer (pH 4.75) was added into each aliquot. A 60 µL of amyloglucosidase was used
to hydrolyse the digested starch into glucose in shaking water bath (60°C) for 45 min.
Volume was then adjusted to 10–100 mL with distilled water.
A standard curve of glucose (10–60 mg/L) (Cat No G 6918; Sigma Aldrich) solution was
prepared. A 0.5 mL of the water (blank), samples, and glucose standard were pipetted into
respective test tubes containing 1 mL of glucose oxidase/peroxidase reagent. The mixture was
then incubated for 30 min at 37°C. The absorbance of the blank, samples, and standard was
measured against the reagent blank at 500nm by using UV mini-1240 UV-VIS
spectrophotometer.
The rate of starch hydrolysis was expressed as the percentage of TS hydrolysed at
different times, i.e., 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, and 180 min. The hydrolysis index (HI) were
calculated as:
Hydrolysis Index (%) = (AUCsample/AUCreference) × 100%
where, AUCsample and AUCreference are the area under graph for sample and reference,
respectively.
A commercial white bread was procured from local market and used as reference.
The AUC was calculated using Sigma Plot for windows version 11.0 software (Te Sub
Systems, Inc., Germany). The eGI was obtained by calculation; Estimated Glycaemic
Index = 39.71 + 0.549HI (Goñi et al., 1997).
Sensory Evaluation
The sensory evaluation of the sample was performed by 30 semi-trained panelists from
the Department of Food Industry, Faculty of Bioresources and Food Industry, Universiti
Sultan Zainal Abidin, Besut, Terengganu, Malaysia. The sensory evaluation was conducted
using the seven-point hedonic scale as described by Watts et al., (1989). The food samples
were prepared in identical sample container, coded with 3-digit random numbers and each
sample was presented once at a time to each panellist. Panellists were asked to evaluate the
coded samples for colour, aroma, hardness, chewiness, stickiness, sweetness, and overall
acceptance based on their degree of liking (1 = dislike very much; 2 = dislike moderately;
3 = dislike slightly; 4 = neither like nor dislike; 5 = like slightly; 6 = like moderately; 7 = like
very much).
Statistical analyses were conducted using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
version 14.0 software (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). The obtained results from the present
study are represented as the mean values of three individual replicates ± the standard
deviation (S.D.). Significant differences between the mean values were determined using
Duncan’s multiple range tests at a significance level of P < 0.05.
DISCUSSION
Total Starch, Resistant Starch, and Digestible Starch of the Snack Bars
Starch is the main form of carbohydrate in green bananas. Table 2 shows the TS, RS, and
DS of the snack bar incorporated with GBF. Results showed that the TS content of the snack
bar increased with the increasing amount of GBF added into the formulation. The control
(i.e., SBF0) had lowest amount of TS (73.88%), compared to snack bars containing GBF, i.e.,
SBF5–SBF20 (between 74.98–76.12%). Higher TS contents in GBF-substituted snack bar
was contributed by the high starch content (73.4 g/100 g) in GBF (Juarez-Gracia et al., 2006).
According to Zhang et al., (2005), matured green banana is known as a rich source of starch,
which ranges from 70 to 80%. TS content is very important for the amount of glucose
liberated during digestion product (Agama-Acevedo et al., 2012).
Table 2. Total starch, resistant starch, and digestible starch of the snack bars
Types of Snack Bar Total Starch (%) Resistant Starch (%) Digestible Starch (%)
SBF0 73.88 ± 0.41a 4.72 ± 0.30a 69.16 ± 0.31b
SBF5 74.98 ± 0.08b 6.22 ± 0.12b 68.76 ± 0.09ab
SBF10 75.50 ± 0.13bc 6.83 ± 0.23bc 68.67 ± 0.05a
SBF15 75.83 ± 0.14c 7.14 ± 0.20cd 68.69 ± 0.21a
SBF20 76.12 ± 0.07c 7.49 ± 0.05d 68.63 ± 0.81a
Data are mean values of dry matter ± standard deviation (n = 3). Values with different online letters within a
column are significantly different (P < 0.05).
An increase in RS content was observed in the snack bar substituted with GBF (Table 2).
The control (i.e., SBF0) showed the lowest amount of RS (4.72%), while snack bars
containing GBF had significantly higher (P < 0.05) content of RS (Table 2). The higher
content of RS in snack bars containing GBF was due to the high RS content in the green
banana, i.e., 70–80% on dry weight basis (Zhang et al., 2005). A similar trend was observed
in noodle samples added with unripe banana flour (3.0–4.6%), whereby the RS content for
rice noodle with added unripe banana flour was higher than that of rice noodle without the
added unripe banana flour (Tiboonbun et al., 2011). Moreover, according to Goñi et al.,
(1996), foods containing 5 to 15% RS are classified as “high RS” foods. These results
suggested a slow carbohydrate features for the banana flour-based products. Based on these
results, it was concluded that the DS content in snack bar decreased with increasing level of
GBF substitution GBF. This is in-line with the findings by Ovando-Martinez et al., (2009),
whereby DS values of spaghetti with added GBF were lower than that of spaghetti without
GBF. Hence, these findings suggested that incorporation of GBF is an alternative approach to
produce food with reduce DS content.
Total Dietary Fibre, Insoluble Dietary Fibre, and Soluble Dietary Fibre
of Snack Bars
Fibre and RS help in preventing colon cancer because they are substrates for the colonic
microorganisms to produce metabolites, especially short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), mainly
acetic, propionic and butyric acid (Elmstahl, 2002). Insoluble dietary fibre (IDF) consists of
food constituents that are resistance to digestion in the small intestine, which directly pass
into the colon for fermentative process by the microflora presence in the colon (Ovando-
Martinez et al., 2009). IDF includes dietary fibre and RS, as well as indigestible protein,
certain polyphenols, and non-starch polysaccharides, e.g., cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin
(Saura-Calixto et al., 2000). In this study, IDF content of snack bars show similar trend as
total dietary fibre (TDF) content (Table 3). Snack bars containing GBF was significantly
higher (P < 0.05) in IDF (between 4.31−10.07%) than that of control, i.e., SBF0 (1.12%).
This is in agreement with previous findings by Juarez-Garcia et al. (2006), who reported that
IDF of bread containing GBF possesses high IDF (26.11%) compared to that of control bread
(18.36%). This correlation was attributed to the high content of hemicelluloses, a type of IDF,
in GBF (Mota et al., 2000). According to Southgate (1976), banana pulp contains more
hemicellulose than most fruits and vegetables. This is in agreement with Happi Emaga et al.,
(2007), who reported that IDF was the dominant fibre fraction found in banana.
Soluble dietary fibre (SDF) is water-soluble food material that may resist hydrolysis
process by enzymes found in alimentary tract, but capable to form viscous solution and will
be highly fermented by microflora in human large intestine. Sources of SDF include β-glucan,
pectin, and a variety of gums (Howarth et al., 2001). Soluble fibre may be able to bind with
bile salts by forming a viscous gel matrix, which may slow down the absorption of glucose
from the intestine and reduce levels of blood cholesterol. In this study, SDF content increased
slightly with the increase in the substitution of GBF (Table 3). This concluded that GBF has
very little influence on the SDF content in the samples. Choo and Aziz (2010) reported that
there is no apparent increment of SDF content was observed on the addition of 30% GBF into
noodles, however noodles with the addition of 10% oat β-glucan showed significant increased
(P < 0.05) in the SDF content when compare with control noodles. The lower SDF values in
noodles than IDF could be attributed to the higher amount of SDF content in rolled oat. Oat is
considered as fibre because it belongs to the soluble hydrocolloids, which are made up of
glucosidyl units and are non-digestible in human body due to the absence of enzyme capable
of digesting oat in human intestine. Study by Ovando-Martinez et al., (2009) reported that
IDF content increased while SDF content decreased with the increasing level of substitution
of GBF in spaghetti.
Table 3. Total dietary fibre, insoluble dietary fibre, and soluble dietary fibre
of snack bars
Types of snack bar Total dietary fibre Insoluble dietary fibre Soluble dietary fibre
(%) (%) (%)
SBF0 5.35 ± 0.18a 1.12 ± 0.10a 4.23 ± 0.10a
SBF5 8.66 ± 0.05b 4.31 ± 0.90b 4.35 ± 0.20ab
SBF10 11.83 ± 0.10c 7.42 ± 1.01c 4.41 ± 0.11ab
SBF15 14.14 ± 0.02d 9.62 ± 0.96d 4.52 ± 0.20b
SBF20 14.65 ± 0.19e 10.07 ± 1.15e 4.58 ± 0.20b
In this study, the addition of GBF in snack bars significantly increased (P < 0.05) the
TDF content. This increment was contributed by the significantly higher (P < 0.05) IDF and
SDF contents in the snack bars. Control sample showed the lowest value of TDF (i.e.,
5.35%), while snack bars containing 20% GBF possessed the highest values of TDF (i.e.,
14.65%). These were related to the high dietary fibre in GBF, i.e., 14.5% (Juarez-Garcia
et al., 2006). This pattern agrees with the higher RS level present in snack bars containing
GBF, since RS fraction has been associated with the insoluble residues of dietary fibre.
Faisant et al., (1995) reported that unripe bananas are the natural product with the highest RS
content. According to Ritthiruangdej et al., (2011), high level of dietary fibre in noodles
substituted with GBF are related to the high RS of the noodles. This study shows a similar
pattern to the findings by Ovando-Martinez et al., (2009), who reported that cookies
incorporated with GBF possess higher TDF content compared to that of control. This pattern
also in agreement with the findings by Juarez-Garcia et al., (2006), who reported that bread
formulated with GBF exhibited higher dietary fibre content than that of control bread. GBF is
an alternative for product formulation with reduced digestible starch contents (Juarez-Garcia
et al., 2006). These findings show that relatively higher dietary fibre fraction found in GBF
suggests it is possible to be applications in dietetic products.
Recently, there are several innovative products made with GBF, such as high-fibre bread
(Juarez-Garcia et al., 2006), digestible cookies (Aparicio-Saguilan et al., 2007), dried wheat
noodles (Ritthiruangdej et al., 2011), yellow alkaline noodle products (Choo and Aziz, 2010),
ice cream (Yangilar, 2015), and pasta (Ovando-Martinez et al., 2009), whereby these food
products were nutritionally improved. Snack bars prepared with GBF have the potential to
provide distinct amount of dietary fibre content and may be an alternative for people with
special caloric requirements. Their importance of sustaining daily fibre intake encouraged the
development and commercialisation of high fibre and RS food products.
In Vitro Starch Hydrolysis
The rate of in vitro starch digestion of snack bars were compared against reference (i.e.,
white bread) and the curves for combined digestion process for the snack bars are depicted in
Figure 1. Commercial white bread showed a rapid digestion value during the first 30 min of
reaction, which was much higher than in the snack bars (Figure 1). All snack bars have lower
area under curve (AUC) than that of commercial white bread. This indicates that commercial
white bread has faster digestion rate than snack bars. Several studies have reported similar
hydrolysis values for white bread (Osorio-Díaz et al., 2005; Sáyago-Ayerdi et al., 2005;
Carmona-García et al., 2007). Thereafter, hydrolysis progressed slowly increased for all
samples studied at 120 min of reaction before a plateau is reached. Regardless of the
substitution level, the addition of GBF resulted in slightly decreased on the hydrolysis rates of
these snack bars when compared with commercial white bread. This could be attributed to the
substitution of GBF. Greater effect of the snack bars was observed in snack bars with higher
GBF substitution. The indigestible polymers (i.e., dietary fibre) and some associated non-
fibrous compounds may have reduced the rate of starch hydrolysis in vitro or in vivo, which
results in low metabolic responses (Granfeldt et al., 1992). This could also be attributed to the
degree of crystallinity of banana starch granule that substantially affects starch digestibility.
Retrogradation of amylopectin forms a complex structure that caused the crystalline
structures of banana starches to be hard for the amylase to access and hence resistant to
hydrolysis (Choo and Aziz, 2010). Therefore, the rate of starch hydrolysis and postprandial
plasma glucose or insulin levels were shown to be lower. The reduced insulin response might
be due to the delay in glucose absorption and thus improved the metabolic control, which is
important in diabetic patients. This study is in accordance with the study by Juarez-Garcia
et al., (2006), whereby control bread were digested more rapidly than bread containing GBF.
Hydrolysis Index and Estimated Glycaemic Index
Various indices, e.g., carbohydrate digestion rate and hydrolysis index (HI), have been
previously used for the correlation of in vitro carbohydrate digestion with glycaemic response
in humans or the GI of food (Englyst et al., 1992). HI represents the proportion of starch that
is theoretically digestible (Ezeogu et al., 2005). HI was calculated from the hydrolysis curves
(Figure 1) and its corresponding eGI are presented in Table 4. The eGI for all snack bars was
significantly different (P < 0.05). The addition of GBF into the snack bar formulations led to
the decreased in HI and eGI. The HI value of the snack bars containing GBF decreased with
the increasing level of added GBF (Table 4). The course of the hydrolysis reaction shows
slower digestion behaviour among the samples containing different levels of GBF, but control
snack bars exhibited a slightly higher HI. Both HI and GI are notably affected by food
texture, particle size, and viscosity of the material subject to digestion in the small intestine
(Granfeldt et al., 1992).
According to Vatanasuchart et al., (2012), green banana flour exhibits lower starch
digestibility when compared to cassava starch. This could be attributed to the presence of a
quantity of dietary fibre, such as hemicelluloses and pectin polysaccharides, in green banana
flour (Zhang et al., 2005). Certain indigestible polymers and some associated non-fibrous
compounds may reduce the rate of starch digestion both in vitro and in vivo, resulting in low
metabolic responses (Granfeldt et al., 1992). Studies on other starch-based foods, such as
bread with added banana flour, revealed a low hydrolysis percentage that was in agreement
with high RS and dietary fibres of banana flour (Juarez-Garcia, et al., 2006). Therefore,
partial substitution of snack bars containing GBF may exert similar effects with high dietary
fibre and to some extent RS content.
Error bars indicate mean values of three chewing and digestion experiments ± standard deviation. Areas
under curves were used for calculation of hydrolysis index.
Figure 1. In vitro hydrolysis curves of starch in snack bars containing green banana flour (GBF) and
references white bread (REF).
Table 4. Estimated glycaemic index and hydrolysis index of snack bars
Samples Estimated Glycaemic Index Hydrolysis Index

Referencea 100.00 ± 0.00e 94.61 ± 0.00e
SBF0 48.59 ± 0.61d 14.98 ± 0.13d
SBF5 47.64 ± 0.91c 13.52 ± 0.29c
SBF10 46.93 ± 0.40b 12.16 ± 0.80b
SBF15 46.58 ± 0.49ab 11.56 ± 0.81ab
SBF20 46.37 ± 0.50a 11.22 ± 0.90a
aReference used in this study is commercial white bread.
GI has been established as an important indicator for starch digestibility (Jenkins et al.,
1981; Englyst et al., 1996). GI is used as an indication to ranks carbohydrate-containing foods
on how they elevate blood sugar levels and prediction of postprandial blood glucose and
insulin response (Wolever et al., 1991). GI can be estimated by in vitro rate and extent of
starch digestibility, which is known as eGI (Jarvi et al., 1999). The eGI values for the five
types of the snack bars ranged between 48.59–46.37%. These values fell within the low GI
classification of food. The lowest eGI was estimated for SBF20, followed by SBF15, SBF10,
SBF5, and control (with the highest eGI). According to Jenkins et al., (2002), foods can be
classified as having a low (<55), intermediate (55–70), or high GI (>70). The reduction of
eGI corresponds to the lower rate of starch hydrolysis in snack bars containing GBF. eGI
indicate that snack bars containing GBF may help to promote lower postprandial metabolic
responses than control snack bars. The observation of low eGI in this study could be
attributed to high fraction of RS and high dietary fibre in samples. This is because RS is
resistant to human digestive enzymes, thus slowdown the release of glucose and this results in
a reduced energy intake by the intestinal cells. This process acts as an evident to the low GI of
the non-digested starch, thus may improve postprandial glycaemic and glucose regulation by
altering the glycaemic impact of ingested carbohydrates (Haralampu, 2000; Higgins et al.,
2004). Several investigations suggested that foods with reduced glycaemic responses are
associated with reduction of secretion of insulin and lipids in the blood (Pacheco-Delahaye,
2001; Tharanathan and Mahadevamma, 2003). Thus, the presence of RS in this product seems
to affect the susceptibility to digestion of the available starch portions. Foods with a low GI
and higher RS resulted to slow absorption of carbohydrates and prevent extreme blood
glucose fluctuations (Jarvi et al., 1999; Jenkins et al., 2008).
On the other hand, other ingredients used in the formulation could also play an important
role in giving a special effect in lowering the eGI value of the snack bars. According to
Srikaeo and Thongta (2015), sorbitol compromises the lowest starch digestibility and low GI
index in the production of bread using different sweeteners. Goji berries also categorised
under low GI, i.e., 29. On the other hand, rolled oat belongs to a type of soluble fibre that
swells and gradually dissolves in water and forms pseudoplastic viscous solutions. The
viscous solution may reduce activities of gastrointestinal enzymes (e.g., amylase, lipase, and
chymotrypsin) towards the substrates, thus retard the absorption of nutrients (Lund et al.,
1989). Both soluble fibre and insoluble fibre showed greater effect in reducing the glycaemic
response. The combinations from these ingredients proved that using low GI ingredient can
produce low GI product. Nevertheless, eGI values for the composite products may be
considered moderate (Foster-Powell et al., 2002). eGI suggests important “slow digestion”
features for the snack bars, which is in-line with perceived health-beneficial characteristics of
RS (Asp et al., 1996; Champ et al., 2003). A similar situation was observed by Agama-
Acevedo et al., (2012), whereby a lower GI in unripe banana flour cookie when compared
with control cookies. This trend shows that glucose liberation from starch is lower in these
snack bars than in white bread. Study by Choo and Aziz (2010) indicated that noodles
containing green banana flour exhibited lower GI than that of control noodle. Aparicio-
Saguilán et al., (2007) found that a RS rich powder prepared from banana starch was a
potential ingredient for bakery products containing slowly digestible carbohydrates. Ovando-
Martinez et al., (2009) reported that pasta containing banana flour exhibit a low rate of
carbohydrate enzymatic hydrolysis and they could help broaden the range of low-GI foods
available to consumers. This pattern is important in the mechanisms governing post-prandial
glycemia for wheat flour based-products and foods with high RS content (Giacco et al., 2001;
Björck and Elmstahl, 2003).
Sensory Evaluation
According to Bower and Whitten (2000), sensorial quality, such as colour, appearance,
flavour, texture, and taste are some of the most important features influencing the consumers’
preferences for food products. Sensory evaluation of snack bars containing GBF was carried
out by comparing to control i.e., snack bars without GBF (SBF0). Result of sensory
evaluation obtained from the present study showed that colour provided by GBF affects the
likeness of the panellist when compared to that of control. Snack bars containing GBF
exhibited higher scores for colour compared to that of control (Table 5). The acceptable of
colour increased with the increasing levels of GBF incorporated in the snack bars. This could
be due to the combination of GBF mixed with the other ingredients in the formulation
produced an attractiveness in the colour of snack bars when compared to that of control.
The aroma for snack bars with 15% substitution of GBF (i.e., GBF15) was significantly
higher (P < 0.05) than that of control and GBF5 (Table 5). This could be due to the flavour of
the GBF and the sensory panellists exhibited preferences for GBF flavour in snack bar,
especially at 15% substitution. Similar findings were reported by Choo and Aziz (2010),
whereby sensory panellists showed significantly preference for noodles prepared with GBF
than that of commercial noodles. Hence, no adverse effect was observed with the substitution
of GBF for toasted rolled oat within the level of substitution in this study.
The substitution of GBF in this study shows there is no significant difference (P > 0.005)
in hardness of the snack bars as compared to the control. An increase in hardness is
undesirable to the sensorial aspects of bars by reducing the chewiness of the bars. On the
contrary, snack bars containing GBF have chewy texture compared to that of control. Snack
bars that are chewy or nutty are generally more preferred than those lacking of this
characteristic (Lobato et al., 2012). Bower and Whitten (2000) reported that the majority of
cereal bar consumers consider chewiness as one of the important and desirable attribute.
Food samples were considered acceptable if their average scores for the overall
acceptance are greater than 4 (neither like nor dislike) (Lazaridou et al., 2007; Sabanis et al.,
2009). All of the formulation was acceptable by the panellists as all the snack bars received
score higher than 4. Based on the overall acceptability of the sample, snack bar incorporated
with 15% level of GBF (i.e., SBF15) was the most preferred (received score of 6.40) by
panellist compared to that of control (SBF0) and the other three snack bars (i.e., SBF5,
SBF10, and SBF20). As a conclusion, the partial substitution of GBF improved the sensory
acceptability of the snack bars. The scores obtained for the snack bars containing GBF were
higher than those reported for other nutritious bars (Bower and Whitten, 2000; Silva et al.,
2014).
Table 5. Sensory evaluation of snack bars
Parameter SBF0 SBF5 SBF10 SBF15 SBF20

Colour 4.50 ± 0.97a 5.00 ± 0.94b 5.26 ± 0.86b 5.33 ± 0.71b 5.27 ± 0.69b
Aroma 4.60 ± 0.93a 4.70 ± 0.95a 4.93 ± 0.98ab 5.30 ± 0.79b 4.96 ± 0.99ab
Hardness 4.83 ± 0.94a 5.00 ± 0.90a 4.83 ± 1.01a 5.40 ± 0.96a 4.96 ± 1.15a
Chewiness 4.60 ± 1.22a 4.73 ± 0.86a 5.20 ± 0.66b 5.63 ± 0.71b 5.23 ± 0.85b
Stickiness 4.86 ± 1.10a 4.83 ± 0.87a 5.00 ± 0.91a 5.30 ± 0.83a 5.10 ± 0.88a
Sweetness 4.96 ± 0.66a 5.23 ± 0.89a 5.16 ± 0.88a 5.66 ± 0.69b 5.10 ± 0.75a
Overall acceptability 4.93 ± 0.86a 5.56 ± 0.97b 5.46 ± 0.56b 6.40 ± 0.89c 5.56 ± 0.93b
Data are mean ± standard deviation (30 panellists). Values with different online letters within a row are
significantly different (P < 0.05).
CONCLUSION
Snack bars formulated with up to 20% GBF (i.e., SBG20) significantly increased
(P < 0.05) the amount of TDF, IDF, and SDF contents. Besides, snack bars containing GBF
possessed greater nutritional potentials with higher levels of beneficial starch fractions, i.e.,
TS and RS. SBF15 and SBF20 were classified as “high RS” food product. The RS content
had an inverse relationship with both eGI and starch digestion index. The addition of GBF in
the snack bars exhibited lower carbohydrate digestibility rate and HI and thus, corresponding
to the eGI. Overall, all the produced snack bars were classified as low GI food (<55).
However, compared to control, SBF20 showed greater effect in regarding lowering the rate of
carbohydrate digestibility and reducing the eGI of the snack bars. The low starch digestibility
values of snack bars containing GBF may be useful as functional food for diabetic and obese
individuals. For the overall acceptability of the sample, snack bar incorporated with 15%
level of GBF (i.e., SBF15) was the most preferred by panellist compared to the other four
types of snack bars (i.e., SBF0, SBF5, SBF10, and SBF20). Therefore, snack bars containing
GBF can be marketed as snack bars with dietary fibres and low GI and this snack bar can be
an excellent choice for health conscious consumers.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
All the authors wish to thank Faculty of Bioresources and Food Industry, Universiti
Sultan Zainal Abidin for providing the facility to perform this study. The second author
would like to thank to Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia (MOHE) for scholarships
support through the MyMaster 2016 (KPT(B)911027035340).
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Chapter 5
BETEL LEAVES (PIPER BETLE L.) POWDER:

PRODUCTION, NUTRITIONAL QUALITY,
PHYSICO-CHEMICAL AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES
Lee-Hoon Ho1,*, Mazaitul Akma Suhaimi1 and Thuan-Chew Tan2

1
Department of Food Industry, Faculty of Bioresources, and Food Industry,
Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Besut Campus, Besut, Terengganu, Malaysia
2
ABSTRACT
Betel (Piper betle L.) vines are cultivated for its nutrition and medicinal properties.
Good as it is, betel leaves are highly perishable. Hence, it possesses a challenge in
commercialisation of betel leaves. Therefore, the current study aimed to investigate the
effect of different drying conditions, i.e., hot-air oven drying at 40 (HAD-40), 50 (HAD-
50), and 60°C (HAD-60) and freeze drying (FD), on the nutritional values, physical,
chemical, and functional properties of betel leaves powder. Hot-air oven drying at 60°C
was the most effective method to preserve the nutrients of dried betel leaves with
proximate compositions of 8.80% moisture, 22.81% crude protein, 5.40% crude fat,
12.02% crude fibre, 12.09% ash, 50.91% total carbohydrate, and 343.44 kcal/100 g
energy. Results of physical analyses showed that HAD-40 had higher yield and lower
water activity (aw) compared to other powders, while HAD-60 demonstrated highest bulk
density value. FD showed the highest lightness, greenness, and yellowness values. For
chemical properties, HAD-40 had the highest pH and total titratable acidity values, while
the total soluble solid of all samples were insignificantly (P > 0.05) different. The
functional properties results demonstrated that HAD-40 had the highest water holding
capacity and the lowest oil holding capacity. HAD-40 betel leaves powder appeared to be
the best drying method as it shows the highest value for total phenolic and total flavonoid
contents and ferric-reducing antioxidant potential assay. However, in 1,1-diphenyl-2-
picrylhydrazyl free radical-scavenging ability, FD technique recorded the highest value.
Overall, the suitable drying method in the production of betel leaves powder can be
*
Corresponding Author Email: holeehoon@yahoo.com and holeehoon@unisza.edu.my, Tel.: +60 9699 3605.
70 Lee-Hoon Ho, Mazaitul Akma Suhaimi and Thuan-Chew Tan
identified for their further applications as food ingredients, depending on characteristics

and quality of the end product.
Keywords: betel leaves powder, drying method, nutritional values, physico-chemical

properties, functional properties
INTRODUCTION
Betel (Piper betle L., Family: Piperaceae) is a well-known edible plant that is
traditionally used for medical purposes. The plant originates from the central and eastern part
of Peninsular Malaysia, whereby it is locally known as sirih (Jaganath and Ng, 2000; Pin et
al., 2010). It is a perennial dioecious, semi-woody climber and is cultivated in Sri Lanka,
India, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippine Islands, and East Africa. Currently, there are over 100
betel varieties distributed in both North and South hemispheres (Rajamani et al., 2016).
In general, the leaves, roots, stems, stalks, and fruits of the betel can be utilised.
However, the main focus in this study in the leaves, which have colour ranging from
yellowish to dark green and a glossy upper surface. The deep green heart shaped leaves have
aromatic, warm, and sharp pungent taste. According to Aishwarya et al. (2016), fresh betel
leaves contain water (85–90%), protein (3–3.5%), fat (0.4–1%), fibre (2.3%), carbohydrate
(0.5–6.10%), minerals (2.3–3.3%), such as calcium, potassium, phosphorus, iron and iodine,
vitamins, such as vitamin A, thiamine (vitamin B1), riboflavin (vitamin B2), niacin (vitamin
B3), and vitamin C, essential oil (0.08–0.2%), and tannin (0.1–1.3%). Apart from that, the
leaves have wide spectrum of therapeutic properties. Generally, plants that have significant
therapeutic properties have been found to be rich in phenolic compounds with high
antioxidant properties (Nur Sazwi et al., 2013). This correlation has been confirmed with the
antioxidant activity being detected in the extract of betel leaves (Aara et al., 2014; Akter et
al., 2014). The therapeutic properties of betel leaves include antioxidant, antifungal,
antiulcergenic, antiplatelet, antidiabetic, immunomodulatory, antileshmanial, antiamoebic,
antiinflammatory, antifilarial, antifertility, antihyperglycemic, antidermatophytic,
antinacepative, and as well as radioprotective (Chakraborty and Shah 2011; Radhika et al.,
2013; Singtongratana et al., 2013).
Due to its high moisture content, the general rule of thumb for the shelf life of betel
leaves are only 3 to 5 days. Being a very perishable commodity, a large portion of betel
leaves remain unsold or sold at a very low price during rainy season due to abundant supply
of the leaves. This causes post-harvest lost ranging from 35 to 70% (Rao and Narasimham,
1977; Guha, 2006). Drying may be an effective method to prolong the shelf life of betel
leaves by inhibiting the growth of microorganisms and preventing the onset of some
biochemical reactions that may alter the organoleptic and nutritional characteristics of the
leaves. Drying have been proven to increase the shelf life of perishable food from around two
weeks to two years. Apart from preserving the leaves, the removal of water from the leaves
during drying also reduces the packaging requirement and this minimise shipping weight
owing to volumetric shrinkage and weight losses (Ochoa et al., 2002; Hamrouni-Sellami et
al., 2011).
Betel Leaves (Piper Betle L.) Powder 71
Traditionally, air drying at room temperature was used for medicinal plants as low
temperatures are thought to protect the bioactive components in these plants from
degradation. However, this uncontrolled drying and slow process may lead to quality loss and
subsequently affect the quality of the dried material. Pin et al. (2010) suggests short drying
time for beteal leaves in order to preserve the quality of betel leaves. To shorten the drying
time, hot-air dying is the most common method used due to its low processing cost (Fan et
al., 2012). However, the high temperature used can cause adverse changes to the physical
properties, nutritional values and sensory quality of the dried products (Guiné and Barroca,
2012). On the other hand, freeze drying significantly reduces these damages. Freeze-drying is
an innovative drying process based on sublimation of ice as its main drying mechanism,
whereby the removal of water is done by sublimation at low temperature and pressure below
the triple point of water. Freeze drying has been proven to preserve the quality of medicinal
plants and has been regarded as the best drying method, whereby freeze-dried product has the
highest quality when compared with other dried products (Abascal et al., 2005; Korus, 2011).
Despite the advantages of freeze drying, it has always been recognised as one of the most
expensive drying processes. To our knowledge, studies on the effect of drying conditions on
the antioxidant properties of betel leaves are scarce. Therefore, the present work aims to study
the effect of freeze drying and hot-air drying on the nutritional quality, physical, chemical,
and functional properties, and antioxidant activities of betel leaves powder.
METHODS
Raw Materials
Betel leaves (Piper betle L.) were procured from Besut, Terengganu. All the chemicals
used in this study are of analytical grade.
Preparation of Betel Leaves Powder
Leaves were sorted into similar size, then cleaned using distilled water to remove dirt
stains. Excess water on the leaves was removed with the help of blotting paper. Leaves were
cut into smaller pieces prior to drying. Two types of drying methods were investigated;
thermal (hot air drying) and non-thermal (freeze drying). For hot air-drying, betel leaves were
dried at three different drying temperatures: 40, 50, and 60°C (HAD-40, HAD-50, and HAD-
60, respectively) for 24 h using Laboratory Dryers FDD-720 (Tech-Lab, Selangor, Malaysia).
For freeze-dried sample (FD), the leaves were frozen overnight at -20°C and then lyophilised
for 48 h in 25 L Genesis SQ Super ES-55 Pilot Freeze Dryer (SP Scientific, Pennsylvania,
USA). After drying, dried leaves were ground using laboratory mill into fine powder. All
prepared betel leaves powder was kept in an airtight glass bottle and stored at room
temperature prior to use.
Proximate Analysis
Proximate composition of the betel leaves powder was determined according to the
official methods as described by AOAC (1995). The moisture content of the samples was
determined using oven drying method (AOAC Method 977.11), while ash content was
determined using dry ashing method (AOAC Method 923.03). Crude protein content was
quantified by Kjeldahl method (AOAC Method 955.04). Crude fibre content was analysed
using gravimetric method (AOAC Method 991.43), and crude fat content was determined
according to Soxhlet method (AOAC Method 960.39). Total carbohydrate content was
estimated by difference [Total carbohydrate (%) = 100% − % (moisture + crude protein +
crude fat + ash)] (BeMiller and Low, 1998). The calorie value of the sample was calculated
according to Nielsen (1998). The total crude protein, crude fat, and total carbohydrate
contents were multiplied by the factor value (for each gram of protein and total carbohydrate,
4 kcal of energy is obtained and 1 g of crude fat provides 9 kcal of energy). Energy (in kcal) =
[(crude protein × 4) + (total carbohydrate × 4) + (crude fat × 9)].
Physical Properties Determination
The production yield of betel leaves powder was calculated as the percentage of dried
leaves over the weight of fresh leaves. Water activity (aw) of the betel leaves powder was
determined using AquaLab Dew Point Water Activity Meter 4TE (Decagon Devices, WA,
USA). Colour characteristics of the betel leaves powder were measured using a CR-400
Minolta Chroma Meter (Konica Minolta, Tokyo, Japan) calibrated using a white tile standard
to establish lightness (L*, black–white axis), redness (a*, red–green spectrum), and
yellowness (b*, yellow–blue spectrum).
Bulk density of the betel leaves powder was determined according to the method as
described by Adeleke and Odedeji (2010) with some modifications. Sample (0.5 g) was
gently filled into 5-mL graduated cylinders. The bottom of each cylinder was gently tapped
several times until there was no further diminution of the sample level. Bulk density was
calculated as weight of sample per unit volume of sample (g/mL).
Chemical Properties Determination
Distilled water (15 mL) was added to 0.75 g sample and then vortexed to obtain slurry.
The slurry was used for pH, total titratable acidity (TTA), and total soluble solid (TSS). The
pH of the slurry was determined using a pH electrode attached to a pH meter (Thermo Fisher
Scientific, Massachusetts, USA). Buffer solutions of pH 4.0, 7.0, and 10.0 were used to
calibrate the pH meter prior to analysis. TTA was determined as described by Bainbridge et
al. (1996) with slight modification. Slurry (10 mL) was added with 5 drops of
phenolphthalein indicator and titrated against 0.1 N sodium hydroxide solution until the
mixture turns pink for at least 30 s. TTA was expressed as percentage of malic acid (acid
factor: 0.067).
Functional Properties Determination
The water holding capacity (WHC) and oil holding capacity (OHC) were determined
using methods modified from Noor Aziah et al. (2011) with slight modifications. First, 10 mL
of distilled water (for WHC) or commercial palm oil (for OHC) was added to 250 mg of betel
leaves powder, stirred with a magnetic stir bar for 30 min and left at room temperature for 30
min. After centrifugation (7,000 rpm for WHC and 5,000 rpm for OHC) for 30 min, the
supernatants were decanted. Each centrifuge tube was weighed and the WHC and OHC was
calculated as g water or oil per g of dry sample, respectively.
Total Phenolic and Total Flavonoid Contents and Antioxidant

Properties Determination
Preparation of Sample Extracts

Sample was extracted using methanol at 1:100 (w/v) ratio, as described by Ho et al.
(2013). A solvent extraction was performed by stirring the mixture at room temperature for
24 h. After stirring, the mixture was centrifuged at 2,300 × g for 20 min. The supernatants
were collected for the total phenolic (TPC) and total flavonoid contents (TFC) and
antioxidant activity assays (i.e., 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical-
scavenging and ferric-reducing antioxidant potential (FRAP) assays).
Determination of Total Phenolic Content

Folin-Ciocalteau method was used to determine the TPC of the samples (Alothman et al.,
2009). A 400 µl of different concentrations (i.e., 20, 30, 40, 80, and 100 mg/L) of gallic acid
working standard or methanolic extract was added to 2 mL of Folin-Ciocalteau regent (pre-
diluted 10 times with distilled water). The mixture was thoroughly mixed and set aside for 5
min at room temperature. Then, 1.6 mL of sodium carbonate (7.5%, w/v) solution was added.
The solution was vortexed and allowed to stand for 1 h at room temperature. The absorbance
of the mixture was measured at 765 nm using UV-visible spectrophotometer (Shimadzu, UV-
1601PC, Japan) against blank, i.e., methanol. The results were expressed as grams of gallic
acid equivalent per 100 g of sample (mg GAE/100 g sample).
Total Flavonoid Content

TFC of betel leaves powder was measured using aluminium chloride calorimetric assay
as described by Alothman et al. (2009). Different concentrations (20, 30, 40, 80 and 100
mg/L) of catechin working standards were prepared to make a calibration curve. A 1 mL of
working standards and extracts was added to 4 mL of distilled water. Then, 300 µL of 10%
AlCl3 was added. At 6th min, 2 mL of 1 M NaOH and 2.4 mL of distilled water were added.
The solution was mixed well and the absorbance was measured against prepared reagent
blank (methanol) at 510 nm. TFC of the samples were expressed as milligrams of catechin
equivalent per 100 g of sample (mg CE/100 g of sample).
1,1-Diphenyl-2-picryhydrazyl Free Radical-Scavenging Assay

The determination of free radical-scavenging effect of the betel leaves powder on the
DPPH radical was based on the method proposed by Ho et al. (2013) with slight
modifications. A 1 mL of methanol (negative control) and sample (positive control) were
added to 6 mL of 100 µmol/L DPPH solutions in methanol. The mixtures were vortexed and
incubated at room temperature for 30 min. A decrease in the absorbance was determined at
517 nm against the blank (methanol) using UV-visible spectrophotometer. The results were
expressed as µmol of Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity per 100 g of the sample (µmol
TEAC/100 g sample).
Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Potential Assay

The ability of betel leaves powder to reduce ferric ions was measured using the method
described by Alothman et al. (2009). FRAP reagent was prepared using 300 mM sodium
acetate buffer at pH3.6, 20 mM iron chloride, and 10 mM 2,4,6-tripyridyl-s-triazine dissolved
in 40 mM HCl at ratio of 10:1:1 (volume basis). The reagent was freshly prepared and pre-
warmed at 37°C in a water bath. Approximately, 100 µL of the methanolic extract was added
to 3 mL FRAP reagent. The solution was mixed well and incubated at 37°C for 4 min. The
blank reagent was a mixture of water and FRAP reagent. The absorbance of the sample
extract and the reagent blank was measured against a blank (distilled water) at 593 nm. A
calibration curve was prepared using different concentrations (100–1,000 µmol/L) of a
ferrous sulphate (FeSO4.7H2O) standard solution. The results were expressed as micromoles
of ferrous equivalent Fe (II) per 100 g of sample (µmol Fe (II)/100 g of sample).
Statistical analyses of the tabulated data were performed by using Minitab 18 software.
The results obtained in the present study are represented as mean values of three individual
replicates ± standard deviation (n = 3). The significant differences between mean values were
analysed using One-way ANOVA at a significance level of P < 0.05.
DISCUSSION
Proximate Composition of Betel Leaves Powder
Moisture has a critical influence on the storage stability of dried product (Noor Aziah et
al., 2011). Moreover, textural quality, chemical, and biochemical reactions, as well as
microbial growth rates are greatly affected by the moisture content of food products (Ovando-
Martinez et al., 2009). In powder and flour, moisture contents higher than 14% will affect
storage quality as mould growth, insect infestation, and agglomeration could occur under this
condition (Noor Aziah and Komathi, 2009). In the present study, all betel leaves powders
showed moisture content less than 14%, thus indicating good storage stability. FD had
significantly lower (P < 0.05) moisture value (8.22%) compared to those of HAD-40, HAD-
50, and HAD-60, i.e., 11.79, 10.73, and 8.80%, respectively (Table 1). Similar to the current
observations, Hsu et al. (2003) and Chen et al. (2017) reported that freeze-dried samples (yam
and Fritillaria thunbergii Miq. flours, respectively) have lower moisture content than that of
hot air-dried (at 60°C) samples. Moreover, Hanriques et al. (2012), Sogi et al. (2013), and Ho
et al. (2016) reported that moisture content of freeze-dried samples was lower than that of hot
air-dried samples for pumpkin flour, mango peel and kernel, and watermelon rind powder,
respectively. However, Liu et al. (2017) found no significant difference between the moisture
content of soluble dietary fibre from orange peels dried using freeze-drying and hot air-drying
at 60°C. For hot air-drying, the results in this study showed that at lower temperature the
moisture content was higher, and vice versa. This indicates that temperature has an effect on
the moisture content of betel leaves powder. This phenomenon occurred because more heat
was supplied to the samples at higher temperatures, hence inducing more evaporation of
moisture from the leaves. Similar findings were reported for pepino fruit (Di Scala et al.,
2011), banana leaves (Sagrin and Chong, 2013), pumpkin powder (Shin et al., 2013;
Roongruangsri and Bronlund, 2016), Helicteres hirsuta Lour leaves (Pham et al., 2015), okra
(Famurewa and Olumofin, 2015), and yam flour (Chen et al., 2017).
According to Agoreyo et al. (2011), application of heat can be both beneficial and
detrimental to nutrients, whereby heat treatment can improve the digestibility of food,
promotes palatability and also improves the keeping quality of food, making them safe to eat,
but it can also results in nutritional and organoleptic losses. A significant difference (P<0.05)
was observed on the crude protein and crude fat contents between FD and hot air-dried betel
leaves powders (Table 1). FD had the highest value of crude protein and crude fat contents,
followed by HAD-40, HAD-50, and HAD-60. Asif-Al-Ulam et al. (2014) and Iombor et al.
(2014) reported similar findings, whereby FD showed higher values for crude protein and
crude fat contents compared to hot air-dried samples for green banana and soursop flours,
respectively. Contrary to that, Hsu et al. (2003) found no significant different between FD and
hot air-dried yam flours for both crude protein and crude fat contents. Famurewa and
Olumofin (2015) reported that crude protein of okra decreases as drying temperature
increases, while Ahmed et al. (2010) showed that crude fat content of sweet potato flours
decreases as drying temperature increases. The loss of protein may be due to protein
denaturation followed by the release of amino acids from the proteins, which could react with
other chemicals compounds via Maillard reaction (Perera, 2005; Leite et al., 2007; Miranda et
al., 2010). Heating caused denaturation of protein cells, in turn weakening the three-
dimensional conformation of the protein cells. Ultimately, this leads to protein loss (Danso-
Boateng, 2013). On the other hand, the decrease in crude fat content could be due to either
enzymatic hydrolysis during the initial drying period or lipid oxidation caused by thermal
treatment (Perera, 2005). According to Iombor et al. (2014), plant samples subjected to high
temperature may have undergone decomposition of crude fat during the drying process, hence
reduce their nutrients.
Crude fibre analysis measures the cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin contents of food.
It represents compounds that resist alkali hydrolysis. In the present study, crude fibre content
in betel leaves powders ranged from 11.83 to 12.07%. FD and HAD-40 were not significantly
different (P > 0.05), but both were significantly lower (P < 0.05) than HAD-50 and HAD-60.
It was observed that lower temperature drying induced higher degree of loss of crude fibre,
and this corresponds to the disintegration of the polymeric fibres. Hsu et al. (2003) reported
that no significant difference were found between FD and hot air-dried yam flours, while
Hanriques et al. (2012) observed that lower crude fibre value for FD than that of hot air-dried
sample, with HAD-60 having a higher crude fibre content than that of HAD-40. Convective
air drying induced intermediate changes in the fibre content, varying with temperature and
operating conditions (Femenia et al., 2009; Borchani et al., 2011). Olaniyan and Omoleyomi
(2013) and Famurewa and Olumofin (2015) found that crude fibre increased as drying
temperatures increased. The therapeutic effects of fibre in the prevention of several chronic
diseases, such as diabetes, colon cancer, and heart disease, and their roles in the treatment of
digestive disorders (e.g., constipation and diverticulosis) are widely reported (Akubor and
John, 2012).
Ash content is the inorganic residue that reflects the total amount of minerals presents in
the sample (Omotoso and Adedire, 2007), whereas mineral content is the measure of the
amount of specific inorganic component presents with the sample. Minerals are less
susceptible to heat and less volatile compared to other food components (Agoreyo et al.,
2011). In present study, FD demonstrated to contain the highest ash component (17.56%).
This was attributed to the freeze-drying method that eliminates water from a frozen state at a
very low temperature under vacuum condition, whereby ice was sublimed directly into water
phase. Thus, it can prevent loss of heat sensitive minerals during drying (Haile et al., 2015).
This observation was in accordance with previous study by Ho et al. (2016), who reported
that ash of red fleshed watermelon rind powder dried using freeze-drying was higher
compared to those dried using hot air-drying. In hot air-drying method, ash content decreased
as drying temperature increased; the highest ash content was HAD-40 (14.35%), followed by
HAD-50 (12.88%) and HAD-60 (12.09%). The lower values may be due to loss of heat
sensitive minerals in the samples. This trend was consistent with the findings reported by
Ahmed et al. (2010), Olaniyan and Omoleyomi (2013), and Famurewa and Olumofin (2015).
Table 1. Proximate compositions of betel leaves powders prepared by

various drying methods
Composition Types of Betel Leaves Powdera

(% dry basis) FD HAD-40 HAD-50 HAD-60
Moisture 8.22 ± 0.03d 11.79 ± 0.08a 10.73 ± 0.11b 8.80 ± 0.18c
Crude protein 25.29 ± 0.18a 24.74 ± 0.12b 23.37 ± 0.05c 22.81 ± 0.23d
Crude fat 8.57 ± 0.09a 7.48 ± 0.09b 7.02 ± 0.17c 5.40 ± 0.10d
Crude fibre 11.83 ± 0.09b 11.68 ± 0.05b 12.07 ± 0.06a 12.02 ± 0.08a
Ash 17.56 ± 0.13a 14.35 ± 0.14b 12.88 ± 0.13c 12.09 ± 0.11d
Total carbohydrateb 40.36 ± 0.16d 43.71 ± 0.43c 45.99 ± 0.30b 50.91 ± 0.54a
b
Energy (kcal/100 g) 339.75 ± 0.62b 322.41 ± 0.43c 340.62 ± 1.50b 343.44 ± 0.87a
Data are mean values ± standard deviation (n = 3). Values with different online letters within a row are
a
FD represents betel leaves powder produced by freeze-drying; HAD-40, HAD-50, and HAD-60
represent betel leaves powder produced by hot-air oven drying at 40, 50, and 60°C, respectively.
b
Result obtained by calculation.
In present study, FD recorded the lowest total carbohydrate content (40.36%), while hot
air-dried samples ranged from 43.41 to 50.91% (Table 1). The significantly lower (P<0.05)
total carbohydrate content of betel leaves powder obtained via freeze-drying was attributed to
the high crude protein, crude fat, and ash contents (25.29, 8.57, and 17.56%, respectively) of
the freeze-dried sample. Other authors reported similar observation, whereby freeze-dried
samples have lower total carbohydrate content compared to that of hot air-dried samples (Ho
et al., 2016; Lemus-Mondaca et al., 2016a). Drying temperature influenced the composition
of the samples in such a way that as drying temperature increased from 40 to 60°C, the total
carbohydrate content increased from 43.41 to 50.91%. Similar trend was reported by Ajala et
al. (2014) and Famurewa and Olumofin (2015) on the total carbohydrate content of dried
cocoyam flour and okra, respectively. HAD-60 has the highest energy content (343.44
kcal/100 g) followed by HAD-50 and FD (340.62 and 339.75 kcal/100 g, respectively),
whereby no significant difference (P > 0.05) was recorded, and lastly HAD-40 (322.41
kcal/100 g), with the lowest energy content. The difference in the energy content of the betel
leaves powders could be attributed to the differences in their compositions, namely crude
protein, crude fat, and carbohydrate contents.
Physical Properties of Betel Leaves Powder
FD yielded 14.49%, which lies between HAD-50 and HAD-60, with yield values of
15.71 and 13.72%, respectively (Table 2). In hot air-drying, increase in the drying
temperature causes greater loss in betel leaves yield. This could be attributed to the higher
removal of moisture content that would have occurred at higher drying temperature. Vuong et
al. (2015) reported that lower drying temperature gives greater yield of cactus leaves.
Table 2. Yield, water activity (aw), colour (CIE L*, a*, and b*), and bulk density of betel
leaves powders prepared by freeze drying and hot air-drying at various temperatures
Types of Betel Leaves Powdera

Physical Properties
FD HAD-40 HAD-50 HAD-60
Yield (%) 14.49 ± 0.52bc 19.43 ± 0.81a 15.71 ± 0.79b 13.32 ± 0.42c
Water activity 0.34 ± 0.01a 0.28 ± 0.01b 0.36 ± 0.00a 0.34 ± 0.00a
Lightness (CIE L*) 45.65 ± 0.94a 29.60 ± 0.30c 33.72 ± 0.65b 33.16 ± 0.20b
Redness (CIE a*) -17.49 ± 0.15d -11.54 ± 0.12c -8.94 ± 0.28b -3.47 ± 0.06a
*
Yellowness (CIE b ) 36.46 ± 0.33a 27.58 ± 0.31b 25.21 ± 0.52c 25.82 ± 0.15c
Bulk density (g/mL) 0.24 ± 0.00d 0.34 ± 0.00c 0.36 ± 0.00b 0.39 ± 0.00a
a
represent betel leaves powders produced by hot-air oven drying at 40, 50, and 60°C, respectively.
Water activity (aw) is one of the most critical factors in determining food quality and
safety. It indicates how tightly water is bound, structurally and chemically, within a
substance. It is a better indicator of the perishability of the food, rather than water content,
which determines the total amount of water present in a sample. Preservation of dried food is
possible as aw can be reduced to a state that minimised microbiological activity and
deteriorative chemical and biochemical reaction (Toledo, 2007). Reducing the aw to below
0.6 prevents microbiological spoilage; however, other deteriorative reactions, such as
enzymatic activity, non-enzymatic browning, and lipid oxidation, can be prevented by further
reducing the aw to 0.3 (Ramaswamy and Marcotte, 2006). The aw of betel leaves powders
showed no significant difference (P > 0.05) between all groups, except for HAD-40, which
has the lowest value (Table 2). Lemus-Mondaca et al. (2016a) also found no significant
difference between FD and hot air-dried samples. Since the minimum aw for microorganism
growth in food items is 0.6 (Aberound, 2010), therefore, the all the betel leaves powders
produced in this study are considered safe, as no microbial proliferation would occur when
stored properly. Recent findings by Di Scala et al. (2011), Sagrin and Chong (2013), Pham et
al. (2015), and Desale and Sasanatayart (2017) suggested that aw decreases as drying
temperature increases.
Colour is an important physical quality as it may leads to changes in food quality due
processing and storage (Noor Aziah and Komathi, 2009). The colour parameters; lightness
(denoted by CIE L*), redness (denoted by CIE a*), and yellowness (denoted by CIE b*), have
been widely used to describe colour changes during processing and storage of food products.
These parameters have been related to the types and quantities of components present or
formed in the product (Bahloul et al., 2009). Normally, changes in the colour are caused by
reactions taking place inside food product, such as pigment degradation (especially
carotenoids and chlorophyll pigments) and non-enzymatic browning, such as Maillard
reaction and oxidation of certain compounds, such as ascorbic acid, lipids, and polyphenols
(Barreiro et al., 1997; Lozano and Ibarz, 1997; Lee and Coates, 1999; Reihani et al., 2014;
Tan et al., 2015).
FD produced has the highest lightness compared to hot air-dried samples (Table 2). The
finding on the higher lightness in freeze-dried samples than that of hot air-dried samples was
in-line with previous studies on fruits, such as apple, banana, potato and carrot (Krokida et al.,
2001), yam flours (Hsu et al., 2003), sweet potato chips (Shih et al., 2009), citrus powders
(Lee et al., 2012), pumpkin flours (Que et al., 2008; Aydin and Gocmen, 2015), purslane
leaves (Youssef and Mokhtar, 2014), green tea leaves (Roshanak et al., 2016), stevia leaves
(Lemus-Mondaca et al., 2016a), and date palms (Izli, 2017). The lower lightness for hot air-
dried samples indicates that non-enzymatic browning occurred during heating (Aydin and
Gocmen, 2015). On top of that, the higher the degree of non-enzymatic browning, the lower
the lightness of the samples (Ergünes and Tarhan, 2006; Prathapan et al., 2009).
FD produced has the highest yellowness, while lowest redness (reflecting highest
greenness due to the lowest CIE a* value) when compared to hot air-dried samples. These
findings are comparable to the results reported by Lee et al. (2012) on citrus powders,
Youssef and Mokhtar (2014) on purslane leaves, Roshanak et al. (2016) on green tea leaves,
and Lemus-Mondaca et al. (2016a) on stevia leaves. Therefore, freeze-drying retains the
colour (in terms of lightness, redness, and yellowness) of the FD better than hot air-dried
samples. Park and Kim (2007) also confirmed that freeze-drying is the most suitable drying
method to maintain colour quality of vegetable and fruits. For hot air-drying, the results
showed that no significant difference (P > 0.05) were found between the lightness of HAD-50
and HAD-60, while a noticeable difference was observed for HAD-40. This implies that
higher drying temperature caused increment in the lightness of food products.
Correspondingly, this trend was also found to be true in tomatoes (Ashebir et al., 2009),
lemon myrtle leaves (Buchaillot et al., 2009), citrus powders (Lee et al., 2012), banana leaves
(Sagrin and Chong, 2013), moringa leaves (Ali et al., 2016), and Helicteres hirsuta Lour
leaves (Pham et al., 2015). The betel leaves became lighter in colour as the temperature
increased, which possibly due to chlorophyll degradation (Therdthai and Zhou, 2009). On the
other hand, hot air-dried samples showed an increase in redness (as denoted by higher CIE a*
value), which indicates greater loss of greenness when higher drying temperature were
applied (Table 2). Matching findings were reported for other dried samples, such as lemon
myrtle leaves (Buchaillot et al., 2009), pomegranate seeds (Bchir et al., 2012), banana leaves
(Sagrin and Chong, 2013), purslane leaves (Youssef and Mokhtar, 2014), mint leaves
(Kripanand et al., 2015), and guava slices (Ali et al., 2016). The loss of greenness of dried
betel leaves could be due to chlorophyll degradation and browning reaction. The natural green
colour of green leaves are created by a mixture of chlorophyll a and b, which are directly
linked to magnesium that is bound as the central atom of the porphyrin ring of the green plant
pigment chlorophyll. During the drying process, chlorophyll molecules are degraded to
pheophytin and pyropheophytin, which dramatically reduces the chlorophyll content (Krokida
et al., 2001; Buchaillot et al., 2009). Therefore, greenness was reduced at a greater extent at
higher drying temperature in this study. Another possible reason could be due to the fact that
positive CIE a* value denotes redness, which is indicative of browning reaction (Bahloul et
al., 2009; Tan et al., 2012), and the occurance of non-enzymatic browning reaction leads to
reduction in the greenish colour of the dried samples when the drying temperature rose (Mrad
et al., 2012). There was no significant difference (P>0.05) in the yellowness of HAD-50 and
HAD-60 (Table 2). However, HAD-40 showed significantly higher (P<0.05) yellowness
compared to both HAD-50 and HAD-50. These results are in accordance with Buchaillot et
al. (2009), who reported that the yellowness of lemon myrtle leaves decreased as gradual
development of dull yellowness of the product occurred when higher drying temperature were
applied.
Bulk density is one of the basic parameters measured in dried food in regard to transport,
storage, and packaging, since an increase in density results to the reduction of product
volume. High bulk density is desirable in order to facilitates storage efficiency, as well as
reduce shipping and packaging cost as it implied less transportation space and less packaging
material would be required. Bulk density of the betel leaves powders was significantly higher
(P < 0.05) in hot air-dried samples compared that of FD (Table 2). This could be due to the
different pore size of the leaves formed during the drying process. The porosities of hot air-
dried leaves become smaller due to the surface hardening and shrinkage, while those of freeze
dried become larger as the particle shape of freeze-dried leaves maintained in original form
by the sublimation of the ice distributed uniformly within the particles by quick freezing (Lee
and Kim, 2001; Lee et al., 2012). Similar results were also reported for other dried samples,
such as yam flours (Hsu et al., 2003), pumpkin flours (Que et al., 2008), citrus powders (Lee
et al., 2012), mango peels and kernels (Sogi et al., 2013), durian seed gum (Mirhosseini and
Amid, 2013), green banana flours (Asif-Ul-Alam et al., 2014), and orange peels (Liu et al.,
2017). For hot air-drying, bulk density of HAD-60 was the highest, followed by HAD-50 and
HAD-40 (Table 2). Drying at higher temperature yielded products with higher bulk density
values, which might be due to excessive tissue shrinkage and the breakdown of cell walls
during the dying process. Due to thermal shock and shrinkage, the sample dried at 60 °C had
the greatest bulk density. Apart from that, bulk density was also affected by the moisture
content (Ajala et al., 2014). The higher the moisture content, the lower the bulk density (Raja
et al., 2017). The moisture content of HAD-40 as reported to be the highest, followed by
HAD-50 and HAD-60 (Table 1). Therefore, this finding fulfils the aforementioned theory.
These findings has been in agreement with the findings reported in earlier studies conducted
by Ajala et al. (2014) for cassava chips, Amandikwa (2012) and Ajala et al. (2014) for
cocoyam flours, Nikjooy and Jahanshahi (2014) for rhubarb powders, Roongruangsri and
Bronlund (2016) for pumpkin powders, and Raja et al. (2017) for papaya leaves powders,
whereby bulk density increased as drying temperature increased.
Functional Properties of Betel Leaves Powder
Water holding capacity (WHC) indicates the mass of water uptake per unit mass of dried
powder. WHC is an important technological property related to the hydration capacity,
mainly for food materials rich in protein and/or fibre. The main function of WHC is to
regulate the viscosity of a food product (Duarte et al., 2016). The betel leaves powders
prepared in this study showed high WHC values, ranging from 6.85 to 8.93 g water/g dry
sample (Table 3). FD showed significantly higher (P < 0.05) WHC value than that of HAD-
50 and HAD-60, but significantly lower (P < 0.05) than that of HAD-40. In the case of
freeze-drying process, exclusion of ice crystals shields the matrix, which tends to rehydrate
rapidly and more completely and preserving cell wall matrix, whereas moisture removal using
higher temperature may cause breakdown of the cell wall polysaccharides network (Rana et
al., 2015). For HAD-50 and HAD-60, WHC decreased to 83 and 77%, respectively, with
respect to HAD-40. This observation was in accordance with López-Cervantes et al. (2011)
and Vega-Gálvez et al. (2015), who reported that WHC decreased as drying temperature
increased for cactus pear cladodes flours and Cape gooseberry, respectively.
Table 3. Water holding capacity (WHC) and oil holding capacity (OHC) of betel leaves
powders prepared by freeze drying and hot air-drying at various temperatures

Functional Properties
b
WHC (g water/g sample) 8.15 ± 0.02b 8.93 ± 0.05a 7.39 ± 0.09c 6.85 ± 0.04d
OHCc (g oil/g sample) 4.90 ± 0.08a 3.69 ± 0.06c 3.89 ± 0.12bc 4.07 ± 0.01b
a
b
WHC; water holding capacity
c
OHC; oil holding capacity
On the other hand, OHC is a technological property related to the capacity of a substance
to retain oil. This capacity is relevant mainly in the frying industry, because the inclusion of a
substance with a high OHC in a product could improve oil retention during frying, which
prevents fat leaching to the food surface and, more importantly, could benefit digestion by
reducing the oil in the digestive tract. Ingredients with high OHC allow the stabilisation of
food emulsions and high-fat food products. Additionally, OHC can control the loss of fat
during cooking, which favours flavour retention (Crizel et al. 2013). The results from this
study showed that different drying methods significantly influenced (P < 0.05) the OHC of
betel leaves powder (Table 3). FD have the highest OHC value among all the dried samples.
This might be due to the lower destructive effect on the hydrophobic fraction (lipid and
protein fractions) present in FD than the effects induced by hot air-drying. Hayta et al. (2002)
stated that OHC of food material depends on the type and content of hydrophobic fraction
present in the matrix structure. Similarly, Que et al. (2008), Sogi et al. (2013), Iombor et al.
(2014), and Aydin and Gocmen (2015) demonstrated that OHC of freeze-dried samples were
significantly higher than those produced from hot air-drying for pumpkin flours, mango peels
and kernels, soursop flours, and pumpkin flours, respectively. For hot air-dried samples, the
OHC values increased with the increase of drying temperatures. This trend was also observed
by Ghribi et al. (2015), whereby the OHC value of chickpea protein concentrates dried at
50°C (217 g/100 g) was higher than that chickpea protein concentrates dried at 40°C (191
g/100 g). However, López-Cervantes et al. (2011) and Duarte et al. (2016) reported that OHC
for cactus pear cladodes flours and passion fruit flours, respectively, was not affected by the
drying temperature.
Chemical Properties of Betel Leaves Powder
pH is an important property in industrial applications, being used generally to indicate the

acidic or alkaline properties of liquid media. Betel leaves powders produced in this study
have pH ranging from 4.27 to 4.45 (Table 4). There was no significant difference (P > 0.05)
found between FD and HAD-60. This observation was in accordance with the report by Sogi
et al. (2013), whereby no significant difference was found between the pH value of mango
peel dried through freeze-drying and hot air-drying at 60°C. Meanwhile, for hot air-drying
method, the pH values significantly decreased (P < 0.05) as drying temperature increased.
Similar observation was also found by Owusu et al. (2012) and Nikjooy and Jahanshahi
(2014) for tomato slices and rhubarb powders, respectively. This observation might be due to
the degradation of acidic compounds in the leaves; alternatively, it is possible that the drying
process caused the evaporation of certain acidic compounds (Guehi et al., 2010).
The TTA of betel leaves powders produced in this study range from 0.21 to 0.34% (Table
4). Comparing between betel leaves powder produced from different drying methods, FD had
TTA value significantly lower (P < 0.05) than that of HAD-40 and HAD-50, but insignificant
(P > 0.05) when compared with HAD-60. Lee et al. (2012) also reported that TTA value of
freeze-dried citrus ‘Hallabong’ powders was lower than those produced using hot air-drying.
TTA of dried samples produced by hot air-drying showed that the increment in the drying
temperature leads to the decreased in the acidity of the powder. This observation was in
accordance with Mota et al. (2010), whereby the TTA of onion slice decreased (from 20.95 to
15.83 mL/100 g dry solids) as drying temperature rose from 30 to 70 ºC. The reason for this
event could be due to the degree of evaporation of the volatile acids present in the betel leaves
is in direct proportional with the drying temperature.
Sugars and acids, together with traces of dissolved vitamins, fructans, proteins, pigments,
phenolic compounds, and minerals, are commonly referred to as soluble solids (Magwaza and
Opara, 2015). In the current study, the TSS of betel leaves powders produced using different
drying methods showed no significant difference (P > 0.05) among the four types of samples.
Similarly, Lee et al. (2012) proves that no significant difference was found between freeze-
dried and hot air-dried samples of citrus powder. Furthermore, Ashebir et al. (2009) and
Manjarres-Pinzon et al. (2013) also reported that there was no significant difference in the
TSS values among the tomatoes and orange peel samples dried using different levels of
drying temperature. On the other hand, Khazaei et al. (2008) and Shin et al. (2013) reported
that the increase in the drying temperature were accompanied with increase of TSS of the
samples.
Antioxidant Properties of Methanolic Extract of Betel Leaves Powders
Results presented in Table 5 showed that betel leaves powders extracted using methanol
possessed high total phenolic and total flavonoid contents, as well as exhibited strong free
radical scavenging activity and ferric reducing property. Apart from that, the results proved
that drying methods significantly affect (P < 0.05) the TPC, TFC, DPPH, and FRAP values of
betel leaves powders. These observations were in agreement with previous studies, whereby
the functional properties were influenced by the type of drying method applied to the
substance (Hong et al., 2015; Lemus-Mondaca et al., 2016b; Patel et al., 2016; Chen et al.,
2017). The present study revealed higher TPC (Rathee et al., 2006; Chakraborty and Shah,
2011; Nur Sazwi et al., 2013; Jaiswal et al., 2014), TFC (Chakraborty and Shah, 2011),
DPPH (Pin et al., 2010; Jaiswal et al., 2014; Kar et al., 2017), and FRAP (Nur Sazwi et al.,
2013; Jaiswal et al., 2014) values than the values reported by other authors. This might be due
to the variation in the type of drying method, solvent for extaction, analysis method, and the
geographic origin of the betel leaves used.
Table 4. pH, total titratable acidity (TTA), and total soluble solid (TSS) of betel leaves
powders prepared by freeze drying and hot air-drying at different temperatures

Chemical Properties
pH 4.30 ± 0.01c 4.45 ± 0.02a 4.37 ± 0.00b 4.27 ± 0.01c
TTA (% malic acid) 0.25 ± 0.00c 0.34 ± 0.00a 0.29 ± 0.00b 0.21 ± 0.00c
TSS (ºBrix) 1.50 ± 0.00a 1.50 ± 0.00a 1.50 ± 0.00a 1.50 ± 0.00a
a
represent betel leaves powders produced by hot-air oven drying at 40, 50, and 60°C, respectibely.
Table 5. Total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), and 2,2-diphenyl-
1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging assay, and ferric reducing antioxidant
potential (FRAP) assay of betel leaves extracted using methanol
Types of Methanolic Extract of Betel Leaves Powdera

Parameter FD HAD-40 HAD-50 HAD-60
TPCb 35,734.82 ± 401.70c 41,550.06 ± 219.41a 37,838.87 ± 765.44b 34,011.82 ± 376.27d
TFCc 4,457.10 ± 62.02d 6,434.94 ± 25.45a 6,241.80 ± 16.06b 5,258.62 ± 102.26c
DPPHd 29,564.19 ± 333.12a 19,186.98 ± 63.73d 24,378.25 ± 262.70b 22,525.80 ± 523.92c
FRAPe 23,137.21 ± 33.97c 32,884.89 ± 171.00a 22,462.32 ± 128.62d 27,911.16 ± 300.12b
a
b
TPC expressed as mg GAE/100 g sample
c
TFC expressed as mg CE/100 g sample
d
DPPH expressed as µmol TEAC/100 g sample
e
FRAP expressed as µmol Fe (II)/100 g of sample
The TPC of betel leaves powders were in the range of 34,011.82 to 41,550.06 mg
GAE/100 g sample, whereby HAD-40 showed the highest value followed by HAD-50, FD,
and lastly, HAD-60 (Table 5). This finding was supported by Calín-Sánchez et al. (2013) and
Patel et al. (2016), who reported that hot air-dried samples showed higher TPC values than
freeze-dried counterparts for pomegranate arils and dried guava fruit, respectively. Freeze-
drying method, which showed a less pronounced damaging effect on the tissue structure
compared to hot air-drying method, can be considered as a less aggressive drying method,
but, it producs extracts with low TPC. Ji et al. (2012) stated that intact tissue structure
produced trough freeze-drying method might be useful for situation whereby good
appearance is of desire, but in terms of antioxidant capacity of the extracts, a kind of barrier
was formed to entrap the phenolic compounds, thus resulting in lower TPC. Unlike HAD-40
and HAD-50, HAD-60 showed significantly lower (P < 0.05) TPC value compared to that of
FD. This can be explained by the destruction of the polyphenols and reduction of water
present in the plant cells due to high temperature exposure, which make the extraction process
difficult (Jahangiri et al., 2011). With regard to hot air-drying, the TPC decreased as the
drying temperature decreased. Similar pattern of behaviour was recorded by Lemus-Mondaca
et al. (2016b) and Chen et al. (2017) for stevia leaves and yam flours, respectively. Heat
treatment may cause destruction in the structure of phenolic compounds. According to Korus
(2011), hot air-drying promoted polyphenols oxidation by the absorption of oxygen during
convective drying. Furthermore, activation of oxidative enzymes, such as polyphenol oxidase
and peroxidase, may lead to phenolic complexes losses (Gümüşay et al., 2014). Reduction of
TPC during drying may be attributed to the binding of polyphenols with other compounds,
such as proteins, or to alterations in the chemical structure of polyphenols that neither can be
extracted nor determined by available methods (Mrad et al., 2012).
TFC of betel leaves powders produced using hot air-drying methods were significantly
higher (P < 0.05) than that produced using freeze-dying method (Table 5). Previous studies by
Patel et al. (2016) and Roshanak et al. (2016) reported that TFC of hot air-dried samples were
higher compared to that of freeze-dried sample for dried guava fruit and green tea leaves,
respectively. This might be caused by the moisture content values of the sample, whereby FD
contained the least moisture content followed by HAD-60, HAD-50, and HAD-40 (Table 1).
According to Jahangiri et al. (2011), reduction in water content of plant samples can have
adverse effect on the extraction efficiency. Garau et al. (2007) point out that plant cell
components adhere together in the absence of water and this probably inhibits the extraction
of antioxidant compounds from dehydrated leaves. Furthermore, the formation of flavonoid
compounds at high temperatures might be due to the availability of precursors of these
molecules by non-enzymatic inter-conversion between molecules (Que et al., 2008).
However, this observation is in contradiction with the previous works by Kumar et al. (2014),
Karaman et al. (2014), An et al. (2015), and Vuong et al. (2015), whereby the effect of drying
treatment has no significant effect on the formation of flavonoid compounds in dried roselle
leaves, persimmon powders, dried ginger, and cactus leaves, respectively. Korus (2011) notes
that flavonoid losses could be explained by their oxidation, which is promoted by hot air-
drying. In terms of hot air-drying method, the increase of drying air temperature induced the
decrease of TFC values of betel leaves powders (Table 5). These results agreed well with the
findings by Said et al. (2013), Lemus-Mondaca et al. (2016b), and Chen et al. (2017).
According to Schieber et al. (2001), the loss of macromolecules, such as flavonoid
compounds, during heat treatment might be due to the harsh drying conditions, in particular,
the high temperature and long heating duration used. Similarly, Davey et al. (2000) reported
that wet thermal processing can have adverse effect on the phytochemicals due to the thermal
breakdown of the integrity of the cell structure. This could result in the migration of
components, leading to losses by leakage or breakdown by various chemical reactions
involving enzymes, light, and oxygen.
The antioxidant properties in free radical-scavenging ability of betel leaves powder
prepared using freeze-drying was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than those produced using
hot air-drying (Table 5). This finding is in accordance to the works done by Kumar et al.
(2014), Routray et al. (2014), Vuong et al. (2015), and Valadez-Carmona et al. (2017),
whereby the DPPH values of freeze-dried samples were higher compared to hot air-dried
samples produced from roselle leaves, blueberry leaves, cactus leaves, and cacao pod husks,
respectively. Freeze-drying method provides stronger radical scavenging activity as compared
to hot-air drying method. The probable reason could be due to the development of ice crystals
within the plant tissue matrix and the removal of leads to brittle tissue structures during the
drying process. Consequently, these brittle structures cause a greater rupturing cell structure
for better solvent accessibility and thus better compounds extraction (Chan et al., 2009).
Moreover, recent studies showed that the radical scavenging activity was elevated at higher
drying temperature using hot air-drying treatments (Lee et al., 2013; Rodriguzer et al., 2014).
In the case of hot air-drying method, the strongest radical scavenging activity was measured
in HAD-50, followed by HAD-60, and HAD-40 (Table 5). These results indicated that drying
at higher temperature (i.e., 50 and 60°C) could preserve more antioxidant activity in the betel
leaves powder rather than the one dried at 40°C. Narmin et al. (2014) also demonstrates that
the scavenging activity of DPPH radical of pepper extract was shown to increase with the
increase in the drying temperature. However, the antioxidant activity was significantly
reduced when the drying temperature reached 60°C. This is also true for the radical-
scavenging activity reported by Uribe et al. (2014) and Youssef and Mokhtar (2014), whereby
the olive waste cake and pursalane leaves dried at 50°C were significantly higher than that
dried at 60°C. It is highly probable that free radical broke down during the higher heating
temperature, i.e., 60°C. Arabshahi-D et al. (2007) suggested that radical-scavenging activity
loss was attributed to the formation of novel compounds with pro-oxidant activity upon
thermal processing.
The antioxidant properties determined by FRAP assay ranging from 22,462 to 32,885
µmol Fe (II)/100 g of sample, wherein HAD-40 showed the highest value followed by HAD-
60, FD, and HAD-50 (Table 5). Hsu et al. (2003) and Michalska et al. (2016) had previously
reported that freeze-dried yam flours and plum powders, respectively, showed higher FRAP
values when compared the counterparts produced from hot air-drying at 60°C. On the other
hand, Somoticha et al. (2016) observed that dried chokeberry produced from hot air-drying at
60°C contained higher FRAP value compared to that produced at a temperature of 50°C.
Freeze-drying is often considered to be the most adequate drying method for preserving
temperature-sensitive compounds. In this study, freeze-drying method would not be a
competitive process for preserving the antioxidant capacity since better results were obtained
for HAD-40 and HAD-60. The possible reason to this is due to longer drying duration as
freeze-drying was conducted for 2 days, while hot air-drying only required 24 h to dry the
betel leaves samples. Norra et al. (2016) quoted that drying duration is an important factor in
influencing the antioxidant activity. More specifically, long drying duration increase the
oxygen exposure to the sample, and this could result to an increase in the redox activity and
degradation of phenolic compounds (Pham et al., 2015). All these causing greater loss in
antioxidant activity. However, other authors have reported that higher antioxidant activity
was found in freeze-dried samples compared to hot air-dried samples (Kumar et al., 2014;
Routray et al., 2014; An et al., 2015).
CONCLUSION
In this study, the effect of different drying methods (i.e., hot-air drying at 40, 50, and
60°C and freeze drying) on the quality of betel leaves powder was investigated. The findings
showed that hot-air drying at 60°C preserved the most nutrients in the betel leaves. On the
other hand, HAD-40 showed the greatest yield, pH, TTA, and WHC, as well as having the
lowest aw and OHC. Meanwhile, freeze-drying preserved the colour properties of the leaves in
terms of lightness, greenness, and yellowness, as well as giving the lowest bulk density
among all drying conditions. In addition, hot-air drying at 40°C appeared to be the best drying
method, as it shows the highest value for TPC, TFC, and FRAP assay. However, for DPPH
free radical-scavenging ability, FD recorded the highest value. Overall, the drying method for
the production of betel leaves powder should be selected based on its applications as food
ingredients, as well as the required end product characteristics and quality. The results from
this study is essential in order to obtain the optimum benefits of bioactive compounds present
in betel leaves powder.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
All the authors wish to thank Faculty of Bioresources and Food Industry, Universiti
Sultan Zainal Abidin for providing the facility to perform this study. The second author
would like to thank to Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia (MOHE) for scholarships
support through the MyMaster 2016 (KPT(B)920718025402).
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Chapter 6
THE CHARACTERISATION OF BANANA (MUSA

ACUMINATA × BALBISIANA ABB CV. AWAK)
PSEUDO-STEM FLOUR
Lee-Hoon Ho1,*, Noor Aziah Abdul Aziz2 and Thuan-Chew Tan2

1
Department of Food Industry, Faculty of Bioresources, and Food Industry,
2
Food Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia,
USM, Penang, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Banana pseudo-stem, an underutilised agricultural residue generated from banana
plant after harvesting of the fruit, is yet to be widely utilised in the food industry.
However, it possesses several important bioactive substances with the potential as a
source of less expensive functional food. There are important characteristics to
understand prior to the development of new formulation for food products, such as
bakery products. Therefore, the objective of the present study is to compare the physico-
chemical properties and the microstructure of banana pseudo-stem flour (BPF) with
commercial wheat flour (CWF). Matured banana (Musa acuminata × balbisiana ABB cv.
Awak) pseudo-stem from base to a shoot long length of the plant was used to be
processed into flour prior to analysis. High protein (13.5%) CWF was used to compare its
composition with BPF. The macro and micro elements; total, insoluble, and soluble
dietary fibres; total sugars; pentosans; total phenolic content; antioxidants activity; pH;
total soluble solids; and titratable acidity were significantly higher (P < 0.05) in BPF than
those in CWF. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of BPF obtained in the
present study illustrated starch granule with oval and irregular or cuboidal shapes, while
the starch granules of CWF were comprised of two types: A-type granules with disk-like
or lenticular shape, and B-type granules with roughly spherical or polygonal in shape.
Hence, it can be concluded that the high content of chemical compositions in BPF is an
indication of its potential application in food products to increase nutritional intake in
daily diet.
*
98 Lee-Hoon Ho, Noor Aziah Abdul Aziz and Thuan-Chew Tan
Keywords: banana pseudo-stem flour, physico-chemical properties, antioxidant,

microstructure
INTRODUCTION
Infirmities that seem to arise at an alarming rate partly due to food intake are high blood
pressure, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and diabetes. The CVD has been associated with
insufficient intake of dietary fibre in one’s diet or due to imbalance lifestyle. The importance
of functional ingredient, e.g., food fibres, has led to the development of large and potential
market of fibre-rich products. At present, there is a trend to seek new sources of dietary fibre
from agronomic by-products that were traditionally undervalued. Several agriculture wastes,
such as rice straw, wheat bran, rice bran, and sugarcane bagasse have been reported to have
great potential to be utilised as a fibre ingredient in bakery products (Sidhu et al., 1999;
Abdul-Hamid and Luan, 2000; Sangnark and Noomhorm, 2003, 2004).
Dietary fibre is composed of edible parts of plants or analogous carbohydrates that are
resistant to digestion and absorption in the human’s small intestine with complete or partial
fermentation in the large intestine. Dietary fibre, including polysaccharides, oligosaccharides,
lignin, and other associated plant substances, can promote beneficial physiological processes,
for example, laxation, blood cholesterol, and blood glucose attenuation (AACC, 2001). In
fact, high dietary fibre intake has been widely reported to have beneficial effects for human
health, such as preventing constipation and reducing colonic cancer risk (Guillon and Champ,
2000; Drzikova et al., 2005). According to the American Dietetic Association (ADA), the
recommended daily fibre intake for all groups of age is 20 to 35 g/day for optimal body health
benefits (Harland and Narula, 2001).
Banana pseudo-stem, not a true stem of the banana plant, is composed of large
overlapping leaf stalk bases that are tightly rolled around each other to form a clustered and
cylindrical structure with almost 48 cm in diameter, apart from tightly clasping and slightly
swollen at the base (Samson, 1980; Mukhopadhyay et al., 2008; Benítez et al., 2013). The
pseudo-stem grows to a height of 2–9 m depending on variety and conditions. After the bunch
of fruit has ripened, no fruit is produced; hence the stem is usually cut down (Allen, 1967;
Pillay and Tripathi, 2007). Elanthikkal et al. (2010) reported that the banana fruit constitutes
only 12% by weight of the plant. The remaining 88% by weight of banana plant waste (i.e.,
pseudo-stem and leaf) turns into waste and this leads to environmental problems in banana
farming.
In addition, banana pseudo-stem has been reported to contain 15.1% moisture, 2.5%
protein, low amount of fat (1.7%), and 28.8% of total dietary fibre. Furthermore, Cordeiro et
al. (2004), and Mukhopadhyay et al. (2008) have reported that banana pseudo-stem has a
good amount of several important macro minerals, such as potassium, calcium, magnesium,
and phosphorus, which are important to maintain one’s body health. Additionally, the pseudo-
stem has been reported to be rich in non-starch polysaccharides or commonly referred as
dietary fibres, including cellulose (31.27%), hemicelluloses (14.98%), and lignin (15.07%)
(Cordeiro et al., 2004; Mukhopadhyay et al., 2008). According to Cordeiro et al. (2004), the
outer covering of pseudo-stem is mostly cellulosic material, while the core or pith is rich in
non-starch polysaccharides, but lower in lignin content. The carbohydrate composition of
The Characterization of Banana (Musa Acuminata × Balbisiana ABB cv. Awak) … 99
banana pseudo-stem is rich in low molecular weight sugars; glucose (87.0%), which is
present as the predominant sugar, followed by xylose (8.3%) and arabinose (4.5%) (Bhaskar
et al., 2011a).
Since banana cultivation generates a considerable amount of lignocellulosic wastes, these
crops could and should find a more rational way of utilisation, namely as a source of
cellulosic fibres (Elanthikkal et al., 2010). The potential application of these pseudo-stems
depends on their chemical compositions. Unfortunately, little information on chemical
compositions of the pseudo-stem has been reported. Most researchers have focused on pulp
and peels (Zhang et al., 2005; Happi Emaga et al., 2007). Meanwhile, several studies have
determined chemical and functional properties of banana flour, banana starches, and fibre-
rich powder from unripe banana flour (Bello-Perez et al., 1999; Mukhopadhyay et al., 2008;
Rodriguez-Ambriz et al., 2008). Hence, there is lack of information on banana (Musa
acuminata x balbisiana cv. Awak) pseudo-stem. This is because; authors mostly focus on the
chemical contents of pseudo-stem, such as monosaccharides, fibre compositions, bioactive
compounds, and mineral contents (Cordeiro et al., 2004; Mukhopadhyay et al., 2008; Oliveira
et al., 2009; Bhaskar et al., 2010; Bhaskar et al., 2011a, b, c; Saravanan and Aradhya, 2011).
In addition, some studies have shown that banana pseudo-stem is a good source of antioxidant
compounds and also possesses anti-diabetic properties (Bhaskar et al., 2010; Bhaskar et al.,
2011b; 2011c; Saravanan and Aradhya, 2011).
On the other hand, wheat flour is a basic ingredient used in the production of bakery
products. However, it is poor in dietary fibre and some essential minerals, e.g., iron and zinc.
Composite flour, a blend of wheat flour with non-wheat flour obtained from locally available
agricultural sources is widely utilised in processing bakery products. Partially substituting
banana pseudo-stem flour (BPF) for wheat flour in bakery products has the potential to
increase dietary fibre intake. However, there are important characteristics to understand prior
to the development of new formulation for food products, such as bakery products. Therefore,
the objective of this study is to investigate the chemical composition and the biochemical
properties of BPF.
METHODS
Materials
Matured banana (Musa acuminata × balbisiana ABB cv. Awak) pseudo-stem from base
to a shoot long length of the plant was collected from a local banana farm in Perak, Malaysia.
The pseudo-stem was then processed into flour, as discussed in the following section. The
commercial wheat flour (CWF) (13.5% protein content) was procured from Bake with
Sunshine Trading, Penang, Malaysia. All chemicals used were of analytical reagent grade.
Banana Pseudo-Stem Flour Processing
The BPF was processed by peeling off the epidermis (skin) of the stem manually with a
clean knife. The peeled pseudo-stem was rinsed with running tap water and followed with
deionized water. The pseudo-stem was then cut into small pieces and boiled in deionised
water for 15 min to soften the texture before soaking in 0.1% w/w sodium metabisulfite
solution for 30 min. The sample was then sliced using a mechanical slicer (Robot Coupe,
France) before drying in a ventilated dryer (Afos, Model Mini, No. CK 80520, England) at
60°C overnight. The dried pseudo-stem slices were ground in a kitchen blender (Panasonic,
PB-325, Malaysia) and sieved through a 355-µm (No. 42) mesh sieve. The BPF was then kept
in airtight plastic containers and stored in a refrigerator at 4°C prior to use.
Proximate Analysis
Official AOAC methods were referred to determine the proximate compositions of the
samples (AOAC, 1995). Moisture, ash, crude protein, crude fat, and crude fibre contents were
analysed via oven drying (AOAC Method 977.11), dry ashing (AOAC Method 923.03),
Kjeldahl (AOAC Method 955.04), Soxhlet (AOAC Method 960.39), and gravimetric (AOAC
Method 991.43) methods, respectively.
Total Carbohydrate and Calorie Values Determination
Total carbohydrate content was calculated by difference [Carbohydrate (%) = 100% − %

(moisture + ash + crude protein + crude fat)] (BeMiller and Low, 1998). The calorie value of
the sample was calculated by multiplying with the factor value (for each gram of crude
protein and carbohydrate, 4 kcal of energy is obtained and 9 kcal of energy for 1 g of crude
fat) (Nielsen, 1998).
Minerals Determination
The samples were digested according to the acid digestion extraction method
(Trampitsch, 2009). An inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer (ICP OES)
(Optical emission spectrometer Optima 7000 DV, Perkin Elmer, USA) was used to determine
magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), and manganese (Mn) of the samples. The operating
conditions of the ICP OES instrument were set (RF generator power: 1300W; plasma gas
flow rate: 15 mL/min; auxiliary gas flow rate: 0.2 mL/min; nebuliser gas flow rate: 0.8
mL/min; sample flow rate: 1.5 mL/min; nebulizer type: cross-flow nebulizer; spray chamber:
spray chamber type; equilibration time: 15 s). The concentration of each element was
calculated using WinLab 32 for ICP software version 5.1.0.0527 Perkin Elmer, Inc., USA.
The concentrations of sodium (Na), potassium (K), and calcium (Ca) of the samples were
determined using a flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer (FAAS) (P.E. AAnalyst 100,
Perkin Elmer, USA) equipped with hollow-cathode lamps. Different concentrations (0.1, 0.2,
0.4, 0.6, and 0.8 mg/L) of Na standard, K standard (0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 mg/L), and Ca standard
(1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, and 6.0 mg/L) were analysed to prepare calibration curves.
The P of the samples was evaluated using molybdovanadate method (AOAC, 1990). The
anhydrous potassium dihydrogen orthophosphate (KH2PO4) was used as a standard solution.
Aliquots (25 mL) of the standard, samples, and distilled deionised water were pipetted into
separated 50-mL volumetric flasks. The mixture was then added with 10 mL of vanadate-
molybdate reagent, made up into the mark with distilled deionized water, and incubated for
10 min. The absorbance of each sample was measured at λ= 400 nm with a UV-Vis
spectrophotometer (Shimadzu Model 1601, Kyoto, Japan). The results are expressed as
milligram per hundred grams of dry matter (mg/100 g of dry matter).
Total, Soluble, and Insoluble Dietary Fibres Determination
Dietary fibre of the sample was determined according to the enzymatic-gravimetric

method 985.29 (AOAC, 1997). A 1 g (± 0.1 mg) of the defatted sample was gelatinised with
0.10 mL of α-amylase (Cat No A-3176; Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Missouri, USA) via boiling
water bath at constant agitation at 5 min intervals and then incubated for 15 min after the
internal temperature reached 95°C. The protein and starch contents in the samples were
enzymatically digested with 0.1 mL of protease (Cat No P3910; Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis,
Missouri, USA) solution (50 mg/mL in phosphate buffer) for 30 min at 60°C, and followed
by 0.1 mL of amyloglucosidase (Cat No A9913, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Missouri, USA)
for 30 min at 60°C. The solution was filtered and the residues were washed successively with
78% ethyl ethanol, 95% ethyl ethanol, and acetone to determine insoluble dietary fibre (IDF)
content. The precipitation of soluble dietary fibre (SDF) was obtained by adding 4 volumes of
ethyl ethanol (95%, pre-heated to 60°C) to the filtrate, allowed to stand overnight at room
temperature, and filtered. The residues were washed successively with 78% ethyl ethanol,
95% ethyl ethanol, and acetone. The residues were oven-dried at 105°C overnight. The values
obtained by the enzymatic method were calculated by determining ash content with the dry
ashing method at 525°C and nitrogen content with the Kjeldahl method.
Total Sugars Determination
Total sugars content of the sample was determined based on phenol sulphuric acid
method (Chow and Landhäusser, 2004). A 50 mg of sample was extracted with 5 mL of 80%
ethanol and then boiled in water bath for 10 min at 95°C. The extraction process was repeated
thrice. After each extraction, the tube was centrifuged at 2,500 rpm for 5 min and the
supernatants of the three extractions were combined for further analysis. The 2% phenol
solution (1 mL) and concentrated sulphuric acid (2 mL) were added to the ethanol extract (0.5
mL). The mixture was then incubated in water bath at 22°C for 30 min. The absorbance of the
sample was read at 490 nm using a UV-Vis spectrophotometer (Shimadzu, UV mini-1240,
Kyoto, Japan). The amount of sugars was determined by reference to a standard curve
prepared with working standards containing up to 100 mg/L of D-glucose.
Total Pentosans Determination
Total pentosans were determined according to the method proposed by Hashimoto et al.
(1987). A 10 mg of sample was added with 2 mL of 2 N HCl and incubated in water bath
(100°C) for 2.5 h. The mixture was then added with 2 N of Na2CO3 (2 mL) and freshly
compressed yeast (Five Stars, Long An Province, Vietnam) (2 mL of 25 mg/mL in 0.2 N of
sodium phosphate buffer pH 7.0). Then, the mixture was incubated in water bath at 30°C for
2 h. A standard solution of D(+)-xylose (Cat No 1.08689.0025; Merck, Darmstadt, Germany)
was prepared. Next, 2 mL of water (reagent blank), xylose standard, and samples were added
with 1 mL distilled water, 3 mL of 0.1% ferric chloride (FeCl3.6H2O) in concentrated
hydrochloric acid, and 0.3 mL of 1.0% orcinol (Cat No 447420; Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis,
Missouri, USA) in 99.7% ethanol. The mixtures were then mixed well and heated in boiling
water for 30 min. The absorbance of the standard curve was measured against the reagent
blank at 670 nm by using a UV-Vis spectrophotometer (Shimadzu, Model 1601, Kyoto,
Japan).
Water-Soluble Pentosans Determination
The water-soluble pentosans content was estimated by the orcinol-HCl method

(Hashimoto et al., 1987). The sample (100 mg) was suspended in 10 mL of distilled water and
shaken using an orbital shaker (160 rpm) at 30°C for 2 h. The supernatant was obtained by
centrifuging at 1,300 ×g speed for 10 min. Then, 1 mL aliquot was hydrolysed with 1 mL of 4
N HCl at 100°C for 2 h. A standard curve from D(+)-xylose water solution was prepared.
Next, 1 mL of water (reagent blank), xylose standard, and samples were added with 2 mL
distilled water, 3 mL of 0.1% ferric chloride (FeCl3.6H2O) in concentrated HCl, and 0.3 mL
of 1.0% orcinol (Cat No 447420; Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Missouri, USA) in 99.7%
ethanol. The mixtures were then heated in boiling water for 30 min. The absorbance of the
standard curve was measured against the reagent blank at 670 nm by using a UV-Vis
spectrophotometer (Shimadzu Model 1601, Kyoto, Japan).
pH Measurement
Samples preparation for pH measurement was performed according to the method

described by Adelekan and Oyewole (2010). Approximately 2 g of dried sample was added to
50-mL of distilled water and stirred for 10 min. The mixture was then filtered prior to pH
measurement (Model ORION 410A, UK). The pH meter was prior calibrated using pH 7 and
pH 4 buffers.
Total Soluble Solids Measurement
HI 96801 Refractometer (0-85°Brix) (Hanna Instruments Inc., Romania) was used for
determination of total soluble solids (TSS) of the sample, and the obtained results are
expressed in °Brix (Uma et al., 2005).
Total Titratable Acidity
Approximately, 2 g of sample was extracted with 30 mL distilled water and 20 mL

methanol at 45°C for 15 min in water bath. The mixture was filtered and 4 mL of filtrate was
added into 5 mL distilled water and followed with 3 drops of 1% phenolphthalein. The
mixture was then titrated against 0.1 N NaOH until the faint pink end-point persisting for at
least 30 s (Adelekan and Oyewole, 2010). Total titratable acidity is expressed as % malic acid
(w/w).
Total Phenolic Content, Total Flavonoid Content, Tannin Content, and

Antioxidant Properties Determination
Sample Extract Preparation

Samples were extracted using methanol at 1:100 (w/v) concentration, as described by
Chun et al. (2005). Approximately, 100 mL of methanol was added to 1 g of the sample.
Solvent extraction was performed with stirring at room temperature for 24 h. Supernatants
were collected by centrifuging at 2,300 ×g for 20 min for total phenolic content, total
flavonoid content, tannin content, and antioxidants activity assays.
Total Phenolic Content Determination

Total phenolic content (TPC) of the samples was determined using Folin-Ciocalteau
method as described by Alothman et al. (2009). A 400 μL of different concentrations of
prepared gallic acid standard or extracts were added to 2 mL of Folin-Ciocalteau reagent (Cat
No F9252; Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Missouri, USA). The reagent was pre-diluted (10 times
dilution) with distilled water. After standing for 5 min at room temperature, 1.6 mL of sodium
carbonate (7.5%, w/v) solution was added. All test tubes were covered with aluminium foil
and vortex mixed. The solutions were mixed and allowed to stand for 1 h at room
temperature. Then, the absorbance was measured at 765 nm using a UV-Vis
spectrophotometer (Shimadzu, Model 1601, Kyoto, Japan) against the blank of methanol
without extract sample. The results are expressed as milligrams of gallic acid equivalents per
100 g of dry matter (mg GAE/100 g of dry matter).
Total Flavonoid Content Determination

Total flavonoid content (TFC) was measured by the aluminium chloride colorimetric
assay (Marinova et al., 2005). Different concentrations (20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 mg/ L) of
catechin (Cat No 219250; Calbiochem, Darmstadt, Germany) standard were analysed to
prepare calibration curve. A 1 mL of the different concentrations of the prepared standard
solution of catechin and extracts were added to 4 mL of distilled water and 300 μL of 5%
NaNO2. After 5 min, 300 μL of 10% AlCl3 was added. At the 6th min, 2 mL of 1 M NaOH
and 2.4 mL of distilled water were added. The solutions were mixed and the absorbance was
measured against prepared reagent blank (methanol) at 510 nm by using a UV-Vis
spectrophotometer (Shimadzu, Model 1601, Kyoto, Japan). The value of TFC is expressed as
milligrams of catechin equivalents per 100 g of dry matter (mg CEQ/100 g of dry matter).
Tannin Content
Vanillin-HCl method with slightly modifications was used to determine the tannin
content (Bhat et al., 2007). Different concentrations (20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 mg/ L) of
catechin (Cat No 219250; Calbiochem, Darmstadt, Germany) standard were prepared to make
a calibration curve. A 1 mL of sample extract and different concentrations of the prepared
standard were added into respective test tubes containing 5 mL of reagent mixture (4%
vanillin in methanol and 8% concentration HCl in methanol at a ratio of 1:1 v/ v). The
mixture was then mixed well using the vortex mixture and incubated at a dark condition for
20 min. The developed colour was measured at 500 nm against the reagent blank without
sample extract by using UV-VIS spectrophotometer (Shimadzu Model 1601, Kyoto, Japan).
The value of the total tannin is expressed as milligrams of catechin equivalents per hundred
grams of dry matter (mg CEQ/ 100 g of dry matter).
1,1-Diphenyl-2-Picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) Free Radical-Scavenging Assay

The determination of the free radical-scavenging effect of samples on DPPH radical (Cat
No 300267; Calbiochem, Darmstadt, Germany) was based on the method proposed by Rojo et
al. (2009) with modifications. For positive control solution preparation, 1 mL Trolox standard
solution (concentrations: 20–200 μmol/L) was dissolved in methanol-water (8:2, v/v).
Methanol-water (8:2, v/v) without Trolox standard solution served as negative control. Then,
positive control solution, negative control solution, and sample extracts were added to 6 mL
of respective 100 μmol/L DPPH solution in methanol-water (8:2, v/v). The mixture was
thoroughly mixed and incubated at room temperature for 30 min. A decrease in absorbance
was determined at 517 nm against blank (methanol-water, 8:2, v/v) using a UV-Vis
spectrophotometer (Shimadzu, Model 1601, Kyoto, Japan). The results are expressed as μmol
of Trolox equivalents per 100 g of dry matter (μmol TEAC/100 g dry matter).
Ferric-Reducing Antioxidant Potential (FRAP) Assay

The ability of the sample to reduce ferric ions was measured according to the method
described by Benzie and Strain (1996). The FRAP reagent was prepared using 300 mM
sodium acetate buffer (pH 3.6), 20 mM iron chloride, and 10 mM 2,4,6-tripyridyl-s-triazine
(TPTZ) (Cat No AC 168070050; Acros Organics, New Jersey, USA) dissolved in 40 mM
HCl at a ratio of 10:1:1 (volume basis). The reagent was always freshly prepared and pre-
warmed at 37°C in water bath. A calibration curve was prepared using different
concentrations (100, 200, 400, 600, 800, and 1,000 μmol/L) of ferrous sulphate FeSO4.7H2O
standard solutions. A 100 μL of the different concentrations of the prepared standard solution
of ferrous sulphate and sample extracts were added to 3 mL of FRAP reagent. The solution
was mixed well and incubated at 37°C for 4 min. The reagent blank was a mixture of 100 μL
distilled water and 3 mL of FRAP reagent was incubated at 37°C for 1 h. The absorbance of
the standard, the sample extracts, and the reagent blank were measured against the blank
(distilled water) at 593 nm by using a UV-Vis spectrophotometer (Shimadzu Model 1601,
Kyoto, Japan). The FRAP value of the sample extracts is expressed as micromoles of ferrous
equivalent Fe (II) per 100 g of dry matter (μmol Fe (II)/100 g of dry matter).
Scanning Electron Microscope
The microstructure of CWF and BPF were recorded using Leo Supra 50vP Field
Emission scanning electron microscope (SEM) (Carl-Zeiss SMT, Oberkochen, Germany)
equipped with Oxford INCA 400 energy dispersive x-ray microanalysis system. The
lyophilized samples were spread into thin layers and then placed on a round aluminum stub
with double-sided tape and sputter coated with gold (30 nm thick) to prevent electrical
discharge during scanning by using polar instrument (Palaron SC515 sputter coater).
Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS)
20.0 software (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). The obtained results in this study are
represented as mean values of three individual replicates ± the standard deviation. The data
were subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Besides, the significant
differences between the mean values were determined by independent t-test at a significance
level of P < 0.05.
DISCUSSION
Proximate Composition
It is important to identify the proximate compositions of the flour prior to the

development of a new formulation in a dietary fibre-rich bakery product. This study indicated
that the proximate compositions of BPF and CWF differed significantly (P < 0.05), with the
exception of calorie content (Table 1). The CWF had a significantly higher (P < 0.05) content
of moisture and protein (12.60 and 13.35%, respectively) than those of BPF, whilst
significantly lower (P < 0.05) levels of fat, ash, crude fibre, and total carbohydrate (0.25,
0.56, 0.41, and 73.24%). According to James (1995), the standard range of moisture in flour
ranged from 0 to 10%. Thus, the moisture content of BPF is to be within the categories of
standard range. The low moisture of BPF (7.84%) has a critical influence on the storage
stability. In addition, Ovando-Martinez et al. (2009) and Rodge et al. (2012) reported that the
moisture content of food products greatly influences textural quality, chemical and
biochemical reactions, as well as microbial growth rates.
The fat contents of CWF and BPF were found to be 0.25 and 1.11%, respectively. The
value of fat content in BPF was lower than that reported by Juarez-Garcia et al. (2006) for
banana flour prepared from the whole fruit (pulp and peel) of unripe banana, which had a fat
content of 2.7%. Meanwhile, Happi Emaga et al. (2007) reported that the fat content varied
between 2.2 and 10.9% at different stages of ripeness in banana and plantain peels. Based on
the results, it was found that BPF had lower fat content than the pulp and peel of the banana
(2.2-10.9%). However, flours produced from banana pseudo-stem, banana pulp, and banana
peel all contained higher fat content, when compared to those of CWF.
Protein content of BPF was also significantly lower (P < 0.05) when compared with
CWF (Table 1). This may be attributed to the boiling step applied while processing BPF,
which dissolved certain water-soluble proteins present naturally in banana pseudo-stem
(Rodriguez-Ambriz et al., 2008). Dobraszczyk (2001) reported that wheat flour contains 6 to
20% of protein and most of it is in the form of gluten, a highly extensible polymeric protein
material. When these glutens are in a hydrated state, the quantity of these glutens is important
in relation to gas-retention properties of bread doughs during baking. Next, ash content
indicated that BPF contained significantly higher (P < 0.05) mineral levels than those of CWF
(Table 1). The ash content in banana and plantain peels (6.4 – 12.8%) composed of high
levels of potassium, magnesium, and calcium (Happi Emaga et al., 2007). Thus, high ash
content in BPF can be related to the high minerals content in BPF.
Table 1. Proximate composition of commercial wheat flour (CWF) and banana

pseudo-stem flour (BPF)
Composition CWF BPF

Moisture (%) 12.60 ± 0.02b 7.84 ± 0.08a
Crude fat (%) 0.25 ± 0.01a 1.11 ± 0.05b
Crude protein (%) 13.35 ± 1.10b 2.70 ± 0.15a
Ash (%) 0.56 ± 0.01a 6.75 ± 0.34b
Crude fibre (%) 0.41 ± 0.00a 24.33 ± 0.07b
a
Total carbohydrate (%) 73.24 ± 1.11a 81.60 ± 0.40b
Caloriea (kcal/100 g) 348.61 ± 0.70a 347.79 ± 1.0a
significantly different (P < 0.05)
a
Result obtained by calculation
In addition, CWF and BPF were composed of 0.41 and 24.33% crude fibre, respectively.
The significant lower (P < 0.05) content of crude fibre in CWF compared with BPF might be
attributed to the bran fractions of the CWF that are high in total dietary fibre (TDF) contents,
which were removed during the milling process. Hence, CWF is a poor source of fibre (Sidhu
et al., 1999). The significantly higher content of crude fibre in BPF is an indication of its
potential application as a high-fibre source added to bakery products to compensate the
deficiency in dietary fibre in the daily diet. Meanwhile, the carbohydrate content of CWF was
found significantly lower (P < 0.05) than that of BPF (Table 1). However, there was no
significant difference (P > 0.05) in calorie content between CWF and BPF (Table 1).
Minerals Content
The predominant elements found in the CWF and BPF were sodium, calcium,
phosphorus, potassium, and magnesium, which are classified as macro elements (Table 2). In
general, CWF and BPF showed significant variances (P < 0.05) in all determined minerals.
BPF was found to be significantly higher (P < 0.05) in sodium (Na), calcium (Ca),
phosphorus (P), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), and zinc (Zn) contents as compared to
those of CWF. While other micro elements, i.e., iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), and copper (Cu),
in BPF were found to be significantly lower (P < 0.05) than those of CWF.
Table 2. Minerals content of commercial wheat flour (CWF)

and banana pseudo-stem flour (BPF)
Elements
CWF BPF
(mg/100 g of dry matter)
Calcium 24.44 ± 0.88a 982.77 ± 12.08b
Copper 0.30 ± 0.01b 0.18 ± 0.01a
Iron 3.13 ± 0.14b 1.58 ± 0.27a
Magnesium 30.26 ± 0.79a 215.57 ± 2.50b
Manganese 2.74 ± 0.35b 0.61 ± 0.07a
Phosphorus 5.25 ± 1.77a 138.09 ± 7.40b
Potassium 17.10 ± 0.37a 1,078.20 ± 12.69b
Sodium 6.67 ± 0.83a 1,049.73 ± 4.89b
Zinc 1.31 ± 0.12a 14.69 ± 0.02b
In addition, findings from Araujo et al. (2008) indicated that wheat flour consumed in
Brazilian cities has an order of macro mineral contents P > K > Mg > Ca (0.134, 0.133, 0.040,
and 0.0191%, respectively) and micro mineral contents Fe > Zn > Mn > Cu (14.0, 11.6, 9.4,
and 2.1 μg/g, respectively). Another study performed by Tejera et al. (2013) indicated that
wheat flour has concentrations of K, Mg, and Ca of 93.39, 22.67, and 20.06 mg/100 g fresh
weight, respectively. In terms of micro elements, the authors found that Fe (0.86 mg/100 g
fresh weight) was present in the highest concentration, followed by Zn (0.62 mg/100 g fresh
weight), Mn (0.43 mg/100 g fresh weight), and Cu (0.23 mg/100 g fresh weight) (Tejera et
al., 2013). However, the CWF used in the present study portrayed different order of mineral
contents as compared with two of the studies. The macro minerals showed the order of Mg >
Ca > K > P (30.26, 24.44, 17.10, and 5.25mg/100 g dry matter, respectively). As for the
micro minerals order, it was shown that Fe > Mn > Zn > Cu (3.13, 2.74, 1.31, and 0.30
mg/100 g of dry matter, respectively).
K was found in the highest amount (1,078.20 mg/100 g of dry matter) in BPF, followed
by Na (1,049.73 mg/100 g of dry matter), Ca (982.77 mg/100 g of dry matter), Mg (215.57
mg/100 g of dry matter), and P (138.09 mg/100 g of dry matter). However, different trend
was observed for CWF, whereby Mg was found in the highest amount, followed by Ca, K,
Na, and P (Table 2). The results of BPF obtained from the present study showed similarity
with those reported by Selema and Farago (1996), whereby banana pseudo-stem (Musa
Paradisiaca) possesses a higher amount of K (3,810 mg/100 g of dry matter) among all the
elements determined. However, the K concentration obtained from the present study showed
lower concentration, in comparison to the findings obtained by Selema and Farago (1996).
This could be attributed to various factors, such as genetic diversity of the cultivars and
environment, which often influence the variation of minerals concentration. Thus, this
contributes to the inconsistent results when comparing with results obtained by other
researchers. In addition, the analysis techniques can greatly affect the determination of
mineral contents in plant (Peterson et al., 1983).
BPF was found to be lower in K as compared with unpeeled banana flour (Haslinda et al.,
2009). The present study is in accordance with that published by Twyford and Walmsley
(1974), who reported that the K concentration in the pseudo-stem decreased during the
fruiting phase and that most of the K accumulated in the fruit stalk and inflorescence due to
its substantial requisite amounts for fruit development. K content in BPF is beneficial for
those suffering from hypertension and those who suffer from excessive excretion of K
through body fluids, e.g., athletes (Adrogue and Madias, 1997; Siddhuraju et al., 2001; D’Elia
et al., 2011). Thus, the deficiency of K in the CWF is essential to be partially replaced with
BPF in processing wheat-based products.
Na in BPF was found to be significantly higher (P < 0.05) than CWF (Table 2). This is
attributed to the penetration of Na ion into plant cell as a result of the soaking process of the
banana pseudo-stem in sodium metabisulfite solution during flour production. The
concentration of Ca in the BPF observed in this study exceeded the amount obtained from
banana pulps, banana peels, and unpeeled bananas (Selema and Farago, 1996; Happi Emaga
et al., 2007; Haslinda et al., 2009). According to Twyford and Walmsley (1974), Ca is
relatively high in the pseudo-stem due to the vital role of this element in the cell strength of
the trunk that supports the plant. The macro elements, such as Na, K, Ca, and Mg, are
essential for our daily diet due to their involvement in neural conduction and muscle
contraction (Hendricks, 1998). Furthermore, Ca is also essential for strengthening bones and
teeth. Hence, fortification of foods with BPF allows the addition of minerals to some foods
with lower contents of Ca and K. In addition, the low Ca content in CWF is attributed to the
losses of this element during the milling process, as reported by Pomeranz and Shellenberger
(1971).
BPF displayed a higher concentration of Mg as compared with pulp (105.37 mg/100 g of
dry matter), banana peel (69.5 – 189.5 mg/100 g of dry matter), and unpeeled banana (107.64
mg/100 g of dry matter) (Happi Emaga et al., 2007; Haslinda et al., 2009). Meanwhile, Mg in
CWF obtained from the present study showed approximately three-fold lower than the reports
from previous article (Alvarez-Jubete et al., 2009). Factors, such as the variations of nutrient
compositions among and within the existing species, the characteristics of the climate, land,
cultivation methods and conditions, as well as maturity stage, could all affect the amount of
minerals in plants (Hardisson et al., 2001; Ȍzcan et al., 2012).
In the case of trace (micro) elements, the contents of Zn, Fe, Mn, and Cu were found to
be low in both CWF and BPF (Table 2). Zn content in BPF was found to be significantly
higher (P < 0.05) than that of CWF. The result of Zn content in CWF appears to be similar
with the result reported by Alvarez-Jubete et al. (2009). In addition, the results indicated that
the Zn content in BPF was higher than banana pulp (0.74 mg/100 g of dry matter), banana
peel (1.54–3.88 mg/100 g of dry matter), and unpeeled banana (0.83 mg/100 g of dry matter)
(Happi Emaga et al., 2007; Haslinda et al., 2009). The results obtained in the present study
are in agreement with those reported by Selema and Farago (1996), who stated that trace
elements generally accumulated in large quantities in the trunks, instead of fruit peels.
However, the BPF was still in the range of the normal level of Zn content in plants, i.e., 2.5–
15.0 mg/100 g of dry matter (Valkovic, 1978).
Fe, which is an essential element for both animals and plants, was found to be 3.13 and
1.58 mg/100 g of dry matter in CWF and BPF, respectively. The value of Fe in CWF is
similar to that reported by Alvarez-Jubete et al. (2009). However, pseudo-stem contained a

higher concentration of Fe compared with other findings for banana pulp and unpeeled
bananas (Haslinda et al., 2009). According to Selema and Farago (1996), the normal level of
Mn in plants ranged between 2.0 and 50.0 mg/100 g of dry matter. The findings of the present
study showed CWF had 2.74 mg/100 g of dry matter of Mn. However, the results indicated
that the Mn content (0.61 mg/100 g of dry matter) in the BPF was lower than the common
range. On the other hand, CWF and BPF presented a very low amount (0.30 and 0.18 mg/100
g of dry matter, respectively) of Cu content.
Total, Insoluble and Soluble Dietary Fibres
Dietary fibre is expressed as total dietary fibre (TDF), which includes both insoluble
(IDF) and soluble dietary fibres (SDF). The amount of dietary fibres is important, especially
when considering the application of the BPF as a high-fibre substitute in food products. The
results indicated that BPF has significantly (P < 0.05) higher TDF, IDF, and SDF than those
of CWF (Figure 1). The dominant portions of fibre were TDF and IDF in both CWF (3.91
and 3.76%, respectively) and BPF (61.85 and 58.79%, respectively). Similarly, IDF was
found to be the major fibre fraction in the dietary fibre composition of banana and plantain
peels, banana flower, and banana pseudo-stem (Happi Emaga et al., 2007; Bhaskar et al.,
2011a). The findings further exhibited that the BPF contained significantly (P < 0.05) higher
IDF than that in CWF. Hence, the banana pseudo-stem fibres may promote better intestinal
regulation by providing bulk; a healthful consequence of consuming insoluble fibres, as
compared with CWF.
Error bars indicate mean values ± standard deviation (n = 3). Different letters on top of each bar
indicate significant difference (P < 0.05) between bars for each type of dietary fibre analysed
Figure 1. Insoluble (IDF), soluble (SDF), and total (TDF) dietary fibres of commercial wheat flour
(CWF) and banana pseudo-stem flour (BPF).
The TDF contents of BPF (61.85%) indicated that BPF contained significantly higher (P
< 0.05) levels of fibre than CWF (3.91%). Furthermore, TDF in BPF is at a higher level than
rice bran and oat bran, i.e., 27.04 (Chen et al., 1988) and 26.40% (Abdul-Hamid and Luan,
2000), respectively. The dietary fibre analysis in this study indicates that BPF is a promising
food fibre replacement for oats and sorghum in the development of new food products.
Total Sugars, Total Pentosans, and Water-Soluble Pentosans
Pentosan is one of the important fibre components of the non-starch polysaccharides in

cereal. Mohammadkhani (2005) reported that pentosans help to maintain human health by
lowering lipid and cholesterol absorption. Therefore, it is beneficial to human health. Total
pentosans, especially the water-soluble pentosan, has been regarded as an important criterion
for bread quality assurance due to its significant influence to the rheological properties of the
dough, and thereby, contributes to the overall quality in terms of loaf volume of bread (Kim
and D’appolonia, 1977; Ma et al., 2012). The content of the total pentosans in BPF is
significantly (P<0.05) higher than that in CWF (Table 3). The result of the total pentosans
contained in CWF is in agreement with the previous work done by Henry (1985), whereby
wheat contains 6.63% of total pentosans. Furthermore, BPF portrays higher content of the
total pentosans than the other common cereals, for example, barley at 5.69%, malt 6.37%, oat
7.65%, rice 1.18%, rye 8.49%, and 7.06% of triticale (Henry, 1985).
Table 3. Total sugars, total pentosans, and water-soluble pentosans of commercial wheat
flour (CWF) and banana pseudo-stem flour (BPF)
Composition (%) CWF BPF

Total pentosans 6.42 ± 0.32a 24.88 ± 3.08b
Water-soluble pentosans 1.08 ± 0.02a 3.08 ± 0.09b
Total sugars 0.73 ± 0.02a 8.54 ± 0.37b
Meanwhile, water-soluble pentosans content in CWF was found to be significantly (P <

0.05) lower than the BPF (Table 3), which is positively correlated with the amount of total
pentosans present in both flours. This could be attributed to the differences in the cell wall
compositions of CWF and BPF. Yin and Walker (1990) reported that water-soluble pentosans
are the major non-starch polysaccharide of flour, which are mostly present in the
hemicellulose. Thereby, this result is in line with the results shown in Figure 1, where BPF
has abundance of insoluble fibre than that of CWF. In addition, Henry (1985) found that
wheat has 1.04% of water-soluble pentosans, which is relatively similar with the present
findings. Moreover, previous study reported by Wang et al. (2004) stated that wheat flour
contains low amount of water-soluble pentosans, between 1 and 2%, w/w.
Next, total sugars of CWF in the present study was found to be 0.73%, which is
significantly (P < 0.05) lower than that of BPF (8.54%). This is attributed to the lower TDF in
CWF than that in BPF, as shown in Figure 1, whereby the structure of dietary fibre is built
from sugar units. These sugar units are removed from plant tissues due to the agitation of
boiling ethanol applied on the sample during sugar extraction process (Chow and
Landhӓusser, 2004). However, Henry (1985) reported that the total sugars of wheat flour are
within the range of 1.38 to 1.65%.
Biochemical Properties
The pH, the total soluble solids (TSS), and the total titratable acidity (TTA) of both CWF
and BPF are depicted in Table 4. The pH of BPF was significantly lower (P < 0.05) than that
of CWF, which indicates that BPF is more acidic than CWF. Thus, the juice extracted from
BPF might possess the potential to be utilised in the juice or isotonic manufacturing. In
addition, the result indicates that the pH of the BPF of the ‘Awak’ variety is more acidic than
the other varieties of bananas (‘Poovan’, ‘Karpuravalli’, ‘Pachanadan’, ‘Saba’, ‘Peyan’, and
‘Robusta’), which ranged from 6.4 to 6.7 (Uma et al., 2005). The result obtained from this
study showed lower pH, by the range of 0.98 to 1.25, than those reported by Uma et al.
(2005). This could be attributed to several geographical factors, such as soil condition and
weather, as well as variances in genetic between the varieties of bananas, which could affect
the pH value of the plant.
Table 4. Mean value of pH, total soluble solid (TSS), and total titratable acidity (TTA)
of commercial wheat flour (CWF) and banana pseudo-stem flour (BPF)
Parameter CWF BPF

pH 6.07 ± 0.02b 5.41 ± 0.02a
TSS (°Brix) 0.20 ± 0.00a 1.30 ± 0.00b
TTA (% malic acid, w/w) 0.01 ± 0.00a 0.04 ± 0.00b
Furthermore, the TSS present in the BPF was 1.3°Brix, which is significantly higher (P <
0.05) than that of CWF (Table 4). The TSS, which includes soluble sugars; sucrose, glucose,
and fructose, is correlated with starch content. Thus, the high TSS value of BPF could be
attributed to the banana pseudo-stem, which has been reported by several researchers
(Cordeiro et al., 2004; Li et al., 2010; Bhaskar et al., 2011a) to be rich in carbohydrate
compositions (total sugars and uronic acid). The TSS in this banana variety is also similar to
the findings of Uma et al. (2005), who found that the TSS ranged from 1.47 to 1.93°Brix.
Moreover, the TTA of the BPF was found to be significantly (P < 0.05) higher than that
of CWF (Table 4). Furthermore, the TTA of the BPF from the ‘Awak’ variety in this study
was higher than the findings reported by Uma et al. (2005), who found that the TTA of the
banana pseudo-stem from different cultivars (‘Poovan’, ‘Karpuravalli’, ‘Pachanadan’, ‘Saba’,
‘Peyan’, and ‘Robusta’) ranged from 0.020 to 0.034%.
Total Phenolic Content, Total Flavonoid Content, Tannin Content, and

Antioxidant Properties
The total phenolic content (TPC) in methanolic extracts of BPF was significantly (P <
0.05) higher than that of CWF (Table 5). This difference could probably be attributed to the
fact that different plants contain different phenolic compounds, and hence shown in the
variation of their TPC (Zheng and Wang, 2001; Zineb et al., 2012). In addition, this
observation may also indicate that the cell walls in banana have greater concentrations of
phenolic compounds than those found in wheat endosperm. In addition, based on the results
of TPC in BPF obtained from the present study, it can be concluded that the phenolic
compounds are more abundant in banana pseudo-stem than in the pulp, i.e., 232 mg/100 g of
dry matter (Someya et al., 2002). However, the present findings showed lower TPC in BPF
than that of banana peel, i.e., 907 mg/100 g dry matter, as previously reported by Someya et
al. (2002).
BPF had significantly higher (P < 0.05) TFC than that of CWF (Table 5). Tannin was
present in BPC; however, no tannin was detected in CWF. Tannin plays an important role as
antimutagenic, anticarcinogenic, and antimicrobial agents (Chen and Chung, 2000; Ho et al.,
2001; Akiyama et al., 2001). Thus, the presence of tannin in BPF showed promising potential
of BPF as a new source of antioxidant that could be applied in food and pharmaceutical
applications.
Table 5. Total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), tannin content
and antioxidant activities in commercial wheat flour (CWF) and banana pseudo-stem
flour (BPF)
Composition CWF BPF

TPC 136.57 ± 1.67a 472.18 ± 8.71b
(mg GAE/100 g of dry matter)
TFC 157.45 ± 2.14a 191.13 ± 11.62b
(mg CEQ/100 g of dry matter)
Tannin content n.d. 212.79 ± 52.71
(mg CEQ/100 g of dry matter)
FRAP value 141.12 ± 18.74a 4,270.05 ± 393.51b
(µmol Fe (II)/100 g of dry matter)
DPPH value 44.99 ± 1.78a 494.14 ± 22.27b
(µmol TEAC/100 g of dry matter)
Data are mean values ± standard deviation (n = 3). Values with different online letters within a row ae
In general, phenolic compounds are widely distributed in the plant kingdom and they
have been reported to possess strong antioxidant properties (Mosquera et al., 2007). Both
ferric-reducing antioxidant potential (FRAP) and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free
radical-scavenging assays were adopted for the evaluation of the antioxidants activity. In the
present study, both antioxidant activity assays showed BPF to be significantly higher (P <
0.05) than that of CWF (Table 5). These findings showed that BPF is rich in antioxidant
activity, which attributes to the relative abundance of phenolic compounds and the more
robust proton-donating activity present in BPF than in CWF. According to Bhat et al. (2007),
tannin is classified as high molecular weight phenolic and is 15–30 times more effective in
free radical quenching activity than other simple phenolic compounds. These results are
consistent with the general observations that phenolic fraction plays a major contribution in
antioxidant activity in plants (Mosquera et al., 2007; Lee et al., 2011; Zineb et al., 2012).
According to Yan et al. (2006) and Nurliyana et al. (2010), DPPH assay is commonly
applied to determine the ability of primary antioxidants in plants, whereby these primary
antioxidants act by scavenging the free radicals from DPPH solution. This results in
inhibition on the formation of initiation chain of free radical and destroys the propagation
chain by donating hydrogen atom or electron so that the free radical can be changed into a
more stable form of products. On the other hand, the FRAP analysis has been widely used to
evaluate the secondary antioxidants in plants, whereby these secondary antioxidants inhibit
radical formation and prevent oxidative damage (Shian et al, 2012). Thus, BPF possesses
weak primary antioxidant activity, but could be a good source of secondary antioxidant in
food and pharmaceutical applications. The results from the present study are similar with
those obtained from the work carried out by other authors on wild edible fruit extracts, guava,
and banana fruit (Yan et al., 2006; Haripyaree et al., 2010; Shian et al., 2012).
Microstructure of Flours
The microstructures of the CWF and BPF used in this study are presented in Figure 2 and
Figure 3, respectively. According to Baum and Bailey (1987), and Kim and Huber (2008),
wheat endosperm are comprised of two types of starch granules; A-type typically is a large
starch granule with diameters ranging from 10 to 35 μm, and B-type is presents as a small
starch granule with diameters ranging from 1 to 10 μm. The SEM image of CWF obtained in
this study showed A-type granules with disk-like or lenticular shape (Figure 2). On the other
hand, B-type starch granules are roughly spherical or polygonal in shape (Figure 2). Starch
granule of BPF was observed to be an oval and irregular or cuboidal shape (Figure 3). The
SEM image of starch granule of BPF showed similar shape with the potato starch granules
which has been described in the earlier work (Singh et al., 2003). The granule structure of the
CWF and BPF showed variation in shape and distribution. According to Chen et al. (2004),
the differences of the shape and size of the starch granules are due to the variation of
genotype and cultural practices used.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The first authors would like to thank to Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) for the facilities
and financial support through the Research University Grant (1001/PTEKIND/815055).
CONCLUSION
Based on the results obtained in chemical compositions, banana (Musa acuminata ×
balbisiana cv. Awak) pseudo-stem was found suitable to be processed into flour, i.e., BPF. In
Starch granule
Figure 3. SEM microstructure of BPF Magnification = X1000.
Small starch granule
Large starch granule
Figure 2. SEM microstructure of CWF Magnification = X1000.
addition, low aw of BPF suggests longer shelf life. The results demonstrate that the BPF has
better source of minerals (i.e., Ca, K, Mg, Na, P, and Zn), dietary fibres (i.e., crude fibre,
insoluble dietary fibre, and total dietary fibre), and antioxidants, in comparison to CWF, due
to its significantly higher (P < 0.05) content. Thus, BPF possesses great potential to be used
as a novel dietary ingredient in developing health-promoting food products, such as bread and
other bakery products.
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Chapter 7
OYSTER MUSHROOM FLOUR AND ITS COMPOSITE

STEAMED BUN: NUTRITIONAL QUALITY,
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, AND SENSORY
ACCEPTABILITY ASPECTS
Lee-Hoon Ho1,*, Nur Syahidah Mohamed1,

Noroul Asyikeen Zulkifli1, Thuan-Chew Tan2
and Nalini Arumugam3
1
Department of Food Industry, Faculty of Bioresources and Food Industry,
2
3
Department of Agriculture Science and Biotechnology,
Faculty of Bioresources and Food Industry,
ABSTRACT
Oyster mushroom is an edible mushroom that gained popularity lately due to its good
nutritional values. Proximate composition of grey and white oyster mushroom flour
(GOMF and WOMF, respectively) were determined in the study. Then, composite
steamed buns were prepared using either GOMF or WOMF. Wheat flour was partially
substituted with GOMF or WOMF at 3 and 5% (w/w) to prepare 3GOM, 3WOM,
5GOM, and 5WOM, respectively. Steamed bun without GOMF and WOMF served as
control. Prepared steamed buns were evaluated for the physical properties (i.e., water
activity, weight, volume, specific volume, and texture profile), nutritional values (i.e.,
proximate composition, total starch, and resistant starch), and sensory attributes. The
results showed significant difference (P < 0.05) in moisture, ash, crude protein, crude fat,
total carbohydrate, and calorie contents between GOMF and WOMF. All the composite
steamed buns indicated significantly higher (P < 0.05) ash, crude protein, crude fat, and
*
122 Lee-Hoon Ho, Nur Syahidah Mohamed, Noroul Asyikeen Zulkifli et al.
crude fibre contents, but, significantly lower (P < 0.05) total carbohydrate content than
that of the control steamed bun. Composite steamed buns resulted in a significant
increase (P < 0.05) in resistant starch content. Composite steamed buns showed a
significantly darker (P < 0.05) skin and crumb colour, significantly lower (P < 0.05)
volume and specific volume, and significantly higher (P < 0.05) hardness values than that
of the control steamed bun. Sensory evaluation indicated that the substitution of GOMF
or WOMF for wheat flour at 3 and 5% levels, did not significantly affect (P > 0.05) the
overall acceptability on steamed bun by sensory panelists. In general, partial substitution
of either GOMF or WOMF for wheat flour could improve the nutritional quality of the
steamed bun.
Keywords: Oyster mushroom flour, Steamed bun, Proximate composition, Resistant starch,
Physical properties, Sensory attributes
INTRODUCTION
Mushrooms have been widely used for both its culinary and medicinal properties in
Asian countries, as well as in many parts of the world due to their important constituent of
dietary benefits (Wan Rosli et al. 2011). Mushrooms contain appreciable amounts of
micronutrients: >25% protein, <3% crude fat, and approximately 50% of total carbohydrate.
It is also low in calories, fat, cholesterol, and sodium (Kotwaliwale et al. 2007; Wan Rosli et
al. 2011). Mau et al. (2004) and Regula and Siwulski (2007) in their studies reported that
mushrooms help in improving liver function, reducing cholesterol, lowering blood pressure,
boosting the immune system, and combating tumours. According to Muhammad Nasir et al.
(2006), about 1,220 of 5,000 different species of mushrooms are edible. Recently, mushrooms
are cultivated commercially and are popularly consumed as food or functional food
ingredients, which are used for preparing various processed food products.
According to the report of Wan Rosli et al. (2011), freshly harvested edible mushrooms
contain high transpiration rate, and high moisture content of approximately >80%. These
conditions lead to post-harvest loss after about 1–3 days harvesting. Therefore, dehydration is
one of the food preservation methods, which may be suitable to extend the shelf life of fresh
edible mushrooms by reducing unnecessary biochemical reactions. Examples of these
reactions are lipid oxidation, enzymatic browning and susceptibility to microbial attack that
can deteriorate the quality (Wan Rosli et al. 2011; Saiful Bahri and Wan Rosli, 2017).
Steamed bun is very popular in the South-East Asian countries, such as China. He et al.
(2003) reported that steamed bun represents about 40% of wheat consumption in China,
which is commonly consumed at breakfast. Steamed bun is made of basic ingredients, such as
wheat flour, yeast, and water (Noor Aziah et al. 2012). According to Noor Aziah et al. (2012),
wheat flour contains very low amount of resistant starch and dietary fiber due to its refining
during the flour processing. Therefore, steamed bun prepared from refined flour is
nutritionally poor and does not adequately meet the daily requirements for many macro and
micronutrients. The Mushroom has been reported as an excellent source of protein, containing
high amount of fibres, minerals, and vitamins (Manjunathan and Kaviyarasan, 2011; Hung
and Nhi, 2012). In addition, several studies have shown that mushrooms possess a good
source of antioxidant due to the presence of polyphenolic compounds, which are able to
scavenge free radicals through single-electron transfer (Lee et al. 2007; Kim et al. 2008; Hung
Oyster Mushroom Flour and Its Composite Steamed Bun 123
and Nhi, 2012). Edible mushrooms have been recognized to have health benefits with
pharmacological and medicinal properties (Wan Rosli et al. 2011). Therefore, dry matters of
mushroom allow it to be transformed into important food ingredients, which can be utilised as
functional food ingredient.
Recently, oyster mushrooms were used to prepare herbal seasoning and chicken patty,
(Wan Rosli et al. 2011; Saiful Bahri and Wan Rosli, 2017), but not in wheat-based products,
such as steamed bun. However, there is a lack of utilisation on edible mushrooms in steamed
buns making observed. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to evaluate the nutritive
values, physical quality, and sensory acceptance of steamed bun incorporated with edible
mushroom flour.
METHODS
Preparation of Grey and White Oyster Mushroom Flours
Freshly harvested grey (Pleurotus sajor-caju) and white (Pleurotus ostreatus) oyster
mushrooms were purchased from Warno Best Farm Mushroom from Besut district of
Terengganu, Malaysia. Fully-grown grey and white oyster mushrooms with pileus cap
diameters between 5 to 6 cm were used in the study. The fresh oyster mushrooms were
cleaned by running tap water to remove soil and other attached foreign materials. The oyster
mushrooms were then cut into small uniform pieces (2–3 cm) prior drying in a ventilated
dryer at 60°C (Tech-Lab, FDD-720, Selangor, Malaysia) for overnight. The dried grey and
white oyster mushrooms were ground using laboratory mill (Panasonic, MX-801S, Selangor,
Malaysia) to produce grey and white oyster mushrooms flour (GOMF and WOMF,
respectively). The flours were kept in an airtight plastic container prior to use.
Preparation of Steamed Buns
Steamed buns were prepared according to the method as described by Noor Aziah et al.
(2012). All the ingredients, such as wheat flour, dry instant yeast, butter, salt, sugar, and milk
powder, were purchased from Ekoko Enterprise, Terengganu, Malaysia. Steamed buns were
prepared according to the formulation in Table 1. Wheat flour was replaced by increasing the
amounts of GOMF or WOMF (3 and 5%) to prepare 3GOM, 3WOM, 5GOM, and 5WOM,
respectively. Steamed bun without GOMF or WOMF was served as control. Dry ingredients,
such as wheat flour, GOMF or WOMF, milk powder, sugar, and dry instant yeast, were
mixed with water in a mixing bowl and followed by the addition of butter and lastly salt. The
dough was mixed using the mixer (Kitchen Aid-KSM 900, USA) for about 15–20 min until
the homogeneous dough was obtained. Further, 50 g of the samples was weighed individually
and shaped manually. The molded dough was then placed on a greased tray for proofing in a
proofer (One Door Prover, MBE-16TS-Z, Selangor, Malaysia) at 37°C for 40 min. The dough
was transferred onto a tray and steamed for 10 min in a steamer, then cooled for 1 hr before
further analysis.
Table 1. Formulation of steamed buns within various levels of grey (GOMF) and white
(WOMF) oyster mushroom flours
Ingredients (g) Types of Steamed Buna

Control 3GOM 5GOM 3WOM 5WOM
Wheat flour 350 339.5 332.5 339.5 332.5
GOMF – 10.5 17.5 – –
WOMF – – – 10.5 17.5
Butter 28 28 20 20 20
Sugar 20 20 5 5 5
Salt 5 5 175 175 175
Water (mL) 175 175 8 8 8
Dry yeast 8 8 16 16 16
Milk powder 16 16 20 20 20
a
3GOM and 5GOM represent steamed buns with partial substitution of grey oyster mushroom flour at 3
and 5%, respectively. 3WOM and 5WOM represent steamed buns with partial substitution of
white oyster mushroom flour at 3 and 5%, respectively.
Proximate Composition Analysis
The proximate composition of the samples was determined according to the official
method as described by AOAC (1995). Oven drying (AOAC Official Method 977.11),
Kjeldahl (AOAC Official Method 955.04), Soxhlet (AOAC Official Method 960.39), dry
ashing (AOAC Official Method 923.03), and gravimetric methods (AOAC Official Method
991.43) used to analyse moisture, crude protein, crude fat, ash, and crude fibre contents,
respectively.
Total Carbohydrate and Energy Estimation
Total carbohydrate content was estimated by difference [Total carbohydrate (% dry basis)
= 100% – % (moisture + ash + crude protein + crude fat)] (BeMiller and Low, 1998). The
energy of the sample was calculated by multiplying by the factor values; 1 g of crude protein
or carbohydrate provides 4 kcal of energy and 1 g of crude fat provides 9 kcal of energy)
(Nielsen, 1998).
Resistant Starch and Digestible Starch Determination
Resistant starch was analysed according to the method as described by Goñi et al. (1996).
The sample (100 mg) was added with potassium chloride-hydrochloric acid (KCl-HCl) buffer
(pH 1.5, 10 mL) and pepsin (ref. P-7012; Sigma) solution (1 g pepsin/10 mL buffer KCl-HCl)
(0.2 mL). The suspension was then incubated in a water bath at 40°C for 60 min followed by
the addition of 0.1 M Tris-maleate buffer (pH 6.9, 9 mL) and α-amylase (ref. A-3176, Sigma)
(1 mL). This was further incubated for 16 h in a water bath at 37°C. The suspension was
washed twice with distilled water (10 mL), and then the residue was added with 3 mL
distilled water. To this, a 3 mL of 4 M KOH was added to the suspension and incubated in a
constant shaking water bath for 30 min at room temperature. After that, 5.5 mL of 2 M HCl, 3
mL of 4 M sodium acetate buffer (pH 4.75), and 80 µL of amyloglucosidase from Aspergillus
niger (ref. A9913, Sigma) were added to the mixture. This mixture was then incubated in a
water bath at 60°C for 45 min. The glucose concentration was measured by using the glucose
oxidase-peroxidase kit (ref. GL 2614, Randox). A standard curve of glucose solution was
prepared. The absorbance of the sample was read against a reagent blank (glucose
oxidase/peroxidase reagent) at 500 nm using a UV-VIS spectrophotometer (Shimadzu, UV
mini-1240, Kyoto, Japan). Resistant starch was calculated as mg of glucose × 0.9 (conversion
factor).
Weight, Volume, and Specific Volume Measurement
The weight of the steamed bun was measured using an analytical balance (4 decimal
places) (Sartorius, Entris64-1S, Goettingen, Germany). The volume and specific volume of
the steamed buns were analysed by using a benchtop laser-based scanner (VolScan Profiler,
Stable Micro Systems Ltd, Surrey, UK). A non-contact measurement system was selected for
the volume and specific volume measurement by using a 3-dimensional assessment of soft
and freshly steamed buns. The volume of the steamed buns is expressed in cm3, while its’
specific volume is expressed in cm3/g. The data were generated using VolScan Profiler
Software (Stable Micro Systems Ltd, Surrey, UK).
Texture Profile Analysis
The texture profile of steamed buns was analysed using a texture analyser (Stable Micro
System, TA.XT2i, Surrey, UK). The instrument was equipped with 5 kg load cell. The test
was conducted on a crumb (2.5 cm × 2.5 cm × 2.5 cm cube size) cut from the middle of the
bun. The setting of the analyser was performed according to Method 74-09 (AACC, 2000).
The test speed was set at 5 mm/s at 75% of the original height; the post-test speed was 10
mm/s, at 5 s interval between the two compression cycles. A trigger force of 5 g was selected.
The cubes were compressed twice using a 36-mm diameter aluminium cylinder probe (P/36R)
under the force of compression at 75% of the product original height. Parameters of hardness,
springiness, cohesiveness, chewiness, and gumminess were analysed using the Texture Expert
Version 1.05 Software (Stable Micro System Ltd, Surrey, UK).
Colour Determination
The colour of the skin and crumb of steamed buns were measured according to the
Commission Internationale de I ‘Eclairage (CIE) L*a*b* scale. Colorimeter (Konica Minolta,
Chroma Meter CR-400, Tokyo, Japan) was used to determine the L* [Lightness (L* = 0;
black, L* = 100; white)], Chroma a* [green chromaticity (-60) to red (+60)], and Chroma b*
[blue chromaticity (-60) to yellow (+60)] space values.
Sensory Evaluation
The sensory evaluation of the sample was performed by 50 semi-trained sensory panelists
comprising of students and staffs of the Department of Food Industry, Faculty of
Bioresources and Food Industry, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia. The sensory was
evaluated using 7-point hedonic scale to determine sensory acceptability by panelists; 1
indicates ‘dislike very much’ to 7 indicates ‘like very much’ (Watts et al., 1989). The steamed
buns were cut into cubes of 2 cm × 2 cm × 2 cm using clean bread knife. Each sample was
coded with different 3-digit numerical codes and then placed onto the paper plate. Each
sample was presented to the panelists in a randomized order so that each sample appears in a
particular position an equal number of times. A tray containing a plate of labelled steamed
cupcakes, a cup of 300 mL drinking water, and a sheet of sensory form was used to serve
each panelist. They were requested to rate the samples on the scale for each attribute; colour,
aroma, taste, hardness, gumminess, chewiness, and overall acceptability.
Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS)
20.0 software (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). The obtained results from the present study are
represented as the mean values of three individual replicates ± the standard deviation. The
data were subjected to a One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The significant differences
between mean values in the flour comparison section were determined by independent t-test
at a significance level of P < 0.05. While Duncan’s multiple range test was applied to
determine significant differences at the 5% level of significance (P < 0.05) for the product
section.
DISCUSSION
Proximate Composition of Grey and White Oyster Mushroom Flours
Results indicated that the proximate composition of grey and white oyster mushrooms
flour (GOMF and WOMF, respectively) were significantly different (P < 0.05), with the
exception of crude fibre content (Table 2). The WOMF had a significantly higher (P < 0.05)
content of moisture, ash, and crude protein, but a lower content of crude fat, total
carbohydrate, and calorie value than those of GOMF. The moisture content was 7.64 and
7.99% in GOMF and WOMF, respectively. Moisture content often associated with the
storage stability of food. The moisture content below 14% can prevent chemical changes
(e.g., enzymatic reaction, development of rancidity, and non-enzymatic reaction) and
microbial growth during storage (Kent and Evers, 1994; Shahzadi et al. 2005). Thus, GOMF
and WOMF could be categorised as shelf-stable food.
Table 2. Proximate composition of grey (GOMF) and white (WOMF)

oyster mushroom flours
Composition (%, dry basis) GOMF WOMF

Moisture 7.64 ± 0.04a 7.99 ± 0.01b
Ash 5.34 ± 0.02a 7.77 ± 0.08b
Crude protein 17.24 ± 0.21a 21.80 ± 0.13b
Crude fat 1.81 ± 0.07a 1.68 ± 0.04b
Crude fibre 22.60 ± 0.30a 22.80 ± 0.18a
Total carbohydrate 67.97 ± 0.15a 60.77 ± 0.09b
Calories (kcal/100 g) 357.16 ± 0.58a 345.36 ± 0.46b
The ash contents of GOMF and WOMF were found to be 5.34 and 7.77% (dry basis),
respectively. Hung and Nhi (2012) reported that the ash content of WOMF grown in Vietnam
was 7.6% (dry basis), which are similar to the present findings. However, the protein content
in GOMF showed a lower level than the findings by Alam et al. (2008). This could be
attributed to the difference on the substratum, age of the fructification, as well as atmospheric
conditions during growing (Alam et al. 2008). According to Ngozi (2014), the ash content is
associated to the total amount of minerals present within a food. Thus, it is evident that
mushroom is a good source of minerals.
Crude protein content of GOMF and WOMF were found to be 17.24 and 21.80% (dry
basis), respectively. The protein content in two mushroom species studied was lower as
compared to three mushroom species studied by Hung and Nhi (2012) for white oyster
mushroom (28.6%), straw mushroom (36.5%), and shiitake mushroom (26.3%). This could
be due to several factors, such as the growing location and the level of nitrogen available.
Ravikrishnan et al. (2017) reported that mushroom has a relative abundance of essential
amino acids, such as glycine, alanine, serine, and glutamic acid. The presence of significant
amount of glutamic acid in mushrooms could be utilised as a natural source of food
ingredient, such as a flavour enhancer, which contributes to the primary umami taste.
Crude fat contents in grey and white mushrooms used in the present study were 1.81 and
1.68% (dry basis), respectively. This value is lower to the fat content of grey oyster
mushroom reported by Alam et al. (2008) and Wan Rosli et al. (2011), which had 4.41 and
3.0% crude fat, respectively. Fat plays a vital role in the shelf life of food products because it
promotes rancidity in foods (Ngozi, 2014). According to Shahzadi et al. (2005), high activity
of spoilage enzymes, such as lipoxidase and lipase, can accelerate the release of free fatty
acids during storage. This subsequently causes development of odorous and unpleasant
compounds and leading to undesirable food.
Crude fibre content recorded in grey and white oyster mushrooms used in the present
study were 22.60 and 22.80% (dry basis), respectively. This value is close to the percentage
range with those reported previously by Alam et al. (2008), whereby the crude fibre content
of grey and white oyster mushroom were 22.87 and 24.34% (dry basis), respectively. Wan
Rosli et al. (2011) reported that insoluble dietary fibre (35.4%) is the dominant dietary fibre
component present in the grey oyster mushroom. The high content of crude fibre in oyster
mushrooms is an indication of its potential application as a source of fibre to be added to
bakery products, such as steamed bun, to compensate the lack of dietary fibre in the daily
diet.
The total carbohydrate content of WOMF was found to be significantly lower (P < 0.05)
than that of GOMF (Table 2). The total carbohydrate content of GOMF obtained in the
present study was in agreement with the work published by Wan Rosli et al. (2011) and Hung
and Nhi (2012), whereby the total carbohydrate content in grey oyster mushroom (Pleurotus
sajor-caju) powder was 65.50% and white oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) was
61.3%. According to Ravikrishnan et al. (2017), the total carbohydrate content of mushrooms
is commonly present as monosccharide, disaccharides, and polysaccharides, such as glucans,
sugar, alcohol, glycogen, and chitin. There was a significant difference (P < 0.05) in calorie
value between GOMF and WOMF (357.16 and 345.36 kcal/100 g, respectively). It may be
concluded that mushroom is a source of protein, crude fibre, and ash whilst low in fat content.
These findings suggest that mushrooms have good nutritive value for human and a promising
food that can reduce the malnutrition problem.
Proximate Composition of Steamed Buns
The proximate composition is an important criterion in order to have an idea of the

nutritional status of composite steamed bun. Moisture content is one of the most important
composition to be studied in order to identify a product’s shelf life. According to Arora and
Saini (2016), moisture content is the amount of water present in the food product and it is
important in determining the shelf life of steamed bun. Low moisture content helps enhance
the storage of bakery product at ambient temperature (Arora and Saini, 2016). The moisture
contents of 3WOM and 5WOM were shown to be significantly higher (P < 0.05) than the
steamed bun incorporated with GOMF and control steamed bun (Table 3). This might be due
to higher moisture content in WOMF compared to wheat flour and GOMF (Table 2).
Mushroom is relatively rich in nutritional properties, which is mainly in protein and total
dietary fibre (Saiful Bahri et al. 2017). The composite steamed bun showed a gradual increase
in protein content with the increase in oyster mushroom percentage (Table 3). 5WOM showed
a significant (P < 0.05) higher in protein content than the other steamed buns. This is because
the protein content in WOMF is higher than that of GOMF (Table 2). Steamed bun samples
have a fat content ranging from 3.98 to 4.73% and it shows a significant difference (P < 0.05)
among all the samples. 5GOM steamed bun showed it has the highest fat content, which was
significantly higher than that of 5WOM. This could be because the fat content of GOMF was
significantly higher as compared to that of WOMF (Table 2), which contributed to high fat
content in GOMF-containing steamed bun. The percentage of crude fibre in steamed bun
increased (0.85% for the control) in direct proportional with the composite flour. This can be
seen in a steamed bun incorporated with 5% oyster mushroom flour, i.e., 5GOM (2.35%) and
5WOM (2.24%).
Table 3. Proximate composition of steamed bun within various levels of grey

and white oyster mushroom flours
Composition Types of Steamed Buna

(%, dry Control 3GOM 5GOM 3WOM 5WOM
basis)
Moisture 36.71 ± 0.30a 36.93 ± 0.57a 36.88 ± 0.11a 38.82 ± 0.80b 39.06 ± 0.58b
Ash 1.09 ± 0.01a 1.36 ± 0.02b 1.40 ± 0.03c 1.36 ± 0.01b 1.40 ± 0.01c
Crude 11.13 ± 0.02a 12.06 ± 0.02b 12.13 ± 0.03c 12.07 ± 0.05b 12.19 ± 0.04d
protein
Crude fat 3.98 ± 0.003a 4.41 ± 0.01c 4.73 ± 0.06e 4.12 ± 0.02b 4.47 ± 0.004d
Crude fibre 0.85 ± 0.03a 1.36 ± 0.02b 2.35 ± 0.01c 1.23 ± 0.17b 2.24 ± 0.12c
Total 47.06 ± 0.30c 45.24 ± 0.52b 44.86 ± 0.13b 43.63 ± 0.8a 42.87 ± 0.55a
carbohydrateb
Caloriesb 269.71 ± 1.92b 268.92 ± 2.41b 270.56 ± 0.59b 259.88 ± 3.11a 260.50 ± 2.36a
(kcal/100 g)
a
b
Result obtained by calculation.
Oyster mushroom steamed buns contained generally high ash content; an increase in
substitution of oyster mushroom flour showed an increase in the ash content (Table 3). The
total percentage of ash provides an estimation on the minerals content in the composite
steamed bun. The highest total carbohydrate content was found in control sample with
47.06% and it is significantly higher (P < 0.05) when compared to steamed bun formulated
with GOM and WOM (Table 3). An increase in fibre content with decreased total
carbohydrate content of composite steamed bun has several health benefits: as it aids in the
digestion of the bun in the colon. Moreover, it reduces constipation that is often associated
with bakery products made with refined wheat flour (Jahangir et al. 2013). The calorie
content was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in control and steamed bun incorporated with grey
mushroom flour (i.e., 3GOM and 5GOM), whilst significantly lower in steamed bun
incorporated with white mushroom flour (i.e., 3WOM and 5WOM).
Resistant Starch of Steamed Buns
Figure 1 showed that steamed bun containing either grey or white oyster mushroom flour
had significantly (P < 0.05) higher (between 6.53% and 11.17%) resistant starch as compared
to that of control (4.80%). Resistant starch content in a steamed bun increased significantly
(P < 0.05) with an increase in oyster mushroom flour substitution. Resistant starch content in
steamed buns with partial substitution of oyster mushroom flours at 5% (i.e., 5GOM and
5WOM) increased almost 2.5-fold compared to that of the control. According to Goñi et al.
(1996), resistant starch in all composite steamed bun may be classified into categories of high
resistant starch product due to fall within the range of 5–15%. This is in reference to the table
of classification of food according to the range of resistant starch content (percentage dry
matter). According to Aziz and Zabidi (2011), amylose, a linear molecule, is associated with
resistant starch formation through the retrogradation process; to form highly ordered
structures with enzyme-resistant amylose-amylose linkages. The RS-3 (Resistant starch type
III, retrograded starch) is found to be transformed from the retrograded amylose and
amylopectin during thermal processing, i.e., steaming process in bun making. Thermal
processing, increased the interactions between starches and polymers and contributed to
higher formation of resistant starch. Thus, it may be assumed that RS-3 was present and
mainly contributes to the formation of resistant starch in a steamed bun.
In addition, the increased resistant content in all composite steamed buns was associated
with the presence of insoluble dietary fibre, non-digestible carbohydrates that are resistant to
human enzyme digestion. Cheung (2013) reported that mushrooms contain high level of
insoluble dietary fibre, ranging between 23.6 and 43.1%. High water-holding capacity of
dietary fibre also causes less water available for starch granule swelling and starch
gelatinisation (Ng et al. 2017). Therefore, an abundance of insoluble dietary fibre in oyster
mushrooms could be the reason for resistance in enzymatic digestion in the small intestine,
which is fermented in the large intestine (Ng et al. 2017). Similar work reported by Ng et al.
(2017) demonstrated that oyster mushroom powder addition, increased the resistant starch in
biscuits. Based on these results, it could be concluded that the GOMF and WOMF can be
used as an alternative functional food ingredient in the production of high resistant starch
foods.
Figure 1. Resistant starch of steamed bun within various levels of grey and white oyster mushroom
flours.
Error bars indicate mean values ± standard deviation (n = 3). Values with different online
letters within a row are significantly different (P < 0.05). 3GOM and 5GOM represent
steamed buns with partial substitution of grey oyster mushroom flour at 3 and 5%,
respectively. 3WOM and 5WOM represent steamed buns with partial substitution of white
oyster mushroom flour at 3 and 5%, respectively.
Weight, Volume, and Specific Volume of Steamed Buns
Results of physical attributes of steamed buns are presented in Table 4. There is a

significant difference (P < 0.05) between sample incorporated with oyster mushroom flour
and control for all the physical properties analysed. The results indicated that 5GOM and
5WOM had the lowest volume and specific volume (Table 4). This could be due to the high
fibre content in both 5GOM and 5WOM compared to that of control (Table 3). According to
Tosh and Yada (2010), increasing the amount of fibre rich flour in bread formulas tends to
decrease the loaf volume and specific volume.
The addition of composite flour that contain high amount of fibre leads to a significant
reduction in loaf volume and a huge effect on steamed bun texture (Table 4). The latter will
be further discussed in the coming section of this chapter. These findings could probably be
due to the interactions between flour protein, i.e., gluten, and the fibres in GOMF and WOMF
that prevent the free expansion of steamed bun dough during leavening stage. This statement
is supported by the findings of Almeida et al. (2013) and Nyam et al. (2013). They showed
that the addition of particulate components, especially bran and fibre, to dough promoted a
physical disruption in the gluten protein matrix. These findings are in-line with the findings
by Hu et al. (2009), which reported that the gluten content of bread being diluted by fibres,
changing the crumb structure that impaired carbon dioxide retention of dough and ultimately
affect the loaf volume.
Table 4. Weight, volume, and specific volume of steamed bun within various levels
of grey and white oyster mushroom flours
Types of Steamed Buna Weight (g) Volume (cm3) Specific volume (cm3/g)
Control 47.88 ± 0.03a 131.93 ± 0.93c 2.76 ± 0.02d
3GOM 48.33 ± 0.21b 125.63 ± 0.74b 2.60 ± 0.02c
5GOM 48.90 ± 0.28c 118.73 ± 1.16a 2.50 ± 0.03ab
3WOM 48.95 ± 0.08c 123.73 ± 2.07b 2.53 ± 0.05b
5WOM 48.72 ± 0.07c 118.33 ± 0.80a 2.43 ± 0.02a
Data are mean values ± standard deviation (n = 3). Values with different online letters within a column
are significantly different (P < 0.05).
a
Colour of Skin and Crumb of Steamed Buns
The steamed buns incorporated with either grey or white oyster mushroom flour showed
significantly lower (P < 0.05) L* value of skin colour than that of control. This indicates that
steamed buns containing grey or white oyster mushroom flour were significantly darker (P <
0.05) in colour as compared to that of control. As the level of grey or white oyster mushroom
flour in blends increased, i.e., from 3 to 5% substitution, the skin colour of the steamed buns
changed from creamy white to brown colour. The darkening of skin colour was believed to be
affected by the temperature that promotes Maillard and caramelisation reactions between
protein (lysine) and reducing sugars with the presence of heat (Noor Aziah et al. 2012). These
findings were supported by the findings in Table 3: steamed buns incorporated with grey or
white oyster mushroom flour were found to have higher protein content than that of the
control. The results showed a similar trend to the findings of Kunyanga and Imungi (2010),
whereby the incorporation of high protein flour, i.e., horse bean, in bread resulted in a darker
skin colour.
Steamed buns containing either grey or white oyster mushrooms flour yielded
significantly darker (P < 0.05) crumb colour than that of the control (Table 5). According to
Ho et al. (2013), the crumb colour is primarily associated with the substituted flour with less
effect from temperature. This is because the crumb does not get to as high temperature as the
skin. As the level of either grey or white oyster mushrooms flour in the composite steamed
buns increased from 3 to 5% substitution, it results in browning of the crumb colour. In
addition, steamed buns incorporated with grey oyster mushroom flour, i.e., 3GOM and
5GOM, were found to be darker crumb colour than steamed buns containing white oyster
mushroom flour: 3WOM and 5WOM. This could be attributed to the natural colour of the
flesh of the oyster mushrooms used. Grey oyster mushroom (Pleurotus sajor-caju) has natural
colour, which ranges from tan to dark brown, meanwhile white oyster mushroom (Pleurotus
ostreatus) has slightly bright fruiting body colour, which ranges from white to light brown.
Table 5. Skin and crumb colours of steamed bun within various levels of grey
Colour Types of Steamed Buna

Parameters Control 3GOM 5GOM 3WOM 5WOM
Skin of Steamed Buns
Lightness (L*) 60.78 ± 0.18d 43.82 ± 0.09b 36.59 ± 0.28a 53.31 ± 0.34c 43.33 ± 0.39b
Redness (a*) -2.29 ± 0.06e -0.62 ± 0.03d -0.13 ± 0.02a -0.46 ± 0.02c -0.29 ± 0.11b
Yellowness (b*) 12.36 ± 0.67b 10.33 ± 0.51a 9.73 ± 0.08a 17.15 ± 0.13d 15.88 ± 0.89c
Crumb of Steamed Buns
Lightness (L*) 59.90 ± 0.13e 40.36 ± 0.09b 32.21 ± 0.09a 55.45 ± 0.31d 49.58 ± 0.10c
Redness (a*) -2.39 ± 0.11d -0.55 ± 0.12b -0.07 ± 0.13a -0.90 ± 0.06c -0.12 ± 0.08a
Yellowness (b*) 13.17 ± 0.57b 10.21 ± 0.27a 10.03 ± 0.14a 15.74 ± 0.47c 16.71 ± 0.28d
a
The redness value (a*) indicates red or green colour (a positive a* value correlates to red
colour, while a negative a* value indicates green colour). The a* value of the skin and crumb
colour for all the prepared steamed buns were negative, which indicates that red hues were
not present (Table 5). The a* value of the skin and crumb of the control steamed bun were
significantly higher (P < 0.05) than that of samples substituted with either grey or white
oyster mushroom flour. This indicates that the control steamed bun presented was more
greenish than those of the composite steamed buns. The steamed bun incorporated with either
grey or white oyster mushroom flour showed it shifted towards the red quadrant as the
substitution level increased.
The skin and crumb yellowness value (b*), as denoted by a positive b* value for
composite steamed buns were significantly different (P < 0.05) when compared to that of the
control (Table 5). The b* value of the skin and crumb of the control steamed bun was found to
be significantly higher (P < 0.05) than that of steamed bun incorporated with grey oyster
mushroom flour: 3GOM and 5GOM. This may be because wheat flour is composed of free
lutein (xanthophyll), a carotenoid that presents a strong intensity of yellow pigmentation in
wheat (Lepage and Sims, 1698). Thus, the dilution of wheat flour by substitution with GOMF
leads to lower b* value for 3GOM and 5GOM. Increased in the substitution level of GOMF
from 3 to 5% had no significant effect (P > 0.05) on the b* of skin and crumb of the steamed
buns. However, the substitution of WOMF, which resulted in both 3WOM and 5WOM have
significantly greater (P < 0.05) b* of skin and crumb than those steamed buns substituted
with GOMF: 3GOM and 5GOM. In addition, increased in the substitution level of WOMF
from 3 to 5% led to significant higher (P > 0.05) b* value of both skin and crumb of the
steamed buns. These findings could probably be attributed to the colour imparted by the
WOMF. According to Oliveira et al. (2014), the colour of food is associated with the presence
of phenolic compounds that may affect the sensory acceptance by consumers. Hung and Nhi
(2012) found that white oyster mushrooms contain a significant amount of phenolic
compounds. This may result in yellow discolouration of steamed buns containing WOMF
(i.e., 3WOM and 5WOM), due to polyphenol oxidation, especially during the steaming
process. Despite the higher yellowness of the steamed buns containing WOMF, the use of
WOMF might improve the functional properties, e.g., phenolic compounds and antioxidant
capacity of wheat steamed buns.
Texture Profile of Steamed Buns
Texture analysis indicated that the addition of different percentages of oyster mushroom
flours significantly affects (P < 0.05) the hardness of steamed bun (Table 6). The hardness of
steamed bun increases with the replacement of oyster mushroom flours for wheat flour in the
formulation of steamed bun. The 5GOM and 5WOM showed a significant high (P < 0.05)
level of hardness. An increase in the hardness of both 5GOM and 5WOM of steamed buns
was probably due to a significant highest (P < 0.05) level of fibre (Table 3). Hard crumb is
mainly an attribute to the amylose and amylopectin matrix, which contributes to the overall
bread texture (Schiraldi and Fessas, 2000). Gomez et al. (2003) reported that bread hardness
is due to the interactions between gluten and fibrous materials.
Table 6. Texture profile of steamed bun within various levels of grey and white oyster
mushroom flours
Texture Properties Types of Steamed Buna

Hardness 0.51 ± 0.00a 0.58 ± 0.02b 1.01 ± 0.00c 0.57 ± 0.01b 1.01 ± 0.01c
(kg)
Springiness 0.81 ± 0.04b 0.82 ± 0.03b 0.72 ± 0.02a 0.81 ± 0.04b 0.86 ± 0.01b
(mm)
Cohesiveness 0.49 ± 0.04b 0.58 ± 0.01c 0.34 ± 0.01a 0.54 ± 0.03c 0.54 ± 0.01c
(kg/mm)
Gumminess 0.25 ± 0.02a 0.34 ± 0.14bc 0.35 ± 0.01c 0.31 ± 0.02b 0.55 ± 0.01d
(kg)
Chewiness 0.20 ± 0.01a 0.28 ± 0.00b 0.25 ± 0.02b 0.25 ± 0.02b 0.47 ± 0.01c
(kg/mm)
a
The springiness of the steamed buns was not affected (P > 0.05) by the partial
replacement of oyster mushroom flour for wheat flour, with an exception of 5GOM (Table 6),
which showed no significant difference (P > 0.05) with the control steamed bun. On the
contrary; cohesiveness, gumminess, and chewiness of all oyster mushroom flour-containing
steamed buns were significantly different (P < 0.05) as compared to that of control steamed
bun. The cohesiveness of the steamed buns increased from 0.49 (for the control) to 0.54 and
0.58 kg/mm for 5WOM and 3GOM, respectively. This elevation in cohesiveness indicated
that steamed buns formulated with composite oyster mushroom flours have significantly
higher (P < 0.05) capability to resist the steamed bun structure from deformation under the
mastication. However, 5GOM (0.34 kg/mm) showed a significantly lower (P < 0.05)
capability to resist deformation. Steamed buns containing oyster mushroom flours showed a
significantly higher (P < 0.05) values of gumminess and chewiness than that of the control.
The results of this study showed a similar trend in the work reported by Wang et al. (2002).
The authors reported that bread incorporated with plant source rich in fibres has higher
gumminess and chewiness values than that of the control.
Sensory Attributes of Steamed Buns
The results obtained from sensory evaluation showed that the steamed buns containing
either grey or white oyster mushroom flour exhibited a significantly lower (P < 0.05) scores
for colour than that of the control (Table 7). Colour is one of the most important sensory
attributes for consumers in the product selection (Matos and Rosell, 2013). According to
Makinde and Akinoso (2014), colour is a vital attribute of cooked food. It reflects the
suitability of raw materials used for the preparation and could provide information on the
quality of the product. Consumers’ preference depends on the appearance of the steamed
buns, i.e., either dark or light. Since sensory panellists have a significantly higher (P < 0.05)
preference for the control steamed bun and the results from colour analysis indicates the
control steamed bun has a significantly lighter (P < 0.05) colour (as denoted by significantly
higher L*) when compared with steamed buns containing oyster mushrooms (Table 5).
It is safe to suppose that consumers prefer steamed buns light in colour to those with darker
colour. The composite steamed buns were observed as dark coloured as the level of the
substitution of either grey or white oyster mushroom flour increased. This may be attributed
to the presence of pigments in oyster mushroom flours. A similar effect on the acceptance of
colour was also reported by Aishah and Wan Rosli (2013). In their study, wheat flour was
replaced with different levels of grey oyster mushroom flour for the production of creaming
cake. They reported that creaming cake containing grey oyster mushroom flour received
lower score values than the control (creaming cake without grey oyster mushroom flour).
The substitution of grey oyster mushroom flour up to 5% level has no significant
influence (P < 0.05) on the aroma of the steamed buns as compared to that of the control.
However, steamed buns incorporated with white oyster mushroom flour (i.e., both 3WOM
and 5WOM) showed a significantly lower (P < 0.05) score in the aroma attribute than that of
the control and steamed buns containing grey oyster mushroom flour (i.e., both 3GOM and
5GOM). This clearly shows that sensory panellists preferred either the control or steamed
buns containing grey oyster mushroom flour to steamed buns containing white oyster
mushroom flour. This may be due to unpleasant odour from the white oyster mushroom flour.
According to Jideani and Onwubali (2009), the baking or steaming process of composite
flours often, affect the organoleptic properties. This includes the hardness of the crumb of the
products, which could be due to the reduction in the wheat protein (i.e., gluten) content.
However, the partial replacement of either grey or white oyster mushroom flour for wheat
flour had no significant effect (P > 0.05) on the hardness of the steamed buns as compared to
that of the control. This may be because the composite steamed buns had similar amounts of
protein content with the control (Table 3). According to the statistical analysis, the
substitution of grey oyster mushroom flour for wheat flour at 3% level significantly reduced
(P < 0.05) the score for chewiness and gumminess as compared to those of the control
steamed bun (Table 7). This could be attributed to the different composition of the flour (i.e.,
fibre, starch, and protein) that might affect the amount of water absorption during dough
mixing (Serrem et al. 2011). Subsequently, it either enhances or diminishes the chewiness and
gumminess of the end product.
There was no significant difference (P < 0.05) in the scores obtained for composite
steamed buns (3GOM, 5GOM, 3WOM, and 5WOM) and that of the control for the attributes
of taste and overall acceptability (Table 7). For the overall acceptability, all steamed buns
received scores greater than 4, ranging between 4.86 and 5.28. Hence, all the produced
steamed buns were considered acceptable. Steamed buns formulated with grey or white oyster
mushroom flour at level up to 5% substitution were comparable to that of the control.
Therefore, grey or white oyster mushroom flour has the potentials of being used in a steamed
bun formulation.
Table 7. Sensory attributes of steamed bun within various levels of grey

Sensory Properties Types of Steamed Buna

Colour 6.16 ± 1.00d 4.84 ± 1.08b 4.20 ± 1.37a 5.42 ± 1.01c 4.46 ± 1.37ab
Aroma 5.02 ± 1.27bc 5.18 ± 1.00c 5.12 ± 0.90c 4.62 ± 1.32ab 4.28 ± 1.41a
Hardness 5.08 ± 1.47a 4.66 ± 1.21a 4.88 ± 1.41a 4.82 ± 1.12a 4.60 ± 1.29a
Chewiness 5.12 ± 1.26b 4.52 ± 1.20a 5.00 ± 1.07ab 4.94 ± 1.19ab 4.82 ± 1.21ab
Gumminess 5.06 ± 1.22b 4.42 ± 1.11a 5.08 ± 1.01b 4.64 ± 1.16ab 4.78 ± 1.18ab
Taste 5.32 ± 1.19a 4.96 ± 1.05ab 5.02 ± 1.00ab 4.78 ± 1.28a 4.78 ± 1.43a
Overall acceptability 5.28 ± 1.18a 5.02 ± 1.15a 5.18 ± 0.75a 4.86 ± 1.03a 4.88 ± 1.29a
Data are mean values ± standard deviation of 50 independent sensory panellist. Values with different
online letters within a row are significantly different (P < 0.05).
a
CONCLUSION
This study offers an opportunity to test the feasibility of grey and white oyster mushroom
flours in a steamed bun formulation. Both grey and white oyster mushroom flours produced
showed different proximate compositions, except for crude fibre. The results indicated that
the partial substitution (up to 5% of wheat flour basis) of oyster mushroom flour for wheat
flour could significantly affect the quality, in terms of nutritive value and physical properties
of steamed buns. Sensory acceptance study showed that steamed buns containing either
GOMF or WOMF were comparable with the control. However, additional work to improve
the colour, i.e., increasing the lightness, of steamed buns containing oyster mushroom flours
is suggested to be conducted. This may help determine ways to improve consumers’
preference since sensory panellists showed preference towards the steamed bun with lighter
colour. Based on this study, grey oyster mushroom may be suggested to be more favourable
than white oyster mushroom in steamed buns manufacturing.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank to Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin (UniSZA) for the
facilities support and not forgetting to thank to Science Officer for their technical support.
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Chapter 8
COMPOSITE FLOUR AS A NEW APPROACH

TO IMPROVE THE NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF FOODS:
PRODUCT QUALITY CHALLENGES
Lee-Hoon Ho1,*, Li-Choo Chong2 and Thuan-Chew Tan3

1
Department of Food Industry, Faculty of Bioresources
and Food Industry, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin,
Besut Campus, Besut, Terengganu, Malaysia
2
School of Culinary Arts & Food Studies, Faculty of Hospitality, Food & Leisure
Management, Taylor’s University, Selangor, Malaysia
3
ABSTRACT
Composite flour is the blend of wheat flour and non-wheat flour used for making
food products. Initially, composite flour was introduced to address the global wheat
shortage and the increasing price of wheat, but later, with the ever-changing lifestyles, the
use of composite flour has shifted to improve the nutritional and functional values of
food. This review highlights the current applied processing methods in producing
composite flours and the effects of composite flour on the nutritional value,
physicochemical properties, and functional characteristics of food products. This review
also focuses on the applications of composite flour obtained from locally available
agricultural sources to produce food products; particularly wheat-based products; such as
bread, cakes, and biscuits. Various challenges of baked products are discussed; such as
the use of composite flour on the quality, i.e., nutritional values, physical, functional,
consumer acceptability, and shelf life, of baked products. Many efforts have been
employed in recent years to counter the problems of dealing with the processing of
composite food products, especially in baked products. This review also discusses the
effect of blending wheat flour with composite flour (which is processed from wheat less
sources, such as fruits, vegetables, roots, tubers, and legumes) on the pasting profile,
thermal profile, dough-mixing properties, and dough-rheological properties. Based on the
*
142 Lee-Hoon Ho, Li-Choo Chong and Thuan-Chew Tan
understanding of the properties of flour blends, food technologists can predict the
physical quality of the end products. Overall, through this review, the information from
composite flour production until the composite end products could especially be socially
and economically beneficial to baking industries in producing the desired end product in
terms of quality and nutrition.
Keywords: composite flour, drying, bakery products, product quality, composite flour blends
characteristics
INTRODUCTION
Baking of baked foods can be defined as the process which transforms dough; made from
flour and water; together with other ingredients, such as sugar, fat, eggs, leavening agent, and
other permitted additives (depending on the specific products). Baked cereal products, such as
cake, bread, pastry, and cookies, have been widely consumed throughout the world (Patel et
al., 2005; Mignogna et al., 2015). The baking industry has grown rapidly over recent years,
particularly in Malaysia (Noor Aziah and Komathi, 2009). According to Kiumarsi et al.
(2017), there is a high potential for growth in businesses selling bakery products.
Furthermore, Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) are primarily engaged in the bakery
business. However, they have a tough time competing with branded bakery companies.
Therefore, the SMEs in Malaysia are striving hard to achieve growth in the business of bakery
products by forming ties. There are many types of bakery products that vary based on the
supplementation of value-added ingredients used. A majority of these functional ingredients
are from plant sources. Thus, the increasing number of applications of composite flour in
numerous bakery products has grown tremendously (Sudha et al., 2007).
The composite flour programme was established by the Food and Agriculture
Organisation (FAO) in the bakery product industry in order to solve the world’s short supply
of wheat due to the increasing demand in wheat-based products. Furthermore, the composite
flour programme was also created to reduce importation of wheat by developing countries so
as to reduce wheat expenditure in bakery products (Edwards, 2007). Nowadays with
advanced technology present, the term for composite flour programme has subsequently
changed with its prime focus on the innovation of novel composite bakery products (Jisha et
al., 2008).
According to Dendy and Dobraszczyk (2001), composite flour is the blending of wheat
flour and non-wheat flour (by partial substitution) in the making of wheat-based bakery
products. Some work have been conducted by bakery technologists on wheat-based bakery
products, with partial substitution of non-wheat materials, for wheat to improve the
functional, textural, and nutritional properties (Khalil et al., 2000; Sangnark and Noomhorm,
2004; Mohammed et al., 2012). Much of the works were conducted on wheat flour substituted
with non-wheat flour in formulations with the aim to improve the bioactive compounds of the
bakery products and extend the bread shelf life (Ragaee et al., 2011; Sairam et al., 2011). The
composite flour can be obtained from utilisation of locally available agricultural sources from
other cereals, oilseeds, legumes or tubers (e.g., chickpea), banana, cassava, mango pulp and
peel, and rice straw (Khalil et al., 2000; Sangnark and Noomhorm, 2004; Juarez-Garcia et al.,
Composite Flour as a New Approach to Improve the Nutritional Value of Foods 143
2006; Gómez et al., 2008; Yamsaengsung et al., 2010; Noor Aziah et al., 2011b; Trejo-
González et al., 2014).
Several criteria must be taken into consideration in the selection of raw materials as a
composite. First, the alternative flour must be safe for human consumption. Second, the
composite flour should be compatible to wheat flour in terms of protein content (i.e., 12%
protein). Other than that, the raw material should be easily available found in local plantations
for utilisation as composite flour. Besides that, the cost of the raw materials should be taken
into consideration in order to reduce the production cost of the bakery products (Dendy and
Dobraszczyk, 2001). Dendy and Dobraszczyk (2001) reported that the substitution of the
composite flour for wheat flour must be not higher than 30%; since beyond that the bread
characteristic might not be achieved.
Most fruits and vegetables have high moisture content and are highly perishable. In order
to prolong the shelf life of these commodities, different ways of drying as a mean for
preservation have been investigated (Eric, 2012). The technology for processing vegetables
and fruits into powder has only been developed in recent years. The vegetables and fruits are
either dried to a final water content of below 4%, followed by grinding, sieving, and packing
of products. Alternatively, they are transformed by boiling and sieving into purees which are
then dried on heated surfaces, preferably under vacuum, or by spraying in hot air (Fedha,
2008).
It has been reported that the specific drying method together with the physical-chemical
changes that occur during drying seems to affect the quality of dehydrated products and
ultimately the quality and the functional properties of the flour (Ahmed and Al-Attar, 2014).
Studies on the physico-chemical properties of flour, such as total acidity, total soluble solid,
and moisture content, are crucial for food processing as they influence the characterisation,
i.e., quality and texture, and industrial application of food products (Moorthy, 1994; Gérard et
al., 2001; You and Izidorazyk, 2002). Similarly, functional properties of flours are also very
important as they determine the level of utilisation in formulation and food product
development (Tasneem et al., 1982). According to Adeleke and Odedeji (2010), the
functional qualities of flours, such as water absorption index, swelling power, solubility
index, foaming capacity, dispersibility, bulk density, and pasting characteristics, are greatly
affected by processing parameters, such as temperature and time. The review discusses the
common techniques used to process composite flour, followed by the quality of composite
baked products and the pasting profile, thermal profile, dough mixing properties, and dough
rheology properties of composite flour blends.
DRYING
Drying or dehydration is the oldest method in food preservation, and its aim is to remove
most of the water present in the product, by evaporation. According to Hossain et al. (2010),
fresh and high moisture contents of samples lose its antioxidant compounds through the
enzymatic degradation process because the active enzymes in fresh samples are still high. The
reduction of moisture content will decrease the microbial load or enzymatic activity involved
in food spoilage and hence preserve the food. According to Rocha et al. (2011), water is a
significant component of biological materials and the first step in many postharvest
treatments is the removal of water by drying. This would consequently increase the shelf life
of the perishable product. The production of food powder, from fruit and vegetable waste,
through drying has been proven to increase the shelf life of this perishable food for a period
of approximately two weeks to two years. Apart from preservation, dehydration makes
product packaging, handling, and distribution easier due to the volumetric shrinkage and
weight loss during the drying process (Ochoa et al., 2002).
In recent years, much attention has been paid to the quality of food during drying. Both
the method of drying and physicochemical changes that occur in tissues during drying affects
the quality of the dehydrated product (Krokida et al., 2001). The quality of food refers firstly
to safety, and then to sensory and nutritional properties. But in many cases, the severity of
processing is differently related to safety and to sensory or nutritional quality. Severe
processing generally results in higher nutritional loss and in poorer quality, whereas it
increases food safety (Bonazzi and Dumoulin, 2011). When carried out correctly, the quality
of the dehydrated products in terms of safety, nutritional quality, active ingredients, colour,
flavour, and texture, will be preserved without any significant reduction. The nutritional value
might be slightly less when compared to that of the fresh food but, for most people, this is
acceptable because this is only a minor nutritional significance since dried foods form one
component in the diet. However, if drying is carried out incorrectly, there is a greater loss in
the overall qualities. Drying has also been reported to affect the antioxidant activity of fruits
and vegetables differently (Chantaro et al., 2008). An optimal drying time and the right level
of severity of processing must, therefore, be designed in order to obtain the desired food
characteristics (Bonazzi and Dumoulin, 2011). The purpose of food drying is to produce a
shelf-stable, quality product in which the product quality resembles the quality of the original
product as closely as possible (Akhter et. al., 2010).
Food can be dehydrated or dried by various means, e.g., the sun, a conventional oven, an
electric dehydrator, freeze dryer or a microwave oven. Most of these methods employ thermal
energy to increase the air temperature in the vicinity of the product to be dried (Müller and
Heindl, 2006). Thermal energy will evaporate most of the water present in the product,
resulting in a moisture loss and a dried end product. However, precautions must be taken to
set the drying regime, especially the temperature, so that the product to be dried is not
exposed to an excessively high temperature that can cause a major losses or damage to the
active chemical constituents. For the preservation of active ingredients of plant materials,
comparatively low drying temperatures are always recommended (Quaas and Schiele, 2001).
The effect of thermal and non-thermal drying on the physicochemical properties of non-wheat
flour production will be further discussed in details in the following section.
The Effect of Thermal Drying on Non-Wheat Flour Properties and Quality
Hot-air dryers are the most popular equipment for fruit drying (Amanlou and
Zomorodian, 2010). Food products dried in a cabinet dryer are placed on trays and moved
into a drying compartment where the product is exposed to drying air. According to Amanlou
and Zomorodian (2010), one of the drawbacks of this dryer can be non-uniformity in the
desired moisture content of the end product. This is caused by the lack of uniformity of air
flow across the product and of the temperature and absolute humidity of the air entering the
area of drying. In addition, the product which is situated neared to where air enters the drying
area tends to dehydrate more rapidly, since product downstream will be exposed to air with
higher humidity and will dry less rapidly (Heldman and Singh, 1981).
In the extensive production of dehydrated food products however, this disadvantage is
outweighed by the cost effectiveness of the cabinet dryer and the ability of the cabinet dryer
to preserve much of the desired qualities of the substances when drying at low temperatures
(Bchir et al., 2012). Compared with air drying, freeze drying costs are four to eight times
higher (Ratti, 2001). Lowering the process temperature has great potential to improve the
quality of dried products. The high temperature of the drying process is an important cause
for loss of quality (Nindo et al., 2003; Beaudry et al., 2004). In a study conducted, the
temperature of 40°C is recommended for the drying of pomegranate seeds (dried at 40, 50
and 60°C, respectively) as it has the lowest impact on the quality parameters of the seeds
(Bchir et al., 2012). In another study conducted, it was observed that hot air drying at 70°C
for 10 hours caused almost a 60% degradation of anthocyanins in comparison to fresh
blueberries (Stojanovic and Silva, 2007).
During drying, flour undergoes series of changes as a result of the transformation that
occurs. For example, during hot-air drying, flour undergoes gelatinisation in the presence of
water, and it is believed that this mode of drying significantly affects the gelatinisation and
thus the functionality, particularly its water absorption capacity (Ahmed and Attar, 2014). In
another study conducted to investigate the effect of drying at high temperature on the
physicochemical properties of cocoyam flour, the authors pointed out that at lower
temperature, water absorption capacity of flour was low while at higher temperature, water
absorption capacity of flour was high (Ajala et al., 2012). Different drying conditions and
drying temperature can however affect the physicochemical and functional qualities of flours
to different extents. Ho et al. (2017b) reported that the physicochemical and functional
properties of watermelon rind flour processed by undergoing hot-air drying had higher values
for water absorption capacity, oil absorption capacity, bulk density, and resistant starch than
that of the lyophilised watermelon rind flour.
The disparities observed could be attributed to the varying degree of changes the different
drying conditions has on the microstructure of the flour and starch and protein contents,
nature of the protein, as well as varietal differences. Microstructure of food is an essential
component in determining its functionality. Different drying methods can affect the
microstructure, i.e., cell/tissue structure, of products to varying degrees on different species
and varieties of samples. The heat content and the extent of drying can result in varying
degrees of breakdown of the cell walls, decreased intercellular contact and the collapse or
sustenance of cell structure of the dried products. This results in the disparities observed in
the functionality of flour (Sarpong, 2014).
For most food products, it is best to use drying temperatures of 40 to 60°C. The
temperature should never exceed 60°C. The main reason for this is because higher
temperatures can destroy nutrients within the food itself. Without these nutrients, the food
loses much of its dietary importance. Regrettably, many people think that the hotter the air,
the better it will be for drying the food material. This is an incorrect assumption that can lead
to some serious problems, in addition to destroying some of the nutrients contained within the
food (Mercer, 2012). At very high temperature and low humidity, the drying rate of
watermelon rinds may initially increase. However, the resulted case hardening would reduce
the drying rate and deteriorate the product quality due to cooking instead of drying (Islam,
1980). Conventionally, low drying temperatures between 30 and 50°C are recommended to
protect sensitive active ingredients, but the decelerated drying process causes a low capacity
for drying installations (Müller and Heindl, 2006).
A research conducted on some physical properties and thin layer drying characteristics of
local varieties of tomatoes (Lycopersicon lycopersicum) found that fresh fruits had the highest
nutritional properties while fruits dried at 40°C had nutritional values closest to that of fresh
fruits. In the study, tomato fruits were dried over a temperature range of 40 to 80°C. The
results of the research also indicate that the nutritional quality of tomatoes decreased as
drying temperature increased from 40 to 80°C (Mercer, 2012). This finding is also in
agreement with the findings of Kerchofs (2003) on the effect of semi-drying of antioxidant
components of tomatoes to residual dry matter contents. The authors reported that maximum
nutrients and flavours are retained in tomatoes at 42°C. Nutrient retention occurred at low
temperature treatments, but not at higher temperatures (Onifade et al., 2013). Decrease the
drying temperature will retain the antioxidant activity of apricots (Bushra et al., 2012).
Furthermore, elkhorn sea moss (Kappaphycus alvarezii) subjected to oven drying (at 40 and
60°C) displayed stronger scavenging activity compared to lyophilised samples (Angelina et
al., 2015).
In respect to chemical changes resulted from the drying process, browning can occur due
to the presence of soluble constituents, such as sugar, and as a result of high processing
temperature. Rate of browning often increases with increasing temperature, and the increase
is more rapid in systems high in sugar content. Browning reactions result in colour change,
reduction of nutritional value, solubility, off-flavours, and texture changes (Kha, 2010).
Nutritional values are very important parameters affected during the drying process; the
resultant values greatly vary depending on the pre-treatments, drying temperature, drying
time, and the storage conditions. According to Fellows (2000), heat and oxidation during
drying are the most important causes of nutritional loss. Finally, drying affects the
microbiological quality of flour. This is often the most critical factor that needs to be taken
into account as it affects not only the quality of the product itself but also has consequences in
terms of human health when flours are consumed, directly or indirectly. Ho et al. (2016)
reported that hot-air oven drying at 40°C maintain more proximate compositions, such as
moisture, ash, crude protein, crude fibre, crude fat, total carbohydrate, and energy, than that
of hot-air oven drying at 60°C for yellow-fleshed watermelon rind flour.
The Effect of Non-Thermal Drying on Non-Wheat Flour Properties

and Quality
Freeze drying or lyophilisation has always been the most preferable method when it
comes to the drying of food with active chemical constituents. Freeze drying has been
considered the best dehydration process for thermo-labile products because it reduces
nutritional and sensorial degradation. In addition, freeze drying is known to extend the shelf
life of foods by preventing microbial growth and retarding lipid oxidation (Marques et al.,
2009). Freeze drying operation is based on sublimation, which is the transformation from ice
to vapour without passing through the liquid phase (Garcia-Amezquita et al., 2015). After the
sublimation process is completed, all ice has sublimed. However, bound water is still present
in the product. The bound water molecules will be eliminated through the process of
desorption.
There are several advantages of using freeze drying instead of conventional air-drying,
because the absence of heating in this process preserves nutrients and sensory characteristics
within the food product. These advantages make freeze drying an adequate technology among
the new trends of functional and nutraceutical products in the food industry (Garcia-
Amezquita et al., 2015). It is an excellent method for preserving a wide variety of heat-
sensitive materials. Despite the advantages offered by freeze drying, the main disadvantages
are the long drying time and operating costs. Thus, the use of such drying method is justified
only in obtaining value-added products (Planinić et al., 2015). The sublimation process
employed also makes freeze drying operations expensive to use (Garcia-Amezquita et al.,
2015). Freeze drying process is not widely used in the food industry due to its high operation
cost (Ratti, 2001).
According to Ho et al. (2016), the freeze drying method preserved more proximate
composition, i.e., moisture, ash, crude protein, crude fibre, crude fat, total carbohydrate, and
energy rather than that of hot-air oven drying at 40 and 60°C for red-fleshed watermelon rind
flour. Ho et al. (2017b) reported that the freeze drying method resulted in a better quality
watermelon rind flour in terms of total sugar, total titratable acids, pH, colour, total starch,
and digestible starch. Another study showed that freeze drying produced dried spearmint that
had the highest total phenolic content and the most potent antioxidant capacity. However,
spearmint that was dried by convection oven and microwave drying presented the lowest
amount of phenolic compounds and antioxidant potency (Orphanides et al., 2013). Asami et
al. (2003) reported that freeze-dried Marion berries, strawberries, and corn consistently had a
higher retention content of bioactive molecules compared with those air-dried.
In general, the polyphenolic content of fresh plant materials is higher than that of dried
plant materials due to degradation of phenols during drying. Decline in polyphenolic content
after drying has been reported for ginger leaves (Chan et al., 2009). However, some recent
studies have shown that dried plant materials contain higher polyphenols as compared to fresh
plant materials. For example, an increase in polyphenolic content after drying has been
reported for shiitake (Lentinus edodes) mushroom (Choi et al., 2006) and tomatoes (Chang et
al., 2007). According to Gramza-Michalowska et al. (2007), as the degree of drying of the
sample increases, the content of flavonoids will be decreased. This was attributed to the fact
that high temperature and long drying time will destroy flavonoids. Decreasing water in the
plant cells can trigger difficulties during solvent extraction, which resulted in lower
flavonoids extracted from the plant cells, as demonstrated by Jahangiri et al. (2011) in fig
(Ficus carica) leaves. Rabeta and Lin (2015) concluded that the freeze drying method is a
good method for preserving total phenolic content, total flavonoid content, and antioxidant
activities (determined using ferric-reducing antioxidant potential (FRAP) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-
picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging methods) of leaves and berries of Cayratia
trifolia (commonly known as bush Grape or fox-grape).
BREAD
Bread is one of the important staple foods for humans. The world consumption of bread
is reported to grow rapidly per annum. Traditionally, bread is mainly made based on flour
derived from cereal wheat (Mnif et al., 2012). However, bread prepared from refined flour is
nutritionally poor and does not adequately meet the requirements for many macro- or
micronutrients (Sidhu et al., 1999; Dhingra and Jood, 2001; Škrbić and Filipčev, 2008;
Nilufer-Erdil et al., 2012). People who consumed more wheat bread are prone to malnutrition.
According to Sidhu et al. (1999), bread is generally depleted of natural dietary fibre. A diet
low in dietary fibre is associated with a spectrum of degenerative diseases, i.e., constipation,
diverticular disease, hiatus hernia, appendicitis, varicose veins, piles, diabetes, obesity,
coronary heart disease, bowl cancer, and gallstones (Faivre and Bonithon-Kopp, 1999;
Bazzano et al., 2003). Recently, it is a well-established fact that the consumption of adequate
amounts of dietary fibre could significantly reduce the risk of these diseases (Faivre and
Bonithon-Kopp, 1999; Bazzano et al., 2003).
According to Hathorn et al. (2008), composite bread is known as specialty breads
because it contributes more nutrients and provides added taste, flavour, and colour when
compared with traditional bread. Eliasson and Larsson (1993) reported that by incorporating
other cereal flours, such as oats, rye or barley into wheat bread could result in the
improvement of the taste and for some cases, prolonged the shelf life of bread. Even though
the nutritional content of baked products was improved, sometimes the composite flour
causes the yielded baked products with low quality, in terms of the volume, height and colour.
In addition, breads made from soybean flour showed higher crude protein, crude fibre, crude
fat, and ash contents than that of control bread, i.e., whole wheat bread. The sensory attributes
result showed that 5% substitution of soybean flour for wheat flour was not significantly
different with that of the control bread (Olaoye et al., 2006). According to Mohamed et al.
(2006), high protein breads contain up to 15–20% protein content which can be prepared by
replacing soybean flour for wheat flour at 10% level to produce an acceptable specialty Indian
bread. Results obtained from proximate compositions study of cassava composite bread
samples showed no significant difference as compared to whole wheat bread. The results
obtained from sensory evaluation indicated that bread baked with 10 and 20% composite
flour were not significantly different in all sensory attributes, including colour, taste, aroma
texture preference, and overall acceptability, from that of control bread (Eddy et al., 2007).
In the recent years, there have been rising demands for high fibre products, which is
triggered by the increase in obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases (FAO, 1990).
Wheat flour blends with high-dietary fibre flour have been commonly applied in the bakery
industry to reduce the utilisation of large quantities of wheat flour, as well as to increase the
dietary fibre intake of the consumer. The incorporation of dietary flour into food may also
contribute to the reduction of malnutrition cases (Marin et al., 2009). According to Dendy and
Dobraszczyk (2001), failure to comply with the composite flour programme is always
associated with the lack of regular supply of raw materials. Since banana pseudo-stem is an
underutilised waste material produced from the worldwide agricultural sector, this waste
material is suitable to be processed into flour for its use as composite flour in bakery products
(Ho et al., 2013).
Although the use of banana pseudo-stem as composite flour does not meet the second
criteria, but it can be used for the replacement of fibre deficiency in wheat-based products.
Development of high quality banana pseudo-stem flour may be able to meet the worldwide
increasing demand for foods with high dietary fibre composition. However, the end product
obtained from the composite flour may change in terms of the physicochemical properties and
nutritional value (Gómez et al., 2003). Ho et al. (2013) studied the possibility of utilising
banana pseudo-stem flour in the preparation of composite bread. The bread was prepared by
partial substitution of banana pseudo-stem flour for wheat flour at a 10% level with the
addition of 0.8% hydrocolloids, i.e., xanthan gum or sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC).
The authors reported that the composite bread had significantly higher moisture, ash, crude
fibre, soluble dietary fibre, insoluble dietary fibre, total dietary fibre, total phenolic content,
and antioxidant properties; whilst lower crude fat, crude protein, and total carbohydrate
content was more than that of control bread, i.e., bread made of 100% wheat flour. In terms of
physical properties, all the composite bread, with the exception of composite bread contains
CMC, exhibited lower volume, lighter crust, and darker crumb colour than that of control
bread. The composite bread incorporated banana pseudo-stem flour and with the addition of
CMC had the highest sensory acceptability score (Ho et al., 2013).
Loaf volume is positively affected by protein content (Faergestad et al., 2000; Tronsmo et
al., 2002) and the amount of protein is an indication of the wheat flour quality. High protein
content indicates a good quality of flour. According to Sahi and Little (2006) and Kumar et al.
(2011), good quality wheat flour is capable of retaining gas. The gas retention characteristic
of the dough is associated with the capability of the gluten structure to hold carbon dioxide
(CO2) gas produced by yeast. Low bread loaf volume is related to the low gas retention
properties of gluten, which is the result of a number of factors, such as a lack of oxidation,
low protein levels in the flour, and poor dough development (Ahmad et al., 2014).
Furthermore, low volume could also be attributed to the short final proofing time, i.e., under-
proofed (Sahi and Little, 2006).
The partial substitution of non-wheat flour for wheat flour can significantly influence the
loaf volume due to protein dilution. However, the loaf volume is affected by the type of non-
wheat flour added. Gómez et al. (2003) reported that insoluble fibres negatively influence the
loaf volume by the reduction of dough’s gas retention ability, which is attributed to the
interaction between fibre and gluten. However, the use of approximately 2% of the soluble
fibres or 0.25–1% of guar gum contributed to the positive result on the loaf volume
(Czuchajowska et al., 1992; Rodge et al., 2012).
The use of composite flour in baked products resulted in the reduction of protein content
and subsequently lowered the gluten structure, which is essential in maintaining the quality of
the product in terms of elasticity of the dough. The addition of hydrocolloids in food has been
found to improve and modify the texture of food by influencing the dough’s rheological
performance. It is able to mimic the viscoelastic characteristics of gluten in the dough
(Angioloni and Collar, 2012). Furthermore, the addition of hydrocolloids in food could also
improve the sensory properties (Linden and Lorient, 1999; Rodge et al., 2012). In addition, an
improvement in wheat dough stability during proofing can be obtained by the addition of
hydrocolloids, namely sodium alginate, ĸ-carrageenan, xanthan gum, and hydroxypropyl
methylcellulose (HPMC) (Rosell et al., 2001). Murray (2000) reported that high water level
of bread dough enhances the loaf volume during the baking stage and retards the staling of
bread during storage due to its ability to retain moisture in the bread.
Gomes et al. (2016) studied the effect of the partial replacement of whole green banana
(with peel and pulp) flour (10 or 20%, dry weight basis) for wheat flour (90 or 80% dry
weight basis) on the physical, chemical, and sensory attributes, as well as its shelf life study.
The partial substitution of green banana flour for wheat flour resulted in changes in physical
and chemical characteristics of bread. The composite breads showed darker crumb colour,
lower specific volume, and higher water activity than the control bread. However, some of the
nutritional content (i.e., ash and crude fibre) were observed to increase without any negative
effect on some of the sensory attributes (i.e., flavour, texture, and overall acceptability) and
shelf life during storage for up to seven days. The decrease in the specific volume of bread
containing whole green banana flour is mainly due to the fibres present in the whole green
banana flour, which compromises the gluten structure. This leads to the failure of the gluten
network in the dough to expand and ultimately lower the retention of CO2 gas during the
fermentation process (Polaki et al., 2010). According to Pacheco-Delahye et al. (2004), green
banana flour exhibited nutritional and nutraceutical potential and represents an alternative
source of antioxidant compounds and indigestible carbohydrates. Juarez-Garcia et al. (2006)
reported that utilising green banana flour for the production of bread resulted in a decrease of
hydrolysis percentage and predicted glycaemic index (pGI).
In addition, green banana flour without the peel is considered a low-cost ingredient in the
food industry (Zhang et al., 2005). Noor Aziah et al. (2012a) reported that green banana flour
incorporated in steamed bread has significantly higher insoluble dietary fibre, total dietary
fibre, and resistant starch content, yet lower soluble dietary fibre than that of the control
steamed bread. This may be because green banana flour has a high content of insoluble
dietary fibre, such as hemicelluloses (Mota et al., 2000). Juarez-Garcia et al. (2006) reported
that bread made with banana flour had higher protein, fat, and total starch content than that of
the control, i.e., wheat bread. In addition, the composite breads showed significantly lower
glycaemic index than that of control bread. Olaoye et al. (2006) reported that the partial
substitution of plantain for wheat flour resulted in the increase of crude fat and ash contents,
but a reduction in crude protein and crude fibre contents. The sensory attributes of plantain
flour incorporated bread are comparable to that of the control bread.
See et al. (2007) studied the effect of physicochemical properties and sensory evaluation
of breads incorporated with pumpkin flour. The authors reported that the ash and crude fibre
contents of the composite breads were improved. However, a reduction of protein and fat
contents was observed in the composite breads. In addition, the volume of the composite
breads was significantly improved when the substitution level was at 5%, with darker colour
of the crumb and crust than that of the control. Sensory results indicated no significant
difference in terms of sensory acceptability levels of the 5 and 10% composite breads
compared to that of the control (See et al. 2007). According to Ptitchkina et al. (1998), the
addition of pumpkin powder into bread making increases in the loaf volume and organoleptic
acceptability. The authors reported that progressive addition of pumpkin powder gave an
initial rise, but subsequently decreased in loaf volume when additions were made at higher
levels (5 to 10 g/kg flour, based on weight flour basis). Sensory panellists’ scores for
organoleptic acceptability increased with the increasing loaf volume (Ptitchkina et al., 1998).
The partial substitution of Artocarpus integer, commonly known as chempedak, seed
flour for wheat flour increases the ash and total dietary fibre (both soluble and insoluble)
contents of the composite breads. However, the calorie value and carbohydrate, crude protein,
and crude fat contents were reportedly reduced. The improvement of the resistant starch
content in composite breads resulted in a decreased hydrolysis index, and this corresponds to
the reduction of the glycaemic index (Zabidi and Abdul Aziz, 2009). In addition, bread
prepared from mango dietary fibre concentrate conserved the balance of both soluble and
insoluble dietary fibres, but increased the antioxidant content. The authors also observed a
lower pGI in the composite bread (Vergara-Valencia et al., 2007).
CAKES
Cakes are one of the most popular food products due to its unique organoleptic
characteristics (Matsakidou et al., 2010). Good quality cakes can be characterised as having
various attributes, such as high volume, uniform crumb structure, soft texture, delicate
flavour, and a long shelf life with tolerance to staling (Gelinas et al., 1999). EUMCCI (2016)
reported that the Malaysian cake market revealed that cakes sales grew from MYR 500.4
million to RM 564.9 million in 2010 to 2014. This suggests that there are an increasing
number of Malaysians buying and consuming cake products yearly.
Nowadays, soybean is strategically used in products in order to fulfil various food
consumption requirements within the food chain (Theones, 2006). Because of its high
quantity of top quality and nutritious properties, soybean has a high potential to be
incorporated into food products. According to Shahraki et al. (2013), application of soybean
flour as a fortification agent in bakery products is due to the presence of essential amino acids
in soybean flour, which are not found in wheat flour. Generally, the soybean protein contains
nine essential amino acids that are beneficial for human consumption. Furthermore, the
authors reported that the usage of soybean was due to a high protein content that provides
special functional characteristics to bakery products, such as improvement in texture,
increment of residue humidity, crust colour, and enhancement of the retention time (Shahraki
et al., 2013). Meanwhile, soybean is also a good source of iron, isoflavones, and dietary fibre.
In addition, soybean can also be considered as a healthy food since it has no cholesterol,
while also having low saturated fatty acids and high amounts of unsaturated fatty acids.
Consequently, it plays an important role in reducing the rate of cardiovascular diseases (Riaz,
1999). Shahraki et al. (2013) reported that cakes with 25% soybean flour have a softer and
higher texture integrity when compared to cakes with higher levels of soybean flour, i.e., at
30%. Sensory attributes were observed to be in favour of cakes with lower levels of soybean,
i.e., 25%, having higher consumers’ acceptability in relation to taste and aroma. Hoover
(1979) also reported that moister and denser cakes may be produced by replacing white wheat
flour with soybean flour at 5 to 12% levels.
A study by Riaz (1999) shows that soybean protein intake may reduce blood cholesterol
by lowering the risk of coronary heart disease. Coronary heart disease incidence is lower in
nations where people consume soybean products as a major component of their diets. A diet
containing 31 to 47 g/day of soybean protein can lower cholesterol levels up to 9.3%, while a
20% decrease was reported in people with high cholesterol levels. Study by Riaz (1999) also
reported that volunteers who were fed with various forms of protein from bread, muffin,
cookies, and cakes showed a 12% drop in blood cholesterol levels.
Majzoobi et al. (2014) reported that large size bubbles in batter will burst in the oven
causing the cake to collapse, while Oliete et al. (2011) observed that an increase in bubble
size cause a flatter shape. This may be due to the fact that volume of cake depends not only
on incorporated air into the batter, but also depends to the air retained, which is produced by
baking agents during processing (Stauffer, 2008). Therefore, Dhen et al. (2015) stated that the
addition of soybean flour influenced the bubble sizes and batter structure in which no
leavening agent was added. They also reported that the cake volume increases depending on
the good incorporation of air. Oliete et al. (2013) reported that water evaporation causes
weight loss during baking which depends on the cake volume. As the volume increases, the
surface contacts more with air, and hence the evaporation of water increases. This was
supported by the findings reported by Dhen et al. (2015), whereby the addition of soybean
flour promoted a decrease in a weight loss and specific volume. They also reported that the
hardness in layered cakes decreases after the incorporation of 15% soybean flour addition.
The increment in soybean flour at a level of up to 25% causes the integrity of softness
and texture to increase. However, at a level above 25%, there is no softness in texture
(Shahraki et al. 2013). The addition of soybean flour increases the dough water absorption
due to the fact that soybean flour can bind and hold large amounts of water through the
cooking process, thus resulting in improved moisture retention. This improvement may also
reduce the rate of staling after baking (Riaz, 1999). Shahraki et al. (2013) reported that
soybean flour is an economical and available food source due to its mineral and protein
contents. It is to be applied in the cake baking industry to produce high quality cakes with
better texture, and more fortified products, not to mention products which are cost-effective
and economic.
Legume flour, such as chickpea flour, contains high amino acid and fibre composition.
Hence, legume flour is considered an ideal ingredient in developing baked products with high
nutritional value. Gómez et al. (2008) reported that the substitution (at 50 or 100% level) of
chickpea flour for wheat flour has diminished the quality of sponge and layered cakes.
Symmetry, volume, lightness, and chroma values of crust and crumb colour are reported to
decrease in-line with the increasing amount of chickpea flour (Gómez et al., 2008).
In addition, Ho et al. (2017a) reported that composite sponge cake made of VitAto flour
(a purple-fleshed sweet potato flour) showed higher content of crude fibre than that of the
control, i.e., sponge cake without composite flour. The higher crude fibre content is strongly
correlated to the presence of higher crude fibre content in VitAto flour (i.e., 2.20% crude
fibre) and purple-fleshed sweet potato flour (i.e., 2.73% crude fibre) than in wheat flour, i.e.,
0.63% crude fibre (Noor Aziah et al., 2011b; Ho et al., 2017a). On the contrary, Okorie and
Onyeneke (2012) reported that crude fibre and carbohydrate contents of the composite cakes
made of sweet potato (Ipomea batatas) flour decreased with the dilution of wheat flour.
However, other nutrient content, such as crude fat, ash, and moisture, of wheat flour
containing sweet potato flour were found to increase (Okorie and Onyeneke, 2012). Ho et al.
(2017a) noted that the composite sponge cakes showed darker crumb colour, lower cake
volume, and higher hardness values than that of the control sponge cake. However, a
proportion of 20:80 of sweet potato flour and self-rising flour (low protein wheat flour)
produced good results without any adverse effects on the overall sensory acceptability of the
composite sponge cakes (Okorie and Onyeneke, 2012; Ho et al., 2017a).
Other than cereals; legumes, tubers, and fruit flours has also been widely applied in the
development of composite sponge cake (Noor Aziah et al., 2011b). Mango flour may also
offer the flexibility for innovative formulations and new markets (Rajkumar et al., 2007). A
composite flour sponge cake using the ratio 5:95, 10:80, 20:80, and 30:70 of mango peel flour
or mango pulp flour and wheat flour has higher dietary fibre, but lower crude fat, calorie
value, and hydrolysis and pGI when compared with that of the control (Noor Aziah et al.,
2011b). The authors have also reported that sponge cake formulated with the ratio of 10:80 of
mango peel flour or mango pulp flour and wheat flour was found to be the most acceptable to
consumers (Noor Aziah et al., 2011b). Thus, this suggests that the agricultural by-products,
such as mango peel, can be used as functional ingredients in the preparation of sponge cake
and other bakery products to improve the nutritional qualities.
On the other hand, jackfruit seed flour was used to increase the functionality of cake by
substituting wheat flour with jackfruit seed flour at levels of 10, 20, and 30% (Khan et al.,
2016). Cake with 20% of jackfruit seed flour had the highest specific volume. Proximate
composition (i.e., ash, crude fibre, crude protein, and carbohydrate contents) of the cakes
increased, but crude fat and crude protein contents decreased with the increase in the
substitution of jackfruit seed flour. The authors reported that cake with 10% jackfruit seed
flour incorporation received the highest overall acceptability by the sensory panellists (Khan
et al., 2016).
Watermelon rind powder also has good potential to develop innovative and value-added
products, such as cakes, in the market. Al-Sayed and Ahmed, (2013) and Hoque and Iqbal
(2015) investigated the effect of substitution of watermelon rind powder for wheat flour at the
substitution levels of 2.5, 5.0, and 7.5% in the preparation of cakes. Al-Sayed and Ahmed
(2013) reported that cakes containing watermelon rind powder showed lower moisture and
protein contents, but higher ash content than that of the control, i.e., cake without addition of
watermelon rind powder. All the prepared composite cake batter enhanced the volume and
specific volume of the baked cakes. In addition, watermelon rind powder could also delay
staling in cakes, as well as inhibit the formation of free fatty acids and lipid oxidation during
storage at room temperature for up to 21 days. Based on the results from the sensory analysis,
cakes containing 5% of watermelon rind powder perceived to be acceptable by the sensory
panellists. Hoque and Iqbal (2015) prepared cakes by partial substituted watermelon rind
flour for wheat flour at levels of 10, 20, and 30%. The authors reported that cakes containing
10% of watermelon rind flour had significantly highest higher cake volume. In terms of
crumb and crust quality, the symmetry and bloom of the cake containing 10% of watermelon
rind flour was found to be improved. The overall acceptability of cakes which were
incorporated with 10% watermelon rind flour received the highest score by panelists (Hoque
and Iqbal, 2005).
Park et al. (2010) prepared sponge cake by partial substitution of banana powder for
wheat flour at 5, 10, 15, and 20%. They found that the moisture content and volume index of
sponge cakes containing banana powder was significantly lower than that of the control
sponge cake (cake without banana powder). In addition, the L* and b* values of crumb colour
decreased while the a* value increased as banana powder content increased. In terms of
textural properties, sponge cake containing 10% banana powder was found to have the lowest
hardness value. The highest resilience and fracturability values were observed in sponge
cakes containing 5% and 15% banana powder, respectively. The sensory evaluation results
indicated that sponge cake incorporated with 10% banana powder has the highest overall
acceptability rating (Park et al., 2010).
BISCUITS
Among ready-to-eat snacks, cookies hold a vital position in snack foods due to the
variety in crispiness and taste (Jemziya and Mahendran, 2015). Cookies are widely accepted
and consumed throughout the world and therefore offer a valuable supplementation to
nutritional improvement (Arshad et al., 2007). Texture is considered to be one of the most
important sensory attributes for the acceptance of cookies (Gaines et al., 1992). Cookies
present a lightly compacted granular structure, in which air is entrapped in a number of

granules and not uniformly distributed. Arshad et al. (2007) studied the effect of partial
substitution of defatted wheat germ flour for wheat flour at levels of 0–25% on functional and
nutritional values of cookies. Cookies containing 15% of defatted wheat germ flour showed to
have the best protein bioavailability in rats fed with a diet consisting of composite flour
cookies for up to 10 days. The authors have also reported that the partial replacement of
wheat germ flour for wheat flour up to 15% level produced acceptable cookies, i.e., having
similar sensory attributes when compared with cookies made of 100% wheat flour (Arshad et
al., 2007).
The qualities, in terms of proximate composition, physical, and sensory attributes, of
cookies produced from substitution of wheat flour with malted barley bran at different
percentages, i.e., 0, 5, 10, 20, and 50%, were investigated by Ikuomola et al. (2017). The
authors reported that the incorporation of malted barley bran into wheat flour increased the
crude protein, crude fat, crude fibre, and ash contents, whilst decreasing the moisture and
carbohydrate contents and energy values as the replacement level of malted barley bran
increased. Furthermore, the spread ratio (i.e., a ratio of diameter to height or thickness)
increased. Greater spread ratios are desirable and indicate good quality cookies (Seker et al.,
2010). However, the breaking strength decreased as the levels of malted barley bran
increased, which indicates that the composite flour cookies were fragile. In the sensory
evaluation, cookies containing malted barley bran at substitution levels of 5 and 10% had the
highest score for crispiness and colour, respectively (Ikuomola et al., 2017).
Noor Aziah et al. (2012b) reported that the incorporation of legume flour, i.e., mung bean
(Vigna radiata) or chickpea (Cicer arietinum), resulted in cookies with high ash, crude
protein, and resistant starch contents. Cookies containing chickpea flour showed significant
increase in the spread ratio with high diameter value yet low value of thickness. Mung bean
flour or chickpea flour incorporated cookies received higher ratings of overall acceptability
than that of the control cookies, i.e., cookies without composite legume flour (Noor Aziah et
al., 2012b).
Another type of legume flour, i.e., jering (Archidendron pauciflorum) seed flour, has
been reported to be successfully supplemented at a level of up to 10% of wheat flour in
cookies (Cheng and Bhat, 2016). Cookies formed with the supplementation of 5–10% of
jering seed flour into wheat flour had higher crude protein, crude fibre, and ash contents
compared to the control, i.e., 100% of wheat flour cookies (Cheng and Bhat, 2016). The
results from the colour analysis on composite cookies indicated a significant decrease in
lightness (denoted by CIE L* value), while redness (denoted by CIE a* value) and yellowness
(denoted by CIE b* value) increased with the increase in jering seed flour supplementation.
Furthermore, the authors concluded that the jering seed flour can be supplemented for wheat
flour at the level of up to 10% since these composite cookies showed comparable sensory
attributes (in terms of colour, taste, texture, and overall acceptability) when compared with
the control (Cheng and Bhat, 2016).
Cookies can also be produced with the blending of wheat flour and sweet potato
(Ipomoea batatas L. cv. Wariapola Red) at various ratios (i.e., 100:0, 80:20, 60:40, 40:60,
20:80, and 0:100) to produce cookies with better nutritional and organoleptic qualities than
that of the control cookie, i.e., 100% wheat flour cookie (Jemziya and Mahendran, 2015). The
moisture, ash, crude fibre, and soluble carbohydrate contents were observed to increase
significantly. However, protein content decreased significantly with the increase in

substitution of sweet potato flour for wheat flour. In terms of physical properties, thickness,
volume, and spread ratio of the composite flour cookies was recorded to be lower than that of
the control cookie. The authors concluded that partial substitution of sweet potato flour for
wheat flour at level of up to 40% could produce composite cookies with better nutritional
values and higher sensory attribute scores (Jemziya and Mahendran, 2015).
Fruits and vegetables residues can be an important source of nutrients and biologically
active compounds. Several studies reported on the use of these residues in bakery products as
the means to satisfy consumer’s demand for healthier products. Ho and Abdul Latif (2016)
produced cookies using wheat flour and pitaya (Hylocereus undatus) peel flour blends.
Cookies containing pitaya peel flour at level of 5, 10, and 15% possessed high ash, fibre, and
carbohydrate contents. However, composite flour cookies had lower moisture content than
that of the control, i.e., cookies without pitaya peel flour. The lower moisture content in
composite flour cookies is believed to prolong the shelf life of these cookies when kept under
normal conditions, i.e., with appropriate packaging and proper storage condition (Bertagnolli
et al., 2014). Incorporation of pitaya peel flour into cookie preparation improved the spread
ratio of composite flour cookies, which could have been the result of the low viscosity of the
dough. According to Hoseney and Roger (1995), low dough viscosity leads to high flow rate
(spread) of the dough and this contributes to large diameter of cookies. In conclusion, partial
substitution of pitaya peel flour for wheat flour of up to 15% level can improve the nutritional
quality without affecting the overall acceptance scores of the composite flour cookies (Ho and
Abdul Latif, 2016).
Bertagnolli et al. (2014) utilised guava (Psidium guajava L. var. Paluma) peel flour to
partially substitute wheat flour in the preparation of cookies with several nutritional
advantages, such as increased in fibre and protein contents, yet lowered fat and carbohydrate
contents. The sensory evaluation on the composite cookies showed satisfactory sensory
acceptance of cookies containing 30% guava peel flour in terms of the aroma, flavour, and
texture attributes.
Norhidayah et al. (2014) reported that a proportion of 75:25 of wheat flour and green
matured unripe banana (Musa × paradisiaca var. Tanduk or Musa acuminata var. Emas)
produced cookies with a hard texture. However, when the wheat flour portion was reduced to
50:50 i.e., wheat flour and green matured unripe banana (i.e., variety ‘Tanduk’ and ‘Emas’), it
was found that no significant difference in hardness of the cookie when compared with the
control, i.e., 100% wheat flour cookies. The cookies produced with the substitution of 25%
variety ‘Tanduk’ green matured unripe banana flour had an overall acceptability score of
6.81, suggesting that this cookie is considered acceptable to consumers (Norhidayah et al.,
2014).
Noor Aziah and Komathi (2009) investigated the sensory acceptability attributes, i.e.,
colour, crispiness, taste, and overall acceptance, of crackers made from different types of
composite flour, i.e., pumpkin pulp flour, unripe banana pulp flour, unripe mango pulp, and
peel flour. The authors reported that the substitution of these composite flours at a level of 5%
for wheat flour had no significant influence on the crunchiness of the crackers. According to
Cauvain and Young (2006), biscuits with hard and crunchy texture characteristics are
enjoyed. In addition, crackers containing unripe banana pulp flour and pumpkin pulp flour
showed no significant difference with that of the control, i.e., cracker without composite
flour, in terms of colour, taste, and overall acceptance. However, unripe mango pulp and peel
composite flour crackers received the lowest score for all the following sensory attributes;
colour, taste, and overall acceptance (Noor Aziah and Komathi, 2009). On top of that, a study
was carried out by Ajila et al. (2007) to determine the physicochemical and sensory properties
of soft dough biscuits made with mango peel flour substitution for wheat flour at 5, 10, 15,
and 20%. The authors reported that biscuits with 5% substitution of mango peel flour
obtained the highest score in overall acceptance during the sensory evaluation.
Unpeeled pumpkin flour and peeled pumpkin flour have been reported to successfully
replace wheat flour in the making of crackers (Noor Aziah et al., 2011a). Results from the
study showed that crackers containing unpeeled pumpkin pulp flour had significantly higher
resistant starch content compared to that of crackers made with peeled pumpkin pulp flour. A
few years later, another study was performed by Aslam et al. (2014) on utilising mango peels
and mango kernels powders at different substituting levels of 5, 10, and 15% in biscuit
making. The authors reported that the crude fibre contents of the biscuits were improved from
0.22–16.79% with the addition of mango peel or mango kernel powders. The total phenolic
contents, as well as the antioxidant activity of biscuit containing either mango peel or mango
kernel powders were found to increase significantly. However, results from the sensory
evaluation revealed that substitution of 10% mango peel powder or 5% with mango kernel
powder for wheat flour could produce biscuits with acceptable mango taste and flavour
(Aslam et al., 2014).
THE CHALLENGES IN THE PROCESSING

OF COMPOSITE FOOD PRODUCTS
Making flour-based food products by partially substituting the wheat with non-wheat
material is not a new idea. To produce functional food using composite flour is still in trend.
In recent years, vast amount of effort, time, and resources have been used to conduct research
in this area, and more of these resources will be used to push research and innovation to the
next frontier. Partial substitution of wheat flour rather than complete substitution has been
proven to improve the nutritional quality of the food products. However, the processing and
quality of products made with composite flour, especially baked products, can be a huge
challenge to the manufacturers. This is due to the poor ability to form gluten network, which
is responsible for strength, of composite dough and ultimately, this may cause alteration on
the rheological properties of the dough, as well as the physical properties of the end products.
These flaws are evidenced by the reduction of volume, poorer mouthfeel, appearance and
taste of the end products. According to Petrosky and Hoseney (1995), starch from non-wheat
sources of flour plays an active role in determining the dough’s rheological characteristics of
the composite food products. The addition of fibres to dough through the substitution of
wheat flour with high-fibre flour was reported to influence the properties of final baked
products. The present of high fibre content could have altered dough’s water absorption and
this led to changes in the stability of the dough (Sivam, et al., 2010).
ASSESSMENT OF COMPOSITE DOUGH QUALITY

Blending of wheat-less flour in dough causes lack of consistency in baking performance,
and this is a major concern and problem in large-scale production bakery plants. The
processing of leavened bakery products from composite flour requires alteration as the quality
of the end product serves as a function on its composition. Various researches were conducted
to study the impact of non-wheat material substitution, which associate greatly with the
changes of dough characteristics, including dough rheological properties (e.g., elasticity,
viscosity, and extensibility), dough thermal properties (e.g., specific heat, thermal
conductivity and thermal diffusivity), and dough pasting properties.
Dough formation involves a few stages, starting with protein hydration, which involves
increase in protein interaction. This increment leads to the development of viscoelastic gluten
network due to the formation of disulphide bonding among the chain (Sluimer, 2005). During
the mixing process, breaking and reforming of long range (e.g., protein-protein) and short
range (e.g., starch-starch and starch-protein) in the dough matrix will occur. Farinograph,
extensograph, amylograph, and aleograph tests are some of the most common empirical tests
used for assessing rheological and pasting properties of wheat dough. Recently, CHOPIN
Technologies introduced Mixolab®, a new instrument capable of monitoring the mixing and
pasting behaviour of dough through real time measurement of torque (expressed in Nm).
EFFECTS OF INCORPORATION OF WHEAT-LESS SOURCE IN DOUGH

Thermal Profiling and Pasting Properties
Wheat flour consists of 63–72% of starch (Jan et al., 2010). Most of the differences in
wheat doughs are attributed to the amount and quality of gluten protein. However, research
has shown that starch causes great impact on dough properties. Functional properties of
starch, such as swelling ability, gelling, and thickening properties, associate greatly with the
behaviour of starch gelatinisation and enthalpy changes, which have been widely studied and
discussed (Ho and Noor Aziah, 2013). Pasting properties of starch are identified as an
important indicator of how the starch will behave during processing.
According to Singh et al. (2003) and Eliasson (1986), different starches have different
gelatinisation profile and these results in the dough from composite flours to be ranked
differently from that of the dough made from 100% wheat flour. An understanding of the
thermal characteristics of gelatinisation behaviour, as well as temperature and enthalpy
changes of composite flours would be useful to understand starch-gluten interaction, which
may be responsible for differences in the quality of bakery products.
i. Thermal Profile
Thermal profiling is essential in the study related to bakery products in order to
understand the gelatinisation behaviour, temperature, and enthalpy changes of composite
flour. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is commonly used in determining the thermal
properties of composite flour blend and provide quantitative measurement of gelatinisation
associate with the order-disorder transitions in starch (Sabanis et al, 2009). Thermal property
parameters, i.e., onset (To), peak (Tp), and conclusion temperature (Tc), and enthalpies of
gelatinisation (ΔHgel) of starch differs significantly for starches from different sources. Hence,
substitution of wheat-less flour from different sources could cause various degrees of staling
problems in baked products, particularly bread, to happen differently.
Composite flour consists of corn flour or rice flour shown to have higher glass transition
temperature (Tg) and lower ΔHgel than that of the control, i.e., wheat flour (Singh et al., 2003).
The authors also reported that composite flour consisting of potato starch showed higher
ΔHgel and thus have greater tendency towards retrogradation. This indicates that tuber
starches, such as potato starch and cassava starch, with higher enthalpies and transition
temperature consist of higher degree of granule crystallinity (Svegmark et al., 2002). Without
any aids of hydrocolloids, bread made from composite wheat and potato will stale faster and
have shorter shelf life. Likewise, Ho and Noor Aziah (2013) reported that the presence of
banana pseudo-stem flour showed higher Tp, which indicates that higher temperature is
required to disintegrate internal granule structure and allow starches to completely swell.
ii. Pasting Properties

Pasting properties of composite flours are usually conducted to study the changes of
viscosity pattern of the blends. Water absorption index was reported to have great
implications for viscosity (Tharise et al., 2014) and has impact on the processing parameter,
as well as in baking application (Niba et al., 2001). In addition to protein content and gluten
strength, starch including damaged starch, have been found to enhance the water absorption
index of flours (Vizitiu and Danviu, 2011). According to Tester and Morrison (1990),
amylopectin in starch plays the primary role in starch granule swelling, whereby high
amylopectin content leads to increment in swelling power, whilst high amylose content
impacts the degree of gelatinisation, pasting, and retrogradation (Cozzolino et al., 2013).
In general, the pasting characteristics, i.e., peak viscosity, breakdown viscosity, final
viscosity, and setback, of composite flours were generally lower compared to that of the
control, i.e., wheat flour (Osungbaro et al., 2010; Ho and Noor Aziah, 2013; Kiin-Kabari et
al., 2015; Awolu, 2017). Varied amounts of amylose content in different botanical starches
contributed greatly to the pasting characteristic of composite flour blends. In general, tuber
and root starches showed higher pasting temperatures, peak viscosity, final viscosity,
breakdown viscosity, setback viscosity, and lower adhesiveness as compared to legume
starches (Li et al., 2014).
In most of the studies, peak viscosity of composite flour blends was significantly lower
than that of the control, i.e., wheat flour. Peak viscosity showed inverse correlation with
protein concentration in the flour blend, and therefore, peak viscosity is correlated greatly
with water binding capacity of starch mixtures, as well as an indicator of viscous load to be
encountered during mixing. However, lower breakdown value shown by most of the
composite flour blends indicated that the higher stability of starch withstands heating and
shearing, however this also caused higher potential for retrogradation to occur in composite
food products (Awolu et al., 2017; Bamigbola et al., 2016; Iwe et al., 2017; Ojo et al., 2017).
According to Olaoye et al. (2006), gluten free cakes can be prepared by blending various
gluten-free flour (e.g., sources from cereals, legumes, tubers, and root crops) in appropriate
ratio. Study by Julianti et al. (2016) reported on the pasting properties of gluten-free
composite flour. Findings reported by Julianti et al. (2016) revealed that the mixture of
gluten-free composite flours, i.e., rice flour, cassava flour, soybean flour, potato starch, and
xanthan gum, at the ratio of 30:40:14.5:15:5:0.5 had the pasting properties that were
comparable to that of wheat flour, especially for peak viscosity, cold paste viscosity, and
setback viscosity. This suggested that the combination of gluten free composite flour has the
potential to be applied in the making of gluten-free cake.
Rheological Properties and Dough Mixing Behaviours
The processing of different bakery products requires different dough characteristics. For
example, flour dough exhibits good balance of viscoelastic behaviour, i.e., the combination of
both properties of purely elastic solids and purely viscous fluids, are required in bread making
(Hibberd and Parker 1975; Billington and Tate 1981). Storage modules (G’) and loss modulus
(G”) can be used to measure the elastic components and the viscous components of products,
respectively. This allows food scientists and technologists to understand the manner in which
materials respond to applied stress or strain (Mirsaeedghazi et al., 2008). Greater G’ and
lower G” indicate stronger viscoelastic behaviour of dough. Storage modulus (G’) and loss
modulus (G”) can be described using the follow equations:
𝜎0 𝜎0
𝐺′ = cos 𝛿 𝐺" = sin 𝛿
𝜀0 𝜀0
where, σ0 and 𝜀0 are the amplitudes of stress and strain, respectively, and 𝛿 is the phrase shift
between them.
Dough mixing is one of the important stages in the baking process. The purpose of dough
mixing is to hydrate flour particles with water, producing gluten with the desired strength,
which then rises consistently as further gluten develops. The mixing time and work input
must be optimised to achieve above minimum critical levels (Angioloni and Rosa, 2005).
Optimum dough mixing time varies among the different types of flour and causes changes in
the mechanical properties of dough. The dough development time can be used as one of the
indicators for dough strength. The dough development time for breadfruit flour blend (0.5–
40%) was reportedly shorter than that of the control, i.e., wheat flour. This indicated a
weakening of the dough as the amount of breadfruit flour was incorporated (Adegoke Bakare
et al., 2016). As discussed earlier in dough’s rheological properties, the strength of dough can
be affected by the water absorption ability of dough while mixing. Dough stability was also
greatly associated with dough strength, which impacted the baking performance and the
quality of the end product (Rosell et al., 2001; Guarda et al., 2004; Ho and Noor Aziah,
2013).
In general, flours with good tolerance to mixing have low mixing tolerance index (MIT)
and this index correlates inversely with flour strength (Shuey 1990). According to Adegoke
Bakare et al. (2016), dough prepared from wheat flour showed stability time (DST) value of
up to 9.3 minutes, while composite flour from non-wheat sources, such as tropical tuber and
breadfruit (Olatunji and Akinrele, 1978), as well as pre-germinated brown rice (Michiyo et
al., 2004) showed significantly lower DST. Composite dough exhibited lower dough stability
than that of the control, i.e., dough made from wheat flour. The dough stability was found to
decrease when higher non-wheat flour content increased. Amjid et al. (2013) reported the
stability of dough significantly decreased from 4.5 to 3 minutes when soybean flour was
increased from 20 to 40% in the dough. Similar observations were reported for composite
flour of taro-wheat (Ammar et al., 2009), sorghum-wheat (Abdelghafor et al., 2011),
cocoyam-wheat (Mongi et al., 2011), and pumpkin-wheat (Pasha et al., 2013).
FACTORS AFFECTING DOUGH RHEOLOGY AND IMPACTS OF

BLENDING WHEAT-LESS SOURCE IN DOUGH
There are three factors affecting dough rheology during the mixing stages of composite
flour, namely (1) quality and quantity of gluten, (2) interactions among protein molecules,
and (3) hydration capacity of composite flour. These factors are discussed in more detail in
the following subsections.
Quality and Quantity of Gluten
Gluten quality, i.e., ratio of gliadin to glutenin present in dough, is essential in

determining the rheological properties of dough (Khatkar et al., 1995; Toufeili et al., 1999;
Tronsmo et al., 2003; Sliwinski et al., 2004). According to Edwards et al. (2001), gliadin
fraction contributes viscous behaviour, while glutenin fraction plays a major role in elasticity
of dough. Elasticity and extension stability of dough decreased when gliadin to glutenin ratio
increases (Angioloni and Rosa, 2005). According to Angioloni and Rosa (2005), glutenin
fraction of gluten is also found to be more sensitive to heat than that of gliadin fraction.
During thermal processing with a temperature of up to 75°C, glutenin protein in dough will
unfold and disulphide/sulphhydryl interchange reactions are promoted, and this resulted in a
more elastic dough (Angioloni and Rosa, 2005). Hence, the presence and the amount of
glutenin is important in determining the quality of baked goods.
According to Beheraa and Srivastav (2016), incorporation of barley and rye flour at a
levels of 30% (dry flour basis) had led to a decrease in the G’ and G” viscoelastic constants.
Both moduli values showed inverse correlation with the quantity of barley and rye added.
From the findings by Beheraa and Srivastav (2016), the dough’s rheological properties were
altered even though gluten containing cereal flours, such as barley, rye, and oat, were used in
composite dough. This shows that the ratio of gliadin to glutenin (i.e., gluten quality) rather
than gluten quantity is essential in the determination of the rheological properties of
composite dough in terms of stickiness, extensibility, and tenacity.
Attempts to incorporate wheat-less flour into gluten also caused more dilution to the
gluten quantity, i.e., lowering the amount of gliadin and glutenin contents, of the dough
matrix. This weaken the dough extensible characteristics and lowers gas retention. Thus,
baked goods produced have lower volume. However, in a previous work by Faergestad et al.
(2000), loaf volume was affected by dough extensibility, which was related to protein content,
whereas protein quality had no significant effect on the loaf volume. Recent work by Maktouf
et al. (2016) also reported that there is no significant difference in the loaf volume for bread
produced with 10% millet flour and control, i.e., 100% wheat flour. This suggests that in
certain composite dough, protein content had greater impact on the quality of the end product,
particularly to the volume of the product.
Interactions among Protein Molecules
Physical and chemical forces of intermolecular cross-linkage of protein have an effect on

the rheological properties of dough. These intermolecular cross-linkage interactions are
greatly influenced by processing parameters and conditions, which include pH, temperature,
energy, and the presence of enzymes. The stronger the interactions between the polymers
cross-links, the higher the strength of dough, as well as being more resistant to extension and
restoring force after deformation.
Dough with higher maximum resistance (higher G’) and lower extensibility (more solid-
like) are obtained with the addition of alkali salt (Mirsaeedghazi et al., 2008). This may be
attributed to the interchange of the sulfhydryl group and disulphide bond at higher pH
conditions when alkali is introduced. Conversely, opposite effects and results in the dough
were observed with the addition of acid. Hydrolysis of disulphide covalent bonds under low
pH conditions alters the configuration of gluten protein. Lower flow behaviour index and
apparent viscosity of dough were reported by Shiau and Yeh (2001) in their study on the
effect of additional acid on wheat dough behaviours. In order to improve bread making
performance of dough through rheological modification, the use of enzyme is one the
available options (Mirsaeedghazi et al., 2008). Enzymes, such as peroxidase, glucose oxidase,
and xylanotic enzymes, are reportedly able to strengthen the gluten network and increase the
G’ of dough, whilst protein disulphide isomerase could be used to increase elasticity of the
dough by depolymerising the protein-protein linkages.
In recent years, new approaches on pre-treatment methods for composite flour products
have been introduced. Many new approaches on pre-treatment methods for bread were
developed owing to their potential effectiveness in aiding the biochemical processes of
composite dough, as well as improvement on the quality of baked products. In order to
improve the composite products’ quality or process efficiency, pre-treatment on wheat-less
flour is practiced before the processing operation. Several techniques, including physical,
chemical, and enzyme methods, were utilised. Chemical or enzyme treatments are preferable
by food processors due to the minimum process, simplicity, and energy efficiency.
Ndahetuye and Tang (2016) had used ascorbic acid and transglutaminase to treat
composite sweet potato-wheat dough. Their findings indicated that both ascorbic acids and
transglutaminase could modify the dynamic rheological characteristics (i.e., G’ and G’’) and
increase the stability of the composite dough a substitution of 20% sweet potato flour.
According to this study, ascorbic acid lowers the pH of the dough, resulting in higher
molecular weight of polymers, while transglutaminase introduces new cross-link bonds.
Similar results were obtained from the study on the addition of xylanase into dough
composite comprising of 60% wheat flour and 40% of hull-less barley flour. Xylanase
convert water–unextractable arabinoxylan in dough into soluble arabinoxylan, and
consequently promoted intermolecular cross-linkage of protein in dough to form stronger
gluten networks. This contributes to the improvement on the loft specific volume. Butt et al.
(2008) have successfully produced composite bread with characteristics and qualities very
much similar to traditional wheat bread.
Hydration Capacity of Composite Flour
The functionality of gluten in dough is influenced by the hydration capacity. Water is

responsible for the hydration of protein compounds and to activate the interactions between
proteins cross links (i.e., formation of disulphide bonds) during dough mixing. Higher water
absorbing capacity enables more even distribution of water molecules among dough
constituents, as well as encourages redistribution of water molecules among gluten and other
macromolecules (Wang et al., 2002). With this, it allows direct interaction among the dough
constituents and forms more complex network of dough matrix. Conversely, if the hydration
needs of the entire dough is not achieved due to insufficient water, the extensibility of the
dough will decline and lower the resistance of the dough extension with higher G’ and G”’
(Faubion and Hoseney, 1997). Hence, one of the major concerns associated with non-wheat
flour substitution in producing baked products with good quality is optimum water levels in
the composite dough. In order to develop cohesive and viscoelastic dough with optimum
gluten strength, optimum water level is essential.
With the understanding on some of the drawbacks of substituting wheat-less flour in
baked products, particularly in terms of product texture and mouthfeel, hydrocolloid
technology has been widely used in aiding the process of making composite baked goods.
The addition of non-starch polysaccharide, such as fibre (Gelroth and Ranhotra, 2001;
Dikeman et al., 2006), arabinoxylans (Autio, 2006), and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (Ho
and Noor Aziah, 2013), and hydrocolloids (e.g., pectin, agar-agar, guar gum and xanthan
gum) are some of the approaches commonly used to develop gluten-free and composite
bakery products due to the abilities of these hydrocolloid to mimic the properties of gluten
(Moore et al., 2006; Lazaridou et al., 2007; Arendt et. al., 2008; Alvarenga et al., 2011; Ho
and Noor Aziah, 2013). The hydroxyl groups in hydrocolloid structures allow more water
interactions through hydrogen bonding with greater water binding capacities (Rosell et al.,
2001). The presence of these components in composite bread dough also leads to softer
crumb and better specific volume of bread (Rosell et al., 2001).
CONCLUSION
Recent studies have found that composite flour possesses many hidden nutrients, e.g.,
protein and micronutrients, which can be used as complements to wheat. This may be of great
advantage for many developing countries, including Malaysia, whereby Malaysia has
abundance of edible indigenous plants. These plants could be used as functional ingredients to
improve the nutritional value of bakery products, since these products have been reported to
lack many essential nutrients. Most fruits and vegetables are highly perishable crops due to
high moisture content. Therefore, drying should be performed in order to extend the shelf life
of these crops. The drying process must be carried out in a correct manner to prevent huge
loss of nutrients due to inappropriate drying conditions, e.g., high temperature and prolonged
times. Thus, the selection of proper drying techniques, i.e., thermal vs non-thermal drying,
based on the type of crops is paramount. In addition, understanding the rheological and
functional properties of dough is of utmost importance prior to processing because these
properties determine the quality of the end product, e.g., physical properties and chemical
composition. In terms of quality of the end products, different types of composite flours have
been shown to exert influence on the physical properties, in particular colour of crumb,
volume/height, hardness, and chemical composition of the baked products. Thus, the
maximum level of incorporated composite flour in processing of bakery products must be
investigated to improve their physical qualities. Based on the information recorded in this
review, it is expected that more food products, especially bakery products, can be developed
for both domestic and international markets.
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Chapter 9
CHINESE STEAMED BREAD AND

NOVEL WHEAT PRODUCTS
Zhengmao Zhang1,2,, Qinhui Xing2,3 and Yuxiu Liu1

1
College of Agronomy, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, P. R. China
2
College of Food Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University,
Yangling, P. R. China
3
Agrotechnology and Food Science, Wageningen University,
Wageningen, the Netherlands
ABSTRACT
Wheat is one of the most important agricultural crops globally, and the third-largest
food crop after rice and maize in China; in particular, wheat is one of the primary
provisions in human diets in Northern China. Research on the quality of wheat flour is
important for wheat food production. Steam bread was one of staple foods in the northern
part of China due to the combination of unique cultures and dietary habits. The Chinese
steamed bread-making process is a complex system. There is significant value in research
on the aroma characteristics of wheat flour, fermented dough, and steamed bread. The
solid phase micro-extraction (SPME) GC-MS was used to investigate the compounds of
volatile aroma in gelatinized-flour. Volatile compounds of steamed bread vary depending
on the content of gluten in wheat flour. In the three physical stages of making Chinese
steamed bread, the quantity of hydrocarbons and aldehydes first decreased and then
increased.
Chinese steamed bread made from wheat flour with added 3% of stachyose, has the
greatest elasticity and extensibility, and has the highest scores when conducted for
sensory evaluation, thus making nutrient fortified steamed bread. Along with the
developing and applying of the modern food process technology, wheat also can be made
for novel wheat products with different flavors, such as wheat bran, wheat germ flour,
wheat germ oil and “popwheat”, and further caramel treats. In addition, volatile
compounds of wheat bran and germ differ between high gluten, middle gluten and low
gluten flour. Therefore, the research on the processing quality of wheat dough has been a
hot topic.

Corresponding Author E-mail: zhzhm@nwsuaf.edu.cn.
176 Zhengmao Zhang, Qinhui Xing and Yuxiu Liu
Keywords: Chinese steamed bread, Gluten content, Aroma, Wheat, Products
INTRODUCTION
After being domesticated by human ancestors around ten thousand years ago, wheat
gradually spread from the Fertile Crescent (Levant, Mesopotamia, and Ancient Egypt)
westward to Europe, Africa, and eastward to Central Asia. By about 2500 BC, wheat arrived
in China (Finnie, S. and Atwell, William A. 2017). Thereafter, the cultivation of Chinese
wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) expanded from the middle reaches of the Yellow River to the
south of the Yangtze River and finally introduced to East Asian countries like North Korea
and Japan. Recently, wheat became one of the most important cereal crops and wheat
products have been consumed worldwide, including baked products like bread and cookies,
extruded products, noodles, pasta, beer etc. The dominant varieties of wheat foods varied in
different countries and differed in their requirements on the quality of wheat flour. Wheat
flour with medium gluten was suitable for steamed bread and noodles. The unique cultures
and dietary habits make steamed bread one of the most important staple foods and plays a
critical role in the diets for billions of people in China. Therefore, it is of great value to
understand factors that affect the qualities of Chinese steamed bread. With the improvement
of food processing technology, novel wheat products can be made. The physicochemical and
rheological properties of dough, texture, and nutritional properties of steamed bread have
been widely discussed. Reports on aroma compounds of steamed bread are scarce. Chinese
steamed bread does not only contain a rich aroma, but also has a plain flavor. Therefore, a
sufficient and desirable original aroma compound of steamed bread is a critical feature. In this
chapter, the effect of gluten content of wheat flour on the flavor of flour, dough, and Chinese
steamed bread has been mainly discussed. Specifically, using the combination of solid phase
micro-extraction (SPME) and GC-MS, aroma compounds of Chinese steamed bread, wheat
bran and germ were analyzed and discussed. Finally, several promising novel wheat products
are briefly introduced.
METHODS
Chinese Steamed Bread
About 40% of the wheat produced in China is used to make steamed bread. The
proportion is likely to be higher in the north part of China. People often eat it with pickled
vegetables, sauces, soybean milk or congee at breakfast, or eat it with different dishes at lunch
and/or dinner. The soft texture and rich wheat flavor makes it a suitable food for people at
different ages. Chinese steamed bread differs between northern and southern China (Huang et
al. 2016). Overall, two types of steamed bread were determined by the quality of wheat flour
and production formula. They present different appearance, flavor, and texture. To be
specific, the northern steamed bread usually has a white color and a large volume. It also has
a plain flavor and a resilient texture. While southern steamed bread has a sweet taste and has a
soft and sticky texture. Thus, southern steamed bread often served as a dessert. Since the
Chinese Steamed Bread and Novel Wheat Products 177
difference between the two types of steamed bread is large, northern steamed bread is only
discussed in the present chapter.
The formula of typical northern Chinese steamed bread is simple, which contains wheat
flour (67%), dehydrated yeast (0.1%), and water (32%). Some producers would also choose
to add a little salt (~2%) in practical production. Since the electrolytes from sodium chloride
solution would enhance the strength of the gluten network, which will give the cooked
steamed bread a chewy texture. After mixing all the ingredients and kneading them into a
dough, the dough is placed into a fermentation oven (38ºC, 85% R.H.) for 1 h. The dough is
then taken out and kneaded again for 3 min followed by shaping. The dough piece is rounded
and molded manually and proofed for 20 min in the same fermentation cabinet. After that, the
proofed dough is put on a steaming tray and steamed for 20 min using tap water. When the
time was up, the Chinese steamed bread is taken out and cooled at room temperature before
being packaged and storaged. And contrary to bread, Chinese steam beard usually needs to be
heated up before consuming.
Aroma Compounds of Chinese Steamed Bread
Chinese steamed bread is a complex system. Its formation is involved in complicated

physical and chemical reactions among various components. Previous studies mainly focused
on the correlation between wheat qualities and the characteristics of steamed bread. However,
research on other important indexes of Chinese steamed bread, for instance, the changes of
volatile substances in the processes of steamed bread making is rarely reported. Since Chinese
steamed bread is one of the most important staple foods for 1.3 billion people, it is of great
significance to study the aroma characteristics of wheat flour, fermented dough, and final
steamed bread (Yan et al. 2011).
The Huang-Huai River Valley of China is the area between south of the Yellow River
and north of Huaihe River, which is located between 30º50´ to 36º36´ north latitude and
111º55´ to 121º25´ east longitude. The climate belongs to the monsoon climate featured by
four distinct seasons, adequate rainfall, and ample sunshine. Especially, the summers are hot
and rainy and the winters are cold and dry. Besides, the irrigation conditions are convenient
due to the plain terrain. Therefore, the Huang-Huai River Valley has been one of the major
cereal producing areas in China for thousands of years.
Winter wheat varieties with different levels of gluten grown in the Yellow River Basin
were used to make steamed bread and the aroma components were compared. Xinong 9718
and Zhengmai 9023 are high-gluten wheat varieties, while Xiaoyan 22 and Xinong 88 are
medium-gluten varieties. Pubing 143 and Yangmai 13 represent the low-gluten wheat
varieties. As mentioned before, solid phase micro-extraction (SPME) combined with GC-MS
was used to investigate the aroma differences between these varieties.
Table 1 shows the aroma compounds and its relative contents collected from wheat flour,
fermented dough, and steamed bread, respectively. In the three physical stages of making
Chinese steamed bread, the quantity of hydrocarbons and aldehydes first decreased and then
increased. The amount of alcohols, esters, and other substances showed an opposite trend.
There was only one kind of ketones in the fermented dough and steamed bread. While more
types of ketones were found in wheat flour. The amount of heterocyclic was similar in flour,
fermented dough, and steamed bread.
Table 1. Volatile compounds and their relative content in wheat flour, fermented dough,
and Chinese steamed bread prepared from three types of wheat varieties
No. Volatile compounds Relative content/%

Wheat flour Fermented dough Chinese steamed bread
High Medium Low High Medium Low High Medium Low
gluten gluten gluten gluten gluten gluten gluten gluten gluten
1 Tetradecane 2.10 2.32 1.53 ― ― ― 1.46 1.15 1.53
2 Pentadecane 0.83 3.41 3.83 2.55 ― ― ― ― ―
3 Hexadecane 2.51 2.48 2.47 3.11 3.18 1.23 1.77 2.71 1.81
4 Heptadecane 0.77 0.96 1.09 1.59 1.08 0.75 ― 1.08 ―
5 Naphthalene 19.07 12.96 16.61 7.50 8.07 13.58 7.99 7.87 8.01
6 Naphthalene, 1-methyl- 10.22 9.98 9.88 4.46 7.13 7.30 6.04 8.22 5.72
7 Naphthalene, 2-methyl- 4.87 4.87 4.87 2.19 3.55 2.76 2.97 4.14 3.04
8 Nluorene 2.09 2.47 1.40 0.90 1.99 1.81 0.91 1.82 0.86
9 3, 5-octadien-2-one 2.55 1.93 2.69 ― ― 0.80 ― ― ―
10 5, 9-undecadien-2-one, 6, 10-dimethyl ― ― ― 1.81 1.23 ― 1.46 1.32 1.36
11 Nonanal ― ― ― 1.13 1.85 ― 4.83 5.85 5.37
12 2-nonenal, (E)- 2.17 1.39 1.54 ― 1.43 ― 2.14 2.47 2.38
13 ethanol ― ― ― 11.75 8.01 17.90 6.64 5.24 4.72
14 1-butanol, 3-methyl-3- ― ― ― 4.20 3.49 3.65 2.93 2.43 3.09
15 1-octen-3-ol1- 2.88 2.41 3.27 1.12 0.98 ― 1.47 ― 1.59
16 3-nonen-1-ol, (Z)- ― ― ― 3.08 3.25 2.41 1.95 1.71 1.90
17 Phenylethylalcohol ― ― ― 5.32 3.86 5.17 4.36 2.96 5.15
18 Butanedioic acid, ethylmethylester 1.17 ― 1.80 6.05 8.64 3.36 3.57 5.11 3.07
19 2-butanedioic acid (Z)-, dimethylester 9.53 9.43 9.95 1.15 1.31 0.76 3.93 1.29 2.14
20 Furan, 2-pentyl- 1.17 1.06 1.64 ― ― ― 5.98 3.45 9.08
21 Benzothiazole 1.81 3.43 1.80 0.94 3.36 1.66 0.86 2.15 0.86
22 2 (3H)-furanone, dihydro-5-pentyl- 1.08 1.12 1.15 2.51 3.23 2.00 1.77 2.08 1.87
23 dibenzofuran 1.69 2.48 1.23 0.81 1.79 1.91 ― 1.68 0.80
24 2-ethylhexylsalicylate ― ― ― 8.01 2.12 6.61 4.71 1.27 6.10
In addition, some substances of relatively higher content were found in fermented dough
but not found in wheat flour, such as 2-ethyl hexyl salicylate. These substances disappeared in
the final product because of the steaming process.
Hydrocarbon was the major volatile compound in wheat flour and its content was
independent to gluten content. The amount of esters, aldehydes, alcohols, ketones,
heterocyclic, and other substances were relatively low. In fermented doughs made of different
gluten content flour, hydrocarbon was once again the dominant aroma compound.
Meanwhile, a sharp increase of alcohols was observed in fermented doughs due to yeast
fermentation. The formation of carbon dioxide, ethanol, and low molecular flavor substances
would cause the fermented product to have a special texture and flavor. Hydrocarbons,
alcohols, aldehydes, and heterocyclic were the main components in all steamed breads and
the content of ketones maintained a low level. Due to the biochemical reactions and
volatilization during steaming, more aldehydes and heterocyclic were produced and the
volatile alcohols reduced. Therefore, the aroma of wheat flour is mainly derived from the
odor of hydrocarbons, ketones, aldehydes, alcohols, esters, and heterocyclic, while the aroma
of steamed bread is mainly from the odor of hydrocarbons, aldehydes, alcohols, esters, and
heterocyclic compounds. Some new volatile substances were generated and some of the
original volatile compounds were decreased or even disappeared. In other words, the
composition and content of volatile components changed greatly during fermentation and heat
treatment.
In conclusion, 37 volatile substances were detected in wheat flours (Xinong 9817, Jinmai
47, pubing 143). Twenty-three commonly occupied components accounted for 82.28%,
77.82%, and 84.01%, respectively. Naphthalene, 1-methyl naphthalene, 2-butanedioic acid
(Z)- dimethylester and 2- methyl naphthalene were the most abundant aroma compounds in
wheat flour.
After fermentation, 38, 38, and 35 volatile compounds were found in high gluten (Xinong
9817), medium gluten (Jinmai 47), and low gluten (pubing 143) fermented doughs,
respectively. Eighteen kinds of commonly occupied aroma substrates accounted for 70.44%,
71.65%, and 80.99% of the total volatile compounds. Ethanol, naphthalene, 1-methyl
naphthalene, butanedioic acid ethylmethylester, and phenylethylalcohol were the most
abundant aroma compounds in fermented doughs.
In Chinese steamed breads, 38, 38, and 39 aroma substances were detected in high gluten,
medium gluten, and low gluten products, respectively. Twenty-six common components were
found in each type of steamed bread and those components accounted for 80.43%, 75.99%,
and 80.26% of the total components.
The most abundant aroma compounds were naphthalene, 1 methyl naphthalene, 2-pentyl
furan, alcohol, and nonaldehyde. In the process of making Chinese steamed bread, the relative
content of hydrocarbons was decreased sharply, but it was still remained one of the major
components; the content of ketones kept a relatively low level. Alcohols, aldehydes, and
heterocyclic had the greatest change. Alcohols were reduced by volatilization during
steaming, but more aldehydes and heterocyclic compounds were produced in the process
(Yan et al. 2012).
Nutrient Fortified Steamed Bread
Flour for making Chinese steamed bread sold in markets sometimes contains a variety of
additives. Adding additives not only improve the processing qualities of dough, but also
enhance the appearance of the final products. For example, whitening agent accelerated the
maturation of newly grind flour; Vitamin C was able to strengthen gluten network of dough;
and alpha amylase was used to increase the specific volume of steamed bread. The
combination of the additives improved the processing qualities of dough as well bringing
desirable appearance of final products.
However, the increased addition of additives will influence the nutritional and functional
qualities of final product. This problem has received more and considerable attention from
researchers.
Stachyose is a functional oligosaccharide, mainly as a bulk sweetener and exits naturally
in plants. It can only be digested by human intestinal microflora and greatly promoted the
proliferation of intestinal microbiology like bifidobacterium and lactobacillus. Besides this,
during the fermentation of bread, up to 90% of stachyose can effectively be retained in
products because it was not consumed by yeasts.
Therefore, the effect of stachyose on the quality of Chinese steamed bread was studied.
Results showed that stachyose can slow down the speed up aging of steamed bread and
extend its shelf life. The hardness of steamed bread was significantly reduced by the adding
stachyose.
Steamed bread had the greatest elasticity, extensibility, and the highest sensory
evaluation scores when 3% of stachyose was added into wheat flour. After absorbing water,
stachyose formed a three-dimensional structure of certain viscoelasticity, which is similar to
the gluten network, thus improving the rheological properties of dough. Furthermore, the
influence of stachyose on tensile resistance of dough is in order of: low gluten wheat flour >
medium gluten > strong gluten.
Novel Wheat Products
Wheat Bran
Wheat bran is a by-product of wheat processing and is rich in dietary fiber. The addition
of wheat bran improved the nutrition content and flavor in food. Table 2 shows the aroma
components of wheat bran were mainly comprised of hydrocarbons, alcohols, esters,
carboxylic acids, ketones, aldehydes, and heterocyclic compounds, including small molecular
alcohols and carboxylic acids like 1-hexanol, acetic acid, hydroquinone, and caproic acid.
The differences in the amount of aroma between wheat bran and wheat germ from
selected wheat varieties were large. However, the aroma components from bran or germ
between different varieties do not have large differences, indicating that different aroma
components existed in different parts of wheat kernel.
Wheat Germ Flour

The annual production of wheat was estimated to be more than 600 million tons in China.
Wheat germ accounts for nearly 3% of the total weight of kernel, which means at least 18
million tons of wheat germ is produced each year. Wheat germ has a high nutritional value
due to the bioactive substances, unsaturated fatty acids, mineral and dietary fibers. However,
wheat germ was mostly removed during milling because its existence had influenced the
quality of wheat flour (Zhou et al. 2014).
Table 2. Volatile compounds and their relative contents in three different

kinds of wheat bran and germ
No. Volatile compounds Relative content/%

Wheat bran Wheat germ
High gluten Medium gluten Low gluten High gluten Medium gluten Low gluten
1 1-hexanol 8.17 10.10 6.91 5.35 7.89 8.00
2 Ethanol ― ― ― 8.24 17.13 4.83
3 Phenylethyl alcohol ― ― ― 1.36 1.49 1.49
4 Decamethyl tetrasiloxane 7.77 6.80 7.48 ― ― ―
5 Dibutyl phthalate 3.30 5.15 12.42 ― ― ―
6 Dimethyl phthalate ― ― ― 0.84 0.98 0.74
7 Acetic acid 7.04 8.50 5.44 ― ― ―
8 Caproic acid 6.48 9.30 5.04 ― ― ―
9 Hexanoic acid ― ― ― 1.50 2.44 0.85
10 Hexadecanoic acid, ethyl ester ― ― ― 1.91 1.87 0.76
11 3-Nonenoic acid, ethyl ester ― ― ― 1.08 0.98 0.89
12 Hydroquinone 7.46 4.68 4.11 ― ― ―
13 Tetradecane 3.67 3.02 3.81 2.12 1.70 1.21
14 Hexadecane ― ― ― 3.47 1.70 1.19
15 Naphthalene ― ― ― 2.01 4.25 2.87
16 Hexanal 3.61 1.51 2.29 1.12 1.85 1.88
17 Tridecane 2.50 2.28 2.11 ― ― ―
18 Methoxyphenyl-oxime 1.68 1.85 2.09 ― ― ―
19 Pentadecane 1.86 1.85 1.53 ― ― ―
20 1-pentanol 1.74 1.90 1.62 ― ― ―
21 1-Butanol, 3-methyl ― ― ― 0.91 2.96 0.81
22 Dihydro-5-pentyl-2(3H)-Furanone 0.66 2.50 1.01 ― ― ―
23 1-octen-3-ol 1.27 1.30 1.10 1.39 1.03 2.87
24 3-Nonen-1-ol, (Z) ― ― ― 4.74 9.95 6.47
25 3, 6-Nonadien-1-ol, (E, Z) ― ― ― 0.70 1.38 1.06
26 2-Nonenal, (E) ― ― ― 2.42 2.52 2.82
27 Octadecane, 3-ethyl-5-(2- 1.23 1.35 1.14 ― ― ―
ethylbutyl)-
28 Phenol 1.25 1.09 0.99 ― ― ―
29 Phenol, 2-methoxy ― ― ― 4.50 1.14 1.97
30 2-Methoxy-4-vinylphenol ― ― ― 24.09 3.94 19.81
31 5-ethyldihydro-2(3H)-Furanone 1.12 1.11 1.01 ― ― ―
32 Dihydro-5-pentyl-2 (3H)-Furanone ― ― ― 3.53 4.07 5.03
33 1-ethylene-1H-indene 0.59 1.06 1.11 ― ― ―
34 Caprylic acid 1.14 1.10 0.64 ― ― ―
Therefore, for full used of the nutritional residues, wheat germ flour (WGF) has been
developed as a functional food ingredient (Sun 2015).
The nutritional quality of Chinese steamed bread made using wheat flour containing
varied quantities of WGF was studied. Partial substitution of wheat flour with WGF at ratio
of 3%, 6%, 9%, and 12% (w/w) was used to investigate physicochemical properties of dough
and qualities of the final product. Results showed that wheat flour with different ratios of
WGF had lower viscosities and gelatinization temperatures. The addition of WGF diluted the
effect of gluten on the dough properties and further obtained weak and inextensible dough.
When adding the WGF, Chinese steamed bread had significantly (P < 0.05) lower volume
and higher spread ratio (the width to the height). The physicochemical and sensory quality of
Chinese steamed bread was improved with the application of low levels of WGF (3% and
6%). However, an undesirable taste of steamed bread was generated when a higher level of
WGF (9% or 12%) was used. Generally, the quality of Chinese steamed bread could be
improved with the addition of appropriate level of WGF in wheat flour.
Table 2 shows that in total 32, 35, and 28 aroma compounds are found in the germ from
high-gluten (Zhengmai 9023), medium-gluten (Xiaoyan 22), and low-gluten (Yangmai 13)
wheat varieties, respectively. Nineteen volatile substances were found in all wheat germ,
which accounted for more than 65% of the total volatile components. The results indicated
that there were some differences in the volatile components among the low gluten, medium
gluten, and high gluten wheat germ, but most of them were similar. The volatile components
in wheat germ were hydrocarbons, ketones, aldehydes, alcohols, esters, phenols, heterocyclic,
and other compounds, but were mainly alcohols, phenols, and hydrocarbons. Alcohols were
the most abundant volatile components of wheat germ. There are 7, 9, and 8 alcohols
contained in germ from high, medium, and low gluten wheat varieties, respective, but 7 of
these were the same. The content of alcohol, 1-hexanol, 3-nonen-1-ol (Z), 2-methoxy-4-
vinylphenol, and dihydro-5-pentyl-2(3H)-furanone were high in all wheat bran, indicating
that these chemicals were the main components constitute the aroma profiles of wheat germ.
Overall, the volatile components of wheat germ consisted of high amount of alcohols and
phenols. Phenolic compounds had strong aroma activity. Therefore, it can be speculated that
2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol is the most important aroma substance of wheat germ and greatly
contribute to the flavor (Yan 2013).
Wheat Germ Oil

Wheat germ is a by-product of wheat processing. It contains 10% oil which is mainly
applied in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food industries. Wheat germ has a high
nutritional value because of its high quality of protein, fat, vitamins, minerals, and
physiological active compounds. In addition, wheat germ is rich in unsaturated fatty acids, of
which accounted for 80%. Especially, linoleic acid, which is beneficial to the human body,
which accounted for more than 50% of the unsaturated fatty acids. It has an important role in
maintaining human body health, especially promoting growth in children and developing
tissue functions. Therefore, wheat germ is known as the “natural treasure of nutrition for
humans” (He et al. 2013).
Wheat germ oil extracted by supercritical CO2 had the highest amount of unsaturated
fatty acids, which accounted for 72.13%, 74.66%, and 74% in high gluten, medium gluten,
and low gluten wheat, respectively (Table 3).
Table 3. Fatty acid profiles of germ oil in high, medium, and gluten wheat
High gluten Medium gluten Low gluten

No. Name Retention Relative Retention Relative Retention Relative
Peak area Peak area Peak area
time/min content/% time/min content/% time/min content/%
1 Myristic acid 2.618 0.06747 17336 2.63 0.09732 19915 2.625 0.1936 47361
2 Tetradecenic acid 3.208 0.06878 17670 3.219 0.1019 20850 3.190 0.1151 28153
3 Palmitic acid 5.658 17.9 4600052 5.683 16.67 3411745 5.642 16.28 3983618
4 Palmitoleic acid 6.160 0.2823 72538 6.247 0.2312 47309 6.125 0.2758 67476
5 Stearic acid 10.307 0.4941 126956 10.367 0.523 107029 10.261 0.4431 108409
6 Oleic acid 11.314 14.51 3727442 11.374 16.63 3402636 11.291 15.17 3710214
7 Linoleic acid 13.738 57.62 14802630 13.757 58.03 11875909 13.705 58.23 1.4E+07
8 Linolenic acid 16.839 7.25 1862694 16.937 6.259 1280724 16.808 7.424 1816376
9 Arachidonic acid 20.806 1.58 405956 20.96 1.386 283544 20.727 1.785 436770
10 Eicosatrienoic acid 24.378 0.05175 13295 24.468 0.03994 9771
While the lowest content of fatty acids of low carbon chains were observed in germ oil.
The relative content of linoleic acid was 57.62%, 58.03%, and 58.23% in different gluten
wheat, respectively, followed by palmitic acid. Overall, with the increase of gluten content in
wheat, linoleic acid in germ oil decreased and saturated fatty acids increased. Thus germ oil
extracting from low gluten wheat may be suitable for producing functional foods.
“Popwheat”
Popcorn is a popular whole cereal snack which is cooked and puffed up by air flow.
Explosion-puffing technology preserves original components of grains to a great extent and
causes the least nutrient loss. Popcorn has a certain amount of nutrients including dietary fiber
and antioxidants, which was helpful for reducing the incidence of heart disease, type II
diabetes, and obesity. Therefore, air-popped popcorn is a 100% whole grain and healthy food
without any ingredient addition (Liu et al. 2015).
Recently, corn kernel is still the principal raw material to produce popcorn, thus, this type
of air puffed product is quite simple. As one of the three major cereal crops in the world,
wheat has already been made into diverse products, such as steamed bread, noodles and
breakfast cereals. But researches on wheat popcorn or “popwheat” are rarely reported. Black
wheat is a good source of essential amino acids, trace elements, essential fatty acids, wheat
melanin, and dietary fiber, which can prevent atherosclerosis, diabetes, obesity, intestinal
diseases and constipation, and maintaining the physiological function of organs and tissues in
the body (Preedy et al. 2011). However, most of nutrients exist in the cortex of black wheat.
Wheat flour was produced by abrasion of the outer layer and removal of wheat bran, which
resulted in a great loss of nutrients and resources in traditional milling processes. While
explosion-puffing technology not only loosens the condensed fiber structure of wheat kernels
and creates a more desirable crispy texture, it also preserves the maximum nutrients.
Black wheat (Xinongheidasui black wheat), normal winter wheat (Pubing 9946), and
corn (Zhongke 11) were made for popcorn and used to investigated characteristics of
popcorn. The results showed that “popwheat” had the largest volume and lowest moisture
content, compared with popcorn. Sensory evaluation of “popwheat” was better than that of
popcorn, but smaller squamae were found in the “popwheat”. “Popwheat” made from black
wheat (Xinongheidasui) had the high water absorption index, which contributes to a feeling of
satiety.
Figure 1. Scanning electron microscopy images of surface structure (top row) of popcorn made from
black wheat (A1), normal wheat (B1), and corn (C1). A2, B2, and C2 are interior structures of popcorn
made from black wheat, normal wheat, and corn observed at 23× resolution (middle row) and 100×
resolution (bottom row), respectively.
However, “popwheat” made from normal wheat (pubing 9946) had the highest water
solubility index, suggesting it contains more soluble substances. With prolonged storage time,
the moisture content of “popwheat” was always lower than that of popcorn and therefore the
sensory evaluation score was higher. The surface structure of “popwheat” is relatively
compact, compared with popcorn, suggesting it can effectively hinder the entry of external
moisture and prevent the product from becoming soft. The diameter of cavities in “popwheat”
was larger than that of popcorn, which makes “popwheat” more crispy and palatable
(Figure 1). This also indicated that “popwheat” had the highest storage tolerance and longest
shelf life than popcorn.
CONCLUSION
The varieties of wheat that are used to make Chinese steamed bread have been extended.
Wheat breeding technology, especially molecular breeding, is a useful tool for selecting the
variety of wheat that holds the specific properties needed for certain products (for example, to
obtain wheat seeds that are rich in gluten content or trace elements). Future research needs to
investigate the use of natural ingredients instead of additives to improve nutritional properties
of steamed bread without compromise to rheological and textural properties of products.

Apart from making steamed bread and noodles, the potential application of wheat is worth
exploring. For instance, wheat seeds or flour have been made into novel products such as
wheat tea and black wheat wine. Overall, as a “versatile” agricultural material, the exploration
and development of wheat based foods is promising.
REFERENCES
He, Jiao, Zhengmao Zhang, Wen Yan, Tian Wang and Yuxiu Liu, “Optimization of
Supercritical CO2 Extraction and Fatty Acids Composition of Wheat Embryo Oil,” Food
Science, (2013): 34: 85-88 (in Chinese).
Huang, Sidi and Diane Miskelly, Steamed Breads: Ingredients, Processing and Quality.
(Duxford: Woodhead, 2016), 13-21.
Liu, Miaomiao, Zhengmao Zhang, Wuyan Zhuo, Ru Sun, Xinjuan Hu and Qinhui Xing,
“Comparative Study on Properties of Different Kinds of Popcorn,” Acta Agriculturae
Boreali-occidentalis Sinica, (2015): 24: 48-55 (in Chinese).
Preedy, Victor R., Ronald Ross Watson and Vinood B. Patel, Flour and Breads and their
Fortification in Health and Disease Prevention. (Elsevier Inc. 2011), 59-67.
Sun, Ru Zhengmao Zhang, Xinjuan Hu, Qinhui Xing and Wuyan Zhuo, “Effect of wheat
germ flour addition on wheat flour, dough and Chinese steamed bread properties”,
Journal of Cereal Science, (2015): 153-158.
Yan, Wen, Zhengmao Zhang, Laping Liu, Tian Wang, Yuxiu Liu and Jiao He, “Analysis of
Volatile Components in Wheat Embryo with Different Gluten by Solid-phase
Microextraction Coupled with Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry”, Journal of
Triticeae Crops, (2013): 33: 835-839 (in Chinese).
Yan, Wen, Zhengmao Zhang. “Aroma Components Analysis of Three Different Gluten
Winter Wheat Varieties by Solid-phase Microextraction Coupled with Gas
Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry”, Journal of Triticeae Crops, (2011): 31: 246-251
(in Chinese).
Yan, Wen, Zhengmao Zhang and Laping Liu, “Headspace Solid-Phase Microextraction
Coupled with Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometric Analysis of Volatile
Composition Changes of Steamed Bread during Processing”, Food Science, (2012): 33:
254-258 (in Chinese).
Zhou, Weibiao, Y. H. Hui, I. De Leyn, M. A. Pagani, C. M. Rosell, J. D. Selman and
N. Therdthai, Bakery Products Science and Technology, (Chichester: John Wiley & Sons,
Ltd, 2014), 17-53.
Chapter 10
WHOLE GRAIN WHEAT FLOUR: DEFINITIONS,

PRODUCTION, NUTRITIONAL, TECHNOLOGICAL AND
MICROBIOLOGICAL ASPECTS FOR APPLICATION IN
BAKERY AND PASTA PRODUCTS
Georgia A. R. Sehn1, Fernanda Ortolan2, Elizabeth H. Nabeshima3

and Caroline J. Steel4,*
1
Department of Food Engineering and of Chemical Engineering –
State University of Santa Catarina (UDESC) – Pinhalzinho, SC, Brazil
2
Department of Food Technology – Federal Institute of São Paulo –
Matão, SP, Brazil
3
Institute of Food Technology (ITAL) – Cereal and Chocolate Technology Center
(Cereal Chocotec) – Campinas, SP, Brazil
4
Department of Food Technology – School of Food Engineering –
University of Campinas (UNICAMP) – Campinas, SP, Brazil
ABSTRACT
There has been growing interest in the use of whole grain wheat flour by the bakery
and pasta industry, as a high added value ingredient, to improve the nutritional quality of
products and bring health benefits to consumers, as it is rich in dietary fiber, vitamins,
minerals, and antioxidants. However, the industry faces challenges in the elaboration of
the different products that incorporate this flour to partially or totally replace refined
wheat flour. These challenges involve the need to change process parameters and to solve
end product quality problems, such as volume reduction, and color, appearance, flavor,
and texture changes in breads and biscuits; and texture and cooking quality in pasta. This
chapter will deal with the definitions of whole grain wheat flour in different countries
(e.g., Brazil, Argentina, Canada, and USA), differentiating whole grain wheat flour from
reconstituted whole grain wheat flour; obtainment processes (stone mills, roller mills,
reconstitution, etc.); nutritional, technological and microbiological aspects. Another
*
Corresponding Author Email: steel@unicamp.br.
186 G. A. R. Sehn, F. Ortolan, E. H. Nabeshima et al.
relevant aspect when working with whole grain wheat flour is to define its quality for
specific applications. This chapter will discuss how traditional evaluation methods, used
for refined wheat flour, which use equipment such as the farinograph, the extensograph
and the alveograph are altered when analyzing whole grain wheat flour. In addition, the
chapter will describe the application of whole grain wheat flour in different bakery and
pasta products, with examples of the resources available to enhance product quality,
including ingredients such as vital wheat gluten, sourdough, additives such as oxidants
and emulsifiers, and processing aids such as enzymes. With this, we intend to give a
broad overview of the production and use of this flour.
Keywords: whole grain, wheat, flour, nutrition, analysis, application
1. WHOLE GRAIN WHEAT FLOUR

1.1. Definitions
Currently, there is no global definition used for whole grain wheat flour, with different
definitions being established by different countries. Although there are small variations, the
definition of whole grains by the American Association of Cereal Chemists International
(AACCI) is still the most widely used. According to AACCI (1999), “whole grains consist of
the intact, ground, cracked or flaked kernel after the removal of inedible parts such as the hull
and husk. The principal anatomical components – the starchy endosperm, germ and bran – are
present in the same relative proportions as they exist in the intact kernel”. It should be noted
that the AACCI considers wheat, amaranth, barley, buckwheat, corn, bulgur, millets, quinoa,
rice, rye, oats, sorghum, teff, triticale, and wild rice as whole grains, as well as germinated
grains when the germinated sprout does not exceed the length of the grain kernel and
nutritional values are not reduced (Mu, 2013; AACCI, 2008).
Other definitions can still be found, such as that by the Whole Grains Council of the
United States, “whole grains or foods made from them contain all the essential parts and
naturally-occurring nutrients of the entire grain seed in their original proportions. If the grain
has been processed (e.g., cracked, crushed, rolled, extruded, and/or cooked), the food product
should deliver the same rich balance of nutrients found in the original grain seed. This
definition means that 100% of the original kernel – all of the bran, germ, and endosperm –
must be present to qualify as a whole grain” (Whole Grains Council, 2004). In addition,
according to Healthgrain of the European Union, “whole grains shall consist of the intact,
ground, cracked, or flaked kernel after the removal of inedible parts, such as the hull and
husk. The principal anatomical components – the starchy endosperm, germ, and bran – are
present in the same relative proportions as those which exist in the intact kernel. Small losses
of components, that is, less than 2% of the grain or 10% of the bran that occur through
processing methods consistent with safety and quality are allowed” (Ross et al., 2017).
Concerning whole wheat flour, the scenario is not much different, since each country has
established a specific definition or bases its definition on that of whole grains to regulate this
product. In Brazil, whole wheat flour is defined as “a product made from wheat grains
(Triticum aestivum L.) or other wheat species of the genus Triticum, or combinations by
grinding or milling and other technologies or processes from the complete processing of clean
grain, whether or not containing the germ” (Brasil, 2005). Different definitions can be found
Whole Grain Wheat Flour 187
in other countries, such as Argentina, which defines as whole flour or graham flour “the
product obtained by milling wheat grains, which may have fine, medium, and coarse particle
size and must meet the requirements for moisture and ash contents” (Argentine Food Code,
2017). Canada has defined whole wheat flour as “flour prepared by milling clean wheat, in
which part of the outer layer of the epidermis may have been separated and shall contain the
natural constituents of wheat grain to no less than 95% of the total weight” (FDR, 2017). In
the United States, the definition is “whole wheat flour, graham flour, entire wheat flour is the
food prepared by grinding cleaned wheat, other than durum wheat and red durum wheat. The
proportions of the natural constituents of such wheat, other than moisture, remain unaltered”
(FDA, 1996).
1.2. Production
Stone and roller mills are the main equipment used for grinding or milling wheat grains
for the production of whole wheat flour.
1.2.1. Stone Milling

Stone milling is considered the oldest method for obtaining whole wheat flour, which
simultaneously uses compression, shear, and abrasion to grind the wheat kernels between two
stones, with an extraction rate of 100% (Doblado-Maldonado et al., 2012). Grinding in a
stone mill results in a higher processing temperature (90-98°C) when compared to other types
of mills, due to the mechanical friction of the stones. This increase in temperature can lead to
changes in proteins and lipids, and consequently alter the functional properties of wheat
grains (Prabhasankar & Rao, 2001). Some mills use this method to “crack” the grain, keeping
the stones far enough apart not to generate excessive heat, and finalize the reduction process
in roller mills (Doblado-Maldonado et al., 2012).
Even though it is considered the oldest grinding method, the term “stone milling” is
currently highlighted in flour and wheat product labels, as a marketing advantage to indicate
an authentic whole wheat flour, maintaining all the original fractions of the wheat grain.
1.2.2. Roller Milling

Most of the processed whole wheat flour is obtained by roller milling, where the
endosperm, bran and germ fractions are separated and recombined at a later stage in the same
proportions found in the whole grain (in some countries, such as Brazil, there is no legislation
establishing the proportion of these fractions). This process allows the separate heat treatment
of the germ for enzyme inactivation, increasing the shelf life of whole wheat flour. However,
the recombination process leads to a discussion on the control of the authenticity of whole
wheat flour, due to the possibility of mixing different wheat grains fractions to increase the
technological performance of these flours (van der Kamp, 2013).
Roller milling can be divided into two main systems: first, the wheat fractions
(endosperm, bran, and germ) are separated from the endosperm and then they are gradually
converted into flour (Ziegler & Greer, 1971). These systems are called the break system and
the reduction system.
The break system has the purpose to separate the endosperm of whole wheat grains from
the bran and germ fractions. It consists of a set of four to five pairs of parallel aligned striated
rolls, rotating in opposite directions at different speeds (2.5:1) to separate as much endosperm
as possible. According to the pressure exerted and the depth of the roller grooves, it is
possible to separate small portions of bran remaining attached to the semolina (coarse
particles of endosperm). The product is sieved to separate the fractions (coarse, medium, fine,
and wheat flour), and passed through airflow purifiers to remove fine bran particles (Catterall
& Cauvain, 2007; Costa et al., 2013).
In the reduction system, the separated fractions are ground to finer particles producing
flour. It consists of 8 to 16 sets of rolls, depending on the type of wheat, and is different from
the breaking system, once these rolls have a smooth surface and rotate at a lower speed
gradient (1.25:1). According to the distance between the rolls, coarse or fine fractions can be
obtained, and at the end of each set, the particles are sieved back or not to the process,
according to the particle size required for each purpose (Catterall & Cauvain, 2007; Costa et
al., 2013).
Some advantages are observed in the manufacture of whole wheat flour with roller mills
in relation to stone mills, including: (i) simple adjustment of the rolls according to the raw
material (particle size, hardness); (ii) greater control of the grinding temperature through the
distance between the rolls, minimizing the destruction of functional components of the wheat
grain; (iii) separation of the fractions, especially bran and germ, to be subjected to specific
operations, such as heat treatment or grinding, with subsequent recombination, thus achieving
greater storage stability. However, it is worth mentioning that the process is more prone to
adulteration of the whole wheat flour (Prabhasankar & Rao, 2001; Posner & Hibbs, 2005;
Doblado-Maldonado et al., 2012).
1.3. Nutritional Aspects
During the refining process, fiber, lipids, minerals, vitamins, antioxidants, flavonoids,
and other nutrients are reduced considerably, once these compounds are concentrated in the
germ and bran, which are removed during the manufacturing of refined wheat flour (Weaver,
2001; Marti et al., 2004).
The germ corresponds to about 2-3% of the wheat grain. It contains high contents of
proteins and lipids with high quality fatty acids, in addition to high contents of tocopherol, B
vitamins, fiber, essential amino acids and functional phytochemicals such as flavonoids and
sterols. Despite these remarkable nutritional characteristics, wheat germ has an expressive
enzyme activity, especially of lipases and lipoxygenases. These enzymes deteriorate the lipid
fraction, generating compounds that reduce the shelf life of whole wheat flour (Marti et al.,
2004; Bansal & Sudha, 2011; Gili et al., 2017).
The bran accounts for about 12-15% of the wheat grain. It is a complex material,
composed of outer layers that are characterized by distinct structures and compositions,
defined as (from the outer to the inner layer): external pericarp (beeswing bran), internal
pericarp (cross and tubular cells), testa (seed coat), hyaline layer (nucellar epidermis) and
aleurone layer (the outermost layer of the endosperm removed with bran) (Hemery et al.,
2010).
The pericarp is formed by branched heteroxylans, cellulose and lignin. The testa is rich in
lignin and pigments, whereas the hyaline layer is composed primarily of cross-links of
arabinoxylans. The aleurone layer consists of thick cellular walls composed of arabinoxylans
and β-glucans, has high enzymatic activity, high contents of ash and proteins (of high
biological value, with low technological quality for bakery and pasta products), and minerals
(phosphorus, iron, and manganese). In addition, this layer has higher concentrations of
vitamins (niacin, thiamine, and riboflavin) when compared to the other bran fractions
(Fincher & Stone, 1986; Barron et al., 2007; Delcour & Hoseney, 2010; Hemery et al., 2010).
Wheat bran contains approximately 45% dietary fiber (Cornell & Hoveling, 1998). It has
a positive effect on the gastrointestinal tract and gut health, by decreasing intestinal transit
time and increasing fecal volume. It acts in the prevention and treatment of constipation and
irritable bowel syndrome, reducing the risk of obesity, favoring the control of the glycemic
index, besides reducing the risk of certain types of cancer and chronic and degenerative
diseases (Cho & Clark, 2001).
1.4. Technological Aspects
Despite the health benefits of whole wheat flour due to its high nutritional quality, it can
lead to changes in the technological properties of the final products when used in the
manufacture of bakery and pasta products. The effects of the addition of the whole fraction
depend on the type of milling, that is, the flour particle size and the recombination of the
separate milling streams of refined flour, germ, and bran.
In breadmaking, a lower specific volume, a greater firmness and a darker coloring is
observed in bread when the outermost layers of the grain are used, in addition to significant
changes in sensory acceptance (Kock et al., 1999; Al-Saqer et al., 2000; Gómez et al., 2003;
Gómez et al., 2011; Schmiele et al., 2012; Almeida et al., 2013; Bressiani et al., 2017;
Saccotelli et al., 2017).
According to Kock et al. (1999), wheat bran exerts physicochemical effects that affect the
technological quality of bread in relation to the specific volume. The physical effect is related
to the dilution of proteins that form the gluten network and the interference of bran in this
process. However, Noort et al. (2010) reported that the dilution of the gluten network is only
a secondary factor in reducing the specific volume. In contrast, the chemical effect may be
related to the interactions between the gluten-forming proteins and the monomers of ferulic
acid, glutathione, and phytates released during breaking of the outer layer of wheat grains,
especially the aleurone layer, during the milling process.
In the manufacture of biscuits, higher levels of wheat bran have a significant effect, by
reducing the expansion factor, increasing hardness and leaving the biscuits with a darker color
(Sudha et al., 2007). Sozer et al. (2014) produced biscuits with the incorporation of 5 to 15%
wheat bran from two different particle sizes: fine and coarse. The lower wheat bran particle
size increased the bulk density and hardness of the biscuits, which visibly presented a more
compact structure than those made with the coarse wheat bran. A similar result was found by
Protonotariou et al. (2016), who studied very fine whole flours, and observed lower hydration
of dough due to the limitation of the available water for the other components, such as
proteins and starch, at high replacement levels. In addition, wheat bran fibers prevented the
starch from swelling in the gelatinization process and interfered in the reassociation of starch
after cooking, resulting in impacts on the texture of the cookies.
Pasta, when made with whole wheat flour, is more susceptible to browning due to the
high activity of polyphenoloxidase (Niu et al., 2014). Li et al. (2017) studied whole wheat
fresh noodles not subjected to enzymatic inactivation, and observed a lower L* value, that is,
a darker coloration within 24 h after processing. These same authors also reported a
weakening of the gluten network in whole wheat pasta due to the dilution caused by wheat
bran and wheat germ. This dilution led to lower tensile strength, cooking time, and greater
loss of solids during cooking (Kaur et al., 2012; Sobota et al., 2015; Gatta et al., 2017).
1.5. Microbiological Aspects
The pre-processing steps of wheat grains to obtain safe whole wheat flour should be
carried out adequately, once the climatic conditions during harvest and post-harvest of these
grains may vary, and high temperatures and high relative humidity can favor grain
deterioration and contamination by promoting the proliferation of insects and toxigenic fungi
(Tibola, Lorini, de Miranda, 2009).
Fusarium head blight is considered the most important disease in wheat in the world,
being associated with pathogens of the dominant species Fusarium graminearum. The
relevance of this infestation is due to the potential for production of mycotoxins of these fungi
species, especially deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZON), leading to risks to human
and animal health, as well as economic losses due to lower yield and inferior grain quality, as
well as the reduction of the nutritional and technological quality of the flour (Tibola, Lorini,
de Miranda, 2009; Tiboli et al., 2015; Dweba et al., 2017).
As reported by Rotter et al. (1996), the World Health Organization (WHO) considers
deoxynivalenol (or 12,13-epoxy-3,4,15-trihyroxytrichothec-9-en-8-one; DON; vomitoxin;
dehydronivalenol; 4-deoxynivalenol; RD-toxin) as a neurotoxin, teratogenic and
immunosuppressive, and it has been associated with chronic and fatal intoxication in humans
and animals. The most frequent effects of DON are nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and weight
loss (Rotter et al., 1996, WHO, 2001, Santos et al., 2010, Dweba et al., 2017).
As for zearalenone (ZON), this mycotoxin is estrogenic non-steroidal, produced by
Fusarium species, and the consumption of cereals contaminated by this metabolite can induce
the development of hormone dependent tumors (Belhaussen et al., 2014) and reproductive
problems due to hyperestrogenism (Santos et al., 2010). Although it has low acute toxicity, it
is considered hepatotoxic, hematotoxic, immunotoxic, genotoxic, teratogenic and
carcinogenic to a number of mammalian species (Zinedine et al., 2007).
Another important mycotoxin in the wheat chain is ochratoxin A (OTA), resulting from
the metabolism of Aspergillus ochraceus, A. carbonarius, A. niger, and Penicilium
verrucosum. This mycotoxin, whose target organ is the kidney, is considered a potent
carcinogen, besides having immunosuppressive effects, teratogenicity and nephrotoxicity in
animals. The International Agency for Research on Cancer classified OTA in group 2B as a
possible carcinogen in humans (Bui-Klimke, Wu, 2015).
The prevention of the dissemination of toxigenic fungi includes pre- and post-harvest
strategies to assist in the control of grain infestation (Jard et al., 2011; Tibola, Lorini, de
Miranda, 2009).
Table 1. Maximum permitted mycotoxin limits in wheat and

wheat-derived products
LIMITS
MYCOTOXIN PRODUCTS (g.kg-1)
2012 2017 2019
Ochratoxin A Wheat for further processing - 20 -
Deoxynivalenol Wheat grains for further processing - 3000 -
(DON) Whole wheat, kibbe wheat, whole wheat flour, wheat bran 2000 1250 1000
Wheat flour, pasta, crackers, water and salt biscuits, and 1750 1000 750
bakery products
Zearalenone Wheat flour, pasta, crackers and bakery products 200 100 -
Whole wheat, whole wheat flour, wheat bran 400 200 -
*
Source: Adapted from Brasil (2011); Brasil (2017).
Jard et al. (2011) reported as pre-harvest recommendations the selection of seed varieties
resistant to fungi, sustainable cultivation techniques (crop rotation), biological control
techniques, among other procedures. Tibola, Lorini, de Miranda (2009) indicated as good
practice procedures during post-harvest the maintenance of freshly harvested wheat grains at
≤13% moisture, using rapid and immediate drying stages of those with higher moisture levels,
besides controlling fungi and insects and the storage in appropriate silos, with an aeration
system and monitoring of the thermometry system as main controls during storage.
According to Santos et al. (2010), the constant monitoring of mycotoxins in the quality
control routine should be considered as a mandatory requirement, since they are considered
natural toxins and inevitably occur in products of plant origin.
In Brazil, the Ministry of Health/National Agency of Sanitary Surveillance (ANVISA)
has established progressive reductions of the maximum limits of mycotoxins in food, with a
reduction until 2019 for the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) (Brasil, 2011; Brasil, 2017).
Table 1 shows the maximum tolerated limits established in wheat products for the mycotoxins
ochratoxin (OTA), zearalenone (ZON), and deoxynivalenol (DON) (Brasil, 2011; Brasil,
2017).
2. QUALITY EVALUATION: REFINED WHEAT FLOUR X WHOLE

GRAIN WHEAT FLOUR
Each wheat-based product requires flour with specific technological characteristics for its
preparation. The choice of flour has a strong effect on the ability to produce an acceptable
product (Schmiele et al., 2012).
Rheological tests with wheat flour help the baking and pasta industry to predict dough
processing characteristics and the quality of the final products. In the industry (mills, large
bakery and pasta industries), the farinograph, the extensograph, and the alveograph are the
most common instruments used to measure the rheological or viscoelastic properties of wheat
dough, providing data that are useful for evaluation of performance during processing and
quality control.
The farinograph is used to evaluate the behavior of wheat dough during the mixing step
(Sarker et al., 2008). From the farinogram, the following parameters are obtained: water
absorption (WA), dough development time (DDT), arrival time (AT), stability (S) and mixing
tolerance index (MTI) (Preston & Kilborn, 1984).
Table 2 shows wheat flour parameters described by Preston & Kilborn (1984), who
classified wheat flour as weak, medium, strong, and very strong. According to these authors,
good results are obtained when using very strong flour for pasta manufacturing, strong flour
for breadmaking, medium flour for the production of crackers, and weak flour for the
manufacture of cookies and cakes.
The extensograph was introduced to supplement the information provided by the
farinograph, and is used to evaluate the behavior of wheat dough during the resting and
proofing steps. After three different resting periods (45, 90, and 135 min), a hook stretches
the dough until rupture to evaluate its characteristics (elasticity, or resistance to extension,
and extensibility) over time. A decrease in resistance with increasing time means that the
dough may present a reduction in gas retention capacity during proofing. The extensograph
allows assessing the following parameters: resistance to extension or elasticity (R), maximum
resistance to extension (Rm), extensibility (E), R/E ratio (D) and energy (A) (Pyler, 1973;
Preston & Hoseney, 1991).
Table 3 shows the extensograph parameters of wheat flour, as described by Pizzinatto
(1997), for the time of 135 minutes. The classification proposed by Preston & Hoseney
(1991) includes energy values (A) of <80 cm2, 80-120 cm2, 120-200 cm2, and >200 cm2 for
weak, medium, strong, and very strong flours, respectively. In addition, an increase in flour
strength is observed with the increase in resistance to extension. According to Mailhot &
Patton (1988), wheat flour used in breadmaking should have a balance between extensibility
and resistance to extension.
Table 2. Typical farinograph parameters of flours with different

strength classifications
Flour WA (%) DDT (min) S (min) MTI (BU)

Weak <55 <2.5 <3 >100
Medium 54-60 2.5-4 3-8 60-100
Strong >58 4-8 8-15 15-50
Very strong >58 >10 >15 <10
WA: water absorption; DDT: dough development time; S: stability; MTI: mixing tolerance index; BU:
Brabender units.
Source: Preston & Kilborn (1984).
Table 3. Extensograph parameters of flours with different strength classifications in the

time of 135 minutes
R Rm E D A
Flour
(BU) (BU) (mm) (BU/mm) (cm2)
Strong 560 840 155 3,6 145
Weak 130 130 180 0,7 70
R: resistance to extension; Rm: maximum resistance to extension; E: extensibility; D: R/E ratio;
A: energy; BU: Brabender units.
Source: Pizzinatto (1997).
The alveograph is an instrument that provides information similar to the extensograph.

However, the parameters resistance to extension and extensibility are obtained by blowing air
into a dough piece, which expands into a bubble that eventually bursts. In this case, dough
deformation is performed biaxially. The whole process is recorded and the alveogram reveals
the following parameters: maximum pressure (P), which is related to dough resistance to
deformation or elasticity; abscissa at rupture (L), that measures the extension of the X-axis of
the curve, from the beginning until the rupture of the bubble and is related to extensibility;
swelling index (G); curve configuration ratio (P/L ratio); and deformation energy (W),
represented by the area under the curve, also called gluten strength (Pyler, 1973; Pizzinatto,
1997).
Several authors have studied the influence of the incorporation of wheat bran or
substitution of refined wheat flour by whole wheat flour on the rheological characteristics of
the dough, aiming its application in bakery and pasta products. In the farinograph analysis, for
all studies mentioned below, an increase in water absorption was observed when larger
quantities of whole wheat flour were incorporated to the refined wheat flour. Shenoy &
Prakash (2002), Gómez et al. (2003) and Gómez et al. (2011) reported that greater
incorporations resulted in longer dough development time (DDT) and stability (S). Sudha et
al. (2007), Almeida et al. (2010) and Schmiele et al. (2012) also observed this behavior for
DDT, with opposite results for S, once there was a decrease in this parameter with the
addition of higher whole wheat flour levels.
Concerning the extensograph parameters, the greater addition of whole wheat flour
resulted in lower E and R (Zhang & Moore, 1997). In contrast, Schmiele et al. (2012) and
Sudha et al. (2007) found the same behavior for E, with an increase in R with higher fiber
contents in the dough. In the alveograph, higher P and lower L values were observed with
greater incorporations (Gómez et al., 2003; Gómez et al., 2011). However, Sehn & Steel
(2017) used recombined whole wheat flour with different bran percentages, and found that the
alveograph was not capable of evaluating the extension properties of whole wheat flour due to
the change in the calibration of the instrument caused by the resistance of the fiber-rich
dough.
The influence of the wheat bran and germ fractions on the rheological properties of the
dough is notable and often presents itself as an “apparent” improvement in the rheological
characteristics, evidenced by the increase in water absorption, stability, dough development
time, resistance to extension, and maximum pressure (P); and decrease in extensibility and
abscissa at rupture (L). It is worth mentioning that in refined flours these parameters evaluate
protein quality, while in whole flours these changes are due to the presence of fiber, which
increases dough consistency, causing a false positive result, rather than representing a
stronger and more stable gluten network. Therefore, the rheological standards currently used
to classify and define an application for refined flour (Preston & Kilborn, 1984; Mailhot &
Patton, 1988; Pizzinatto, 1997) cannot be used for analyzing whole wheat flour.
Sehn & Steel (2017) studied the obtainment of a new rheological standard to classify
whole wheat flours for breadmaking. The authors developed the Sehn-Steel dimensionless
number using the main results of the rheological analyses (farinograph and extensograph),
which allowed establishing a classification of whole wheat flours as suitable and unsuitable
for breadmaking. However, further studies are needed to develop grading methods for whole
wheat flours, as well as more exploration of the currently available resources such as vital
gluten, sourdough, additives, and enzymes to improve the quality of the end products.
3. APPLICATION IN BAKERY AND PASTA PRODUCTS

Whole grain wheat flour, produced with 100% of the wheat grain (Cauvain, 2015), can be
used to elaborate bakery and pasta products when a healthier appeal is desired. It can be
incorporated in levels that may reach 100% in some products. Apart from this, wheat bran can
be used at levels of 10 to 15% substitution of refined wheat flour (Cauvain & Young, 2009),
and the higher the incorporation levels, the greater the challenges to obtain products with
similar quality to the refined flour products. The whole wheat flour added can come from
stone mills, roller mills, be reconstituted in the mills or in the bakery or pasta industries
(by the addition of bran).
The use of wheat bran in the enrichment of bread can improve its nutritional properties
(Boita et al., 2016). However, bran tends to increase water absorption, with a negative impact
on dough rheology, texture, and sensory aspects of bread (Khalid et al., 2016; Pomeranz et
al., 1977). The water absorption increases with the presence of fibers, and the negative effects
of the addition of bran to dough and bread are due to the dilution of gluten, which affects the
gas retention capacity of the dough (Bleis et al., 2015). Gan et al. (1990) evaluated whole
wheat bread by scanning electronic microscopy (SEM), and observed that the bran
components disrupt the gluten matrix network, thus lowering its functionality to retain loaf
structure during fermentation and baking. In addition, changes in the water content of dough
can reduce loaf volume and increase crumb hardness, as a function of the amount of wheat
bran reincorporated into the wheat flour (Rosell & Santos, 2010).
Biscuits are an important product for the addition of bran or whole wheat flour, because
they are popular, daily consumed bakery items, and have a long shelf life. Most biscuits can
be made from flour that has a low quantity of protein (9.0%) and gluten that is weak and
extensible. The exceptions are fermented cracker doughs where a medium strength flour is
needed, with protein values of 10.5% or more (Manley et al., 2011). Whole wheat flour tends
to have protein content greater than refined wheat flour, reaching levels of 14% protein in its
constitution (Cauvain & Young, 2009), but these proteins are not necessarily gluten forming
proteins and the presence of bran can disrupt the gluten network, which is important for
fermented crackers. According to Sozer et al. (2014), bran supplementation of wheat flour
may have a major effect on mechanical biscuit parameters, such as elastic modulus and
hardness.
Pasta can also be produced with whole wheat flour (Ciccoritti et al., 2017). However,
technological and processing issues surround the use of this ingredient in pasta, which tends
to impact on hydration and on the development of a homogeneous starch-protein matrix
during dough formation (Brennan, 2013). Bagdi et al. (2014) published a study demonstrating
the effects of the aleurone layer on pasta quality, and reported other studies, which pointed
out that wheat bran or whole wheat flour incorporation leads to crucial changes, such as
increased cooking loss, decreased water uptake, decreased pasta firmness, and reduced
extensibility.
Breads, biscuits, and pasta produced with whole wheat flour or whole grain flour, without
the addition of dough enhancers do not present the same technological quality as breads
produced with refined wheat flour, and can be rejected by consumers. Whereas bread quality
is mainly related to bread volume and crumb softness; biscuits are defined by their
dimensions, crunchy texture, and low water content; and pasta should retain its shape before
and after cooking, have good texture, and minimum solids loss during cooking. All these
products, especially those with a longer shelf life (biscuits and pasta) should not have a rancid
flavor. Thus, to achieve the technological quality desired by consumers of whole bakery and
pasta products, it is necessary to use ingredients, additives, and processing aids during their
manufacturing processes.
The ingredients, additives and processing aids currently used by the bakery and pasta
industries to ensure the technological quality of bread, biscuits and pasta obtained by the use
of whole-wheat flour (such as whole grain pan breads, whole grain French bread, whole grain
pasta, and whole grain biscuits), modify whole dough rheological characteristics, and
guarantee better breadmaking or pasta producing performance.
3.1. Ingredients, Additives and Processing Aids
The quality of whole wheat bread is related to the baking properties of whole wheat flour
(Bleis et al., 2015; Boita et al., 2016; Khalid et al., 2016; Pomeranz et al., 1977; Rosell &
Santos, 2010; Rosell et al., 2010). In a large-scale bakery, economic production and good
bread quality demand raw material with uniform properties (Belitz et al., 2009).
To control the variability of wheat flour, baking industries use ingredients to enhance the
gluten network, mainly because they use rapid breadmaking processes and lean formulations.
Variations in the viscoelastic quality of wheat flour have increased the demand for using other
ingredients, including wheat gluten, additives, such as oxidizing agents (ascorbic acid and
azodicarbonamide), and oxidative enzymes, which are highly effective in maximizing the
quality of the wheat protein available.
These ingredients are used to adjust the viscoelastic characteristics of wheat flour for the
preparation of different bakery and pasta products, in particular whole grain breads, biscuits,
and pasta. Furthermore, they can improve dough rheological characteristics obtained by the
use of whole wheat flour, improving dough machinability and contributing to the increase in
bread volume, once the gluten network becomes capable to retain more gas in its three-
dimensional structure.
The gluten network plays a critical role in dough formation and growth, and the
sustentation of the final product, due to its viscoelastic properties, retaining the carbon
dioxide gas from yeast fermentation, and promoting the desired increase in volume.
3.1.1. Vital Wheat Gluten

Vital wheat gluten is a beige to light-brown powder protein concentrate (approximately
80 g/100 g of protein) obtained from wheat flour (Majzoobi & Abedi, 2014; Ortolan & Steel,
2017; Tedrus et al., 2001). It can be used to fortify flours considered weak for breadmaking
(Bietz & Lookhart, 1996), and whole wheat flours used to produce fiber-rich breads or other
products.
According to the International Wheat Gluten Association (IWGA), gluten can be
marketed in two forms as “non-vital” and “vital” wheat gluten. The non-vital wheat gluten is
gluten that has been subjected to irreversible denaturation and, therefore, cannot be “revived”
(Czuchajowska & Paszczynska, 1996; Esteller et al., 2005; Tedrus et al., 2001). It is usually
used for protein enrichment, but not for its viscoelastic properties. On the other hand, vital
wheat gluten, when in contact with water, can be rapidly hydrated and recover its viscoelastic
properties (elasticity and extensibility), due to little damaged gliadins and glutenins, which
form the gluten network (Esteller et al., 2005; Ortolan & Steel, 2017).
Vital wheat gluten is an ingredient used mainly in the baking industry (Delcour et al.,
2012; Majzoobi & Abedi, 2014; Marchetti et al., 2012; Melnyk et al., 2012; Robertson et al.,
2008). Its use is recommended for the production of certain specialty breads (breads with the
addition of fibers and/or germ and other ingredients), panettone, in which the fermentation
step is long and the volume is important, or even in flour with low gluten quality or quantity
(Ortolan & Steel, 2017; Tedrus et al., 2001).
In bakery products, vital wheat gluten is used to fortify flour with lower protein content
and of less than desirable quality or that is inadequate for breadmaking. The addition of this
ingredient increases the protein content of the flour and improves its technological quality
(Ortolan et al., 2017). This practice used by the baking industry, mills, and bakeries has
become increasingly common in many countries.
The supplementation of wheat flour with vital gluten increases the amount of wet gluten
(proportional to the amount added); moreover, vital gluten generally improves the elasticity
of the gluten network, dough strength, mixing tolerance, and dough handling properties
(Barak et al., 2013; Dobraszczyk & Salmanowicz, 2008; Ng, et al., 2011; Ng, et al., 2006;
Tanner, et al., 2008). Its viscoelastic properties provide expansion and gas retention, thereby
increasing bread volume and improving bread texture and uniformity. Moreover, its water
absorption capacity improves the yield of the final product, softness, and shelf life (Esteller et
al., 2005). Vital gluten interacts with wheat flour proteins (from refined or whole flour),
contributing to the development of a gluten network with rheological characteristics desired
for breadmaking. These effects are necessary for bread made with refined wheat flour and
whole wheat flour, or fiber-rich and whole grain bread.
The concentration of vital wheat gluten on wheat flour ranges from 2 to 10 g/100 g
(Wadhawan & Bushuk, 1989), depending on the flour quality, the type of end product
desired, and the quality of the gluten protein from vital wheat gluten used for fortification.
The use of vital wheat gluten has been of most value for making bread, but it is also used
in pasta and biscuit production. For pasta production, although durum wheat is the first
choice, vital gluten can be used to fortify available flours. Gluten addition can reduce cooking
loss and stickiness in cooked pasta, provide good cooked firmness, increase resistance to
breaking, and improve heat tolerance in canned retorted products (Hesser 1989). There are
certain biscuit types, such as cream crackers and puff biscuits, where higher protein flours are
required, and vital wheat gluten has been extensively used as an economical method of
obtaining these stronger flours. The total protein content of a flour/gluten mix can be
calculated simply but, as a guide, for cracker doughs, additions of 1 or 2% of gluten on flour
can show significant baking improvements (Manley et al., 2011).
3.1.2. Oxidizing Agents

In breadmaking, oxidizing agents are normally added to flour to improve dough strength,
thus leading to a higher bread volume (Grosch & Wieser, 1999; Junqueira et al., 2007).
Among these, are the fast-acting oxidants, such as azodicarbonamide, and the intermediate-
acting oxidants, such as ascorbic acid stand out (Junqueira et al., 2007; Gioia et al., 2017).
The amount of oxidizing agents to be added to wheat flour is determined by wheat flour
mills and bakery industries, based on compositional and rheological analyses of the flour (ash
content, wet and dry gluten content, gluten index, farinograph, extensograph, or alveograph
properties) (Peña et al., 2006), considering the maximum limits permitted of these additives
according to local legislation.
Among the flour improvers, oxidizing agents are the most important products in bakery
technology. They act directly on the gluten protein structure, enhancing the gluten network
through the formation of disulfide bonds with proteins (Peña et al., 2006), which are essential
for the formation of the gluten network (Ortolan & Steel, 2017), and an effective oxidation of
the sulfhydryl groups is crucial to optimize dough properties (Jekle & Becker, 2013; Joye et
al., 2009a; Lagrain et al., 2006; Ortolan & Steel, 2017). Disulfide bonds can affect dough
rheology, increasing elasticity and decreasing extensibility of the gluten network (Ortolan et
al., 2017).
The three-dimensional gluten network is mainly a result of the disulfide bonds formed by
the oxidation of free sulfhydryl groups of the gluten proteins. This oxidation can lead to
rearrangement of intra/inter chain disulfide bonds, resulting in better dough rheology and
improving the stability of the gluten network (Belton, 2005; Delcour et al., 2012; MacRitchie,
2014; Shewry et al., 2001; Wang et al., 2015).
As a direct consequence of the reinforcing action of oxidants on gluten, the gas retention
capacity is increased, which results in higher loaf volume for breads. Oxidizing agents also
increase the oven-rise, which is the rapid increase in volume that occurs in the first minutes
after the dough enters the oven (Menegusso et al., 2012). Generally, in pasta, some oxidizing
agents could be used to reinforce the gluten network, through SS linkages between gliadin
and glutenin (Bruneel et al., 2011), which could reduce cooking losses of the pasta.
3.1.2.1. Ascorbic Acid

The most common oxidant used in breadmaking is ascorbic acid (AA, E300), which is
added to refined wheat flour or whole wheat flour. Chemically, ascorbic acid is an
antioxidant, but it acts as an oxidant in dough, after oxidation by atmospheric oxygen
(Hrušková & Novotná, 2001). Its addition to wheat flour (refined or whole) causes the
increase of dough cohesiveness and bread volume, and improves bread crumb structure
(Junqueira et al., 2008; Pereira et al., 2009). The mechanism of reaction as an oxidizing agent
involves the formation of disulfide bonds, which are responsible for the stabilization of the
gluten network (Elkassabany & Hoseney, 1980).
The reaction sequence is initiated when flour with AA is mixed with water. During
mixing, AA is quickly oxidized to dehydroascorbic acid by ascorbate acid oxidase
(EC1.10.3.3) naturally found in wheat (Every et al., 1996; Goesaert et al., 2005; Grosch &
Wieser, 1999; Joye et al., 2009a; Junqueira et al., 2008), although non-enzymatic oxidation
by gaseous oxygen can also take place (Junqueira et al., 2008; Koehler, 2003).
Pereira et al. (2014) verified that the presence of AA in whole grain wheat flour increased
the resistance of dough to deformation, but dough stability during dough mixing was reduced.
The use of oxidants is permitted mostly in the United States and very restricted in the
European Union, which permits only ascorbic acid (Cauvain, 2015; Wieser, 2003). In the
USA, azodicarbonamide (ADA), another oxidizing agent, is often used by bakers rather than
AA (Cauvain, 2015). In countries such as Brazil, Argentina, and Canada, the law permits the
treatment of wheat flour and breads with oxidants, which is a routine practice. The amount of
AA employed for good dough processing performance ranges from 10-200 mg/kg (flour
basis) (Lopes et al., 2007), depending on the effect required on the final quality of bakery
products. Since 2014, the General Standard for Food Additives (Codex Alimentarius, 2017)
has recommended 300 mg/kg as the maximum level of AA for flour. In Brazil, AA may be
used as quantum satis – in sufficient quantity to achieve the desired effect on flour or bread
(Brasil, 2007).
3.1.2.2. Azodicarbonamide
Azodicarbonamide (ADA, E927a) is a fast-acting oxidizing agent, which is used as a
dough improver in breadmaking, reacting within a few minutes after flour and water are
mixed (Wieser, 2003), thus acting during the mixing and fermentation steps (Joye et al.,
2009a; Noonan et al., 2008; Pereira et al., 2009; Tsen, 1963). It can also be added together
with ascorbic acid (Cauvain, 2015; Wieser, 2003). The mechanism of action of ADA involves
the rapid oxidation of free SH groups of wheat flour proteins, in particular, favoring gluten
network formation. In the oxy-reduction reaction, bi-urea is formed (Joye et al., 2009a;
Wieser, 2003), besides the formation of dityrosine crosslinks in bread, which may also be
stimulated by ADA supplementation (Tilley et al., 2001).
ADA strengthens dough from poor quality wheat flour without changing the optimal
mixing time. Furthermore, the machinability and gas retention properties of the dough are
enhanced (Cauvain, 2015; Joiner et al., 1962; Joye et al., 2009a; Tsen, 1963; Wieser, 2003).
ADA also improves loaf structure and crumb texture (Joiner et al., 1962).
Although ADA is prohibited in the European Union, some countries, including Brazil
(Pereira et al., 2004), USA, and Canada (Noonan et al., 2008) allow its use. The General
Standard for Food Additives (Codex Alimentarius, 2017) has established the maximum level
of 45 mg/kg of ADA in flour. In Brazil, the maximum limit permitted in breads is 40 mg/kg,
and azodicarbonamide must be declared on the label. The prohibition or regulation of the use
of ADA as a dough improver in many countries is due to the compound semicarbazide, one of
the reaction products that is formed when ADA is converted to bi-urea (Pereira et al., 2004).
It is formed during the breadmaking process, and is present in the final baked product (Joye et
al., 2009a; Noonan et al., 2008).
3.1.3. Emulsifiers
To meet the demands of consumers seeking for high-fiber products, such as whole grain
breads, whom at the same time desire breads of high volume and soft crumbs, and durability,
the baking industry uses emulsifiers.
There are two groups of emulsifiers used in bread: dough strengtheners and crumb
softeners. Dough-strengthening emulsifiers make the dough stronger and result in bread with
improved volume and texture. Crumb softening emulsifiers allow obtaining a softer crumb
and increased shelf life (Gioia et al., 2017). In pasta and biscuits, emulsifiers which interact
with both polysaccharides and proteins are used, adjusting protein strength and aggregation
and assisting in starch gelatinization (Niu et al., 2017).
In the case of breads rich in fiber, the addition of emulsifying agents is essential for
obtaining loaves with higher volume and softer crumbs.
3.1.3.1. Dough Strengtheners

Dough strengthening emulsifiers have effects on the gluten network, especially during
dough proofing and in the first stages of baking. The most common emulsifiers classified in
this category are diacetyl tartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides (DATEM),
polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan monooleate (polysorbate 80, PS 80), and sodium or calcium
stearoyl-2-lactylate (SSL or CSL).
These emulsifiers are able to interact with the amino acid residues of the gluten protein
chains, through non-covalent interactions, resulting in a gluten network that is stronger and
more stable for breadmaking, when compared to a dough without the addition of emulsifiers.
Because of their structure, emulsifiers enable the incorporation of air and water into the
dough, increasing bread volume and improving the uniformity of bread crumb. Dough
strengtheners can affect the extensibility, resistance to deformation, and strain hardening
characteristics of the gluten network.
Polysorbate 80 (E433) is derived from polyethoxylated sorbitan and oleic acid. It is a
surfactant and emulsifier used in breadmaking, especially in Brazil, due to the quality of the
wheat grain that grows in this country. PS 80 is considered a strong dough strengthener
(Borrego et al., 1999; Matuda et al., 2005), and the maximum level recommended by the
General Standard for Food Additives (Codex Alimentarius, 2017) is 3,000 mg/kg (or 0.3%)
for breads and rolls.
DATEM (E472e) is also a strong dough strengthener (Moayedallaie et al., 2010; Selmair
& Koehler, 2009; Stampfli & Nersten, 1995), with similar effects to PS 80. Due to its high
hydrophilic/lipophilic balance (HLB), DATEM may promote aggregation of gluten proteins
and form hydrogen bonds with glutamine and complex with starch granules, increasing
protein-starch interactions, forming a protein network and the development of a gluten-starch-
lipid complex (Eduardo et al., 2014; Pareyt et al., 2011). By stabilizing lipoprotein complexes
and their relationship with carbohydrates, DATEM modifies dough plasticity, allowing the
reduction of fats in bread formulations (Selmair & Koehler, 2009). According to Cauvain
(2015), one alternative for improving fiber-enriched dough is using vital wheat gluten
associated with DATEM, contributing for the highest gas-retention capacity, and producing a
fine and homogenous bread crumb. DATEM is frequently used in the USA and Europe, and
also in other countries. The maximum level recommended is 6,000 mg/kg (0.6%) for bread
and ordinary bakery wares, and 3,000 mg/kg (0.3%) for flour (Codex Alimentarius, 2017).
SSL (E481) and CSL (E482) are emulsifiers capable of strengthening the gluten network
(Gomes-Ruffi et al., 2012; Gómez et al., 2012); however, they are not as powerful as
DATEM. SSL and CSL are distinguished by a higher affinity with proteins, but also, with
polysaccharides, especially with amylose. Their ambiguous behavior as both dough
strengtheners and crumb softeners (Stampfli & Nersten, 1995) enables them to be classified
as “emulsifiers of mixed action”. This characteristic makes them widely used in the
production of pasta, breads (with refined or whole wheat flour) and biscuits, by adjusting
protein aggregation and starch gelatinization. SSL is a surfactant known to improve volume
and softness in fresh and frozen dough products. Recently, the need for reduction of sodium
intake has led bakers to prefer CSL. The Codex Alimentarius (2017) recommends the
maximum level for SSL and CSL of 3,000 mg/kg (0.3%) for yeast-leavened breads and
specialty breads.
3.1.3.2. Crumb Softeners

Crumb softeners have an effect on the carbohydrates in the dough, especially starch,
resulting in softness of bread crumb by interacting with the flour components and retarding
bread staling (Stampfli & Nersten, 1995). Crumb firming over storage time is one of the most
important alterations observed during bread staling (Beck et al., 2012; Joye et al., 2009a;
Scanlon & Zghal, 2001; Stampfli & Nersten, 1995). The main dough and crumb softeners
used in breadmaking are monoglycerides (E471).
The generally accepted theory on the mechanism by which crumb softeners retard the
firming process is based on the ability of monoglycerides to form complexes with amylose
(Goesaert et al., 2005; Stampfli & Nersten, 1995). Monoglycerides, when used in bread
formulations, allow the formation of a starch-lipid complex, thus improving crumb resilience
and softness (Lee et al., 2014).
According to the Codex Alimentarius (2017), monoglycerides can be used in the amount
necessary to reach the desirable quality of the product. This additive can be used in
accordance with Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP), with quantum satis limit, and it is
used mainly for breads that must be stored for a certain period of time, such as pan bread,
fresh pastas, noodles and similar products, and dried pastas and noodles and similar products.
3.1.4. Enzymes
Chemical oxidants, such as azodicarbonamide and ascorbic acid, and emulsifiers, such as
DATEM, PS-80, SSL, CSL, and monoglycerides have been widely used to enhance the
gluten network and interact with starch, providing better quality bakery and pasta products.
Oxidative enzymes and enzyme transferases, such as glucose oxidase and transglutaminase,
respectively, may partially replace the use of chemical oxidants and emulsifiers, with an
improvement in the quality of the final product. Amylases may act on starch releasing
substrates for yeast fermentation, reducing sugars for the Maillard reaction and hydrolysing
starch components to retard retrogradation. And there are other substrates in wheat flour, such
as lipids and non-starch polysaccharides, which enzymes may act on. The use of enzymes is
an attractive alternative because of regulatory constraints, and the current trend towards more
natural and easy-to-understand labels, the “clean label” tendency.
Commercial enzymatic preparations used in baking flour formulations or flour treatments
are typically a mixture of enzymes that act on different fractions of flour, aiming beneficial
effects on dough rheology and product quality, due to the synergistic effects of the enzymes
used.
3.1.4.1. Glucose Oxidase

Glucose oxidase (GOX, EC 1.1.3.4) is an oxidative enzyme that catalyzes β-D-glucose
oxidation by consuming atmospheric oxygen, forming gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide
(Wieser, 2003). Glucose, the substrate for this enzyme, is present in the dough through the
action of other enzymes on saccharose or starch. The hydrogen peroxide is able to oxidize the
free thiol groups (SH) of gluten proteins leading to disulfide linkages (SS) (Cauvain, 2015;
Tang et al., 2014; Yorkshire, 1992), strengthening the gluten network. However, in doughs
where oxygen availability is restricted, usually by the yeast, the potential impact of glucose
oxidase may be limited. For this reason, glucose oxidase has found limited application in no-
time dough making systems (Cauvain, 2015).
GOX may be used in breads produced with whole wheat flour, helping to improve bread
quality. The glucose oxidases currently available on the market are part of a system to replace
chemical oxidants, such as ascorbic acid, because of their ability to act quickly, allowing the
dough to absorb water and reducing dough stickiness. GOX effects on dough include the
strengthening of the gluten network, consequently improving gluten network stability and
elasticity, dough tolerance to proofing, bread volume and crumb texture (Elkassabany &
Hoseney, 1980; Joye et al., 2009a; Lopes et al., 2007).
3.1.4.2. Transglutaminase
Transglutaminase (TG, EC 2.3.2.13) is a transferase enzyme, which facilitates the
formation of an isopeptide bond between a free amine group (e.g., protein- or peptide-bound
lysine) and the acyl group at the end of the side chain of protein- or peptide-bound glutamine,
thereby leading to polymers of high molecular weight (Niu et al., 2017).
TG catalyzes an acyl-transfer reaction between the γ-carboxyamide groups of peptide-
bound glutamine residues (acyl donors) and a variety of primary amines (acyl-acceptors),
including the ε-amino group of lysyl residues in gluten proteins (Huang et al., 2010; Joye et
al., 2009b; Seravalli et al., 2011; Wieser, 2003), leading to the formation of covalent bonds in
the gluten network. The covalent crosslinks between the protein fractions generated by TG
lead to an improvement of the gluten viscoelastic properties, contributing to its better
rheological behavior in the dough (Storck et al., 2009).
3.1.4.3. Amylases
Amylases are enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of starch and its derivatives, being
classified as hydrolases. The amylolytic enzymes of major importance for baking are α-
amylases and β-amylases. According to Pyler (1973), α-amylase produces a somewhat more
complex effect on starch molecules than β-amylase. Alpha-amylase acts by cleavage of long
starch chains, internally and randomly, by breaking α-1,4 glycosidic bonds, which results in
the formation of shorter chains, the dextrins, and consequently, the reduction of starch
viscosity.
The effects of amylases in breadmaking are increasing the levels of fermentable sugars in
the dough, improving dough gas retention capacity, improving crust color, enhancing bread
aroma, improving crumb moisture retention capacity, and reducing bread staling, when
thermostable amylase enzymes are used (Cauvain, 2015). Rasco et al. (1991) evaluated
breads produced with wheat bran previously treated with thermostable α-amlyse alone or
mixed with protease, and the authors verified greater bread volume and crumb softness of the
breads produced with refined wheat flour.
3.1.4.4. Lipases
Lipases (EC 3.1.1.3) catalyze the hydrolysis of triglycerides, preferably at positions 1 and
3 of the glycerol molecule, resulting in diglycerides, monoglycerides and free fatty acids
(Gioia et al., 2017). Monoglycerides, as mentioned previously, have emulsifying
characteristics, contributing to crumb softness during shelf life (Gandra et al., 2008), as they
penetrate the amylose helical structure forming amylose-lipid complexes, reducing amylose
retrogradation (Gioia et al., 2017). Furthermore, lipases increase dough strength and stability,
thus improving dough machinability (Goesart et al., 2005). Gandra et al. (2008) evaluated the
use of lipase and monoglyceride in whole breads, and found that the lipase had the potential
to replace the monoglyceride, but the authors verified that the breads with fibers with only
monoglyceride presented a greater crumb softness.
3.1.4.5. Xylanases
Xylanases are used in bakery products due to their beneficial effects on dough properties
during mixing and fermentation and on bread quality (da Silva et al., 2016). According to
Ghoshal et al. (2016), xylanases are important enzymes used in whole wheat bread, due to the
presence of complex non-starch polysaccharides from the cell wall in this product. The
activity of xylanase in dough and bread is related to the solubilization of insoluble
arabinoxylans, which have undesirable properties in breadmaking (da Silva et al., 2016;
Ghoshal et al., 2016; Cauvain, 2015). Ghoshal et al. (2016) showed that the specific volume,
textural properties, color, thermal and sensory properties of whole wheat bread were
improved by the addition of xylanase.
The enzyme xylanase hydrolyzes water-unextractable arabinoxylans (WUAX) in wheat
flour, which may cause physical disruption of the gluten network (Hardt et al., 2014).
Furthermore, by the action of this enzyme there is a better redistribution of the water phase to
the phase of pentosans (gluten becomes more extensible), resulting in improved bread volume
(da Silva et al., 2016; Ghoshal et al., 2016; Hardt et al., 2014). Ognean et al. (2011) showed
that the changes in the cell wall fragment rich in WUAX, by using xylanase, have a greater
impact in dough rheology of white wheat flour than whole wheat flour, which has a greater
amount of cell wall fragments.
3.1.5. Sourdough
Sourdough is a complex biological system widely used by the baking industry (Sadeghi,
2008; Poutanen, Flander & Katina, 2009; Komlenic, Slanac & Jukic, 2012). Although its use
in whole products has occurred since antiquity when refined flours were not available, recent
valorization of this type of fermentation occurs because it allows the reduction of additives
and the improvement of the sensory properties of bread, besides improving the rheological,
technological, nutritional and functional properties of whole grain wheat products or fiber-
rich products (Poutanen, Flander & Katina, 2009).
According to those authors, this type of fermentation has several important roles,
including the degradation or solubilization of dietary fibers, improving technological,
sensory, and nutritional aspects; the degradation of antinutritional factors, such as phytic acid,
increasing the bioavailability of minerals; the modification of the bioavailability of
phytochemical compounds in the external layers of the grains (phenolic acids,
alkylresorcinols, lignans, phytosterols, tocols, and folate); protein hydrolyzation into
bioactive peptides, besides acting on the starch chain reducing its digestibility, among other
properties.
The use of sourdough as an antifungal agent stands out for the possibility of reducing the
use of additives in the formulations (Sadeghi, 2008; Poutanen, Flander & Katina, 2009;
Komlenic, Slanac & Judic, 2012). According to Sadeghi (2008), fermentation is a well-
established biopreservation method, and although the effects are due to the acidification
promoted by the lactic-acid bacteria, probably the antifungal properties are due to the amount
and type of organic acids resulting from fermentation. As reported by Moore et al. (2008), the
antifungal compounds include fatty acids, phenyl-containing acids, proteinaceous
compounds, and a variety of other low molecular weight compounds.
The effects of sourdough on dough rheology occur during fermentation, with the
production of different metabolites (organic acids, enzymes, and exopolysaccharides) by the
lactic-acid bacteria, with positive effects on the degree of softening, elasticity, and
extensibility, with a consequent increase in the shelf life of breads by improving softness over
time and slowing the aging process (staling) (Sadeghi, 2008; Aplevicz et al., 2013).
The increasing demand for clean labels has led to studies on the combination of
sourdough and enzymes in bakery products (Katina et al., 2006; Alaunyte et al., 2012). Katina
et al. (2006) studied the effect of the addition of sourdough and alpha-amylase, xylanase, and
lipase in high-fiber breads, which resulted in breads with initial softness similar to the control
bread, while breads with addition of 20% wheat bran were softer than the control for after 6
days of storage.
Alaunyte et al. (2012) prepared teff (Eragrostis tef) breads with the replacement of white
wheat flour by teff flour at various levels (0%, 10%, 20%, and 30%). Different enzyme
combinations were used, including xylanase and amylase (X + A), amylase and glucose
oxidase (A + GOX), glucose oxidase and xylanase (GOX + X), lipase and amylase (L + A).
The authors reported that the whole grain breads containing sourdough presented a better
nutritional quality, with effects on the texture and volume of breads, especially for the
combination of X + A and A + GOX. According to the authors, this occurred due to the
different enzyme activities on the functional components of flour, specially on non-starch
polysaccharides (NSP) arabinoxylans.
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Chapter 11
A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW ABOUT

CEREAL CROPS, FLOUR VARIETIES AND
NUTRITIONAL ASPECTS
Camelia Vizireanu*, Eugenia Mihaela Pricop

and Daniela Ionela Istrati
Department of Food Science, Food Engineering, Biotechnology and Aquaculture,
Dunarea de Jos University, Faculty of Food Science and Engineering, Galati, Romania
ABSTRACT
Wheat flour, available in a wide range of assortments (whole wheat flour, all-
purpose flour, bread flour, semolina, durum) is the most used in bakery industry due to
the gluten content that allows it to form a dough with outstanding viscoelastic properties.
The demographic development and changes in culinary habits have led, over the
centuries, to diversification of flour varieties by introduction into the diet of different
cereals such as rye, corn, barley, oats and rice. The continuously increasing demand for
more diversified food products with high nutritional values and sanogenic effects, also
the influence of ethnic cuisines into the culinary multiculturalism has led to inclusion into
the diet of flours made from pseudo-cereal seeds such as buckwheat (Fagopyrum
esculentum), and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor). Pseudo-cereals flours are characterized by
an excellent nutritional profile, a high fibers and bioactive compounds content. The
enriching non-gluten products with pseudo-cereal flour confers a high nutritional value as
well as an improvement of sensory characteristics This chapter reviews the specialty
literature and statistical data dealing with production, varieties and nutritional aspects of
different types of flour.
Keywords: cereal crops, cereal flour and varieties, nutritional aspects, health benefits
*
Corresponding Author Email: Camelia.vizireanu@ugal.ro.
216 Camelia Vizireanu, Eugenia Mihaela Pricop and Daniela Ionela Istrati
1. INTRODUCTION
Flour is the product obtained from grinding the endosperm of uncooked cereal grains,
usually wheat kernels. Although most flours are derived from grains such as wheat, barley, or
rye, they can be milled from corn, rice, potatoes, beans, nuts, roots, or crops known as
pseudo-grains, such as buckwheat, sorghum, quinoa, amaranth, or millet. The flour milling
industry is the most important consumer of wheat and rye because both of them are the key-
cereals used in bread production. Thus, cereals as maize, oat, barley and rice are used in flour
production in significantly smaller quantities than wheat and rye.
Flour is the leading source of vegetable protein in human food and is an excellent source
of complex carbohydrates and dietary fibre. It is also rich in B vitamins and precious
minerals, such as phosphorus, calcium, iron, magnesium, and potassium. Therefore, this
chapter looks at the production of the most important cereals and pseodo-cereals used in
human consumption, flour varieties, nutritional aspects of cereals and flours and impact on
human health.
2. WHEAT AND WHEAT FLOUR

2.1. Production
Wheat holds an important place in human nutrition, providing a high intake of energy
with gradual release, provided by the main carbohydrate in its composition – the starch.
Wheat is rich in essential health benefits such as proteins, vitamins (especially B vitamins),
dietary fibers and phytochemicals (Shewry R. Peter 2015) and it is a basic cereal for one-third
of the population (Kumar P. 2011).
The special importance of wheat in human nutrition, as well as the continuous
diversification of grain and cereal food products has led to a progressive increase in the wheat
production worldwide.
According to FAOstat data (FAOSTAT n.d.), the global wheat production over the last 5
years has grown by more than 8.7 million tons (Figure 1).
Since ancient times, people have learned to process wheat, getting nowadays to obtain
unique food products with a high caloric and nutritional intake.
Today, wheat is most commonly consumed as flour as the main ingredient in bakery
products.
Wheat flours are transformed products, generally obtained from common wheat Triticum
aestivum L., Triticum spelta or Triticum durum or mixtures thereof, by way of grinding
processes in which bran and germs are partially removed and the remainder is minced to a
suitable degree of finesse. The total or partial removal of bran and germs in different milling
stages aims at obtaining more varieties of flour.
The technological process of grinding wheat consists generally, in the crushing of pre-
conditioned grains to disaggregate the anatomical components of the grain and to separate by
sifting the parts of the endosperm with high nutritive value from the less nutritive parts of the
coating and the aleurone layer.
A Comprehensive Review About Cereal Crops, Flour Varieties … 217
Figure 1. The wheat production worldwide and in the main geographical areas [mt/year].
Of all kinds of flour, the wheat flour is unique due to its potential to produce gluten - a
protein complex composed of gliadin and glutenin - which gives the doughs elasticity and
firmness, by retaining inside the doughs, the gas obtained from the fermentation created by
the yeast, thus yielding bakery products with a level, light and airy structure.
2.2. Varieties
Wheat flour is produced in a wide variety and it is classified according to the marketing
region. Often, the same type of flour may have different names according to the country
where it is marketed.
In U.S.A., flour is classified according to gluten / protein content, identifying thus the
following types of flour:
 all-purpose wheat flour – is a mixture of hard and soft wheat;

 bread flour – is made from hard wheat with high protein content. It is the favorite
flour for bread;
 enriched flour - is the Fe-enriched flour and the vitamin B complex that has been
removed by the husking process of the wheat;
 whole-wheat flour – is obtained by grinding whole grains of wheat. Used as such,
without the addition of other types of flour, a heavy, compact and very dark bread is
obtained from it;
 whole-wheat bread flour - is obtained from hard wheat with high gluten content;
 graham flour - is a flour with a low protein content but reassembles the whole flour
taste;
 durum flour - is obtained from the hardest wheat and from which no bread with
optimal bread characteristics can be obtained;
 semolina flour - is the durum hard flour which contains neither germs nor bran;
 kamut flour - is similar to the hard wheat flour with a high protein content, but low in
gluten (Bastin Sandra, 2010).
The composition of the flour is influenced by several factors such as the degree of
extraction, the wheat variety, the pedo-climatic conditions and the wheat storage conditions.
Cereals and grain products are considered to cover about 50% of the daily energy
necessary to an individual. This nutritional intake of cereals can provide 50% of the daily
protein requirements, 25% Calcium, 50% Iron and 40% Vitamin B.
Recent epidemiological studies have demonstrated the beneficial effect of the whole
grain and the cereal products consumption on medical conditions such as type II diabetes and
obesity, coronary heart disease, cardiac disease and certain types of cancer (McCarty., 2005;
Yu & Nanguet., 2013). These benefits are largely due to the complex composition of wheat,
rich in carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, lipids and mineral salts (Table 1).
Table 1. Composition of wheat flours (WF) (USDA., 2016)
Nutrient Unit/100g Average

WF whole meal flour WF (plain) WF, unenriched
Water g 10.74 12.42 13.36
Energy Kcal 340 332 361
Protein g 13.21 9.61 11.98
Total lipid g 2.5 1.95 1.66
Carbohydrates g 71.98 74.48 72.53
Starch g 57.77 ~ ~
Fiber, total dietary g 11 13.1 2.4
Minerals
Ca mg 34 33 15
Fe mg 3.6 3.71 0.9
Mg mg 137 117 25
P mg 357 323 97
K mg 363 394 100
Na mg 2 3 2
Vitamins
Thiamin mg 0.502 0.297 0.08
Riboflavin mg 0.165 0.188 0.06
Niacin mg 4.957 5.34 1
Pantothenic acid mg 0.603 1.011 0.438
Vitamin B-6 mg 0.407 0.191 0.037
Folate, total µg 44 28 33
Ash g 1.58 1.53 0.47
Adaptation after USDA – Office of Global Analysis.
~ n.a.: not analyzed.
The carbohydrate content, especially the starch content, provides energy. The intake of
insoluble fiber brings antioxidants into the body, especially in the colon area, and can help
reduce the risk of colorectal cancer (Kumar P. 2011).
Also, whole wheat flours contain phyto - antioxidants such as phenolic acids and
flavonoids concentrated in the outer shells of wheat grain (Liu R.H. 2007). By way of the
milling process and the degree of extraction with view to obtaining white flour, these
antioxidants are almost totally eliminated (Yu and Nanguet. 2013).
However, people who suffer from gluten intolerance should avoid eating wheat flour
products.
Some of these components, such as vitamins, are found in the outer layers of wheat grain,
and depending on the degree of extraction of the flour sorts, the vitamin content can be
reduced by 80% (Zimmerman Sarah 2013).
Due to the high consumption of wheat in various forms such as whole grains, pasta,
biscuits, various kinds of bread, etc., this is considered to be an important source of minerals
(Hussain Abrar 2010).
In order to increase the intake of fibers (dietary fiber) and of vitamins, technologists use
whole wheat flour obtained by grinding whole wheat grains.
Because wheat flour represents the main source of food for a large part of the world's
population (Kumar P. 2011), it is recommended that the nutritional value of proteins and
carbohydrates in its composition should be taken into account.
3. MAIZE AND CORNFLOUR

3.1. Production
Maize (Zea mays, Poaceae family) is a cereal originated approximately 7,000 years ago
in Central America. Maize has spread across the world shortly after the European discovery
of the Americas being one of the most adaptable crops (Brown W. 1985, Vollbrecht E. and
Sigmon B 2005).
Table 2. World cereal production in 2016
Species Grain production (million metric tons) Cultivated area (million ha)
Buckwheat 2.39 2.37
Maize 1.060.10 187.95
Millet 28.35 31.70
Oats 22.99 9.43
Rice 740.96 159.81
Rye 12.94 4.40
Sorghum 63.93 44.77
Triticale 15.22 4.16
Wheat 749.46 220.11
Adaptation after USDA – Office of Global Analysis (USDA. Foreign Agriculture Services. 2017).
Table 3. World production of maize in the main agricultural

regions over the last 5 years
Maize production (million metric tons)

Regions
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Africa 71.09 70.28 78.24 72.32 70.56
Central America 25.91 26.64 27.09 28.34 32.34
Northern America 286.25 365.47 372.58 359.05 397.13
South America 105.41 126.73 126.24 133.81 117.19
Asia 288.42 305.28 303.73 311.70 324.09
Australia 0.45 0.51 0.90 0.50 0.40
Europe 95.88 119.46 129.00 103.92 117.41
World 874.24 1015.40 1038.33 1010.60 1060.11
Maize is the cereal with the highest production worldwide (1.060 million tons) but ranks
the third as a staple food after wheat (750 million tons) and rice (750 million tons) (Table 2).
The reasons for this fact are related to cultural or social preferences and because in some
countries, corn is cultivated as livestock feed (Secchi S. 2011).
During 2011 and 2016, the number of millions of maize hectares harvested ranged from
178.80 to 187.96. During the same period, the production of maize in metric tons per hectare
increased from 4.8 to 5.6, and the total maize production increased by 18% from 874.24 to
1060.10 million metric tons. Currently, Northern America, South America, Asia and Europe
produce more than 90% of the world’s maize production (Table 3). Therefore, in 2016, the
United States of America, China, Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, Ukraine, India, Indonesia,
France, Canada, Nigeria, Romania, Russian Federation and South Africa produced almost
79% of the world’s maize production (USDA. Foreign Agriculture Services., 2017).
Worldwide, 60-70% of maize production is used domestically as livestock feed (poultry, pigs,
cattle) in the form of grains, feed milling or as fodder, and the remaining 30-40% is used for
production of food products for human consumption.
3.2. Varieties
Throughout the world, many types of maize are grown, the significant difference between
them being the color. Maize kernels can have various colors ranging from white, yellow or
red to black. Most of the maize grown in the United States is yellow, while people in Central
America, Africa, and the southern United States prefer white maize. The preference for white
maize in Africa is apparently associated with food-aid programs and it is perceived as being
consumed only by the poor people. The main reason for the preference for white maize is
related to the tradition: people are used to eating a white product in these countries. The
consumption of white maize lead to lower intake of carotene and cryptoxanthin, vitamin A
precursors, present in higher concentrations in yellow and orange maize.
Table 4. Distribution of major components of maize grain
Maize components Starch (%) Protein (%) Fat (%) Ash (%) Other* (%) Water (%)
Whole kernel 62.0 7.8 3.8 1.2 10.2 15.0
Endosperm 87 8 0.8 0.3 3.9 -
Germ 8.3 18.4 33.2 10.5 29.6 -
Pericarp 7.3 3.7 1.0 0.8 87.2 -
Tip carp 5.3 9.1 3.8 1.6 80.2 -
*By difference. It includes fiber, non-protein nitrogen, pentosans, phytic acid, soluble sugars,
xanthophylls. Source: (Shukla R., 2001).
The maize grain can be prepared for food in many ways (fried, grilled, in a salad or
soup). Processing maize can also produce a wide range of products. Various food
technologies are currently used for processing industrially produced maize flours and corn
meals in different parts of the world to obtain precooked refined maize flour, dehydrated
nixtamalized flour, fermented maize flours, and other maize products. Furthermore, it is used
as raw material in a range of industries (agri-food, textile, pharmaceutical, etc.) to create
biodegradable plastics, biofuel and alcohol (Hoopen Ten M. E., 2012; Gwirtz J. A., 2013).
The advantages of the maize beside the broad global distribution, its lower price, the
diverse type of grains and the biological and industrial properties which make the maize an
adequate product for its utilisation. The composition of the whole kernel is very important in
both the maize processing plants and animal feed industry. From a processing perspective, the
maize kernel is composed of endosperm 83%, germ11%, pericarp 5%, and tip cap 1%. The
main composition of the mature kernel including starch, fat, protein, fiber, sugar and ash is
presented in Table 4.
Maize is processed primarily by four methods: wet milling, the dry grind process for
ethanol production, dry milling and alkaline processing. Alkaline processed and dry milled
maize are used for human consumption (Watson S. A. 1987, Shukla 2001). All maize dry
mills produce a line of basic products that include grits, meals, flour, germ (oil) and bran
(Peplinski A. J. 1984, Johnson L. 2000).
The objective of dry milling is the particle size reduction of whole maize with or without
screening separation, retaining all or some of the original maize germ and fiber (Johnson L.
2000, Brubacher T. 2002). For the dry-milling, the maize grain is used in two different
systems: non-degerming and degerming (Johnson L. 2000) Degermination of maize involves
mechanical separation and processing, resulting in dry shelf-stable products with a majority
of both germ and fiber removed. Before consumption, whole, partially degerminated, and
degerminated maize products require additional processing which can be achieved at a large-
scale industrial setting, small-scale local processor or at home. These secondary processes
may include addition of other ingredients along with thermal processing, including boiling,
drying, frying, or baking, all of which can affect the nutritional attributes of the finished
product (Gwirtz J. A. 2013).
A second type of industrial dry maize processing is alkali processing or nixtamalization
in which whole maize is cooked with an excess of water treated with calcium oxide (Rooney
L. and Serna-Saldavar S. 1987).
The alkali processing improves flavour, starch gelatinization, water uptake and calcium
content. In North America and Mexico, dry alkali-processed maize flour is known as masa
flour. The process partially removes some of the germ and most of the pericarp, but the
amount varies. In some cases, pericarp may be added into the process for visual product
enhancement. The heating in the process causes loss of thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, fat, and
fiber (Gwirtz J. A. 2013).
From the nutritional point of view, maize is superior to other cereals in many ways,
except in protein value (Mejía D. 2003). Maize compared with wheat and rice is higher in fat,
iron and fiber content. A weak nutritional aspect of maize is the quality of its protein since
around a half of its protein is made up of zein, which is low in two essential amino acids,
lysine and tryptophan. Fortunately, this deficiency nowadays has been corrected with the
development of the quality protein maize (QPM), which is nutritionally the most superior
cereal grain (Mejía D. 2003).
Depending on the variety, maize contain Vitamins B, folic acid, Vitamin C, and
provitamin A. Also, it is rich in phosphorus, magnesium, manganese, zinc, copper, iron and
selenium, but poor in potassium and calcium.
Table 5 shows the approximate composition of different maize products. According to
the data presented in Table 5, degerminated maize products (degermed maize flour or
degermed maize meal) are lower in fat, fiber, ash and some vitamins and minerals content
when compared to the whole maize or whole maize flour. Moreover, alkali processing has a
positive influence on protein, and calcium content resulting maize masa flour with an
increased quantity of them as compared to the whole maize flour degermed or not.
Whole maize is a good source of thiamine, pyridoxine and phosphorus and a fair source
of riboflavin, niacin, folate, biotin, iron and zinc. Unfortunately, many of these nutrients are
lost during milling. The extraction rate of a meal (the proportion by weight of the maize
kernel which is processed into meal) affects its nutritional content. Table 6 presents the
nutrient comparison of refined and whole maize meal.
The roller milling technology produces two major types of maize meals, refined and
super-refined meals. Refined meals refer to the intermediate grade of maize meal. Refined
meals are produced by removing part of the germ and bran, resulting in a lower extraction
rate than whole meals. The super-refined meal on the other hand designates highly-refined
meals with much lower extractions rates than refined meals (Jayne T. S. 1996).
Maize in its different processed forms, but especially in the form of maize meal, is widely
used for human nutrition because of its specific physicochemical properties such as: high
starch content, proteins with a low content of α-gliadin fraction, no gluten, dietary lipids,
hypoallergenic, many valuable compounds (flavonoids, rutin), trace elements, dietary fiber
and delicate flavor (Wojtowicz A. 2013). FAO publications (FAO 1992) showed that 22 of
145 developing countries had a maize consumption of more than 100 g per person per day.
(MacIntyre U. E. 2002), in a dietary intake survey in South Africa, found that maize meal was
consumed by all the respondents, both males and females, in the rural, farm and middle class
urban strata. Consumption of maize has recently increased in developed countries, where it is
used as an ingredient for breakfast products, snacks and dietetic products as gluten-free foods
whose consumption is rising (Nuss E.T. and Tanumihardjo S.A. 2010). Maize is also used in
the production of food products such as popcorn, polenta, tortillas, mush, bakery products,
cornmeal, pastas, etc.
Table 5. Chemical composition of corn, flour, meal and alkali-processed masa,

non-enriched and enriched
Maize Maize Maize Maize Maize

Maize,
Unit/ flour, flour, meal, meal, flour,
Nutrient whole,
100g whole degermed, degermed, degermed, masa,
white
grain unenriched unenriched enriched enriched
Protein g 9.4 6.9 5.59 7.1 7.1 10.6
Total lipids g 4.7 3.9 1.39 1.8 1.8 4.3
Ash g 1.2 1.5 0.6 0.5 0.5 1.8
Carbohydrates g 74.3 76.9 82.7 79.5 79.5 86.9
Total fiber g ~ 7.3 1.9 3.9 3.9 10.9
Sugars, total g ~ 0.6 0.65 1.6 1.6 0.7
Starch g ~ ~ ~ 73.3 73.3 ~
Thiamin mg 0.4 0.25 0.1 0.14 0.55 1.6
Riboflavin mg 0.2 0.08 0.1 0.05 0.38 0.9
Niacin mg 3.6 1.9 3.3 1 4.97 11.2
Pantothenic acid mg 0.4 0.66 0.1 0.24 0.24 0.8
Vitamin B6 mg 0.6 0.37 0.1 0.18 0.18 0.4
Folate, total μg ~ 25 60.5 30 209 266
Folic acid μg ~ 0 0 0 180 ~
Folate, food μg ~ 25 60.5 30 30 ~
Folate, FDE μg ~ 25 48 30 335 ~
Choline mg ~ 21.6 ~ 8.6 8.6 8.6
Calcium, Ca mg 7 7 2.5 3 3 161
Iron, Fe mg 2.7 2.4 1.1 1.1 4.4 8.2
Magnesium, Mg mg 127 93 22.7 32 32 125
Phosphorus, P mg 210 272 45.6 99 99 254
Potassium, K mg 287 315 113 142 142 340
Sodium, Na mg 35 5 1.3 7 7 5.7
Zinc, Zn mg 2.2 1.7 0.5 0.7 0.7 2
Copper, Cu mg 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2
Manganese, Mn mg 0.5 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.6
Selenium, Se μg 15 15.4 10.1 10.5 10.5 17.1
Vitamin A IU ~ 270 214 ~ ~ 3.4
Water g 10.4 10.9 9.81 11.2 11.2 10.3
Energy Kcal 365 361 375 370 370 416
Adapted by Gwirtz1, J.A., Casal, M.N.G., 2003, USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard
Reference and Nutrition Data.
n.a.: not analyzed.
Table 6. Nutrient comparison of refined and whole maize meal
Nutrients Unit/100g Refined meal Whole meal

Extraction rates
65% 85% 96-99%
Protein g 7.9 9.3 10.0
Fat g 1.2 2.4 3.8
Fibre g 0.6 1.1 1.9
Ash g 0.5 0.7 1.3
Calcium mg 6.0 7.0 12.0
Iron mg 1.1 2.0 2.5
Thiamin mg 0.14 0.30 0.35
Riboflavin mg 0.05 0.08 0.13
Niacin mg 1.0 1.8 2.0
Adapted from (Jayne T. S., 1996).
In addition to carbohydrates and protein fortification, maize also provides many other
nutritional benefits including organic compounds and minerals with potential benefits to
health. These compounds may act as antioxidants, cofactors for antioxidant enzymes or
indirect antioxidants, (Hansch R. and Mendel R.R. 2009). Maize products are considered an
important source of indigestible carbohydrates their consumption being related to the
gastrointestinal health (Bello-Perez L.A. 2016). Indigestible fraction of foods, mainly dietary
fiber and resistant starch, represents the main source of energy for the bacteria in the human
colon and it can be used to modulate/maintain the composition of the gut microbiota (Quiros-
Sauceda A. E. 2014). Dietary fibre includes cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, inulin, resistant
starch (RS) and other constituents, and it plays a beneficial role in the maintenance of gut
health and in the control of body weight and cholesterol levels (Liu R.H., 2007). RS has been
defined as a starch that cannot be digested in the small intestine, and which passes to the
colon where it is fermented by the microflora (Perera A. 2010). The physiological effects of
RS include improved glycemic response and colon health, lower calorie intake, modulated fat
metabolism and the prevention of cardiovascular diseases (Liu R.H. 2007).
Blue maize shows an important content of phytochemicals such as ferulic and coumaric
acids, and anthocyanidins (cyanidin and pelargonidin) (Urias-Lugoa D.A. 2015). (Aguayo-
Rojas J., 2012) and (Urias-Lugoa D.A. 2015) studied the anthocyanins present in pigmented
maize for their antioxidant properties such as free radical inhibitors that protect cells against
oxidative damage, in vitro anti-proliferative activity against cancer cells, potential preventive
effect on cardiovascular disease development and their perceived ability to reduce the risk of
diabetes and cognitive function disorders and to reverse neurodegenerative pathology and
age-related declines in neurocognitive performance. Higher levels of phytochemicals and
antioxidant capacity of maize hybrid genotypes could help to promote their use in food
industry to produce value added products as a natural source of nutraceuticals (Urias-Lugoa
D.A. 2015). Additionally, phenolic compounds have been associated with modified starch
digestion, showing positive correlation with slowly digestive and resistant starch fraction
contents (Camelo-Méndez G.A. 2016). Compared with different cereal grain, including rice,
oat and wheat, maize has been reported to have the highest total antioxidant capacity TAC
(the global action of all antioxidant substances present in a raw material) (Adom K.K. and Liu
R.H. 2002). Other compounds that play important role as antioxidants are carotenoids, which
are responsible for the yellow-orange color of maize (Kurilich A.C. and Juvik J.A. 1999).
Maize-derived food products could also be a source of vitamins. Folates are a group of water-
soluble vitamins that are characterized by a biological activity similar to the folic acid; an
insufficient folate intake is usually associated with a large number of health disorders and
with an increased risk of neural tube defects in the developing foetuses (Wald N.J. 1996).
4. RYE AND RYE FLOUR

4.1. Production
Rye is a member of the grass family Gramineae and the genus Secale, out of which
Secale cereale is the most commonly cultivated species. When compared with other cereals
(maize, wheat or rice), rye (Secale cereale) is produced in smaller quantities, being cultivated
in regions with a cooler climate and on lower fertility soils. Its high tolerance to the
unfavorable climate exceeded that of wheat and barley. Growers have been trying for many
years to combine the baking quality of wheat with the hardiness of rye. Triticale, the man-
made hybrid of wheat and rye, does not yet fulfill this aim; hence its economic significance is
low (Belitz H.D. 2009).
In the past, the traditional regions of rye production were central and eastern Europe.
Nowadays, rye is grown almost exclusively in the north-western part of the Eastern
Hemisphere. Positive features of rye cultivation practices include reduced requirements on
soil and fertilization, and a relatively good survival capacity. Rye has gained popularity
especially in areas with relatively poor soils such as the wide sandy ridges in Poland and
some areas in Germany (Salovaara H and Autio K 2001). Therefore, in 2012 total world
production of rye reached 14.5 million tons and it has decreased in 2016 to 12.9 million tons.
In recent years, Europe and Asia produced almost 95% of world’s rye production (Table 7).
The biggest rye producers are Germany with more than 3 million tons rye per year, Russian
federation with more than 2.5 million tons rye per year and Poland with more than 2 million
tons rye per year (USDA. Foreign Agriculture Services. 2017).
Rye is a highly versatile crop being used as a green plant (livestock pasture), as green
manure (crop rotations), as grain (livestock feed and feedstock in alcohol distilling) and as
flour (in breads and many other baked products). Among the grains, rye is the second most
commonly used, after wheat, in bread production (Bushuk W. 2001). This cereal has a
characteristic flavor appreciated by many people.
4.2. Varieties
Also, rye is considered inferior to wheat in the production of high-volume tray bread,
since the dough does not have essential elasticity and gas retention properties. Rye flour can
be used alone to produce a “black” bread, widely consumed in Eastern Europe and parts of
Asia, and “light rye” bread made by mixing in varying proportions rye and wheat flour. Small
quantities of rye are used in production of baked specialty products, such as flat breads and
rye crisps (Bushuk W. 2001).
Wheat and rye are milled differently due to structural differences in kernels. Whereas the
wheat kernel is quite fragile, the rye kernel is sticky. Therefore, rye is less suitable for coarse
grist milling than wheat. The rye kernel germ, due to its loose attachment, detaches easily
during the cleansing step, while wheat germs are removed only on sifters. The hull and a
substantial portion of the aleurone layer are removed in the form of bran. Approximately 5-
8% of the starch granules are mechanically damaged during milling. The extend depends both
on the type and intensity of the milling, and on the hardness of the kernel. The damage is
increasing with the hardness of the rye kernel structure. Since the rate of water absorption
during dough making and enzymatic degradation of starch increases with increasing
deterioration, they are important for the baking process and are desirable to a limited extent
(Belitz H.D. 2009).
Table 8 presents the proximate composition of rye grains and different rye flours (dark,
medium and light). According to the data presented in Table 8 both rye grains and rye flours
are a good source of dietary fiber, phosphorus and selenium and a very good source of
manganese. In addition to those mentioned above, dark rye flour are also a good source of
iron, magnesium, zinc, copper and selenium, and a very good source of dietary fiber and
manganese. Moreover, the milling processing has a negative influence on the protein and
folate content, generating a rye flour with a lower quantity of these compounds as compared
to the rye grains.
The chemical composition of the flour depends on the milling extraction rate. Bread
flours are standardized based on their ash content in Europe and, particularly, Germany. The
type of flour = ash content (weight %) × 1000 corresponds to the extraction grade. Examples
are specified in Table 9 for wheat and rye flours where their chemical composition is detailed
(Belitz H.D. 2009). Increasing the rate of flour extraction increases the amount of proteins
and kernel-coating constituents such as minerals, vitamins and crude fiber and decreases the
proportion of starch (Tables 9 and 10). Comparing flours with the same extraction rate, rye
flour contains higher proportions of fibers and minerals but smaller quantities of proteins and
lipids than the wheat flour.
Table 7. World production of rye in the main agricultural regions over the last 5 years
Rye production (thousand metric tones)

Regions
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Africa 94.72 93.88 94.96 96.14 100.95
Americas 551.97 478.97 506.10 588.34 814.26
Central America 0.020 0.031 0.014 0.038 0.250
Northern America 502.77 416.61 400.11 517.51 723.67
South America 49.18 62.38 105.97 70.79 90.34
Asia 1124.6 1105.0 957.75 1013.4 940.34
Australia 40.00 28.83 29.27 30.44 39.91
Europe 12685.2 14953.91 13661.24 11267.49 11057.64
World 14496.50 16660.62 15249.32 12995.81 12944.09
Table 8. Chemical composition of rye grains and rye flours
Rye flour, Rye flour, Rye flour,

Nutrient Unit/100g Rye grain
dark medium light
Protein g 14.8 14 8.4 9.4
Total lipids g 2.5 2.7 1.4 1.8
Ash g 2 3.5 1.2 1.5
Carbohydrates g 69.8 68.7 80.2 77.5
Total fiber g 14.6 22.6 14.6 14.6
Sugars, total g 1 1 1 1
Thiamin mg 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
Riboflavin mg 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.1
Niacin mg 4.3 4.3 0.8 1.7
Pantothenic acid mg 1.5 1.5 0.7 0.5
Vitamin B6 mg 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.3
Folate, total μg 60 60 22 19
Choline mg 30.4 30.4 10.8 20.6
Calcium, Ca mg 33 56 21 24
Iron, Fe mg 2.7 6.4 1.8 2.1
Magnesium, Mg mg 121 248 70 75
Phosphorus, P mg 374 632 194 207
Potassium, K mg 264 730 233 340
Sodium, Na mg 6 1 2 3
Zinc, Zn mg 3.7 5.6 1.8 2
Copper, Cu mg 0.5 0.7 0.3 0.3
Manganese, Mn mg 2.7 6.7 2 5.5
Selenium, Se μg 35.3 35.7 35.7 35.7
Water g 11 11.1 8.8 9.8
Energy Kcal 335 324 367 354
Source: Nutrition Data.
Table 9. The average composition of rye flour depending on extraction ratea
Flour type
815 997 1150 1370 1740
Rye flour
Flour extraction rate (%)
69-72 75-78 79-83 84-87 90-95
Protein 7.2 8.03 9.6 9.6 11.7
Lipids n.a. 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.8
Starch 74.8 73.5 71.3 71.1 68.6
s
Dietary fiber 7.6 10.1 9.3 10.5 16.2
Ash 0.82 1.0 1.15 1.37 1.74
Source: (Belitz H.D. 2009).
a
Weight-% per dry matter of wheat and rye flours. Flour average moisture content is 13 weight-%.
b
Indigestible carbohydrates (water soluble and insoluble), lignin.
n.a.: not analyzed.
Table 10. The average composition of whole wheat flour depending on extraction ratea
Flour type
405 550 812 1050 1700
Wheat flour
Flour extraction rate (%)
40-56 64-71 76-79 82-85 100
Protein 11.7 12.3 13.0 12.9 12.7
Lipids 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0 2.3
Starch 82.3 81.8 78.1 77.8 69.2
Dietary fibers 4.7 5.0 5.6 6.0 13.4
Ash 0.41 0.55 0.81 1.05 1.7
Source: (Belitz H.D. 2009)
a
Weight-% per dry matter of wheat and rye flours. Flour average moisture content is 13 weight-%.
b
Indigestible carbohydrates (water soluble and insoluble), lignin.
n.a.: not analyzed.
From a nutritional and physiological viewpoint, soluble and insoluble polysaccharides

other than starch and lignin are also called dietary fiber. Rye has a high content of dietary
fibers, mainly arabinoxylans (pentosans) which are very important for their breadmaking
quality. Compared to wheat, rye contains higher levels of arabinoxylans and has a lower
gluten content. (Rakha A. 2010). The baking quality of rye is due to pentosans and to some
proteins which swell after acidification and contribute to gas-holding properties.
Flour is extremely rich in pentosan (6-8%) related to the wheat flour (1.5-2.5%). Of the
total amount of pentosans, a portion of 25-33% in wheat and 15-25% in rye, is water soluble.
The soluble pentosans can absorb 15 to 20 times more water and can form very viscous
solutions compare with water-soluble proteins. The insoluble portion of pentosan in rye
swells extensively in water. This portion is responsible for the rheological properties of the
dough and the baking behavior of rye and increases the crumb juiciness and the chewiness of
baked products. An optimal ratio of starch-pentosan is 16: 1 (by weight) for the rye flour
(Belitz H.D. 2009).
Rye flour requires frequently an improved water binding capacity. For this purpose, there
should be added 2–4% of pregelatinized flour made from ground cereals such as wheat, rye,
rice, millet, etc. by cooking and steaming in autoclaves followed by drying and repeated
milling. Such pregelatinized flours are sometimes blended with guar flour or alginates.
In addition to that, rye flour is used in bread baking with sour dough fermentation.
Artificial acidification can be achieved by the addition of lactic, acetic, tartaric or citric acid
to rye dough or by adding acidic forms of sodium and calcium salts of ortho- and/or
pyrophosphoric acids. Other preparations for acidification, the so-called dry or instant acids,
consist of pregelatinized flour blended with a sour dough concentrate or of cereal mash
prefermented by lactic bacteria (Belitz H.D. 2009, Fuckerer K. 2016). (vazs 2011).
Wheat, rye and barley can cause celiac disease in genetically predisposed persons. This
disease affects both infants and adolescents and it is associated with a loss of villous structure
of the intestinal mucosa. Therefore, due to celiac disease, epithelial cells exhibit degenerative
changes and nutrient absorption functions are severely impaired. The cause of this disease is
the prolamin fractions of wheat, barley or rye and can be eliminated by a change of diet to
rice, millet or corn.
Rye became an important cereal from both a nutritional and functional point of view and
started to be introduced into human diet. This was further supported by its rich source of
phytochemicals such as phenolic acids, lignans, alkylresorcinols, benzoxazinoids (Andersson
A. 2014, Bach Knudsen K.E. 2016, Pedersen H. 2011, Smeds A.I. 2007, Tanwir F. 2013) and
flavonoids (Zielinski H. 2007).
5. RICE AND RICE FLOUR

5.1. Production
Rice (Oryza sativa L) is the second most important crop after the wheat culture, being a
basic food in the human diet for about half of the world's population. However, more than
90% of the rice production is consumed in the Asian region, specifically in 6 countries:
China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam and Japan (Abdullah Alias, 2015).
According to the USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) estimates, in
2017/2018, the global rice consumption exceeds 481.04 million tons, slightly decreasing as
compared to the projected quantity by 0.26 million tons. The world rice production in the
main agricultural areas in the last 5 years, is presented in Table 11.
The composition of rice grains is influenced by the pedoclimatic conditions, by the use of
fertilizers and the type of processing that they are submitted to. The protein content tends to
increase in the case of rice grown in areas where a lot of nitrogen-based fertilizer is used,
especially during the flowering period. Also, the grain mineral content is influenced by the
mineral concentration of the soil as well as by the composition of the water used for
irrigation. (Huang J.F., 1990).
Table 11. The global wheat production, distributed among the main geographical areas
Country 2013/14 2014/15 2015/16 2016/17 2017/18

Thousand metric tones
Bangladesh 34.390 34.500 34.500 34.578 33.500
China 142.530 144.560 145.770 144.850 144.000
India 106.646 105.482 104.40 110.150 110.000
Indonesia 36.300 35.560 36.200 37.150 37.000
Japan 7.931 7.849 7.670 7.780 7.600
Philippines 11.858 11.915 11.000 11.686 11.200
Thailand 20.460 18.750 15.800 19.200 20.400
Vietnam 28.161 28.166 27.584 27.971 28.450
Others 92.078 92.095 92.361 93.039 94.058
U.S. 6.117 7.106 6.133 7.117 5.707
World total 478.540 479.155 472.569 487.125 483.358
Data adapted after USDA – Office of Global Analysis (USDA. Foreign Agriculture Services. 2017).
5.2. Varieties
Rice is marketed under several forms and varieties. According to Standard CODEX, the
following terminologies are to be found:
Rice - whole and/or broken core, obtained from Oryza sativa L;

Paddy rice - raw rice with attached floral wrap (husk), which accounts for 18-20% of the
raw rice mass.
Husked rice - (brown rice or cargo rice) - is the raw rice undergoing the shelling process.
Milled rice - husked rice, which was removed by grinding the whole amount of tarts.
Parboiled rice - instant rice, heat-processed rice until full starch gelatinization, followed
by a drying process.
Glutinous rice, waxy rice - special varieties of white and opaque rice. The starch
obtained from the sticky rice is formed almost exclusively from amylopectin with the
tendency to become sticky during heat preparation. (STANDARDS 1995).
Rice provides 27% of total energy consumption in developing countries and only 4% of
total energy consumption in developed countries. Like other cereals, rice is a cheap source of
protein, and in developing countries, rice supplies 20% of the protein requirement per day
(Rosell M. C., 2008).
Rice is largely made up of about 80% carbohydrates (14% moisture) and it represents a
source of proteins, minerals, vitamins. During the rice milling process, the chemical
composition undergoes a number of modifications, some of the biologically active
compounds being lost during the milling process with the partial or total removal of the husky
layers. (Champagne E. T., 2004; Puri Shruti, 2015).
Starch represents the main reserve polysaccharide in superior plants. It plays a very
important role in human and animal nutrition, representing - besides cellulose - the main
source of carbohydrates. Starch consists of two macromolecular components, namely:
amylose and amylopectin.
Starch is also influenced by processing procedures, which alter its digestibility due to the
disruption of the granular structure (Tuy T.B. Tran, 2011).
Rice starch is classified according to the degree of digestibility. Thus, a few categories
are distinguished, namely the fast digestibility starch, the slow digestibility starch and the
resistant starch (Mir J. A., 2013; Englyst, 1990).
The starch fraction with high functional properties and health benefits is the resistant
starch because it positively influences gastrointestinal tract function, helps regulate blood
cholesterol levels and the glycemic index (Fuentes-Zaragoza, 2010).
Although rice is known to be a product with a high GI (glycemic index) as compared to
other starch-rich foods, specialists have demonstrated that rice varieties with a high amylose
content have more beneficial effects on digestibility than in case of rice varieties with low
amylose content (Denardin C. W., 2007; Hu Peisong, 2004). This variation in amylose,
content correlated with different thermal processes, may lead to different glycemic and
insulin responses (Cristiane Casagrande Denardin, 2012).
Considering that the starch granules have a very small size (only 5 μm compared to the
grain starch granules, having a size of 25-40 μm (McKevith Brigid, 2004), they give a fat-like
texture perception (Abida Ali, 2016).
Table 12. Composition of rice (Bienvenido O. Juliano, 1993; USDA., 2016)
Nutrient Value (100g) Rice (paddy) Brown rice White rice

Water g 11-12 11.1-12.3 4.33 – 8.0
Energy Kcal 378 363-385 349-373
Protein g 5.5 – 7.7 7.1-8.3 6.3 -7.1
Total lipid g 1.5-2.3 1.6- 2.8 0.3-0.5
Carbohydrates g 64 -73 73-87 77-89
Fiber, total dietary g 7.2-10.4 0.6 -1.0 0.2 – 0.5
Minerals
Calcium mg 10 – 80 10 -50 10 - 30
Iron, Fe mg 1.4 – 6.0 0.2- 5.2 0.2 – 2.8
Magnesium mg n. a n. a 0.09 – 0.23
Phosphorus, P mg 0.17 – 0.39 0.17 – 0.43 0.08 – 0.15
Potassium, K mg n.a. n. a 0.15 – 0.23
Sodium, Na mg n.a. n. a 0.09 – 0.17
Vitamins
Thiamin mg 0.26 – 0.33 0.29 – 0.61 0.02 – 0.11
Riboflavin mg 0.06 – 0.11 0.04 – 0.14 0.02 – 0.06
Niacin mg 2.9 – 5.6 3.5 – 5.3 1.3 – 2.4
Pantothenic acid* mg n.a. 1.5 n.a.
Vitamin B-6* mg n.a. 0.5 n. a
Folate, total* µg n.a. 20 n.a.
Ash g 2.9-5.2 1.0-1.5 0.3-0.8
~ n.a.: not analyzed.
Proteins represent the second major constituent of rice, ranging in concentration from the
grain surface to the center of the grain in decreasing order. Rice proteins are deficient in terms
of lysine (Rosell M. C., 2008).
The lipid content is low, but it contributes to the sensory, nutritional and functional
characteristics by forming bonds with the amylose. The liposoluble vitamins such as vitamin
A and D are neglectable, but the vitamin E content of whole rice has considerable values.
Vitamin C is lacking in rice, whereas the riboflavin is found in small quantities (Aadil
Abbas., 2011).
During processing, by removing the outer layers of bran, the rice loses a large amount of
nutrients, especially in minerals such as Fe and Vitamin B (Table 12). Available
carbohydrates, mainly starch also dietary fibers are higher in white rice than in brown rice and
paddy. Table 14 presents the proximate composition of rice grains (paddy, brown and white).
Black rice is recommended for consumption by nutritionists and dieticians, being an

excellent source of nutrients, especially antioxidants and phenolic compounds.
Classified according to color, the black rice variety has the highest antioxidant capacity,
followed by the purple, red and white rice varieties. The main antioxidants in rice are γ-
oryzanol and anthocyanins (Goufo Piebiep, 2014).
Previous studies have demonstrated the beneficial effect of red and black rice
consumption on the lipid profile and protection against oxidative stress, delaying the
formation and development of atherosclerotic plaques. Thus, it has been discovered that
laboratory rabbits, that have consumed black rice, have experienced a dramatic decrease in
the atherosclerotic plaque area, compared to rabbits eating white rice (Ling W.H, 2001).
Rice also contains secondary metabolites with an antioxidant effect such as melatonin
and phenolic compounds (Widiastuti Setyaningsih N. H., 2015).
In addition to that, rice contains phenolic compounds with varying degrees of antioxidant
activity. However, there are differences in antioxidant activity due to composition, variety,
genotype, color, pericarp, etc. (Krishnaveni Marimuthu M. P., 2014).
Studies on cell cultures have demonstrated that phenolic compounds in rice may
be associated with antimutagenic, anticarcinogenic and antimetastatic activities due to
their properties to protect DNA against carcinoma cell damage and proliferation
(Peisong Hu, 2004).
Melatonin, synthesized from L-tryptophan, an essential amino acid, plays an important
role in the neurohormonal and chrono biotic actions of the biological system, with conclusive
evidence of improvement and prevention of cardiovascular diseases, sleep disorders and
migraines (Setyaningsih, 2014; Dominguez-Rodriguez A., 2012; Gagnier JJ, 2001).
The melatonin content of the rice substantially differs from the pigmented rice to the
white one. The highest melatonin concentration was recorded in the red rice (approximately
207.9 μg / kg), followed by the black rice (approximately 182 μg / kg) (Favero Gaia, 2017).
Unlike white rice, brown rice is much richer in vitamin E, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6,
folic acid, potassium, magnesium. The fiber content of brown rice is four times higher than in
white rice (Vetha Varshini, 2013).
As regards the health benefits, with its antioxidant and phytonutrient content, brown rice
consumption helps strengthen the immune system, lower cholesterol levels, prevent heart
attacks, and reduce child asthma attacks. (Kayahara H, 2000; Lixandru, 2014).
The rice flour is the product obtained from the grinding of rice grains or of the broken
rice. In most of the cases, rice is consumed as such, boiled in the form of grains, but in the
recent years, there has been a significant increase in the consumption of rice flour, especially
in products for infants and young children. The rice flour is a versatile raw material for
gluten-free products, with many products such as noodles, snacks, unleavened bread, and
cakes (Peerapong Ngamnikom and Sirichai Songsermpong., 2011).
Rice flour is the best product for gluten-free products because it has a low content of
prolamins and, in addition to that, rice has unique nutritional and hypoallergenic qualities
(Gujral H.S. & Rosell C.M., 2004).
The rice flour has important functional properties for the production of rice-based food
products and represents the relationship between the structure, composition and molecular
arrangement of the food components with the nature of the environment in which they are
measured and associated (Suraiya Jamal, 2016).
Rice flour is a suitable substitute for wheat flour in the production of gluten-free cakes
due to the absence of gluten, the low amounts of fat, sodium, fiber, but large amounts of
slow-absorbing carbohydrates (Ilkem Demirkesen, 2010).
Many characteristics of the rice are influenced by the milling processes, the rice variety -
brown or white, the machines used for grinding, the hardness of the rice grain (Jih-Jou Chen,
2003a). However, the most important characteristics that influence the quality of rice flour
are: the size of the flour particles, the amount of damaged starch, the chemical composition
(amylose/amylopectin ratio, protein) (Peerapong Ngamnikom and Sirichai Songsermpong.,
2011).
Industrial applications of brown rice are strictly dependent on its functional properties,
namely jellifying properties, or “pasting,” thermal properties (Gunaratne, 2011).
The analysis of “pasting” behavior is a useful method for characterizing rice flour. The
Amylograph or Visco - analyzer based studies have proved that a higher “pasting”
temperature corresponds to a high gelatinization temperature, to a lower viscosity, these being
correlated with a high amylose content (Meadows F, 2002).
The amount of amylose in the rice flour influences the degree, the starch jellifying
temperature and the viscous-elastic properties of the flour (Rosell M. C., 2008).
The content of damaged starch in rice flour is influenced by the type of milling. In the
case of wet-milling, the deteriorated starch content is lower as compared to the dry-milling,
while the semi-wet (semidry-milling) has a protective role, the degree of damaged starch
being reduced, which is an important quality index for rice products (Li-Tao Tong, 2015).
The physical properties of rice flour are also influenced by the period from harvest to
milling as well as the temperature applied during storage. Table 13 presents the proximate
composition of brown and white rice.
Table 13. Composition of rice flour (USDA, 2016)
Nutrient Value (100g) Brown rice flour White rice flour

Protein g 7.23 5.95
Total lipid g 2.78 1.42
Carbohydrates g 76.48 80.1
Fiber, total dietary g 4.6 2.4
Minerals
Calcium mg 11 10
Iron, Fe mg 1.98 0.35
Magnesium mg 112 35
Phosphorus mg 337 98
Potassium, K mg 289 76
Sodium, Na mg 8 0
Vitamins
Thiamin mg 0.44 0,38
Riboflavin mg 0.08 0.021
Niacin mg 6.340 2.59
Pantothenic acid mg 1.59 0.819
Vitamin B-6 mg 0.736 0.436
Folate, total µg 16 4
Ash g 1.54 0.61
Water g 11.97 11.89
Energy Kcal 363 366
According to the data presented in Table 15 brown rice flour is a good source of minerals
such as magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, phosphorus and selenium and a very good source
of manganess. Moreover, the brown rice flour contains about 32% and 35% of the
recommended daily values of niacin and vitamin B6 while the white rice flour contains only
13% and 22% of daily values of niacin and vitamin B6 respectively (Nutrition Data, 2014).
6. OATS AND OAT FLOUR

6.1. Production
Oat (Avena sativa L.) is a cereal consumed all over the world but in smaller quantities
when compared to other cereals. Currently, oat production ranks the sixth in the world cereal
production statistics after maize, wheat, rice, sorghum and millet (Table 16). According to the
data presented in Table 14, the oat production is lower than 1% of total grain production,
most of the produced quantity being used for animal feed (16.9 million metric tons in 2009 as
compared to 16.25 million metric tons in 2013. Also, oat is used as a nutritious grain and as
forage.
The global oat production has recorded a steady decline as farms have become
mechanized and the demand for oats for horse feed has declined (Strychar, 2011). In the last
years, the oat production has stabilized at little over 22 million metric tons after almost 47%
decline over the previous 50 years (USDA. Foreign Agriculture Services, 2017). The oat
production stabilization was due to a series of factors. Oat is a cheap grain, it is used as a
cover crop in crop rotation and as nutritious feed for young cattle. Also, the higher and higher
demand for human consumption has increased the commercial use of oat. Oat is a cereal
adapted to variable soil types than many other cereal crops which can perform better on acid
soils. Therefore, it can grow mostly in cool and moist climates, being sensitive to hot and dry
weather (Strychar R., 2011).
Table 14. World cereal production in 2016
Species Cultivated area Cultivated area - Grain production Grain

(million ha) Percent of total (million metric tons) production [%]
Buckwheat 2.37 0.33 2.39 0.08
Maize 187.95 26.37 1.060.10 37.32
Millet 31.70 4.45 28.35 1.00
Oats 9.43 1.32 22.99 0.81
Rice 159.81 22.43 740.96 26.08
Rye 4.40 0.62 12.94 0.46
Sorghum 44.77 6.28 63.93 2.25
Triticale 4.16 0.58 15.22 0.54
Wheat 220.11 30.89 749.46 26.38
Barley 46.92 6.58 141.28 4.97
Grain, mixed 1.01 0.14 3.02 0.11
Total 712.63 100 2840.64 100
Adaptation after USDA – Office of Global Analysis (USDA. Foreign Agriculture Services., 2017).
In 2012 the total world production of oat reached 21 million metric tonnes and it has
increased in 2016 to 23 million metric tonnes; the oat world production has increased in the
latest five years by 8.4% (Table 15). Most of the oat world’s production (almost 80%) comes
from Europe and Northern America. The largest oat producers, in 2016, were the Russian
Federation with more than 4.7 million tonnes oat per year, Canada with more than 3 million
metric tonnes oat per year, Poland with more than 1.3 million tonnes oat per year, Finland
with more than 1 million tonnes oat per year, U.S.A. with almost 1 million tonnes oat per year
and, last but not least, Spain and United Kingdom with almost 0.8 million tonnes oat per year.
All the countries above mentioned, along with other 6 countries in Europe (i.e., Sweeden,
Germany, Ukrain, Belarus, Romania and Norway) produced in 2016 more than 55% of the
global oat production (USDA. Foreign Agriculture Services, 2017).
Oat is a cereal providing a major challenge for the oat processing industry. Oat milling is
a process consisting of several steps designed to remove foreign material (field
contaminants), to remove the hull, stabilize the groats (whole oat grain), to develop flavour
and convert the grain into finished products. While the basic steps have remained the same
over the time, the order has changed due to the technological progress. Modern oat mills
typically process oat following the next steps: cleaning, grading, dehulling, hull removal,
groats separation, kilning, cutting and/or flaking, flour production and oat bran production
(Noël Girardet, 2011). Kilning is a key step of oat processing that influences the quality of
grains and the possibility of using it for new food applications. Compared to other cereals, oat
contains high lipid and beta-glucan content and these compounds can have unfavorable
effects on sensory properties of grains and final products. Lipids oxidation can cause a rancid
taste while beta-glucans, due to their high viscosity, affect food texture and mouthfeel
(Lehtinen P. and Kaukovirta-Norja A., 2011; Diana M. Londono, 2015).
Oxidation of lipids is caused by the action of lipase enzymes and the inactivation of these
enzymes is known as kilning. Thus, kilning stabilizes the product and hence the lipids are not
oxidized which is necessary for a marketable shelf-life.
The commercial oat products are whole-grain flakes (rolled oats), baby oat flakes, quick
oat flakes, whole-oat flour, oat flour, steel-cut oats, instant oat, oat bran, oat fiber and oat hull.
Oat flour is a finely granulated material from which coarse particles and bran have been
removed while whole-oat flour is produced from whole oat groats, or from derived products,
with no material loss, by stabilization and size reduction. Oat bran is produced similarly
to whole-oat flour noting that the resulted flour is sifted subsequently, bolting into
fractions resulting oat bran fractions which are not more than 50% of starting material
(Webster F.H., 2011).
The oat grains are characterized by a particularly valuable chemical composition and the
combination of nutritional compounds makes it a profitable constituent of the human diet.
The approach to chemical composition of oat grains and different oat-based product (oat flour
and bran) is presented in Table 16. Oats contain high protein content with beneficial amino
acids, high content of lipids, 2-3 times more than other cereals with favorable content of fatty
acids (Butt M.S., 2008) and a large amount of dietary fiber fractions (Table 16). Oats contain
many essential amino acids (it has the highest amounts of isoleucine, leucine, lysine,
threonine, phenylalanine and valine and lowest amounts of methionine and tryptophan) (Biel
W., 2014), and high antioxidant activity components such as tocopherols, tocotrienols, and
flavonoids (Inglett G. E. and Chen D., 2012; Koenig R., 2014).
Table 15. The oat world production in the main agricultural regions
over the last 5 years
Oat production (thousand metric tonnes) Five-years % of World

Regions
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 average production
Africa 0.27 0.26 0.17 0.19 0.18 0.21 0.95
Central America 0.08 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.09 0.38
Northern America 3.72 4.84 3.99 4.23 3.95 4.15 18.33
South America 1.44 1.73 1.64 1.60 2.29 1.74 7.69
Asia 1.03 1.18 0.99 0.98 1.06 1.05 4.62
Australia 1.26 1.12 1.25 1.19 1.29 1.23 5.42
Europe 13.38 14.54 14.65 13.58 14.09 14.05 62.04
World 21.22 23.80 22.83 22.40 22.99 22.65 100.00
Based on USDA – Office of Global Analysis (USDA. Foreign Agriculture Services., 2017).
Table 16. Chemical composition of oat grains, flours and bran
Nutrient Unit/100g Oat grain Oat flour partially debranned Oat bran
Protein g 16.9 14.9 17.3
Total lipids g 6.9 9.1 7
Ash g 1.7 2 2.9
Total fiber g 10.6 6.5 15.4
Sugars, total g 0.8 1.5
Thiamine mg 0.8 0.7 1.2
Niacin mg 0.1 1.5 0.9
Vitamin B6 mg 0.1 0.1 0.2
Folate, total μg 56 32 52
Choline mg 29.9 32.2
Calcium, Ca mg 54 55 58
Iron, Fe mg 4.7 4 5.4
Magnesium, Mg mg 117 144 235
Phosphorus, P mg 523 452 734
Potassium, K mg 429 371 566
Sodium, Na mg 2 19 4
Zinc, Zn mg 4 3.2 3.1
Copper, Cu mg 0.6 0.4 0.4
Manganese, Mn mg 4.9 4 5.6
Selenium, Se μg 34 45.2
Water g 8.2 8.5 6.5
Energy Kcal 389 404 246
Source: Nutrition Data.
From the data presented in Table 16 it can be concluded that the oat flour and oat bran are
rich in proteins, lipids and dietary fiber. Oat grain and oat-based products are relatively higher
in thiamine, phosphorus, magnesium, manganese and selenium but it had lower in copper,
sodium, zinc, calcium, iron and potassium.
Therefore, oat flour has nutritional value due to its high levels of dietary fiber, proteins,
lipids and some vitamins and minerals.
The beneficial effects of consuming oat and oat-based food products have been
recognized by many researchers. Oat had been reported to be an effective agent in moderating
the effects of hypertension, lowering the total serum and LDL-cholesterol, regulating blood
glucose and insulin levels, controlling weight and promoting gastrointestinal health. Many of
these effects were attributed to the presence of dietary fibers, principally the β-glucans
(Bekers, 2001; Adele M Lambo, 2005) Fibers from oat can bring important benefits to the
health of the digestive tract, due to the contribution of the increase of fecal mass with positive
impact on colorectal cancer risk.
Oat flour is used to make different food products as ready-to-eat breakfast cereals,
granola, snack bars, cookies and pancakes. Oats are used, also, as an extender in meat
products such as black and white puddings and haggis, and as a carbohydrate source for
fermented foods such as beer (Decker E.A., 2014). An advantage of using oat as a food
ingredient, resides in that it does not contain gluten: it contains avenins as storage proteins.
Thereby, oat can be used in gluten-free foods recommended to people with coeliac disease
because avenins are less likely to cause allergies even among coeliac patients (Zimmer K.P.,
2011; Rashid M, 2007).
The oat used in the production of gluten-free products must be very pure and not contain
any source of gluten from other cereals like wheat, barley or rye. Unfortunately, the lack of
gluten prevents oat flour being used as the unique flour in raised breads, because gluten
produces the needed elasticity and structure to bread dough that allows it to properly rise. On
these grounds, most oat breads still contain wheat flour (Decker E.A., 2014).
7. BARLEY AND BARLEY FLOUR

7.1. Production
Barley (Hordeum vulgare) is one of the oldest plants that have been grown. It is a
versatile crop and is grown as a summer crop in temperate areas and as a winter crop in
tropical climates. Barley has a lot of varieties, but it is usually classified as spring and winter
types, two-rowed or six-rowed (depending on the number of rows of seeds on each spike)-
and hulled or hulless (by presence or absence of hull tightly adhering to the grain) (Byung-
Kee Baik, 2008; Nirupama Gangopadhyay, 2005).
Barley was cultivated and used for human food supply and subsequently for animal feed
and malt production, coffee surrogates, pearl barley and barley flour that is mixed with wheat
flour.
Barley is a very important cereal that is cultivated on large areas and was the staple food
of people in many countries till wheat supplanted it as a result of changing people's food
preferences.
In 2017, barley was ranked fourth among grains in quantity produced (146 million tones)
behind maize, rice and wheat. (Statista GmbH, 2018).
Production of barley in the decade 2007 – 2017 fluctuated between 120 and 150 million
tones with an increase by 20 million tones in 2008-2010, approximately (Table 17).
According to the USDA data, the largest barley production is held by the EU with about
42% followed by the U.S.A with about 10% and the Middle East with about 7%.
Barley has been used in Europe since the XVth century to obtain bread. With time, barley
has been replaced by wheat and rye because of their superior bakery qualities.
The chemical composition of barley grain differs, in some wise, from wheat and rye and
is influenced by climatic conditions, soil, fertilizers and variety (Table 18).
The proportion of starch decreases from the center of the grain to the outside while the
protein content, minerals, fat and vitamins increases.
As human food, barley can be consumed like hulled or pearled barley. Hulled barley is
minimally processed by removing the outer shell and it is considered a whole grain. Pearled
barley is barley that has been processed to remove its hull and bran including endosperm.
The fine barley flour is prepared from pearled barley grain using a hammer or roller
milling and it used for flatbread, cakes, cookies, noodles, infant foods and food specialties
(Newman, 1991; Kent & Evers, 1994).
According to USDA data, it can be seen that in barley flour the amount of some minerals,
vitamins and also protein is reduced compared with barley hulled. These composition changes
may be due mainly to the removal of outer layers of barley grain. However, as can be seen in
Table 19, 100g of barley flour can provide significant amounts of vitamins, minerals, proteins
including amino acids and fibers.
Table 17. Barley Production from 2007 to 2018

(USDA. Foreign Agriculture Services., 2017)
Country Barley Production (Million metric tons)

2007/ 2008/ 2009/ 2010/ 2011/ 2012/ 2013/ 2014/ 2015/ 2016/ 2017/
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018-
January
E.U. 57.7 65.8 62.4 53.7 51.9 54.9 59.7 60.6 62.1 59.9 58.7
Middle East 11.1 8.0 11.3 11.5 11.7 9.7 12.0 8.7 12.6 9.72 11.23
North Africa 2.5 2.4 7.3 4.5 4.6 3.6 4.7 3.9 5.3 2.2 3.7
North America 16.1 17.8 14.9 12.2 11.7 13.8 15.6 11.9 13.7 14.1 11.7
Europe 1.1 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3
South America 2.5 3.1 2.4 3.8 5.5 5.9 5.8 3.8 5.9 4.7 3.9
World 132.6 155 150.9 122.9 133.4 129.1 144.4 141.7 149.6 146.2 141.7
Table 18. Composition of barley grain and barley flour -

USDA - (Agriculture, 2016)
Nutrient Unit Barley hulled Barley pearled Barley flour

Value (100g)
Proximates
Water g 9.44 10.09 12.11
Energy kcal 354 352 345
Energy kJ 1481 1473 1443
Protein g 12.48 9.91 10.5
Total lipid (fat) g 2.3 1.16 1.6
Ash g 2.29 1.11 1.28
Carbohydrate, by difference g 73.48 77.72 74.52
Fiber, total dietary g 17.3 15.6 10.1
Sugars, total g 0.8 0.8 0.8
Minerals
Iron, Fe mg 3.6 2.5 2.68
Sodium, Na mg 12 9 4
Zinc, Zn mg 2.77 2.13 2
Copper, Cu mg 0.498 0.42 0.343
Manganese, Mn mg 1.943 1.322 1.034
Selenium, Se µg 37.7 37.7 37.7
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid mg 0 0 0
Thiamin mg 0.646 0.191 0.37
Riboflavin mg 0.285 0.114 0.114
Niacin mg 4.604 4.604 6.269
Vitamin B-6 mg 0.318 0.26 0.396
Folate, total µg 19 23 8
Folate, food µg 19 23 8
Folate, DFE µg 19 23 8
Choline, total mg 0 37.8 37.8
Vitamin B-12 µg 1 0 0
Vitamin A, RAE µg 0 1 0
Retinol µg 0.646 0 0
Carotene, beta µg 13 13 0
Vitamin A, IU IU 22 22 0
Lycopene µg 0 0 0
Lutein + zeaxanthin µg 160 160 160
Table 18. (Continued)
Nutrient Unit Barley hulled Barley pearled Barley flour

Value (100g)
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) mg 0.57 0.02 0.57
Vitamin K (phylloquinone) µg 2.2 2.2 2.2
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated g 0.482 0.244 0.335
Amino Acids
Tryptophan g 0.208 0.165 0.175
Threonine g 0.424 0.337 0.356
Isoleucine g 0.456 0.362 0.383
Leucine g 0.848 0.673 0.713
Lysine g 0.465 0.369 0.391
Methionine g 0.24 0.19 0.202
Cystine g 0.276 0.219 0.232
Phenylalanine g 0.7 0.556 0.589
Tyrosine g 0.358 0.284 0.301
Valine g 0.612 0.486 0.515
Arginine g 0.625 0.496 0.526
Histidine g 0.281 0.223 0.236
Alanine g 0.486 0.386 0.409
Aspartic acid g 0.779 0.619 0.655
Glutamic acid g 3.261 2.588 2.741
Glycine g 0.452 0.359 0.38
Proline g 1.484 1.178 1.247
Serine g 0.527 0.418 0.443
Barley, unlike other cereals, contains a 4 – 6% of β-glucans soluble fiber exception of

oats. Currently, there are numerous scientific studies which demonstrate the benefic effect of
β-glucans in food offers several health benefits to alleviate the problems of life style disorder.
There is strong evidence that barley β-glucans can lower blood cholesterol levels, thereby
reducing the risk of coronary heart disease, reduce the risk of type II diabetes (Liu, et al.,
1999; Munter, Hu, Spiegelman, Franz, & van Dam, 2007).
β-glucans and resistant starch help the growth of selective intestinal microorganisms that
gives prebiotic potential to barley (Newman RK., 2008).
Barley contains about 10-14% protein with moderate nutritional quality, but the
predominant are hordeins which are prolamin storage proteins. (Paul Sullivana 2013).
According with data from Table 19 barley and barley flour contains several essential
amino acids like threonine, valine and lysine.
Also, barley consumption can induce the satiety effect required to control body weight
(Madhusweta Das, 2016).
Table 19. Daily Value of nutrients per 100 gr of barley and barley flour
Nutrient Barley hulled Barley pearled Barley flour

Daily Value/100 g
Niacin 23% 23% 31%
Pantothenic acid 3% 3% -
Riboflavin 17% 7% 7%
Thiamin 43% 13% 25%
Vitamin B6 16% 13% 20%
Vitamin E 2% - 2%
Vitamin K 3% 3% 3%
Calcium, Ca 3% 3% 3%
Copper, Cu 25% 21% 17%
Iron, Fe 20% 14% 15%
Magnesium, Mg 33% 20% 24%
Manganese, Mn 97% 66% 52%
Phosphorus, P 26% 22% 30%
Potassium, K 10% 6% 7%
Selenium, Se 54% 54% 54%
Zinc, Zn 18% 14% 13%
Protein 25% 20% 21%
Isoleucine 33% 26% 27%
Leucine 31% 25% 26%
Lysine 22% 18% 19%
Methionine 23% 18% 19%
Phenylalanine 40% 32% 34%
Threonine 40% 32% 34%
Tryptophan 74% 59% 62%
Tyrosine 20% 16% 17%
Valine 34% 27% 28%
Carbohydrate 24% 26% 25%
Fiber 69% 62% 40%
Based on USDA data and Nutritional Value.org. - (USDA, 2016; Value, 2018).
8. BUCKWHEAT AND BUCKWHEAT FLOUR

8.1. Production
The buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) was “domesticated” and cultivated for
the first time, it seems, in Southeast Asia, about 8000 years ago. It has spread rapidly to
Central Asia and the Far East. Other sources place its origin in Tibet.
In the 14th century, Mongols brought it on the European side of Russia and moved to
Central and Western Europe, reaching the Great Britain in the 17th century. The Dutch
colonists took it to the Hudson Valley, New York.
Buckwheat growing area, where this is an important food resource, is Nepal, Bhutan and
several other Asian regions. In these regions, the buckwheat represents the food for the
“poor,” because it is cheaper than rice.
It is one of the less demanding plants, which develops very well in conditions of drought
or lower temperatures.
In Europe, buckwheat is considered a minor crop, being cultivated mainly in Russia,
Ukraine, Belarus, Poland, the Czech Republic, northern Croatia, Slovenia, Austria, Denmark
and north-western France.
In the first half of this century, the buckwheat spread mainly in Germany, the Czech
Republic and Slovakia, and to a lesser extent in Portugal, Spain, the United Kingdom,
Switzerland, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria and Finland, but was later replaced by other
crops.
To a lesser extent, it is cultivated in Hungary, Luxembourg and northern Italy.
Buckwheat also began to be used in Norway as a raw material for dietetic foods
(Kreft I., 1999a).
Due to its high nutritional value, an important part of the population in Europe (especially
Denmark, Sweden and Germany) and Japan eat buckwheat on a daily basis.
Buckwheat is also grown in Canada and in the southern hemisphere - Brazil, Australia
and South Africa.
In 2015, the global production was 2.0 million tons, led by Russia with 43% of the world
total and China with 25%.
Buckwheat is also cultivated to support the honey production and it is considered one of
the best plants for the honey production.
For many years, buckwheat cultivation has been declining, but recently there has been an
increase due to health promotion.
Slovenian scientific institutions have laid the foundations for developing cooperation
through the IBRA and directly from around the world. Buckwheat research is carried out in
Slovenia by the Faculty of Biotechnology, the University of Ljubljana, the Faculty of
Agriculture, the University of Maribor, the Food Technology College, Maribor, the Jozef
Stefan Institute, Ljubljana and the National Institute of Biology, Ljubljana.
Figure 2. Europe's production vs. the world.

They cooperate with scientists in Italy (Cereal Research Institute of S. Angelo Lodigiano
near Milano and Nutrition Institute, Rome) to develop new methods of buckwheat growth in
the Alpine region, respectively on the development of new buckwheat products high quality
nutritional and functional, such as buckwheat pasta, extrudates and other products.
The research applied by Slovenian scientists has helped developing the buckwheat
cultivation and new products in Slovenia, Croatia (Buckwheat Groats), Denmark (Buckwheat
Extruded Products), Japan and Australia (“Tasmania soba” for Japan). (Figures 2, 3 and 4).
Figure 3. Production on each part of Europe.
Figure 4. World buckwheat production 2015/2016.

Buckwheat is mainly consumed as flour, which is used as a material for porridge,

noodles, bread, pancakes, spaghetti and other food.
Also, the buckwheat flour can be used as supplement of gluten-free formulations
constituting a source of nutritional substances.
The protein content in buckwheat varies between 8.5 ÷ 18.9% (Skrabanja et al., 2001;
Steadman et al., 2001; Wijngaard and Arendt, 2006) with biological values over 90%. This
can be explained by a high concentration of essential amino acids.
The protein from buckwheat contains 28-42% albumin, 14-20% globulin, 11-21%
glutelin, 1-4.2% prolamin (Cai, 2004; Aubrecht, 1999; Nałęcz D., 2009).
According to chemical composition showed in Table 20 the buckwheat and buckwheat
flour are well balanced and rich in lysine, knowing that this amino acid is limited in wheat
and barley.
In the absence of gluten-forming proteins, buckwheat may be an important ingredient in
the gluten-free diet for people suffering from celiac disease, although testing for allergen
products is required.
Despite the balanced amino acid composition, the digestibility of the protein in
buckwheat for humans and animals diet is relatively low (Javronik B., 1981) due to the
antinutritive factors present in common buckwheat: protease inhibitors (such as trypsin
inhibitors) and tannins (Ikeda K., 2002; Dunaevsky, 2001).
Trypsin inhibitors in buckwheat seeds are resistant to heat processing at high
temperatures and acidic conditions, but their activity declines greatly during germination
(Wang, 2013).
The starch is to be found in a percentage of 59-78%, out of which, 25% is represented by
amylose and 75% by amylopectin.
Buckwheat also contains 0.65-0.75% reducing sugars, 0.79-1.66% oligosaccharides and
0.1-0.2% non-amylase polysaccharides.
The dietary fiber content of buckwheat is about 10%.
In buckwheat, total lipids to be found represent 1.5-4%. The highest content is in the
embryo (9.6 - 19.7%), the endosperm contains 2-3% and the pericarp 0.4-0.7%. Groats
contain 2.1-2.6% lipids, out of which 81-85% neutral lipids, 8-11% phospholipids and 3-5%
glycolipids.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids are: linoleic acid, linolenic acid and arachidonic acid. The
linoleic acid is the most abundant fatty acid (~ 35% of the total fatty acids), followed by the
oleic acid (~ 25%). The main saturated fatty acid is the palmitic acid (~ 17%). Small amounts
of myristic acid, stearic acid and arachidonic acid have been noted.
The ash content in buckwheat varies between 2 - 2.2%, depending on the variety.
The content of phenolic compounds in common buckwheat is ~ 0.735% in bran and
0.79% in groats, and in Tartary buckwheat ~ 1.525% in groats.
There are three classes of phenolic compounds in buckwheat as follows: flavonoids,
phenolic acid and tannin.
Phenolic content is higher in buckwheat than in other cereals, buckwheat flavonoids have
been set at 0.7% in bran and 0.8% in endosperm.
Table 20. Proximate Composition of buckwheat and buckwheat flour (WF)

(USDA., 2016)
Nutrient Unit Buckwheat Buckwheat flour whole-groats

Value (100g)
Proximates
Water g 9.75 11.15
Energy kcal 343 335
Energy kJ 1435 1402
Protein g 13.25 12.62
Total lipid (fat) g 3.4 3.1
Ash g 2.1 2.54
Carbohydrate, by difference g 71.5 70.59
Fiber, total dietary g 10 10
Mineral
Calcium, Ca mg 18 41
Iron, Fe mg 2.2 4.06
Magnesium, Mg mg 231 251
Phosphorus, P mg 347 337
Potassium, K mg 460 577
Sodium, Na mg 1 11
Zinc, Zn mg 2.4 3.12
Copper, Cu mg 1.1 0.515
Manganese, Mn mg 1.3 2.03
Selenium, Se µg 8.3 5.7
Vitamins
Thiamin mg 0.101 0.417
Niacin mg 7.02 6.15
Pantothenic acid mg 1.233 0.44
Vitamin B-6 mg 0.21 0.582
Folate, total µg 30 54
Folate, food µg 30 54
Folate, DFE µg 30 54
Lutein + zeaxhantine µg ~ 220
Vitamin E (alpha – tocopherol) mg 0.32
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated g 0.741 0.677
Fatty acids, total g 1.04 0.949
monounsaturated
Cholesterol mg 0 0
Amino Acids
Tryptophan g 0.192 0.183
Threonine g 0.506 0.482
Isoleucine g 0.498 0.474
Leucine g 0.832 0.792
Table 20. (Continued)
Nutrient Unit Buckwheat Buckwheat flour whole-groats

Value (100g)
Lysine g 0.672 0.64
Methionine g 0.172 0.164
Cystine g 0.229 0.218
Phenylalanine g 0.52 0.495
Tyrosine g 0.241 0.23
Valine g 0.678 0.646
Arginine g 0.982 0.935
Histidine g 0.309 0.294
Alanine g 0.748 0.712
Aspartic acid g 1.133 1.078
Glutamic acid g 2.046 1.948
Glycine g 1.031 0.981
Proline g 0.507 0.482
Serine g 0.685 0.652
Buckwheat seeds contain rutin (quercetin-3-0-rutinoside), quercetin, quercitrin

(quercetin-3-0-rhamnoside), orientin, isooreentin, vitexin, isovitexin and chlorogenic acid
(Ting Sun, 2005).
The highest amount of rutin was found in Tartary buckwheat, about 3-6% of the dry
matter.
Phenolic acids from buckwheat seeds are: hydro benzoic acid, syringic acid, p-
hydroxybenzoic acid, p-coumaric acid and vanillic acid.
The oligomeric tannins present in buckwheat seeds together with phenolic acids give
their astringency and color.
Buckwheat is recognized for large amounts of vitamins, especially those under group B:
 vitamin B1 (thiamine), important in carbohydrate metabolism and in the activity of

the central and peripheral nervous system;
 vitamin B6 (riboflavin), important in cellular oxidation reactions, present in the
structure of flavin enzymes as coenzyme and participating in the metabolism of
carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids.
Vitamin C is not found in buckwheat seeds.

Compared to other cereals such as rice, wheat, flour or corn, buckwheat contains higher
levels of zinc, chromium, and potassium (Ikeda K., 2002; Steadman, 2001) the bioavailability
of these zinc, copper and potassium buckwheat minerals is particularly high.
Specialty studies have revealed that 100 g of buckwheat meal can provide about 13-89%
of the recommended requirement for zinc, copper, magnesium and manganese.
Due to this composition, buckwheat is indicated in celiac disease, type 2 diabetes,
obesity, polycystic ovary syndrome, capillary vascularity fragility, hypertension, constipation,
nourishment of children.
9. SORGHUM AND SORGHUM FLOUR

9.1. Production
Sorghum (Sorghum Bicolor) originated in Central Africa is a pseudo-cereal cultivated in

semi-arid parts of the world where where is an important food and fed crop (Chavan, 2016).
Sorghum is ranked fifth in the top of the grain crops in the world, after wheat, rice, corn
and barley. In terms of varieties, there are over 30 of them, being cultivated predominantly in
the tropical and subtropical area. The world sorghum production in 2014 was about 69
million tons, according to FAO source data (http://www.fao.org) and shown in Figure 5.
The sorghum cultivation technology is similar to that of corn and has an optimal
productivity of 5.000 kg/ha and the maximum productivity (in the case of high productive
hybrids) of up to 6.500 kg/ha. Another advantage of this type of culture is that sorghum is a
high drought resistant crop and suitable for arid soils.
9.2. Chemical Composition
At the level of chemical composition, according to the specialty studies applied on 100
genotypes under different environmental conditions, it comes out that that there may be
differences in the concentrations of the major components of the sorghum grain. (V.A. Vieira
Quieirozal all/Journal of cereal science 65 (2015) 103-111).
Thus, the carbohydrate content can range from 55.2% to 75%, the protein content varies
between 8.6% and 18.9%, the lipid content between 1.7% and 4.9%, the fiber 9.3% -25.2%
and the ash between 1.1% and 2.4%.
The variable chemical composition is due to the type and characteristics of the soil, but
especially to the moisture content and implicitly to the rainfall regime of the cultivated
geographical area. According to the above-mentioned study, the soil moisture had an
overwhelming influence on the sorghum content, consequently, for the genotypes grown in
conditions lacking water stress (optimum humidity), there were higher values for
carbohydrates, proteins and ashes, according to Table 21.
Figure 5. Sorghum world production in 2014.

Table 21. Proximate compositions of sorghum and sorghum flour –

according to (USDA., 2016)
Nutrient Unit Sorghum Sorghum flour, Sorghum

whole-grain flour refined
Value (100g)
Water g 12.4 10.26 11.92
Energy kcal 329 359 357
Energy kJ 1377 1503 1492
Protein g 10.62 8.43 9.53
Total lipid (fat) g 3.46 3.34 1.24
Ash g 1.43 1.32 0.47
Carbohydrate, by difference g 72.09 76.64 76.85
Fiber, total dietary g 6.7 6.6 1.9
Sugars, total g 2.53 1.94 0.34
Minerals
Iron, Fe mg 3.36 3.14 0.97
Sodium, Na mg 2 3 1
Zinc, Zn mg 1.67 1.63 0.47
Copper, Cu mg 0.284 0.253 0.009
Manganese, Mn mg 1.605 1.258 0.43
Selenium, Se µg 12.2 12.2 6
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid mg 0 0.8 0.6
Thiamin mg 0.332 0.329 0.09
Riboflavin mg 0.096 0.061 0.005
Niacin mg 3.688 4.496 1.329
Vitamin B-6 mg 0.443 0.325 0.068
Folate, total µg 20 25 ~
Folic acid µg 0 0 ~
Folate, food µg 20 25 ~
Folate, DFE µg 20 25 ~
Vitamin K µg 6.4 ~
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated g 0.61 0.528 0.303
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated g 1.131 0.003 0.385
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated g 1.558 1.403 0.475
Cholesterol mg 0 0 0
Amino Acids
Tryptophan g 0.124 0.106 ~
Threonine g 0.346 0.312 ~
Nutrient Unit Sorghum Sorghum flour, Sorghum

whole-grain flour refined
Value (100g)
Isoleucine G 0.433 0.309 ~
Leucine g 1.491 1.085 ~
Lysine g 0.229 0.174 ~
Methionine g 0.169 0.145 ~
Cystine g 0.127 0.165 ~
Phenylalanine g 0.546 0.441 ~
Tyrosine g 0.321 0.225 ~
Valine g 0.561 0.387 ~
Arginine g 0.355 0.33 ~
Histidine g 0.246 0.167 ~
Alanine g 1.033 0.758 ~
Aspartic acid g 0.743 0.556 ~
Glutamic acid g 2.439 1.741 ~
Glycine g 0.346 0.313 ~
Proline g 0.852 0.651 ~
Serine g 0.462 0.411 ~
Flavonoids
Proanthocyanidin
Proanthocyanidin dimers mg 36.1 ~ ~
Proanthocyanidin trimers mg 46.2 ~ ~
Proanthocyanidin 4-6mers mg 228.1 ~ ~
Proanthocyanidin 7-10mers mg 293.8 ~ ~
Proanthocyanidin polymers mg 1346.3 ~ ~
(>10mers)
~ not analysed.
Sorghum is predominantly used worldwide as fodder because of its high energy and
nutritional value, being very close to that of corn, hence in some areas (Colombia, Peru and
China) it substitutes increasing percentages in recipes manufacturing.
Sorghum flour has a high nutritional value and therefore, in some countries has been used
to combat malnutrition. Sorghum is rich in fiber and antioxidants and is recommended for
diabetes and celiacs. Sorghum does not contain gluten and carbohydrates digest slowly
(Duville, 2012).
Sorghum supplies numerous essential nutrients in rich content (20% or more of the Daily
Value, DV), including protein; fiber; the B vitamins niacin, thiamin and vitamin B6; and
several dietary minerals, including iron (26% DV) and manganese (76% DV) (Nutrition
Value, 2018). Sorghum nutrient contents generally are similar to those of raw oats.
Grain sorghum contains about 1919±45.5mg/100g (Table 21) proanthocyanidines (PAs)
– a class of polyphenols with potential health benefits because of their antioxidant capacity.
There are some estimated data concerning their dietary intake (Gu, 2004). According to Liwei
Gu et. al. 2004, the estimation of the mean daily intake of PAs range between 1.3mg/day for
infants, about 50mg/day for children and young people and above 70 mg/day for men over 60
years.
Sorghum flour is becoming increasingly common in gluten-free baked goods, mostly

because it has similar nutritional properties to wheat, is light in color and bland in flavor
(Chavan, 2016).
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Chapter 12
MESQUITE (PROSOPIS ALBA) FLOUR:

COMPOSITION AND USE IN BREADMAKING
L. P. Sciammaro1, F. Bigne1, M. S. Giacomino2,

M. C. Puppo1,3 and C. Ferrero1,
1
CIDCA (CIC - CONICET - Facultad de Ciencias Exactas,
Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata, Argentina
2
Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica,
Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
3
Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias y Forestales,
Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata, Argentina
ABSTRACT
Prosopis spp. (mesquite) are legume trees or shrubs that grow in semiarid zones of
Africa, Asia and America, from the United States to Argentina. The fruit is a pod used in
many ways: as cattle food, for preparing a typical fermented beverage (aloja), and as a
versatile ingredient for human meals. Flours from the whole pod, pericarp and seeds of
the widespread species Prosopis alba were analyzed. P. alba flours had a high content of
soluble sugars (mainly sucrose) and also a high amount of total dietary fiber (23 g/100 g).
The protein content was the highest in seeds (33.6 g/100 g), while the whole pod
contained 5.81 g/100 g. The aminoacidic profile presented a high content of aspartic plus
glutamic acids and also arginin, which makes this flour an adequate food ingredient for
athletes because these amino acids help build muscle mass. The antioxidant activity
(mainly related to polyphenol content) was higher in the whole pod and seeds. The whole
pod flour contained potassium as the major mineral and also high amounts of calcium,
magnesium, iron and zinc. For assessing the suitability of the whole pod flour for
breadmaking, composite breads from wheat and P. alba flours were formulated at
different replacement levels. Their technological characteristics and nutritional quality
indicated that mesquite is suitable to be used as a bakery ingredient.
Keywords: Prosopis alba, nutrition, amino acids, fatty acids, minerals, bread

Corresponding Author: cferrero@biol.unlp.edu.ar.
260 L. P. Sciammaro, F. Bigne, M. S. Giacomino et al.
INTRODUCTION
The trees and shrubs of the genus Prosopis (known as mesquite, algarrobo, American
carob) are widely distributed along semiarid zones of America, Africa and Asia,
encompassing almost 45 species (Burkart, 1976). Prosopis spp. belong to the same family as
European carob (Ceratonia siliqua), namely, Fabaceae (or Leguminosae) whose fruits are
pods.
In the American continent, Prosopis genus is distributed from the southwest of USA to
Argentinean Patagonia and Chile, and Argentina is the country with the greatest diversity of
species (27), including Prosopis alba, Prosopis nigra and Prosopis flexuosa, among others.
Prosopis spp. trees are a multipurpose resource since they provide timber, firewood and
livestock feed and are a versatile ingredient for human consumption as well. With the
algarrobo pods, usually ground, many traditional foods of the northwest of Argentina are
prepared: aloja (a fermented beverage), patay (a sweet comfiture made with fine flour and
water), añapa (a refreshing beverage), arrope (a sweet syrupy product) and bolanchao
(a traditional fruity dessert covered by algarrobo flour) (Sciammaro et al., 2016a).
The algarrobo pod can exhibit different sizes and colors depending on the species.
Figure 1 shows the pod of Prosopis alba (“algarrobo blanco”), which is 17 ± 3 cm long and
weighs 6 ± 1 g (Sciammaro et al., 2016b). It is formed by a thin epicarp, a cork-like mesocarp
and a woody endocarp surrounding the seeds (26 ± 4 seeds per pod). The small seeds with a
mean weight of 27 ± 4 mg are formed by episperm (coat and testa), endosperm and germ
containing the cotyledons (Grados & Cruz, 1996; Felker et al., 2003).
The flour obtained from the whole pods has a remarkable nutritional value and also
functional properties due to the presence of substances with a recognized healthy effect such
as polyphenols and fiber (Felker et al., 2003; Meyer et al., 1986). Besides, mesquite flour has
a distinct flavor that enables its use as cacao and coffee substitutes, and the sugar content
makes it an ideal ingredient for sweet breadmaking products. Despite these interesting
attributes, the flour is not yet used at a significant scale.
Figure 1. From left to right: an ancient Prosopis tree, 700 years old, in Purmamarca, Jujuy Province,
Argentina; pods and seeds from P. alba (reproduced from Sciammaro et al., 2016b, with permission),
and P. alba flour.
Mesquite (Prosopis alba) Flour 261
FLOUR: COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIONAL VALUE

Protein and Aminoacidic Profile
The nitrogen value (obtained by Kjeldahl method) in the whole pod flour was
significantly higher (48%) than that obtained for pulp flour, suggesting that seeds make an
important contribution to this value. The whole seeds presented a protein content of 33.6
g/100 g, the pod pulp (sample without seeds) contained 3.53 g/100 g, whereas the whole pod
flour containing the seeds had 5.81 (g/100 g) (Sciammaro et al., 2016b). Almost all the seed
protein is located in the germ. González Galán et al., (2008) reported values of protein
between 8.8 and 11.0 (g/100 g d.w.) for the whole pod flours from different Prosopis species,
P. alba having the maximum value. Divergences in protein content value reported in different
works can be related to the fact that nonprotein nitrogen was not subtracted from the total
nitrogen content. Not only the amount but also the quality of proteins is highly important
since their aminoacidic composition, particularly the amount and proportion of the essential
amino acids, determines their efficiency to synthesize human proteins.
Cattaneo et al. (2014) previously found that the amino acids present in higher proportion
in seed flour were glutamine, arginine and asparagine, followed by proline and serine. Meyer
et al. (1986) reported that limiting amino acids in the protein from cotyledons of P. velutina
were tyrosine and methionine-cysteine. In Figure 2, the amounts of the essential amino acids
in the germ protein of P. alba (Sciammaro, 2015) are compared with respect to the
requirements for children and adults that were set by the FAO/WHO (2008). As can be
observed, the proportions of the essential amino acids exceed the requirements, thus leading
to amino acids scores higher than 1. This indicates that the protein has a good nutritional
quality. Besides, the content of aspartic plus glutamic acids was 24.8 g/100 g protein and the
amount of arginine was 22.3 g/100 g protein.
Figure 2. Amounts of essential amino acids of the Prosopis alba protein of the seed germ, compared
with the levels recommended by FAO/WHO (data from Sciammaro, 2015). Black: adult requirements
from FAO/WHO (2008); dark gray: children requirements from FAO/WHO (2008); light gray: amino
acid amounts in P. alba protein.
Figure 3. SDS-PAGE of Prosopis alba seed proteins. Proteins extracted under non- dissociating (B),
dissociating (BSDS) and reducing (BSDS-DTT) conditions. LMW: low molecular weight markers
(reproduced from Sciammaro et al., 2016b, with permission).
It is well known that the secondary and tertiary structures of proteins are important
factors to be considered when analyzing their techno-functional properties in foods. These
structures depend on the nature of proteins present in the sample. The protein profile of P.
alba seeds was studied by electrophoresis (Figure 3) (Sciammaro et al., 2016b). The absence
of protein bands in lane B indicates that a medium of low ionic strength (pH 8.3 buffer) was
not able to extract proteins from seeds, suggesting that proteins are mainly stabilized by
bonds that cannot be disrupted by the components of this buffer, mainly by non-covalent
(hydrophobic and hydrogen bonds) and covalent (disulfide) bonds. The incorporation of a
dissociating agent (SDS) to the buffer (lane BSDS) favored protein solubilization by rupturing
hydrogen and mainly hydrophobic bonds from insoluble protein aggregates, leading to high
molecular mass aggregates (>100 kDa) and the proteins of 38 and 16 kDa. The disulfide
reducing agent dithiothreitol (DTT) incorporated to the buffer (lane BSDSDTT) allowed the
dissociation of insoluble and soluble aggregates that were stabilized by S-S bonds, rendering
high amounts of proteins of 85, 67, 38 and 16 kDa. The fact that these proteins form soluble
and insoluble aggregates, even during thermal treatment, gives the possibility of developing
different types of food matrices, including bread crumb.
Since the pods were dried before milling, P. alba flour did not present antitryptic activity.
Besides, the absence of prolamins (limit content: 0.1 mg/100 g flour) was confirmed with the
competitive enzyme immunoassay according to Chirdo et al. (1995). Thus, P. alba flour
could be a suitable ingredient for gluten-free products.
Carbohydrates
As stated by other authors (Grados & Cruz, 1996), the major sugar present in P. alba fruit
was sucrose, while the minor component was glucose. In a recent work, a high content of
total sugars (sucrose, glucose plus fructose) was found in pulp flour (70.7 g/100 g d.w.) in
comparison to whole pod flour (62.7 g/100 g d.w.), suggesting that these components would
be absent or at very low levels in seeds (Sciammaro et al., 2016b). Da Silva et al. (2007)
reported less content of total soluble sugars (56.5%) for the flour of the whole pod of P.
juliflora. Meyer et al. (1986) reported that the exo- and mesocarp of P. velutina contained
most of the pod sugar, while the endocarp was mainly composed of fiber.
Lipids
Pod flour presented a higher content of lipids (1.51 g/100 g d.w.) than pulp flour (1.11
g/100 g d.w.) (Sciammaro et al., 2016b), suggesting there is a significant contribution of the
seeds to the lipid amount of the pod. The lipid content of the seeds can be approached as the
difference between the lipid contents of the pod flour and the pulp flour, because the seeds
were manually separated from pods. Taking into account the average weights of the pod and
seeds and the average number of seeds in a pod, a content of 10.37 g lipids/100 g seeds was
calculated; a value slightly lower than that obtained experimentally by Lamarque et al.,
(1994) (12.7 g/100 g of lipids) for P. alba. The fatty acid (FA) profile of lipids extracted from
P. alba flour is shown in Table 1 (Sciammaro, 2015). The major FAs were palmitic (16:0),
oleic (18:1 n-9) and linoleic (18:2 n-6) acids; while the minority ones present in greater
proportion were stearic (18:0), α-linolenic (18:3 n-3), arachidic (20:0), and arachidonic (20:4
n-6) acids.
Table 1. Fatty acid composition of lipids extracted from Prosopis alba pod flour
Fatty acid Nomenclature g methyl ester/100 g lipid

Miristic (14:0) 0.51 ± 0.01(*)
Palmitic (16:0) 26.8 ± 0.4
(16:1) trans 0.34 ± 0.01
Palmitoleic (16:1) cis 0.86 ± 0.02
Margaric (17:0) 0.32 ± 0.01
Stearic (18:0) 5.17 ± 0.09
Oleic (18:1) n-9 28.2 ± 0.3
Cis-octadecenoic (18:1) 1.18 ± 0.05
Translinoelaidic (18:2) trans 1.01 ± 0.02
Linoleic (18:2) n-6 23.2 ± 0.1
Arachidic (20:0) 1.48 ± 0.05
Gadoelic (20:1) 0.6 ± 0.2
Linolenic (18:3) n-3 6.3 ± 0.2
Behenic (22:0) 0.94 ± 0.05
Arachidonic (20:4) 0.4 ± 0.1
Lignoceric (24:0) 0.5 ± 0.2
Total Fatty Acids
Saturated 35.7 ± 0.2
Monounsaturated 30.8 ± 0.4
Polyunsaturated 29.9 ± 0.4
Trans FA 1.35 ± 0.02
Total NIMC (**) 2.3 ± 0.6
(*) Mean ± SD (**)NIMC: non-identified minor compounds.
Mesquite flour presented 60% of polyunsaturated and monounsaturated FAs against 35%
of saturated FAs. In addition, the content of trans FAs was less than 1.5%.
Vitamins
Grados & Cruz (1996) analyzed different vitamins in P. pallida pulp. They found
contents of the following vitamins (mg/kg of original matter): E (5.00), B1 (1.90), B2 (0.60),
B6 (2.35), nicotinic acid (31.00), C (60.00), folic acid (0.18) and calcium pantothenate
(10.50). The values suggest that a significant content of vitamin C and E was found in the
pulp. Barminas et al. (1998) reported values of 8.9 mg/ kg (d.b.) for vitamin A and 9.2 mg/ kg
(d.b.) for vitamin C in P. africana seeds.
Minerals
Mesquite pods are also rich in minerals. Sciammaro et al. (2016b) determined the
contents of iron, calcium, manganese, zinc and magnesium in P. alba pod flour by atomic
absorption spectroscopy, while the potassium content was analyzed by atomic emission
spectroscopy (Table 2).
The ash content of pod flour was 3.373 g/100 g (d.w.). Among the major minerals
studied, potassium was the one present in great proportion (903 mg/100 g), followed by
calcium (186 mg/100 g) and magnesium (56.6 mg/100 g). Iron was present at a level of 4.9
mg/100 g. Therefore, a portion of 100 g of flour covers approximately 20% of the DRI of K
and Ca and 27%-60% of iron requirements for females and males, respectively.
Table 2. Typical values of some minerals in Prosopis alba pods and percentage of the
dietary reference intake (DRI) for adult females (F) and males (M) (31-50 years of age)
Mineral Level DRI % DRI

(mg/100 g d.b.) (mg/day) (Female, Male)
K 903 ± 6 4700 19.2
Na 67.4 ± 0.3 ------ ------
Ca 186 ± 2 1000 18.6
Mg 56.6 ± 0.09 320(F) 420(M) 17.7(F) 13.5(M)
Fe 4.9 ± 0.3 18(F) 8(M) 27.2(F) 61.3(M)
Mn 0.473 ± 0.009 1.8 (F) 2.3(M) 26.2(F) 20.6(M)
Zn 1.7 ± 0.2 8 (F) 11(M) 21.3(F) 15.5(M)
Source for DRI: National Institutes of Health (US), Office of Dietary Supplements.
Components with Health Benefits
Polyphenols
Chronic diseases such as cancer, diabetes or cardiovascular disorders are promoted by the
oxidative stress that affects different structures and cellular components. Molecules with
antioxidant activity such as polyphenols contribute to decreasing the risk of developing such
chronic diseases (García-Andrade et al., 2013). For P. alba flour obtained from whole pods,
Sciammaro (2015) reported a content of polyphenols of 0.603 g galic acid/100 g sample (d.b.)
with an antioxidant activity measured with the ABTS radical of 5566 µmol trolox eq/100 g
sample (d.b.).
Among the constituents of phenolic enriched extracts obtained from algarrobo pods,
C-glycosyl flavonoids and O-flavonol glycosides were found to be the main ones (Pérez et al.,
2014). Picariello et al. (2017) identified eight flavonoid glycosides in P. alba germ extracts
from seeds. A molecule identified as the asymmetric 6,8-di-C-glycosyl apigenin (flavone
aglycone) conjugated with both a pentose and an hexose moiety was detected by RP-HPLC
and HPLC-MS assays. The molecules found and identified in higher proportion were
apigenin 6-C-arab-8-C-glc (isoschaftoside) (3.37 mg/g germ flour) and apigenin 6-C-glc-8-C-
arab (schaftoside) (0.61 mg/g germ flour).
Numerous flavonoids are reported to be inhibitors of glycohydrolases; therefore they
could contribute to modulating the hydrolysis of polysaccharides during germination and they
can also protect the seeds from the action of cellulases, xylanases and pectinases of
pathogenic insects, pests and microorganisms (Mierziak et al., 2014). In particular, apigenin
C-glycosides are strong α-glucosidase inhibitors, even more powerful than the tetrasaccharide
acarbose used as an antidiabetic drug to delay the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates
in the treatment of diabetes mellitus type 2 (Chiasson et al., 2002). By competitively
hindering the digestion of complex saccharides, α-glucosidase inhibitors such as
C-glycosylated apigenin decrease the postprandial hyperglycemia exerting positive effects on
patients suffering from type-2 diabetes mellitus (Yin et al., 2014).
Xiao et al. (2014) listed a wide range of additional health-promoting effects associated
with dietary flavonoid C-glycosides, including antiaging, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial,
antiparasitic and antitumor properties. These molecules exhibited antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory activities in vitro; nevertheless, a careful extrapolation of data should be
performed because these in vitro experiments use too low concentrations to have any
relevance to potential bioactivities in vivo (Crozier et al., 2009). In a breast cancer model with
female rats, Kubatka et al. (2016) showed that a high dose of polyphenols inhibited tumor
frequency by 58% and tumor incidence by 24%, and lengthened latency by 8 days in
comparison with healthy animals. The histopathological analysis of tumors showed a
significant decrease in the ratio of high/low grade carcinomas.
Most dietary polyphenols are converted to glucuronide, methyl and sulfate metabolites in
the small intestine; while in the large intestine they are broken down into phenolic acid and
nonphenolic catabolites. Therefore, the compounds that reach cells and tissues are chemically,
biologically and functionally different from those present in foods. Though the protective
effect of dietary phenolics was thought to be due to the decrease of free radicals, there is now
evidence that the metabolites of dietary phenolics, which appear in the circulatory system in
very low concentrations, exert modulatory effects through selective actions on different
components of the intracellular signalling cascades, vital for cellular functions (Crozier et al.,
2009).
Dietary Fiber and Soluble Sugars

Sciammaro et al. (2016b) reported total dietary fiber (TDF) and insoluble dietary (IDF)
contents of 25.1 and 20.9 (g/100 g flour), respectively, in whole pod flour. The fiber contents
for the pulp flour without seeds were slightly lower for TDF (22.6 g/100 g flour) and higher
for IDF (22.1 g/100 g flour). These results suggest that the dietary fiber of the pulp and
endocarp hulls was basically insoluble fiber. Saravanakuana et al. (2013) reported the
presence of 17 g/100 g lignin, 16.14 g/100 g hemicellulose and 61.65 g/100 g cellulose in the
insoluble fiber fraction of P. julliflora. Zolfaghari et al. (1986) reported a content of 6.5 g/100
g lignin, 11.5 g/100 g hemicellulose and 21.6 g/100 g cellulose in P. glandulosa pods.
The soluble fiber is mainly in the seeds. In the endosperm of the seeds, a galactomannan
(commonly named “mesquite gum”) is found. This galactomannan can be used as a food
additive with thickening properties, particularly for dietetic foods or for diabetic people,
similar to other galactomannans such as guar and locust bean gums. The gum extracted from
P. alba seed endosperm presented the following composition (g/100 g): 6.03 glucose, 38.07
galactose, 51.80 mannose, 3.20 arabinose, 0.90 ramnose (Sciammaro, 2015); and the mannose
to galactose ratio was 1.36 (Sciammaro et al., 2016b). Meyer et al. (1986) found a mannose to
galactose ratio of 1.55 in P. velutina gum. Ibañez & Ferrero (2003) reported a slightly higher
Man/Gal ratio of 2.1 in P. flexuosa.
P. alba flour presents a high content of soluble sugars. The pod flour contained (g/100 g):
41.4 sucrose, 9.60 glucose and 11.7 fructose; while the flour without the seeds presented
values of 44.1, 12.5 and 14.1 (g/100 g), respectively (Sciammaro et al., 2016b).
COMPOSITE WHEAT-MESQUITE BREADS

Mesquite can be used as a valuable ingredient in breadmaking for preparing different
types of breads (Bigne et al., 2016; Bigne et al., 2018). A plain formula of traditional bread
was used to assess the effect of wheat flour replacement by P. alba flour at different levels: 0,
15, 25 and 35 g/100 g. Replacement levels higher than 35 g/100 g were not evaluated because
they led to dough with poor handling properties and deficient bread volume development.
Other ingredients incorporated to dough were (referred to 100 g wheat flour or the mixture
wheat-mesquite flours): water (according to farinographic absorption), 2 g salt, 3 g
compressed fresh yeast and 4 g margarine. Kneading time was fixed according to the
farinographic development time: 18.0, 14.5, 17.4 and 23.0 min for the control sample and
mixtures with 15, 25 and 35 g mesquite flour/100 g of mixture, respectively. Dough pieces of
90 g were left to rest and then shaped. Loaves were leavened at 30 ºC using the optimum
fermentation time for each formulation and then, the pieces were baked for 25 min at 210 ºC
(Bigne et al., 2016).
Fermentation is a key step in breadmaking since the degree of expansion of the loaf will
determine the final volume reached. Moreover, in the oven a last expansion is achieved, so for
allowing the dough to expand and resist collapse, the optimal fermentation time should be
shorter than the time corresponding to the maximum volume attained. Figure 4 shows the
evolution of volume variation during fermentation time; the mathematical model used to fit
experimental data is included as an insert. The optimal fermentation time was calculated as
the time to reach three quarters of the maximum volume.
As can be seen from Figure 4, the maximum volume variation decreases when the
percentage of replacement with mesquite flour increases. This lower leavening ability is due
to the combination of two effects: the “dilution” of gluten proteins and the disruption or
weakening of the gluten network by the presence of the non-wheat flour (Bigne et al., 2016).
Other authors have reported similar effects for composite doughs of wheat and different
legume flours such as soy (Pérez et al., 2008), lentil (Previtali et al., 2014) and
chickpea/pea/soybean (Angioloni & Collar, 2012).
The bread quality concept refers to the characteristics that consumers identify as
“pleasant” in this type of product. In general, a soft and fluffy crumb is desired, associated
with pieces of bread with large specific volumes. The alveoli structure and distribution in
crumb are expected to be uniform, i.e., alveoli with similar sizes and almost spherical shapes.
The characteristic color for the crumb and the crust depends on the type of bread, but in
general for the wheat-based breads, white crumbs and orange-brown crusts are expected, the
latter by the development of the Maillard reaction during baking. When part of the refined
wheat flour is replaced by less refined wheat flours, or flours from other cereals,
pseudocereals or legumes, the dough characteristics change and so does the bread quality.
The quality of the wheat-mesquite composite breads could be assessed through the
measurement of specific volume, crumb color, crumb texture and structure (Bigne et al.,
2016). As can be observed from Figure 5 (left), the specific volume follows the same trend as
the maximum fermentation volume.
Figure 4. Variation of dough volume as a function of the fermentation time. Red lines correspond to
data fitting with a mathematical model (see insert). From up to down curves correspond to 0%, 15%,
25% and 35% wheat flour replacement with mesquite (adapted from Bigne et al., 2016, with
permission).
Figure 5. Variation of specific volume and hardness of crumb corresponding to 0%, 15%, 25% and 35%
wheat flour replacement with mesquite. Different letters above the bars indicate significant differences
(p < 0.05). The photographs correspond to crumb of the different composite breads. Scale bar = 10 mm
(partially reproduced from Bigne et al., 2016, with permission).
The increasing percentage of replacement significantly affects the crumb characteristics.

Density increases (so the specific volume decreases) leading to more compact crumbs.
Concomitantly, crumb hardness increases with higher replacements (Figure 5, right). When
analyzing crumb structure it is evident that air cells are smaller in the bread with higher
mesquite contents and the crumb of wheat breads is more aerated than that of composite
wheat-mesquite breads at higher replacements (Figure 5 right, insert).
The crumb color changes to brownish values when the proportion of mesquite flour in the
formulation increases. For control bread (without mesquite flour), color parameters L*
(luminosity), a* (green-red) and b* (blue-yellow) were 72.93; -1.10 and 14.41, respectively.
For composite breads, the parameters significantly changed with the addition of mesquite
flour: L* ranged from 59.04 (15% replacement) to 55.34 (35% replacement), a* ranged from
2.57 to 5.26, and b* from 12.16 to 14.01.
Storage of Composite Mesquite Breads
Bread staling is a complex phenomenon that involves not only the loss of crumb moisture
but recrystallization of starch components (amylose and amylopectin). This recrystallization
leads to a hardening of crumb and a loss of the bread original organoleptic attributes. Among
the methodologies that can be applied for evaluating retrogradation, differential scanning
calorimetry, X-ray diffraction patterns and texture profile analysis of the crumb can provide a
scope about the tendency to retrograde of each formulation. Composite breads showed an
increase of crumb hardness and a loss of cohesiveness and elasticity, while crystallinity and
retrogradation enthalpy increased. However, the loss of quality seemed to be attenuated by
the presence of mesquite flour when compared with the control bread (Bigne et al., 2016).
Nutritional Value of Composite Breads
In Figure 6 the values obtained for the different components of composite breads at
different levels of replacement are shown.
Figure 6. Mineral, lipid, protein and total dietary fiber (TDF) contents of composite breads according to
the level of replacement with mesquite flour. Different letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05).
From the graphs it can be concluded that the replacement with mesquite improves the
mineral and TDF contents. The lipid content does not significantly vary with respect to that of
control bread, and proteins are slightly diminished because mesquite flour contains less
protein than wheat flour (Bigne et al., 2016). However, it can be stated that the quality of
protein is improved since the aminoacidic profile of Prosopis protein (Figure 2) is better than
that of the wheat protein. Cereals are particularly deficient in lysine, an essential aminoacid
that is not deficient in legume proteins. Thus a better amino acid balance can be obtained by
mixing cereal and legume proteins (Friedman, 1996).
CONCLUSION
Prosopis alba flour, the product of grinding the pod (fruit) of this legume tree widely
distributed in semiarid zones of Argentina and other American countries, contains an
appreciable amount of nutritional and functional components such as minerals, fiber and
antioxidants (polyphenols) and has good aminoacidic and fatty acid profiles. The aminoacidic
profile presented a high content of aspartic, glutamic acids and arginin. With respect to lipid
quality, the presence of 60% of unsaturated fatty acids is remarkable. This flour can not only
be used as ingredient of regional foods but also incorporated in traditional leavened wheat
breads as a good source of healthy components and nutrients. Even if the technological
quality decreases when wheat flour is replaced with a non-wheat one, due to gluten dilution
and disruption, the final product offers interesting nutritional advantages.
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Semi-Arid Forest Resources.
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Kubatka, P., Kapinová, A., Kello, M., Kruzliak, P., Kajo, K., Výbohová, D., Mahmood S.,
Murin, R., Viera, T., Mojžiš, J., Zulli, A., Péč, M., Adamkov, M., Kassayová, M.,
Bojková, B., Stollárová, N., & Dobrota, D. (2016). Fruit peel polyphenols demonstrate
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Lamarque, A. L., Maestri, D. M., Grosso, N. R., Zygadlo, J. A., & Guzmán, C. A. (1994).
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(1986). Processing, composition, nutritional evaluation, and utilization of mesquite
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(2014). Effect of the lentil flour and hydrocolloids on baking characteristics of
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Comparative analysis of C-glycosidic flavonoids from Prosopis spp. and Ceratonia
siliqua seed germ flour. Food Research International, 99, 730-738.
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(2013). Characterization of a novel natural cellulosic fiber from Prosopis juliflora bark.
Carbohydrate Polymers, 92, 1928-1933.
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(Prosopis alba y Prosopis nigra). Aplicaciones en productos horneados y fermentados.
[Physicochemical characterization of algarrobo pods and flours (Prosopis alba and
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Plata, Argentina: Facultad de Ciencias Exactas. UNLP.
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Prosopis spp. Flour. In K. Kristbergsson, & J. Oliveira (Eds.), Traditional Foods:
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Springer.
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Honey Mesquite Pod (Prosopis glandulosa) and Applications in Food Products. Cereal
Chemistry, 63, 104 – 108.
Chapter 13
FLOUR:
NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION
AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF NUTSEDGE
(CYPERUS ESCULENTUS L.) VARIETIES
Issoufou Amadou*
Département des Sciences Fondamentales et d’Ingénierie Biologique,
Faculté d’Agronomie et des Sciences de l’Environnement,
Université Dan Dicko Dankoulodo de Maradi, Niger
ABSTRACT
Nutsedge is commonly known as “earth almond” the seeds (tubers) are edible with a
slightly sweet and nutty flavor. Yellow nutsedge is one of the most widely distributed
species in the world. Traditionally two varieties of Cyperus esculentus L. are found and
their importance in the processing with substantial nutritional values in human diet, they
are; var. esculentus L. and var. sativus Boeckeler.. This work also described the
processing methods of the Nutsedge tuber flour products. The various changes of
nutritional composition and the functional properties of nutsedge flour with effect to
different methods of processing and varieties were also described as shown by literature.
This study also explained how nutsedge flour become an important ingredient in the
composite flour aiming to get new products to satisfy consumer’s exigencies health wise.
Few products of the nutsedge flour are already exposed in the market either as local or
modern foods, such are Chufa milk, Dakuwa, Kunun aya, chinchin and bread, as
described in the conclusion.
Keywords: nutsedge, flour, processing, nutritional composition, composite flour
*
Corresponding Author Email: issoufsara@gmail.com; issoufou.amadou@uddm.edu.ne.
274 Issoufou Amadou
INTRODUCTION
Cyperus is a large genus of about 700 species of sedges, distributed throughout all
continents in both tropical and temperate regions (The Plant List 2013). It was established by
Linnaeus (1753: 44) that it is the worldwide distributed genus Cyperus (Monocots, Poales,
Cyperaceae Juss. nom. cons.) (Stevens 2001–2015). It is the second-largest genus in the
Cyperaceae family and the most important genus of this family in the tropics (Larridon et al.
2011). However, there may be even more than 900 species (Stevens, 2001–2015; WCSP,
2015). Obviously, Cyperus is the type genus of the family, and it is the “core taxon” of the
tribe Cypereae (Follak et al. 2016; Larridon et al. 2011). Tigernuts or nutsedge (Cyperus
esculentus L.) are little sweet tubers produced in the roots of an edible perennial grass-like
plant of the sedge family, which are widely found around the parts of the world that prefers a
moist sandy soil, and warm temperate to tropical zones. Nutsedge yellow variety seemed to
be more preferred to all other varieties in processing because of its inherent properties like its
bigger size, attractive colour and yields more milk upon extraction. Thw yellow and brown
varieties are mostly available in the market (Okafor et al. 2003; Oladele and Aina 2007).
Owing to their composition, different studies have pointed the suitability of these tubers
for nutritional and pharmacological values for their health benefit (Olabiyi et al. 2017).
Moreover, these tubers are rich in energy (∼400–450 kcal/100 g) due to their starch (26–
30%) and fat (21–25%) content. Major fatty acids of nutsedge oil are monounsaturated
(>60%) and that is why its profile is comparable to olive or hazelnuts oils (Dubois et al.
2007). Nutsedge also present a good percentage in protein (3–8%) and fiber (8–10%), as well
as in vitamins (E and C) and minerals (phosphorous and potassium) (Codina-Torrella,
Guamis, and Trujillo 2015; Chinma, Adewuyi, and Abu 2009; Glew et al. 2006). In addition,
nutsedge and their products are nutritionally rich, containing dietary fiber with prebiotic
properties, and the fat composition sometimes compare to the olive oil (Arafat et al. 2009).
Nutsedge or tigernut consumption is healthy and aids in preventing heart attacks, thrombosis
and activates blood circulation; but the most prominent health benefit is its aphrodisiac
property which is rooted in folklore. It also helps in preventing colon cancer and other cancers
due to its high content of soluble glucose (Olabiyi et al. 2017; Okyere and Odamtten 2014).
Apart from the traditionally made products, nutsedge are attracting industry interest, and
the development of its derived products; along these lines, several studies have reported about
using tiger nut for enriching some food products and for recovering other interesting
compounds such as oils or flavonoids (Cos¸ kuner et al. 2002; Ozcan et al. 2010). Nutsedge
tubers are tasty, almond like flavored that can be directly consumed as snack after hydration,
raw, roasted, dried, and baked or it can be milled to obtain flour or processed to obtain a
pleasant milky beverage (Okyere and Odamtten 2014). It also finds uses as a flavoring agent
for ice cream and biscuits, as well as in making oil, soap, starch and flour (Oladele and Aina
2007; Ade-Omowaye et al. 2008). Processing of nutsedge seed into flour has been achieved to
minimize postharvest losses (Adebayo-Oyetoro et al. 2017; Ade-Omowaye et al. 2008;
Oladele and Aina 2007; Amadou et al. 2014). Additionally, products such as biscuits, ice
cream, flavourants, soap, starch and biofuel have been produced from nutsedge seeds
(Aguilar et al. 2015; Umerie, Obi, and Okafor 1997), and can also be used as a substitute for
almonds in confectionery. Nutsedge have also been used in the production of perfumes in
Egypt (Chinma, Adewuyi, and Abu 2009).
Flour 275
Nowadays people have been on searching for the cheap alternative with little or no side
effect the foods or drugs origins. To this end, there is a growing interest in herbal sources
because of their nutritional and effectiveness, minimal side effects in clinical experience, and
relatively low cost (Rubert et al. 2017; Codina-Torrella,, Guamis, and Trujillo 2015;
Adebayo-Oyetoro et al. 2017). Thus, this chapter focuses on nutritional, functional properties
and processing of nutsedge tubers flour products. The overall objective of this chapter is to
review the effects of processing on the biochemical and functional properties of nutsedge
flour with regard to variety found in literature.
BIOCHEMICAL AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF NUTSEDGE

The analysis from various results on the proximate composition of nutsedge varieties
flour are presented in Table 1. Significant changes in some constituents of the flour with
regard to germination time and varieties were noticed (Adejuyitan et al. 2009; Chinma,
Adewuyi, and Abu 2009; Okyere and Odamtten 2014).
Table 1. Proximate composition of nutsedge varieties flour
Components Yellow variety Brown variety References

(%) Raw* Germinated Raw* Germinated
(24 h)** (24 h)**
Moisture 3.50 – 7.30 7.94 3.78 – 7.14 8.69 *Chinma et al.
Fat 20.32 - 32.13 19.06 22.15 - 35.43 21.20 (2009) & Oladele
Protein 7.15 - 8.23 9.60 9.70 – 10.56 11.84 and Aina (2007)
Ash 3.65 - 3.97 3.73 4.25 – 3.28 3.34 **Chinma et al.
Carbohydrate 46.99 – 60.50 59.67 41.22 – 56.87 54.93 (2009)
Crude fibre 4.65 - 6.26 5.80 5.62 – 5.40 6.75
Energy value 320.98 - 456.80 448.62 361.14 - 469.07 467.88
(kcal)
Protein
In general, nutsedge tubers are good source of protein and germination is a step prior its
flour production. Chinma, Adewuyi, and Abu 2009 reported that protein content of flour
sample from brown variety of nutsedge germinated for 48 h had the highest protein value
(12.40%) and yellow variety flour of non-germinated had the lowest protein value (8.23%).
It is recognised that germination period increases the protein content in both yellow and
brown varieties of nutsedge. Soaking is known as a stape in nutsedge gemination, in some
other case it’s called fermentation depending on the time spend. Adejuyitan et al. (2009)
showed that the flour samples from fermented nutsedge contained higher amounts of protein
than the unfermented flour. In the findings of Arafat et al. (2009, the amino acids profiles of
nutsedge were found to be seventeen mainly cysteine (Cys), proline (Pro), L-alanine (Ala), L-
aspartic acid (Asp), glycine (Gly), L-glutamic acid (Glu), araginine (Arg) and the essential
amino acids: isoleucine (Ile), leucine (Leu), lysine (Lys), L-histidine (His), L-methionine
276 Issoufou Amadou
(Met), L-threonine (Thr), L-phenylalanine (Phe), L-tyrosine (Tyr), L-serine (Ser) and L-
valine (Val). This amino acid profile was dominated by Asp as result of the conversion of
asparagine (Adebayo-Oyetoro et al. 2017; Arafat et al. 2009).
Fat
Nutsedge oil was first used by the Egyptians 4000 years ago in preference to olive oil
which is considered a generally healthier alternative (Gambo and Da’u, 2014). Nutsedge oil
profile is comparable to that of olive or hazelnuts oils (Dubois et al. 2007): its analysis
indicates that the most abundant saturated fatty acid is palmitic acid, with the main
constituents being oleic and linoleic acids (Arafat et al. 2009; Lopéz-Cortés et al. 2013; Moon
et al. 2012). Oladele and Aina (2007) reported that the brown variety seemed to have higher
lipid content (35.43%) than the yellow variety (32.13%). Nutsedge is also a good source of
essential fatty acid linoleic acid (belonging to the omega-6 family of fatty acids) and α-
linolenic fatty acids (belonging to the omega-3 family of fatty acids). These fatty acids are
considered essential as they cannot be synthesized by mammals and must be obtained from
food (Etechola and Otaedu 1996). Similarly to other nutsedge components the variability in
the fatty acid composition of the oils fat content as reported by the different researchers was
also affected by processing and much more by the tissue analyzed, genetic history,
environment by which can profoundly alter the composition of the endogenous lipid of a plant
(Lopéz-Cortés et al. 2013). In this line, Adewuyi et al. (2015) reported that the oil yield
obtained in their work was 22.14% crude fat compared to the 30% found by Arafat et al.
(2009).
Carbohydrate
The carbohydrate content of brown and yellow varieties (flours) of nutsedge ranged
between 53.60% and 60.50% contain (Chinma, Adewuyi, and Abu, 2009) and that decreased
with increase in germination time. The variability of nutsedge flour may be attributed to
increase in alpha-amylase activity which breaks down complex carbohydrates into simpler
and more absorbable sugars which are utilized by the growing seedlings during the early stage
of germination (Chinma, Adewuyi, and Abu 2009; Kumar et al. 2018). Starch is a
polysaccharide composed exclusively of D-glucose, and one of the most abundant organic
compounds found on earth; it can be isolated from tubers of higher plants where it serves as
an energy reserve (Manek et al. 2012; Bamigbola, Awolu, and Oluwalana 2016; Builders et
al. 2013; Li et al. 2017). Nutsedge tubers was reported to contain almost twice the quantity of
starch as potato and it is comparable to cassava and rice starch (Li et al. 2017; Manek et al.
2012). Manek et al. (2012) in their work concluded that C. esculentus L. flour may be an
interesting candidate with implications for use as a pharmaceutical excipient due to its high
level of compatibility and binding properties. It can therefore be used in the development of
pharmaceutical tablets as a compression excipient and pharmaceutical suspensions as a
dispersion agent (Builders et al. 2013; Manek et al. 2013; Okorie, Azaka, and Ibeshi 2016). In
addition, nutsedge tubers starch is in hydrate state, it gelatinizes with high gel strength and
Flour 277
has better freeze-thaw stability. Thus, they can be applied to fruit jellies, cold drink and
confectioneries (Umerie, Obi, and Okafor 1997; Li et al. 2017).
Minerals
Researchers have reported that nutsedge are excellent sources of minerals (Bamigbola,
Awolu, and Oluwalana 2016; Glew et al. 2006; Shklavtsova et al. 2014). The C. esculentus L.
tuber have high calcium, sodium and copper and low magnesium, manganese, phosphorus,
iron, and zinc contents (Arafat et al. 2009). However, there is considerable variation in ash
content from one variety to another and from one effect of processing the flour. The ash
content ranges from 2.28 to 4.26% respectively for non-germinated brown variety flour and
germinated yellow variety (Oladele and Aina 2007). Apart from the biological activities of
these minerals for consumers, nutsedge mineral content contribute also to its flour physicals
properties that demonstrate the probable use in food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries.
Nutsedge flour could be blended with cereal flour to improve its minerals content (Eke-
Ejiofor and Deedam 2015, Ocloo, Okyere, and Asare 2014; Oke, Idowu, and Omoniyi 2016;
Gambo and Da’u 2014). Processing techniques such as soaking and germination reduces the
antinutrient content and increases the availability of nutrients especially the minerals
(Onuoha, Chibuzo, and Badau 2014; Eke-Ejiofor and Deedam 2015).
FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES AND EFFECT OF PROCESSING

ON NUTSEDGE FLOUR PRODUCTS
The knowledge on physicochemical of a particular flour product shows the implication

indepth understanding the changes that affect functional properties such as water and fat
absorption capacities, solubility and foaming capacity in the product characteristics (Chinma,
Adewuyi, and Abu 2009; Amadou et al. 2017; Oladele and Aina 2007; Sánchez‐Zapata,
Fernández‐López, and Angel Pérez‐Alvarez 2012). Consequently, germinated or fermented
food materials in some cases often have modified functional properties (Chinma, Adewuyi,
and Abu 2009). As matter of fact, processing steps such as germination or fermentation
improved digestibility and utilization by showing for instance reduction in antinutritional
factors in the nutsedge flour which has important information on that effect on the
physiochemical and functional properties of nutsedge tubers (Adejuyitan et al. 2009; Goulbi
and Amadou 2015). On the other hand, processing is associated with an improvement in
nutrient content as well as decrease in antinutrients thereby increasing digestibility and
availability affecting functional properties of particular flour products. Each nutsedge variety
behaves differently in terms of composition and functional properties. Oladele and Aina
(2007) pointed out that the low bulk density, setback and breakdown viscosities of nutsedge
suggests that its flour could find application in baked products such as cookies. Water
absorption capacity describes flour’s water association ability under limited water supply;
thus, the nutsedge flour water absorption capacity makes it a good candidate for the industries
(Chinma, Adewuyi, and Abu (2009).
278 Issoufou Amadou
The understanding of functional properties changes of foods has been recognized to be of

importance in the various steps during manufacturing such as quality control of ingredients
and finished food products; design and evaluation of process and unit operations equipment;
characterization and development of food products for consumer acceptability (Onuoha,
Chibuzo, and Badau 2014; Adebayo-Oyetoro et al. 2017). The effect of germination on the
functional properties of flour from brown and yellow varieties of nutsedge tubers (Table 2)
showed that flour quality depended on so many factors such as varieties and processing steps
(Chinma, Adewuyi, and Abu 2009; Oladele and Aina 2007; Bamigbola, Awolu, and
Oluwalana 2016). Nutsedge like other foodstuff are susceptible to insect infestation and
microbial contamination during storage, hence gamma irradiation has been used to protect
them. Agyeman (2011) found that irradiation dose of 10 kGy has been found to drastically
reduce fungal population in nutsedge tubers packaged in Polyethylene terephthalate bottles
and perforated polyethylene bags. Therefore, the application of gamma irradiation as means
of preserving nutsedge significantly modifies the characteristics of resultant flour (Ocloo,
Okyere, and Asare 2014). These researchers concluded that flour produced from irradiated
nutsedge has a potential in complementary food formulations due to its low viscosity and
increased solubility values (Okyere and Odamtten 2014). Furthermore, oil absorption is an
important property in food formulations because oils improve the flavor and mouth feel of
foods. Nutsedge flour lower oil absorption capacity regardless to varieties and processing
effect; this might be due to low hydrophobic proteins which show superior binding of lipids
(Moutaleb et al. 2017; Amadou et al. 2017; Ocloo, Okyere, and Asare 2014; Oladele and
Aina 2007). When it comes to nutsedge processing, steps like soaking and grinding, some
case pressing and mixing are also required. Recently, Rubert et al. (2017) showed the effect
of using ultra-high temperature (UHT) tools to extend the shelf life of nutsedge products in
terms of nutrients profile quality compared to fresh nutsedge products.
Table 2. Functional properties of nutsedge varieties flour
Components (%) Yellow variety Brown variety References

Raw* Germinated Raw* Germinated
(24 h)** (24 h)**
Water absorption 1.37 - 3.20 5.03 1.26 - 2.56 4.61 *Chinma et al.
capacity (ml/g) (2009) &
Oil absorption 1.07 - 1.17 1.49 1.13 - 1.14 1.56 Oladele and
capacity (ml/g) Aina (2007)
Bulk density (g/cm3) 0.62 - 0.56 0.56 0.55 - 0.58 0.53 **Chinma et al.
Foam capacity (%) 7.75 - 10.28 8.83 8.60 - 11.07 10.25 (2009)
Foam stability (%) 50.60 - 58.99 -
Swelling power 2.47 - 2.10 -
Emulsion capacity 14.32 15.98 16.40 17.48
(ml oil/g sample)
Flour 279
PROCESSING OF NUTSEDGE
Germination
The modification in physicochemical and functional properties related to germinated food

materials are known to reduce antinutritional factors in cereals, legumes and resulting in
improved digestibility, utilization and microbial quality (Chinma, Adewuyi, and Abu 2009;
Kumar et al. 2018; Amadou et al. 2014). Modifications in protein structure of cereals or
legumes during germination process have been reported to be largely responsible for
functional changes such as nitrogen solubility, emulsification, foaming and water absorption
capacity (Oladele and Aina 2007; Builders et al. 2013) while swelling, viscosity
characteristics are starch related (Chinma, Adewuyi, and Abu 2009; Builders et al. 2013).
Post cleaning the nutsedge tubers in various manners said such as soaking, germination and
fermentation were employed to reach the flour production, milk and others products
(Badamssi and Amadou 2017; Djomdi, Ejoh, and Ndjouenkeu 2007). Chinma, Adewuyi, and
Abu (2009) reported a model of nutsedge flour processing using brown and yellow varieties
of C. esculentus L. Goulbi and Amadou (2015) also reported the influence of salting as
reducing microbial density agent in raw nutsedge varieties (Figure 1). The salting intervened
during overnight soaking (12 h) process stage and the authors found acceptable stable
nutsedge flour that can be used in making chufa milk or porridge as well as composite flour
for complementary foods for infants.
Figure 1. Flow chart for the production of nutsedge flour (Goulbi and Amadou 2017).
280 Issoufou Amadou
Fermentation
The nutsedge when soaked overnight with clean water sometime with salt added reduces
microbial density after which they were washed thoroughly and blended by adding adequate
water. It was then filtered using muslin cloth, applying pressure to the content to achieve
maximum liquid extraction. The filtrate was put into a clean recipient and brought to the boil
(Okyere and Odamtten 2014). The cooled milk obtained can be taking directly or after
stabilization (Codina-Torrella et al. 2018). Furthermore, the nutsedge milk was fermented
using yoghurt inoculant for 5 hours at 45°C; later run the fermented C. esculentus L. was
stored at ±5°C (Badamssi and Amadou 2017). The products of fermented nutsedge tubers
products showed various changes in term of their physicochemical properties and qualities
(Adejuyitan et al. 2009; Adebayo-Oyetoro et al. 2017; Djomdi, Ejoh, and Ndjouenkeu 2007).
New trend on characterisation of fermented nutsedge products are needed as it was done on
chufa milk by Codina-Torrella et al. (2018).
Malting
Malting causes the grain/tuber to germinate and sets in motion the transformation
undergone naturally by the plant during its growth, the process that converts raw grain/tuber
into malt (Ezeh, Gordon, and Niranjan 2016; Jing et al. 2016; Johnson and Mullinix 2007;
Sánchez‐Zapata, Fernández‐López, and Angel Pérez‐Alvarez 2012). The process of nutsedge
tubers malting is described as the first step of washing thoroughly and steeping in clean water
at room temperature (27°C) for the germination of about 24h. The malting progress could
take up to 10 days by watering until the desired germination stage is attained. Then the green
malt is dried followed by kilning for further caramelization (Umerie, Obi, and Okafor 1996;
Adejuyitan et al. 2009). The kilned malt is milled to a fine powder and infused with pure
water at 60°C and the malt removed as the filtrate. The malt extract is heated in an open
vessel at a temperature of 127°C until a brown black syrupy substance is obtained (Umerie
and Uka 1998; Umerie, Obi, and Okafor 1996).
Starch Extraction
Starch extraction from the tubers (like cereals) consist of steps that need defatting to
extract out the oil inside. Method used by Manek et al. (2012) proceeded with pulverizing and
soaking overnight in an aqueous of sodium metabisulfite, hence this step helps to release the
starch. Wet milling of soaked tubers is followed by sifting; then the suspension are allowed to
settle, and the supernatant decanted. The starch is purified with distilled water and then dried
in a hot air oven at 50°C for 24 h. Nutsedge starch is white, odorless powder with a warm
bland taste and smooth texture, and it exhibits elliptical to spherical granules with a relatively
smooth surface reported by Manek et al. (2012). Starch occurs in plants as granules that are
characteristic in size, shape, and morphology; thus, nutsedge starch will not differ from this
nature law that its characteristics are determined by the varietal origin (Builders et al. 2013;
Umerie, Obi, and Okafor 1997; Li et al. 2017).
Flour 281
Roasting
Roasting is a form of dry-heat cooking that use hot, dry air to cook food that have a solid
structure before the cooking process begins. Nutsedge tubers are usually roasted
simultaneously in a single batch in order to assure that the roasting conditions were the same
for all of them. A product like dakuwa, a snack produced majorly in the Sahel region, is made
from nutsedge flour, groundnut, sugar and spices (Gambo, and Da’u 2014). During dakuwa
processing the composite ingredients are usually roasted to develop desired flavor, colour,
texture and taste in the achievement of its acceptable quality (Oladele, et al. 2013). However,
temperature variation is the key factor that determines nutsedge products acceptability than
the influences from varieties (Altarriba, Nuñez-Lemos, and Vidal 1994; Rubert et al. 2017;
Ade-Omowaye et al. 2008; Adebayo-Oyetoro et al. 2017).
COMPOSITE FLOURS OF NUTSEDGE

Composite flour is nowadays referred to a process of mixing a flour with any other edible
raw materials that aims to obtain new products which satisfy consumer’s demands in our
expanding world (Bamigbola, Awolu, and Oluwalana 2016; Oke, Idowu, and Omoniyi 2016).
Besides value addition of composite flours (by varying ingredients) which results in fortified
mix with more nutritional quality, it is also way of developing diverse food products (Oke,
Idowu, and Omoniyi 2016; Adebayo-Oyetoro et al. 2017; Amadou et al. 2017). The world
bread market is a multibillions market with increasing fact as the world population increases
(Powers 2018; Pilcher 2017) in the other hand people are looking for healthier food
composite, thus nutsedge become one of the target in substituting wheat flour with part of its
flour (Ade-Omowaye et al. 2008; Jagpal 2017). Eke-Ejiofor and Deedam (2015) reported in
their study the possibility of producing cakes and biscuits of acceptable quality from lesser
nutsedge using its flour composite with wheat flour. The work of Adebayo-Oyetoro et al.
(2017) indicated that wheat flour can be substituted with nutsedge flour up to 30% level
obtaining incredible chinchin product, a fried snack popular in West Africa with acceptable
quality. Likewise, the usual flour of wheat was substituted with plantain and nutsedge flours
in order to enhance composite’s protein, fiber, minerals, antioxidants and resistant starch
contents (Bamigbola, Awolu, and Oluwalana 2016).
CONCLUSION
Nutsedge flour is a rich source of nutrients that have potential health benefits. The
functional properties of this flour such as low bulk density, setback and breakdown viscosities
with less fear of retrogradation are important properties for four qualities. In addition,
nutsedge oil absorption improves the flavor and mouth feel of its products. Although, C.
esculentus L. flour becomes an important nutrition buster in food formulations. The effect of
different processing stages on the nutsedge flour lead to various products with healthy interest
and acceptability. Therefore, the yellow variety of nutsedge found more usage in food
production with an industrial concern.
282 Issoufou Amadou
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Chapter 14
THE NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF CEREAL FLOURS
Abdelrahman, R. Ahmed1,2,* and Haiam O. Elkatry1,2

1
Nutrition and Food Science, Home Economics Department,
Faculty of Specific Education, Ain Shams University, Egypt
2
Food and Nutrition Sciences Department,
Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia
ABSTRACT
Flour plays a major role in our daily lives as a primary source of human nutrition
because it is the main part of the diet for a large part of the world population. Most grains
are grinded to flour and then mixed in dough to make bread, biscuits, cakes, pastries or to
dry as pasta. There are different types of flour available from different sources such as
wheat, corn, rice and soybeans. Traditionally, the most widespread flour is grinded from
wheat. Refined wheat flour is low in the content of the vitamins thiamine, riboflavin,
niacin, iron, and folic acid. Whole wheat flour naturally contains vitamins B and iron, in
addition to selenium, potassium and magnesium. They are also good sources of fiber.
Wheat is closely related to human food uses. It is estimated that nearly two-thirds of the
world’s wheat is used for food; the remaining one-third is used for fodder, seeds and non-
food applications. This chapter will discuss the different varieties of flour and their uses
in technology. It will also discuss the different methods of production and the effect of
extraction rate on the type of products. Finally, we provide an overview of the nutritional
value of a different kind of flour and gluten-induced troubles for some peoples (Celiac
disease patients).
Keywords: Flour; Dietary Fiber; Nutrition; Chronic Diseases
1. INTRODUCTION
More than 17,000 years back, people assembled and ate plant seeds. As of now they
found the berry of the wheat plant was palatable. Around 8,000 years before, Swiss lake
*
Corresponding author: Abdohat1@yahoo.com.
288 Abdelrahman, R. Ahmed and Haiam O. Elkatry
occupants ground and blended early wheat with water, at that point prepared it to make
unleavened cakes or bread. The Egyptians were the first to find raised bread more than 5,000
years prior. Today, despite everything we eat the wheat berry yet not at all like 17,000 years
before, we eat a refined flour of wheat as opposed to feeding on crude portions. Flour and
meal assume a substantial part in our everyday lives as a fundamental source of human diets.
Since flour and other cereal kinds are the key piece of the eating regimen for a substantial
extent of the total populace, their sources and quality for human utilization are a noteworthy
worry for both food makers and regulatory organizations. There is a wide range of types
produced from different sources, such as wheat, seeds, corn, rice, coconuts, soybeans, and
potatoes. Most wheat grains are processed into flour or meal and after that blended into
mixture for baking into breads, rolls, cakes, or for drying as pasta. Milled items can likewise
go into breakfast grains, snacks, beers, cakes, biscuits, bread, infant foods, and meat products.
Flour can likewise fill in a wide kinds of sauces, flavors, frankfurters, meat products, canned,
and sugary foods. Alongside these foods, flour by-products created from the processing
procedure can be sold as animal bolster (Akins-Lewenthal, 2014). Wheat flour is a standout
amongst the most nutritious plant foods accessible, offering a variety of minerals and basic
supplements. Per capita utilization of wheat in the United States surpasses that of some other
single food staples; in any case, not all wheat is equivalent. There are many kinds,
assortments and distinctive properties to the diverse grains. Wheat is grouped into six classes
and more than 30,000 assortments. Wheat isn’t just used to make food however it is
additionally a part of paste, paper and pet food, among different items. Wheat is a standout
amongst the most vital foods to numerous countries as far as health and additionally the
economy are concerned. It is a staple in most developing nations and has properties that can’t
be supplanted by other grains. It is estimated that more than 70% of the farm land (700
million Hectare (ha)) was planted with cereal crops in 2007 Table (1) (FAO, 2009). Of the
world’s economically active population, about 45.2% are in agriculture related activities,
mainly the planting and harvesting of cereal grains. This percentage swells as the level of
poverty increases. For instance, in developing countries of Africa and Asia, about 75% of the
people make their living in farming-related whereas in the United States, Canada, Australia,
and developed European countries, only one of ten workers are farmers.
The world’s wheat-cultivation regions are intensely amassed in the northern side of the
equator however significant amounts are developed in the southern side of the equator
particularly in Australia and Argentina (Figure 1).
Wheat plant is the major crop for 33% of the world peoples and provides energy and
proteins to their food more than other grain crops (Abdel-Aal et al., 1998; Adams et al., 2002;
Shewry, 2009). It is characterized by a high nutritional value, is simple to store and transport
and can be handled into different sorts of food. Wheat is a good source of proteins, minerals,
vitamins B- and dietary fiber, (Shewry, 2007), although natural conditions can affect its
nutritional value , especially its content of vitamins and minerals. Wheat germ and hull can be
an excellent material of dietary fiber helping in the avoidance and treatment of some stomach
related diseases (Simmons, 1989). The most recent version of the USDA’s Dietary Guidelines
for Americans obviously expresses that all grown-ups ought to eat not less than three servings
of entire grains each day. It helps in avoiding both heart ailments and cancer, hence, bring
down death rates. Whole grains consumption related to protection against coronary heart
diseases may return to its contents of antioxidants, vitamins, phytochemicals, fiber and trace
minerals.
The Nutritional Value of Cereal Flours 289
Table 1. Statistics of Total and Individual Cereal Production

in the World and Leading Countries in Year 2007
Harvested Area Yield Production

Cereal Country
(1000 ha) (kg/ha) (103 ton)
Total World 699,813 3,347 2,342,426
China 84,734 5,432 460,353
United States 61,953 6,683 414,066
India 99,702 2,528 252,121
Maize World 157,874 4,970 784,786
United States 35,022 9,482 332,092
China 28,074 5,413 151,970
Brazil 13,827 3,730 51,589
Wheat World 217,432 2,791 607,045
China 22,980 4,780 109,860
India 28,035 2,671 74,890
United States 20,643 2,596 53,603
Paddy Rice World 156,952 4,152 65 1,742
China 29,495 6,341 187,040
India 44,000 3,207 141,134
Indonesia 12,165 4,689 57,048
Barley World 56,608 2,406 136,209
Russian Fed. 9,551 1,639 15,663
Germany 1,933 5,706 1 1,034
Ukraine 4,100 1,463 6,000
Sorghum World 43,794 1,474 64,589
Nigeria 7,400 1,418 10,500
India 8,451 875 7,402
United States 2,753 4,657 12,827
Rye World 6,892 2,285 15,749
Russian Fed. 2,590 1,509 3,910
Germany 674 4,924 3,319
Poland 1,324 2,412 3,194
Oats World 11,951 2,174 25,991
Russian Fed. 3,557 1,520 5,407
Canada 1,853 2,703 5,009
United States 609 2,183 1,329
Triticale World 3,739 3,369 12,599
Poland 1,263 3,324 4,201
Germany 380 5,695 2,167
France 330 4,663 1,539
Millets World 35,835 889 3 1,875
India 10,800 982 10,610
Nigeria 5,850 1,316 7,700
Niger 6,170 450 2,781
Source: FAO. 2009.
Figure 1. World wheat-growing regions- indicated by darkened areas.
2. CEREAL VARIETIES
Cereals can be characterized as a grain or palatable seed of the grass family, Gramineae
(Figure 2) (Bender, 2016). Grains are developing for their exceptionally nutritious eatable
seeds, which are frequently allude to as cereal. A few grains have been staple foods both
specifically for human utilization and indirect as animal feed since the start of civilisation
(Gani et al., 2012). Cereals are the main source of food in the world (FAO, 2003), and cereal
based products are an important source of energy, protein, B vitamins and minerals for the
world population. In general, grains are inexpensive crops in production, easy to store and
transport, and do not damage quickly if they are stored dry.
Figure 2. Classification of the Gramineae family. Shewry et al. (1992).

2.1. Cereal Structure
Although the anatomical structure of the grains varies from one species to another, there
is a similarity in the components of the grain in general. The grain consists of a germ (or
embryo) surrounded by a thin cell wall and contains genetic information for new plant
members. The embryo, along with the scutellum (which contains the food stock that the grain
needs during germination), is separated from the endosperm, the main part of the components
of the grain. Endosperm consists of cells with thin cellular walls filled with starch.
Endosperm works to supply the grain with nutrients during germination and even green
leaves, which begin photosynthesis process to produce the food (FAO, 1991; Kent, 1994).
The endosperm is surrounded by the layer of aleurone, which consists of a single row as in
wheat, rye, oats, maize and sorghum or three rows of cells as in rice and barley. The outer
layer of the grain is the pericarp, (produced by the ovary of the flower), which is surrounded
by the outer shell forming the bran. (Figure 3)
2.1.1. Wheat
Wheat is one of the first plants planted by humans and is one of the most important types
of grains that provide energy to humans. It is the only one that contains functional gluten
proteins that produce a flexible and smooth dough through the mixing of its flour, with water
to produce various bakery products, most importantly bread, chemical-leavened bakery
goods, and pasta (Pomeranz, 1988; Kulp, 2000; Owens, 2001). Hard wheats are preferred for
the production of yeast-leavened breads, whereas soft wheats are used in the manufacture of
chemically-leavened products such as muffins, cookies, and cakes. Durum wheats are almost
exclusively used for the manufacture of long and short pasta products (Fabriani & Lintas,
1988). Wheat flour is the most important in bakery and pasta products, whether at home or at
commercial level. It is the only grain, which contains enough protein gluten to make a typical
loaf of bread without mixing with any other cereal. For example, to produce a loaf of rye
flour, a certain amount of wheat flour must be added, usually in the final product. Bread can
be made without wheat flour, but it is somewhat rare because the bread will not rise, and it
will be very thick (Posner & Hibbs, 2005).
Figure 3. Cereal structure.

In general, wheat is not divided by category but is classified into winter or spring wheat
according to the time of planting, or into hard and soft according to the degree of milling and
the type of flour produced or into strong or weak according to the quality of flour Within each
category there are a variety of different types of wheat with similar properties. Most of the
wheat produced for human consumption produces a wide range of ingredients and foods,
including wheat germ, couscous and wheat starch (Katina & Poutanen, 2013).
Wheat Classes
1. Red winter hard wheat is high in protein content and produces a flour suitable for all
purposes.
2. Red spring hard wheat is the highest wheat variety in the protein content, up to 13-
14% and has good grinding and baking qualities.
3. Red winter soft wheat is highly productive but has relatively low protein content, up
to 10%. It is used in the production of cakes, pastries and snack foods.
4. White hard wheat is the newest class of wheat to be grown in the United States. Used
in the production of pasta, yeast bread and flat bread, it has the same qualities of
grinding and baking of red wheat, but with a more sweet flavor.
5. White soft wheat is the preferred wheat in the production of flat bread, cake, and
pasta. It is relatively low in protein content, about 10% although it is a high-yielding
variety
6. Durum wheat is the hardest wheat, and it produces semolina flour, which is the main
ingredient of pasta (Figure 4) (Posner & Hibbs, 2005).
Figure 4. Flowchart of the main food uses of wheat, Rye or Triticale.

2.1.2. Rice
Rice is one of the most important food crops of many countries in the world, especially in
Asia. Rice production is mainly directed to human nutrition, such as breakfast cereals and
Japanese saki. (Kent, 1994). There is a huge number of rice varieties (~ 100 000) but only a
few are grown widely on a large scale (e.g., varieties of the improved semi-dwarf plant type
with erect leaves). The rice grain is surrounded by a protective outer layer called the cuticle
and the rest of the grain represents the edible part. Brown rice consists of an outer layer
containing colored pigments and then the seed, embryo and endosperms covering the layer of
aleurone and starch. Brown rice is also grown in North America, although it contains a higher
protein content than rice, it is difficult to harvest and is more expensive than other grains.
(Bender, 2006). In Asia, milled rice is directly used or cooked, whereas in other parts of the
world it is also consumed as breakfast cereals or used as brewing adjuncts (Figure 4). In the
united State 55%, 27.4%, and 16.7% of the milled rice is channeled to direct food use,
processed foods, and as brewing grits, respectively.
Most brewing adjuncts are obtained from broken kernels. The long, medium, and short
rough rices are milled into white polished rice. The basic milling operations are dehulling,
decortication, and classification. Paddy rices can be parboiled before milling in order to
increase yields and produce white rice with different cooking and organoleptic properties.
Most rice is directly cooked, although some is used to manufadture breakfast cereals (flakes
and oven-puffed) and snacks (expanded products) (Figure 5). The waxy or glutinous,
aromatic, black, basmati, Rissoto, and other specialty types are processed similarly but they
possess different organoleptic properties. The by-products of the rice milling operation
(broken kernels and grits) are widely used as brewing adjuncts or as a source of fermentable
carbohydrates for the production of beers and alcoholic spirits. The compound starch in rice
has unique properties and is mainly extraxted for cosmetics and as an ingredient for the
production of some food products.
Figure 5. Flowchart of the main food uses of rice.

2.1.3. Maize
It is a cheap source of starch and is a major energy source for animal feed (Macrae et al.,
1993). There are many varieties of corn, the most important four of great commercial
importance are:
1. Dent corn
2. Flint corn
3. Sweet corn
4. Popcorn
The maize seed (the reproduction part of the plant) has four main parts – the embryo, the
endosperm, the outside layers and the tip cap (Fast & Caldwell, 2000). The maize crop is
mainly used as animal feed and for ethanol production, unlike other grains such as wheat and
rice. However, it has recently increased its use in various food industries (Figure 6).
Figure 6. Flowchart of the main food uses of maize.

According to the FAO in 2007, approximately 85% of maize was used for animal feeding
and for bioethanol production. Corn milling products are used either through dry or wet
grinding or enzymatic degradation in the manufacture of various food products, which are
characterized by distinctive and unique flavors, unlike any other grain.
The dry milling process produces refined products that are mainly used in the
manufacture of bakery products, yeast production, snacks and breakfast grains. While, wet
milling process produces relatively pure starch as a main product, and gluten, fiber and corn
embryo as byproducts. It also produces many sweeteners that are used as an alternative to
cane and beet sugar, such as maltose, glucose, maltodextrin and high fructose corn syrup,
which gives sweeter taste than sucrose by 1.7 times. It results from the enzymatic degradation
of corn starch.
There are three basic types of products that are produced from the alkaline or enzymatic
degradation of cooked corn, namely: soft tortilla, corn and tortillas flakes. (Serna-Saldivar et
al., 1990). The latter two varieties are produced and consumed mainly in developed countries,
where they are used in salted snacks, while table tortillas are the main food in developing
countries in Latin America. (Serna-Saldivar, et al., 1990). Recently, maize grain has grown
significantly in many food products, such as popcorn, sweet corn, sorghum, and high quality
protein. (Hallauer, 2000). Popcorn is a favorite snack food in most of the world for over a
century, while sweet corn is one of the most important canned or frozen vegetables in the
United States and Canada. (Serna-Saldivar, 2008). The waxy corn which contain more than
95% amylopectin is directed through wet milling to the production of starch with distinct
functional characteristics (Serna-Saldivar, 2016).
2.1.4. Barley
Barley is characterized by its flexibility and resistance to difficult environmental
conditions, as its cultivation dates back to 15000 BC (Fast & Caldwell, 2000). Barley is
grown mainly for the purpose of feeding animals, especially pigs, beer and wine industries,
and a little of it is directed to the food industry where it enters in the manufacture of soups
and in cooking in England and the Middle East. It is also used in some countries as flour in
the manufacture of bread or ground in the porridge industry (Kent, 1994). The barley grain
consists of the outer covering that surrounds the entire corn and then the inner lining and is
strongly associated with the cortex or the external cortex, then the layer of the larynx,
endosperm and embryo (McKevith, 2004). Barley is the most important cereal grain used for
malt production (Figure 7). Malt is the most significant ingredient in the formulation of lager
and ale beers and distilled alcoholic beverages. Barley is preferred because it has a husked
caryopsis and yields the highest diastatic or amylase activity after controlled germination. The
balance between the two most important amylases, alpha and beta, is adequate for optimizing
production of fermentable carbohydrates. The husks help to speed up the filtration rate of
worts, and therefore beer production. On the other hand, nondiastatic malts are widely used to
produce maltose syrups and as flavoring and coloring agents, especially in the manufacturing
of breakfast cereals and bakery products. Barley is widely used as a feedstock and forage in
Europe (Serna- Saldivar, 2016).
Figure 7. Flowchart of the main food uses of Barley.
2.1.5. Oats
Oats grow well on poor soil and in wet and cold climates, and are mainly grown to feed
animals. A small percentage is used for human consumption, such as barley, in producing
some food products as oatmeal in the porridge and cake or as a flour for baby food and for
ready-to-eat breakfast cereals (Kent, 1994). Oats are also used in a range of non-food uses,
such as cosmetics and adhesives (Macrae, et al., 1993). There are many types of oat, the most
important of which are spring, white and red oats that adapt to the warm atmosphere. The oat
seed consists of two outer layers surrounded by a kernel that forms 65-85% of the oat grain,
surrounded by bran and aleurone cells. Oats are extensively used for the production of
breakfast cereals and bakery products Figure (8), The husks are mechanically removed [prior
to use in the food industry. The naked oats, commonly called groats, have gained popularity
because of their dietary fiber content and the presence of some nutraceutical copmounds.
Unlike other cereals, the dietary fiber of oats is balanced because it contains both insoluble
and soluble dietary fiber rich in B-glucan. In addition groats are high in ferulic acid and other
phenolic antioxidant copmounds. The consumption of groats helps to maintain
gastrointestinal health, reduces constipation and the risk of colon cancer, lowers blood
cholesterol, and prevents cardiovascular diseases. Flaked and milled groats are used for the
production of ready-to-eat and hot breakfast cereals, and yeast or chemically leavened bakery
products such as composite bread and cookies (Serna-Saldivar, 2016).
2.1.6. Rye
Rye plant is a well-grown crop in cold-climates, where other cereals cannot grow in such
a climate. It can also grow at high altitudes and in semi-arid regions. Rye is grown as a winter
crop and in early autumn and harvested in early summer. The plant may vary in height from
30 cm to more than 2 meters. It is a major crop in Russia, Poland, Germany and Scandinavia
in the manufacture of bread and used as animal feed (Kent, 1994).
Figure 8. Flowchart of the main food uses of Oats.
Rye grains, compared to wheat grains, are different in shape, color and length, they are
thinner and longer, ranging from 1.5 to 3.5 mm and are yellowish gray in colour. The grains
consist of an starchy endosperm representing 86% and outer bran representing 10% of the
weight of the seed, in addition to the embryo (McKevith, 2004). Rye flour is mixed with
wheat flour to produce fermented sour bread, especially in Germany, Poland, Ukraine and
other European countries (Figure 4)
2.1.7. Sorghum and Millet

Sorghum is a staple food in many countries in Africa, Asia and parts of the Middle East.
North and Central America and South America are among the largest producers of sorghum
as animal feed (FAO, 1995). There are many species of millet with small annual grains
(Macrae, et al., 1993; Bender, 2016). The most important type is pearl millet. Some species
are found in very small quantities, less than 1%, such as the finger (or ragi), proso and foxtail,
which are used as human food. They are less important in terms of food production in the
world. However, they are of great importance in some countries in Africa and Asia where the
main world cereals cannot be relied upon for their low productivity in these countries (FAO,
1995). These grains are usually decorticated via abrasion in order to remove the pericarp and
germ, and then further ground into grits, meals, or flours (Figure 9). The partially refined
meals are the main ingredient for the production of many traditional foods in Africa and
India, such as thin and thick porridges, flat breads, fermented breads, and even some breakfast
cereals such as couscous. The millets are generally reserved for the production of weaning
foods due to their better nutritional value in contrast to other cereals. Refined sorghum flour is
being used to develop gluten-free products (e.g., bread, cookies, beer) aimed towards the
increasing market of gluten-intolerant or celiac people.
Figure 9. Flowchart of the main food uses of Sorghum and Millets.
2.1.8. Triticale
Triticale was the principal grain produced by man by intersection wheat and rye. It has
the hardness of rye and the baking properties of wheat (Bender, 2006). It is susceptible to
diseases which attack wheat and rye (Macrae, et al., 1993). Triticale is utilized fundamentally
as an animal feed however, it can be processed into flour and used to make bread, despite the
fact that modifications are required in formula plan since it doesn’t have a similar gluten
content as wheat (Kent, 1994). Many current triticales have flour extraction rates of more than
70% comparable with those of wheat. Triticale flour can be used to partially replace wheat
flour in most food applications. In unleavened or flat breads such as chapatis, wheat flour
tortillas, and Injera, triticale behaves like soft wheat flours and the bread-making process
needs no modification. This makes the crop especially promising in many countries of Asia,
Africa, and Latin America where these prepared foods are staples. In leavened breads,
triticale has not been able to match the performance of hard wheats. However, it has been
successfully utilized to produce noodles, breakfast cereals, and porridges (Figure 4) (National
Research Council, 1989
3. CEREALS MILLLING AND FLOUR

The origins of the flour milling process date back to prehistoric times back to 7,500
years, which began with using of the first human the pestles and mortars to grind wheat, to
wholegrain flour. The primary grinding technique was developed into the hand-operated
rotary miller, and with the increase and expansion of the urban communities, the capacity of
the stone mills was increased to grind larger quantities of wheat, which were run by animals
and then by the force of water. In the 12th century, wind power was used, then steam power
was used in the 18th century to operate the wheat miller. One of the most important defects of
the milling system of stone miller is ground of the bran and the embryo with the flour to the
size as finely as the endosperm that are difficult to separate from the flour produced by the
sieves during the sifting process. In order to overcome this defect, the milling process was
developed using French and Hungarian mills in the 17th and 18th centuries.
These systems developed over the past 200-300 years until they reached the modern
systems and technology known today as gradual reduction flour miller. Whether the driving
forces of these millers are the power of humans or animals or the forces of nature of water or
wind or machinery and modern machines, as now, the basic principle of grinding wheat
grains between two rolles to separate the outer layers from endosperm is the same to produce
good characteristics flour (Cauvain, 2015). The use of different types of mills in cereal
grinding influence the physical, chemical, technological, functional and nutritional properties
of the milling products. Wheat is usually processed through roller milling, by breaking the
kernel and then gradual scraping off the endosperm from the bran, to form a large number of
milling streams. The chemical composition, technological and functional properties of the
milling streams depend equally on the wheat quality and the flow sheet of the mill (Aprodu &
Banu, 2017). Flour milling industry is a technological process that links the science and
engineering of food processing to the design of the milling machines useful in obtaining the
size of fine flour particular size suitable for the various food industries, which are related to a
large extent to the quality of wheat and mechanisms of grinding and characteristics of final
flour. Two of the most common pieces of equipment used are the hammer mill and the roller
mill (Figure 10) (Cauvain, 2015).
The milling technology is designed to separate the outer layers of the wheat grain
(Figure 11) from the endosperm and grind it to a very small granular size that is suitable for
the flour used in the industry (Calvel & Wirtz, 2013).
The milling process is carried out in multiple stages by a group of rolles pairs, with gaps
between each stone gradually narrowing from one pair to another. After each grinding step,
the resultant meal is sieved to remove the embryo and bran then sending the remainings for
the next grinding stage, resulting in a white flour containing a high percentage of endosperm
free of layers of the crust and the germ, which improves the characteristics of flour in the
bakery industry (Catterall & Cauvain, 2007).
Figure 10. Hammer and Roller mill.

Figure 11. The Kernel of Wheat.
3.1. How Flour is Milled
3.1.1. Receive of Wheat

Transportation of wheat from the production sites to the mills may be done by truck, ship
or by railway car. Samples are taken before unloading for various tests to ensure that it
conforms to the specifications. There are many tests of wheat from the use of X-rays to detect
the infection of insects to the chemical test to estimate the contents of moisture, protein and
gluten, and the technological tests of grinding and bread baking of flour to determine the final
technological qualities. The results of these tests determine the acceptance of the shipment or
not and determine the optimal conditions of storage moisture and temperature to avoid
microbial spoilage, fermentation and germination. The shipment is then stored in large silos
until the start of grinding.
3.1.2. Wheat Cleaning

It is carried out in several stages:
1. Separate wheat seeds from other seeds and grains using a disk separator that allows
wheat grains to pass through a separator that identifies the size and shape of wheat
and rejects remaining grains of different shape.
2. Removal of alien materials such as metals and solid objects, to attract them by
magnetic separator.
3. Remove larger or smaller impurities from wheat such as wood and straw through
vibrating screen separator.
4. Remove dust and impurities of lighter weight than wheat through air-operated
suction by aspirator.
5. Removal of heavy materials such as the size of wheat flour, like stones, by de-stoner
device using gravity.
6. Remove the external husks and dirt lingering with wheat grain and then pull these
impurities away by scourer.
3.1.3. Wheat Tempering

It is the addition of a quantity of water to wheat and storing in boxes for 8-24 hours
(according to the type of wheat, whether soft or hard) to toughen the crust and mellow the
endosperm, for easy separation of the bran from the endosperm and to prevent breaking
during the grinding process resulting in a clean flour. In this step, two or more types of wheat
can be mixed to obtain a flour with functional characteristics suitable for the final product
type.
3.1.4. Scourer
Eliminates the broken grains and prevents them from entering the mill with centrifugal
force, and allowing the complete wheat grains to flow into the grinding boxes through the
large hopper to start the grinding process.
3.1.5. Wheat Milling

Wheat grains are fed to grinding cylinders, which are made from chilled cast iron. The
grinding process depends on the gradual reduction of the size of the wheat grains for the
production of rough endosperm granules and bran and then sieved to separate and purify the
endosperm from the bran by sieves and purifier in several stages each stage consisting of a
pair of cylinders moving in reverse direction at different speeds and set of sieves. During the
first phase, the separation of the bran, endosperm and germ occurs. The remainder of this
stage moves to the next stage and the same process is repeated until the desired flour is
obtained. The quality of the miller is expressed by its ability to adjust the distances between
the cylinders and their speed and design the surface of the cylinder, whether smooth or
corrugated, which is one of the most important factors that affect the production of maximum
high-quality flour. The resulting flour is transported by air systems that mix air with flour to
make it flow almost like water through the tubes.
3.1.6. Sifters
There are about 27 sieves covered either in nylon or stainless steel with narrower
openings from smaller to smaller farther down they go. The different sizes can reach up to six
sizes of particles, including some flour with each sieve. Sieves vibrate to lift the larger
particles to the top, leaving the flour to go down through the sieve holes. The granule is sent
to the next grinding phase and the endosperm granules are graded by volume, purified and
separated.
Figure 12. How Flour Is Milled.
3.1.7. Purifiers
The purification process is separating the bran by air separation, then sorting the flour
granules according to size, and quality. The coarse parts transfer to the following grinding
phase. Four or five pairs of grinding rolls have a smooth surface to increase the smoothness of
the granules, each unit followed by a sieve. The germ is easily separated during this stage due
to its increased surface area resulting in the production of germ free flour. The purification
process is repeated several times to obtain the highest amount of flour, about 75% of the
amount of wheat and the remainder is bran and germ. There are many types of flour resulting
from this step, including white, brown and whole flour, beside the flour for all purposes,
which is called the family flour. The wheat grain components can be mixed again to produce
the whole grain flour, which is considered the highest quality of whole grain milling to
control the rate of bran and produce flour without germ, which causes the flour to rancid
quickly.
3.1.8. Whitening Flour

The flour produced from the grinding process, if we need to bleach it, is transferred to the
bleaching device, where the flour is exposed to the bleaching substances, the most important
of which is chlorine gas or benzoyl peroxide to give the color of flour more whiteness. The
bleaching agents work on the oxidation of flour, leading to increased maturity and increased
quality to improve the technological properties of flour, especially in the manufacture of
cakes, cookies and bread. The process of whitening flour has been going on naturally for a
long time and for centuries by storing the flour for a few months until it ripens or oxidizes
naturally but slower than what is happening today. The substances used in bleaching have no
adverse effects on the nutritional value of flour.
3.1.9. Process of Flour Fortification

Since the 1930s flour is supported by calculated amounts of supplements such as some
vitamins (thiamine, niacin, riboflavin) that increase its nutritional value. In the case of flour
silversing, the fermentation agent, salt and calcium are also added to specific amounts. At the
end of the process and before filling the flour, several tests are conducted to ensure that it
meets the specifications required by the consumer. Finally, the flour is transported by
pneumatic tubes to the packing room or to bulk storage containers or in bags of 5, 10 or 25
pounds or larger for retail or wholesale or sent directly to trucks or rail cars (Posner & Hibbs,
2005).
3.2. Effect of Extraction Rate on the Type of Flour
Flour in good condition should be a creamy white powder with a faint, pleasant smell, a
slightly sweet taste, and, when squeezed firmly in the hands, should tend to cling together,
and yet easily fall apart. When mixed with approximately half its weight of water it forms a
plastic mass known as dough. As has been shown already, the composition of flour can vary
considerably, depending upon the different types and sources of wheat used in the grist. The
grist is the term for the blend of wheats which the miller selects before milling, in order to
produce flour suitable for a specific purpose (Manley, 2011). The extraction ratio is defined
as the amount of flour obtained from grinding 100 kg of clean wheat. It plays a significant
role in the properties of the resulting flour and its content of ash. In the case of low extraction
rate (72% to 75%) the resulting flour has low ash content, produce better taste bread and a
slow fermenting dough with decreased oven spring during baking. The volume of the
resulting bread is low and its crust is less brown. When the extraction rate increases to 75-
79%, the ash level rises to 0.56% giving a dark gray-colored flour containing a high
percentage of bran. Such a flour has distinctive taste and good technological properties such
as increased strength, elasticity and flow of the resulting dough, and increased fermentation
activity and oven spring, which increases the volume of the resulting bread. At an extraction
rate of 83-85%, the produced flour will be gray in colour due to a significantly increased ash
content and the taste will change due to increased content of hulls, taking the taste of bran and
ash. The resulting dough is more viscous, loses elasticity and smoothness and has more
porosity. The bread will be of smaller volume and the color of the crust will become gray.
Increasing the rate of extraction to 98% to produce whole grain flour, results in more changed
in the dough. Its color will be dark gray, will lose extensibility and become more porous. The
volume of the resulting bread will decrease, dense, the crumb grain becomes tighter and the
dominant taste is that of the bran and ash. Finally, the flour produced by grinding the whole
grain, 100% extraction ratio, needs to absorb more water to make the dough because of the
fiber of the bran that holds water after the bread baking but produces dense bread. It is clear
from the above that the specifications of the flour, dough and the final produce are highly
influenced by the degree of the extraction rate of flour. (Calvel & Wirtz, 2013).
3.3. Types of Wheat Flours and Their Uses
3.3.1. Flour for All-Purpose

Generally, it is made from hard wheat only or a blend with soft wheat to satisfy the needs
for different bakery products like noodles, pastries, cookies, cake and bread. There are
different types of all-purpose flour such as: 1) Supplemented flour which has equal or more
amount of iron and vitamin B complex than that of whole flour. 2) Whitened supplemented
flour which has been exposed to chlorine to bleach and mature the flour, the gluten
characteristics and baking quality will be improved. The chlorine will be evaporated, doesn’t
leave any harmful residues and protect the flour from spoilage and contamination. 3)
Unbleached supplemented flour which mature with air oxygene during storage, its color is off
white. Actually, no difference between whitened or unwhitened flour in nutritional value.
(Kumar et al., 2011).
3.3.2. Brown Flour

It has more amount of bran than white flour. The brown flour has extraction rate of 85-
90% and results from grinding white flour blended with whole grains in a ratio 50:50, or by
feeding back 10-15% bran into the white flour.
3.3.3. Wholemeal (Wholewheat)

It is produced from grinding whole grain by a standard roller mill or a stone-ground mill.
Whole meal and brown flours have higher contents of protein (14.0%) than white flours.
Though their protein content is high, but the technological characteristics of this flour in
breadmaking is not good because of its high content of bran. The size of the particle of bran
plays an important role in improving the technological qualities of flour (Cauvain, 1987). The
medium coarse bran yields a good crumb and crust appearance of the resulting bread. The too
much coarse bran leads to the production of an unpleasant crumb in the resulting bread. While
soft bran gives bad specification of bread, therefore the particle size of bran must be neither
large nor small to produce bread that obtains consumer acceptance.
3.3.4. Self-Raising Flours

It is a flour suitable for immediate use without adding leavening agents to produce some
products such as cake. It contains a mixture of leavening agents and a suitable acid to produce
carbon dioxide gas during the mixing or baking process. The amount of produced gas varies
depending on the quality of the leavening agents. Monocalcium phosphate produces about
60% of the gas in the mixing process and 40% in baking process. While, sodium aluminum
phosphate produces 30% in mixing process and 70% in the baking process. This type of flour
is preferred in products that need to be highly leavened during baking as well as when
extended shelf life of flour is needed.
3.3.5. Malted Grain Flours

It is composed of a mixture of malted grains, with or without husks, together with
diastatic or non-diastatic malt, wheatgerm, soft grain flours and other cereals such as rye, oats
and maize. (Catterall & Cauvain, 2007).
3.3.6. Soya Flour

Soya is an extremely nutritious bean of northern Chinese origin which is now grown
widely, particularly in the USA. It is available as flour in three forms: unprocessed and
processed, full-fat soya flour, and as low-fat processed soya flour. The unprocessed form is
rich in fat and the enzymes are active, these are assorted and complex in their action, but
those which are diastatic in nature can be of importance during fermentation as a supplier of
yeast food. The processed forms of soya flour are inactive enzymically, and the characteristic
bitter flavour of soya is rendered bland. Each type has a very high nutritive value, and the low
fat type has a particularly high protein content (the fat content is extracted for use in
margarine manufacture). The main function of soya flour, when used in doughs, is as an
emulsifying “agent, owing to the presence of lecithin. This emulsifying action helps to
produce a more homogeneous dough, which in turn should assist in biscuit-piece formation
and sheeting, it should also help to prevent toughening and its attendant evils. Soya has been
widely used as an egg and milk substitute. Its inclusion in doughs will result in an increase of
biscuit colour and bloom (Manley, 2011).
3.4. The Role of Cereal Flour in Health and Disease
Grains have a long history of utilization by humans, going back to ancient times. Grains
are main foods, with yearly cereal utilization at 166 kg per capita in developing nations and
133 kg in developed nations (FAO, 2003). Grains give a scope of macro and micronutrients
and a high consumption of grains has been related with a reduced danger of several chronic
diseases (McKevith, 2004). In general, it is most likely that the number of individuals who
depend on wheat for a considerable amount of their eating regimen reach to a several billions.
Hence, the nutritional importance of wheat proteins should not be underestimated, especially
in developing countries where bread, noodles and other different items (e.g., bulgar,
couscous) may give a significant extent of the eating routine. Wheat gives about 55% of the
carbohydrates and 20% of the calories of food. It contains 78.1% carbohydrates 14.7%
protein 21% fat 2.1% minerals and impressive extents of vitamins (thiamine and vitamin-B)
and minerals (zinc, press). Wheat is additionally a rich source of trace element supplements
like selenium and magnesium, basic to good health (Topping, 2007). Wheat grain is correctly
known as caryopsis comprises of the pericarp or foods grown from the ground genuine seed.
The outer layers (bran), which comprises pericarp testa and aleurone, is likewise a dietary
source for fiber, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium, and niacin in little amounts
(Topping, 2007). The bran and aleurone contain a higher concentration of protein, vitamins
and phytic acid than the inner endosperm. Bran is about 14.5% of the kernel weight (Blechl et
al., 2007). It is incorporated into entire whole wheat flour and is available independently. The
germ or embryo of the wheat is for the most part rich in fat and a little of the B-vitamins. It is
isolated from wheat being processed for flour (Adams, et al., 2002). Wheat germ is sodium
and cholesterol free, and rich in nutrients. It is rich in vitamin E, magnesium, pantothenic
acid, phosphorus, thiamin, niacin and zinc. It is additionally a source of coenzyme Q1
(ubiquinone) and PABA (para-aminobenzoic corrosive). Wheat germ is likewise high in fiber,
and contains roughly 1 gram of fiber for each tablespoon. An eating food high in fiber can be
valuable in regulating bowel work (i.e., reducing constipation), and may be prescribed for
patients in danger for colon disease, coronary illness, and diabetes (Shewry, 2009). The
nutrient composition of different wheat products is shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Composition of wheat products per 100g edible portion

Carbohydrate
Total suger
Riboflavin
Vitamin E
Thiamin
Protein
Fat (g)
Starch
Niacin
Folate
(mg)
(mg)
(mg)
(mg)
(μg)
(g)
(g)
(g)
(g)
Wheat product
Wheat germ 26.7 9.2 44.7 28.7 16.0 22.0 2.01 0.72 45 52
Wheat bran 14.1 5.5 26.8 2.0 3.8 2.6 0.89 0.36 29.6 260
Wheat flour 12.6 2.0 68.5 66.8 1.7 0.6 0.30 0.07 1.7 51
Whole meal flour 12.7 2.2 63.9 61.8 2.1 1.4 0.5 0.09 7.6 57
White flour (plain) 9.4 1.3 77.7 76.2 1.5 0.3 0.10 0.03 0.7 22
White flour 8.9 1.2 75.6 74.3 1.3 0.3 0.10 0.03 0.7 19
(self-raising)
White flour (bread- 11.5 1.4 75.3 73.9 1.4 0.3 0.10 0.03 0.7 31
making)
Source: Food Standard Agency (2002)
3.5. Nutrtional Value
All parts of the entire wheat grain supply components are required by the human body.
Starch and gluten in wheat give energy and protein; the inner layers of grain coats phosphates
and other mineral salts; the outer layers the genuinely necessary roughage the non-digestive
part which helps in improvement of guts function; the germ, vitamins B and E; and protein of
wheat helps construct and repair muscle tissue. The wheat germ, which is expelled during the
refining process, is additionally rich in basic vitamin E, the absence of which can prompt
coronary disease. The loss of vitamins and minerals in the refined wheat flour has prompted
broad prevalence of constipation and other digestive disturbances and nutritional diseases
(Figure 13). The whole wheat, which incorporates bran and germ, gives insurance against
illness, for example, constipation, ischaemic, coronary illness, infection of the colon called
diverticulum, a ruptured appendix, over weight and diabetes (Hadjivassiliou et al., 2003).
There are many reports of the relationship of wheat, and especially wheat proteins, with
therapeutic conditions, extending from doubtful reports in the famous press to logical
examinations in the medical literature. (Carter et al., 2006).
Source: USDA Nutrient Database, SR 23, 2011.
Figure 13. Nutrients in Wheat Flour: Whole, Refined and Enriched.

As might be expected, the wheat proteins incorporate immune system ailments, for
example, rheumatoid joint pain which might be more common in coeliac patients and
relatives (Neuhausen et al., 2008). It maybe less demanding to imagine instruments for
connections between such maladies which have a typical immunological premise (He et al.,
1999) than to clarify a settled relationship between wheat, coeliac infection, and
schizophrenia (Jacobs et al., 1998) other revealed affiliations incorporate ones with sporadic
idiopathic ataxia (gluten ataxia) (Hadjivassiliou et al., 2002) headaches (Goldberg, 2008),
intense psychoses, and a scope of neurological ailments (Grant, 1979).
Soluble fiber is considered to have medical advantages that are not shared by insoluble
fiber and these may along these lines be lessened by the phenolic acids cross-connecting.
While, insoluble fiber may likewise have benefits in conveying phenolic antioxidants into the
colon: these advantages may incorporate decrease in colo-rectal disease (Blechl, et al., 2007).
A relationship with a mental imbalance has likewise been accounted for with a few doctors
prescribing gluten free and casein free foods. Some of these impacts might be intervened by
means of the invulnerable framework however impacts that are not resistant interceded are
famously hard to characterize and analyze. while, they could come from the release inside the
body of bioactive peptides, got especially from gluten protein (Kumar, et al., 2011).
3.6. Glycaemic Index (GI)
The GI is utilized for ordering sugar containing foods. It can be characterized as the
incremental region under the blood glucose curve after intervention of 50 g from a test food,
divided by the area under the curve subsequent to eating a comparative amount of control diet
(like, white bread or glucose) (Ludwig & Eckel, 2002). The glycaemic load (GL) evaluates
the whole glycaemic impact of the eating diet and is the result of dietary GI and aggregate
sum of dietary carbohydrate (Jenkins et al., 2002). A high-fiber wheat flour or high-fiber rye
food regimen appeared to reduce post-prandial plasma insulin by 46– 49% and post-prandial
plasma glucose by 16– 19% in overweight, moderately aged men contrasted with a low-fiber
food, however it is not clear if subjects were healthy, or had weakened glucose resistance or
type 2 diabetes (McIntosh et al., 2003). Wholegrain diets can reduce the glycaemic reaction.
The recent WHO/FAO report on nutrtional state and metabolic disorder related low-GI foods
with a general change in glycaemic control in individuals with diabetes, and more countries
teach individuals with diabetes about GI. The WHO/FAO report additionally recorded low-GI
foods as a conceivable factor in reducing the danger of diabetes and decreasing the danger of
overweight (WHO, 2003).
3.7. Constipation
The wheat bran is healthier and more nutritious than the flour itself. It is an incredible
laxative. The laxative impacts of wheat bran are much better than those of organic products or
green vegetables as cellulose. It is fermented by microorganisms while going through the
digestive system. The bran is more useful in the protective action and treatment of
constipation because of its content of cellulose which create a mass in the digestion tracts and
encourages simple clearing because of expanded peristalsis.
3.8. Diabetes
A potential benefit for fiber in the avoidance of diabetes was advanced more than 30
years prior, and a high admission of grain fiber has reliably been related with a lower danger
of diabetes (Willett et al., 2002). For example, in a vast investigation of more than 42 000
men took after for around 12 years, an opposite relationship was found between wholegrain
admission and type 2 diabetes. The study showed that males were the highest in dietary fiber
intake compared to females with the lowest risk ratio of 0.58 (Fung et al., 2002). Comparative
study has found same results with females (Liu et al., 2000; Meyer et al., 2000). Montonen et
al. (2003) examined the admission of wholegrain and fiber of more than 4 000 Finnish men
and women, and the resulting frequency of type 2 diabetes for a 10-year. An opposite relation
was found between wholegrain admission and danger of type 2 diabetes, with a relative
hazard between the most high and low quartiles of wholegrain utilization of 0.65, i.e., a 42%
decrease in hazard. A decreased danger of type 2 diabetes was likewise connected with grain
fiber (RR 0.39). At present the proof base is strong for the benefit of a high-carbohydrate,
high-fiber food in enhancing glycaemic control for individuals with type 1 or 2 diabetes
(Mann, 2001) and a higher fiber consumption has been related with better glycaemic control
in individuals with type 1 diabetes (Buyken et al., 1998). A randomized controlled trial
exhibited that, in individuals with type 2 diabetes, a high-fiber food (containing 25 g soluble
fiber and 25 g insoluble fiber) could reduce blood glucose and insulin more effectively than a
food regimen of similar amount of macronutrient and energy content, but containing little
quantity of fiber (Chandalia et al., 2000).
3.9. Celiac Disease
Celiac disease (gluten intolerance) is a genetic disease defined as a gastrointestinal

disorder which lead to inflammation of the small intestine and malabsorption. It is caused by
the intake of cereals by gluten-sensitive patients. It is due to the presence of gluten proteins of
gladin and glutinin types in wheat, secalins in rye, and hordeins in barley, while there is still
disagreement that avenins in oat, cause problems for patients with gluten sensitivity. Gluten-
containing cereals (currently known to the EU as wheat, rye, barley, oats or hybrid breeds) are
one of the most common causes of gluten intolerance. Gluten intolerance in the UK has been
estimated in the past to be one in 1,500 people, but a study conducted in Belfast to estimate
the prevalence of gluten-sensitive patients using serological tests showed that the actual
prevalence of the disease was greater, reaching one in 130 people (Buttriss, 2008).
Traditionally, gluten-sensitive patients tend to avoid wheat, barley, oats and products
containing these cereals. However, there are some studies of patients with gastrointestinal
disorders (15 celiac disease patients) who ate large amounts of oatmeal in their diets over 2
years. The study reported that there were no adverse effects on these patients (Størsrud et al.,
2003). Another study by Janatuinen et al. (2002) also found that there were no statistically
significant differences between coeliac disease patients who ate oats for 5 years and the
control. Studies have also shown no adverse effect of small amounts of gluten-containing
grains on the mucosa of the small intestine or gastrointestinal disorders.
Celiac disease is widespread in women in Iran and the Caucasus, where the prevalence
rate in the Caucasus lies by 1: 100-300. The most common symptoms of gluten-sensitive
disease are inflammation of the intestinal lining mucosa resulting in a lack of absorption of
nutrients. The mechanism of the disease is caused by the presence of some peptides in the
protein, gluten. When the gluten touch the wall of the intestine, the immune system in the
human body attacks the tissues of the intestine, causing an inflammatory immune reaction and
it develops over time, destroying the intestinal mucosa, resulting in loss of its distinctive
shape and absorbent functions of food at the level of the intestine as a whole. There are many
types of celiac disease, the first one is a classic disease disorders, diagnosed with chronic
diarrhea, flatulence, and weight loss. The second type is the typical celiac disease and the
third type is the celiac disease without symptoms known as “Silent Celiac” (Wieser &
Koehler, 2008). The most common treatment strategy for gluten intolerant patients is to
exclude gluten from their food as well as gluten-containing foods such as bread, pasta,
desserts, pancakes, donuts, cake, couscous, semolina, biscuits and all foods that contain wheat
formations such as spaghetti and other foods covered with wheat and fish Flour and foods
containing quiches, and wheat that are present in the composition of oats.
Gluten-free alternative foods such as maize, rice, maize flour, potatoes, fruits, vegetables,
milk and meat, except processed meat, which include wheat, sausage, eggs, olives and
vegetable oils. The challenge facing food processing today is to manufacture gluten-free
foods for allergic patients by developing the grain industry and taking advantage of some
food derivatives such as wax starch, gum and emulsifiers to improve the functional properties
and quality of gluten-free products and mark them as gluten-free in all large shops.
CONCLUSION
Cereals and cereal based products are the main source of food in the world and they are
an important source of energy, protein, B vitamins and minerals for the world population. In
general, grains are inexpensive crops in production, easy to store and transport, and do not
damage quickly if they are stored dry. Grain foods are mostly made from wheat, oats, rice,
rye, barley, millet, quinoa and corn. The different grains can be cooked and eaten whole,
ground into flour to make a variety of cereal foods like bread, pasta and noodles, or made into
ready-to-eat breakfast cereals. The cereal grains consist of an endosperm (80-85%), germ
(3%), aleurone layer (6-9%), and the outer layers of the grains (3-5%) which is surrounded by
the outer shell (1%) form the bran (14%).
Wheat is the most vital stable crop for more than 33% of the total populace and
contributes more calories and proteins to the world food than some other cereal crops. Wheat
is closely related to human food uses. It is estimated that nearly two-thirds of the world’s
wheat is used for food; the remaining one-third is used for fodder, seeds and non-food
applications. It is the only cereal that contains functional gluten proteins that produce a
flexible and smooth dough through the mixing of its flour with water to produce various
bakery products, most importantly bread, chemical-leavened bakery goods, and pasta.
Milling is a complex industrial process which involves a set of grinding and sieving
operations, the objectives of which are to break the grain, separate the starchy endosperm
from brans and reduce it to flours. The milling process is carried out in multiple stages by a
group of rollers pairs, with gaps between each pair gradually narrowing from one pair to
another. After each grinding steps, the resultant meal is sieved to remove the embryo and bran
then sending the remaining flour for the next grinding stage, resulting in a white flour
containing a high percentage of endosperm free of layers of the crust and the germ, which
improves the characteristics of the flour in the bakery industry. The extraction ratio is defined
as the amount of flour obtained from grinding 100 kg of clean wheat. It plays a significant
role in the properties of the resulting flour and its content of ash.
Whole wheat flour naturally contains vitamins B and iron, in addition to selenium,
potassium and magnesium. They are also good sources of fiber. Refined wheat flour is low in
the content of thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, iron, and folic acid. Flour in good condition should
be a creamy white powder with a faint, pleasant smell, a slightly sweet taste, and, when
squeezed firmly in the hands, should tend to cling together, and yet easily fall apart. When
mixed with approximately half its weight of water it forms a dough with extensible and
elastic properties.
The bran and aleurone contain a higher concentration of protein, vitamins and phytic acid
than the inner endosperm. Wheat germ is sodium and cholesterol free, and is rich in nutrients.
It is rich in vitamin E, magnesium, pantothenic acid, corrosive agents, phosphorus, thiamin,
niacin and zinc. An eating food high in fiber can be valuable in regulating bowel work (i.e.,
reducing constipation), and may be prescribed for patients in danger of colon disease,
coronary illness, and diabetes.
A high-fiber wheat flour or high-fiber food regimen appeared to reduce post-prandial
plasma insulin and post-prandial plasma glucose in overweight persons. The wheat bran is
healthier and more nutritious than the flour itself. It is an incredible laxative. The laxative
impacts of wheat bran are much better than those of organic products or green vegetables as
cellulose. An opposite relation was found between wholegrain admission and danger of type 2
diabetes, with a relative hazard between the most high and low quartiles of wholegrain
utilization of 0.65, i.e., a 42% decrease in hazard. Celiac disease causes gastrointestinal
disorders which lead to inflammation of the small intestine and malabsorption. When the
gluten touch the wall of the intestine, the immune system in the human body attacks the
tissues of the intestine, causing an inflammatory immune reaction, and it develops over time,
destroying the intestinal mucosa, resulting in loss of its distinctive shape and absorbent
functions of food at the level of the intestine as a whole. The strategy to overcome celiac
disease is the manufacture of gluten-free foods for allergic patients by developing the grain
industry and taking advantage of some food derivatives such as wax starch, gum and
emulsifiers to improve the functional properties and quality of gluten-free products and mark
them as gluten-free in all large shops.
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Chapter 15
VEGETABLE WASTE AS A
RAW MATERIAL FOR FLOUR:
NUTRITIONAL VALUES AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Luan Ramos da Silva*, Micaella Ferraz†

and Farayde Matta Fakhouri‡
Faculty of Engineering, Federal University of Grande Dourados,
Dourados, MS, Brazil
ABSTRACT
Food industries are losing a huge part of their raw material or products in the trash.
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization for the United Nations (FAO), about
1/3 of the food produced is wasted in the trash, even though the number of hungry people
are increasing year by year. Vegetables are a kind of food with a short shelf life and a
great quantity of important nutrients for humans. However, its waste begins at the harvest
and keeps until the final consumer. Quantitatively, it represents up to 25% of the
produced fruits and vegetables. Therefore, food industries and researchers are gaining
interest in looking for viable alternatives to minimize the loss. Waste material generated
by food industries could have many nutrients and bioactive compounds that are important
for human diet and health. In addition, the failure of trash management is highly
detrimental to the environment; however, a reduction of waste would consequently cause
a reduction on the environmental impact. Currently, studies regarding this waste
management is gaining ground in food science and technology, due to its rich
composition and applicability. Many of these strategies have a great potential to be used
for the development of functional flours, the application in new products, and the partial
or total substitution of ingredients. Then, improving the nutritional value of those
products and reducing its production costs will also be beneficial. Based on that, the aim
of this chapter is to describe flour made from vegetable waste, the techniques in
*
Corresponding Author: luanramosea@gmail.com.
†
Corresponding Author: mika_ferraz@hotmail.com.
‡
Corresponding Author: farayde@gmail.com.
316 Luan Ramos da Silva, Micaella Ferraz and Farayde Matta Fakhouri
acquisition, its functional and nutritional values and the applicability of these flours in the
development of new products.
Keywords: functional flours, food industry waste, waste management
INTRODUCTION
Vegetable waste increases each year and consequently results in the loss of materials and
resources. On the other hand, there are many hungry people in the world and it is our
responsibility to search for new technologies to minimize these food and nutrient losses.
Globalization coupled with socioeconomic circumstances have encouraged the search for
alternatives to food as well as new technological processes, aimed on reducing the costs of
products as well as having a positive impact on meeting nutritional demands. The production
of flours with functional qualities is an alternative that encourages industrial use and
minimizes postharvest losses.
Production of vegetable flours can be beneficial not only for consumers, but also to the
food industry. For consumers, they can add many important nutrients for human health; a diet
rich in nutrients can result in a healthier person; children and elderly people can consume
those nutrients without knowing of the vegetable content, due to the resistance of some
people in these age brackets in consuming vegetables. From an industry standpoint, it
represents a reduction of trash which leads to a consecutive reduction on the environment
impact, a good use of resources, like energy or water, and the development of new products
that can be added on the market.
Based on the aforementioned points, this chapter aims to describe the waste of vegetables
around the world, the production of functional flours with those wasted vegetables as raw
material, and the use of those flours on the development of functional foods.
VEGETABLE WASTE
People usually confuse food losses with food waste, due to the similarity of both
definitions. However, food waste is related with the loss of food at the end of the food chain,
which is directly connected with retailers and consumer behavior (Parfitt et al., 2010).
Postharvest and transport losses, residues produced by food industries, and many other
losses of fruits and vegetables can be considered as vegetable waste. Chang et al., (2006)
define it as inedible parts of vegetables that are discarded during harvest, handling,
transportation and processing. Based on that definition, it is concluded by many studies that
waste can be produced in all steps of the food supply chain, from the farm producer to the
final consumer, through the transportation, processing, storage and other steps (Panda et al.,
2016; Galanakis, 2012).
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO, 2011)
the loss/waste of vegetables can be divided into five groups:
Vegetable Waste as a Raw Material for Flour 317
 Agricultural production: losses due to mechanical damage and/or spillage during

harvest operations, crops sorted out postharvest, etc;
 Postharvest handling and storage: including losses due to spillage and degradation
during handling, storage and transportation between farm and distribution;
 Processing: including losses due to spillage and degradation during industrial or
domestic processing;
 Distribution: including losses and waste in the market system;
 Consumption: including losses and waste during consumption at the household
level.
A percentage of losses in each group is different, not only between them, but also around
the world (Figure 1).
As shown in Figure 1, industrialized Asia has a smaller amount of waste of fruits and
vegetable (43%), compared to other places. On the other hand, North Africa, West and
Central Asia lost about 74% on the food supply chain.
Another huge difference that needs to be evidenced is the losses in the processing. In
Europe, North America, Oceania and Industrialized Asia, losses in the processig and
packaging are irrelevant; instead in Sub-Saharan and North Africa, West, Central, South and
Southeast Asia and Latin America, it represents a lot of waste. It demonstrates that those
places need to improve on training professionals and processing to reduce this percentage.
All of those losses of food demonstrates the lack of knowledge on the appropriate use of
resources, like energy or water. In addition, it represents a wastage of money, due to the high
cost invested on the food supply chain. Moreover, vegetable waste is a material rich in
important nutrients to the human diet and can be used as a raw material in flour.
Figure 1. Losses (%) of fruits and vegetables in the world by different steps of food supply chain.
Adapted from FAO (2011).
FUNCTIONAL FLOURS
As shown in the vegetable waste section, many parts of fruits and vegetables are wasted
during the food supply chain. A great way to utilize them is to use the waste as a raw material
for functional flours, which can be made into an ingredient in the processing of new food
products, or just be eaten. In this section, the development of functional flours with vegetable
waste will be shown, demonstrating the possibilities missed out on by food industries by
wasting that nutritional material.
Banana Peel Flour
One of the most important tropical fruits in the world market is the banana. Scientifically
named Musa spp. (Musaceae). It has a short shelf life and can be repurposed in the
development of new products, like chips, puree/pulp, powder, jams, juice, bar, biscuits, and
others. However, that processing generates a significant amount of residue, mainly peels. The
peels represent about 35% of the fruit weight (Tchobanoglous, Theisen, & Vigil, 1993) and it
is not used for any other purpose, so are typically dumped as solid waste. Currently, banana
peels have been used as a compost item or feed to cattle (Happi-Emaga et al., 2011).
To obtain banana peel flour, Agama-Acevedo et al., (2016) have used Musa paradisiaca
L.; its peel was dried at 40ºC for 48 hours in a conventional oven, ground and then sieved at a
particle size of 0.15 mm. Peels represented about 30% of the entire fruit, while Happi-Emaga
et al. (2007) have reported that 40% of banana is its peel. The difference can be explained
based on the variety of banana studied.
Banana peel flour have shown a important nutritional composition (Table 1).
Comparing the flours (Table 1) produced by Agama-Acevedo et al. (2016) and Okareh
et al., (2015), results obtained are different, and it is related to many variables in the process,
such as variety of the plant, process conditions, stage of maturation, and others. Although
both of them have a great percentage of nutrients that are important to human health and can
be inserted into the human diet, the characterization of this flour demonstrates also its
potential to be used on the development of new products.
Table 1. Chemical composition of banana peel flour
Component Quantity (%)

Agama-Acevedo et al., 2016 Okareh et al., 2015
Moisture 5.7 ± 0.2 9.5 ± 0.2
Lipids 5.0 ± 0.1 0.7 ± 0.6
Protein 10.3 ± 0.1 2.3 ± 0.6
Ash 12.7 ± 0.1 9.1 ± 0.6
Total carbohydrates nd 68.0 ± 0.3
Total starch 39.3 ± 1.5 nd
Crude fiber nd 10.4 ± 0.6
Total dietary fiber 37.6 ± 1.5 nd
Soluble dietary fiber 7.3 ± 0.7 nd
Insoluble dietary fiber 30.3 ± 1.2 nd
nd: not determined.
Passion Fruit Peel Flour
Industrialization of passion fruit (Passiflora spp.) is mainly to produce juices and nectars.
In Brazil, about 54,000 tons per year of residue result from passion fruit processing (Coelho
et al., 2017). A component from its peel, called albedo or pitch is rich in fiber and pectin, and
should be used on formulations of functional foods or added in products to increase its
viscosity (Lopez-Vargas et al., 2013).
Consumption of 30 g of passion fruit peel flour during a 30-day period, combined with
diet therapy counseling can reduce cholesterol and triacylglycerides levels. Also, a treatment
for 90 days with this flour showed good effects against lipodystrophy in HIV patients. Its use
for 90 consecutive days was efficient in reducing LDL-C, and increasing HDL-C values in
individuals presenting signs of HIV Lipodystrophy syndrome and dyslipidemia (Marques
et al., 2016).
Silva et al., (2015) concluded that passion fruit flour indicated considerable physical and
chemical characteristics for use due to the low content of lipids (1.1%) and protein rates. For
human consumption, the presence of ash (8.7%) is interesting, but it needs to be considered
on studies of its shelf life and storage conditions. Authors also have studied the drying
kinetics and how the Midilli model represents the drying process effectively.
Papaya Peel Flour
The fourth most important tropical fruit in the world is papaya (Carica papaya L.)
(Scheldeman et al., 2007). This fruit presents many compounds with the capacity to react with
singlet oxygen, such as ascorbic acid, β-carotene, α-tocopherol, flavonoids, vitamin B1, and
others (Leontowicz et al., 2007; Lim et al., 2007).
The industrial processing of papayas generates a large amount of residue (peels and
seeds), which is ultimately wasted. As an edible part (pulp), the residue is rich in compounds
and can be used to produce functional flours.
Bokaria & Ray (2016) have produced papaya peel flour by the following steps: i) papaya
fruits; ii) fruits washed in normal water; iii) fruits peeled manually; iv) peels were dipped in
water; v) sanitization was carried out using 6 drops of zeolin and kept covered for 15 minutes;
vi) peels were disposed of in trays and dried at 60ºC for 24 hours in tray drier; vii) dried peels
were ground and packed in sealed packets and kept in sealed containers.
Papaya peel flour was characterized and demonstrated low lipid content (0.1%), and a
considerable content of protein (8.64%), ash (5.25%), carbohydrate (38.88%) and total fiber
(33.2%), indicating its potential for the food industry. When it was dried in an oven, traces of
vitamin C (0.22%) and antioxidant activity were determined (514.6 mg/100g GA equivalent),
thus the drying conditions were efficient regarding the retention of important components of
the product (Bokaria & Ray, 2016).
Flours of Non-Conventional Parts of Peruvian Carrot
Peruvian carrot (Arracacia xanthorrhiza Bancroft) is an unconventional vegetable, native

to the Andes region, also known as white carrot or arracacha. It is consumed in Mato Grosso
do Sul; it is not common among the population, due to the lack of information about its
nutritional properties and the expensive price, limiting its exposure to the diets of people with
lower incomes (Heredia-Zárate et al., 2008). However, Peruvian carrot is indicated as
beneficial to the diets of children, elders and convalescents, due to its content of minerals,
fibers and B vitamins (Câmara & Santos, 2002).
Consumers usually look for the commercial roots, due to its attractive appearance and the
high content of minerals and vitamins. However, other morphological parts of this vegetable,
such as non-commercial roots (roots with physical damage and/or a mass less than 25.0
grams), crown (transport and storage organ in the plants) or shoots (morphological
component of the plant used as seedlings), have high content of essential nutrients for the
human diet and they are wasted by producers (Torales et al., 2015).
According to Torales et al, (2014), A. xanthorrhiza plants presents on average 15.51% of
leaves, 11.73% of crown, 19.09% of shoots, 9.73% of non-commercial roots and only 43.93%
of commercial roots. All the other parts of the plant are discarded, which results in the waste
of important nutrients.
Gassi et al., (2016) has produced flours of shoots and non-commercial roots of the
Peruvian carrot. To produce the flour, the waste material was carried out in a laboratory and
fractionated into small pieces. Pieces were dried in an oven with circulating air (1.0 ms-1
speed) for 72 hours at 60ºC. Dried product were ground in a circular rotor macro mill with
fixed and mobile knives and sieved through mesh with 1 mm in diameter of particle. The
flours have presented a yield of 19.12% and 22.22% for the flours of shoots and non-
commercial roots, respectively. Therefore, drying those residues generated a flour with
potentiality to be inserted in formulations of many kinds of products.
Orange Residue Flour
Albedo of orange [Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck] is a residue from the food industry that
has great composition and nutritional potential to be used on other processes and on the
human diet as a flour. Rocha et al., (2016) has studied the chemical composition of this
albedo flour as well as antioxidant and anti-obesity activities. The flour presented acid
ascorbic content of 214.9 mg/100 g and 550.9 mg of gallic acid equivalent/100 g of phenolic
compounds. On antioxidant assay (DPPH), the flour resulted in 7.6 g/g, while BHT (a
commercial antioxidant widely used in the food industry) resulted in just 5.7 g/g. Also, the
supplementation with this product increased water consumption, reduced the caloric intake,
body mass, white adipose tissue, total cholesterol and triglycerides. With all of these results,
authors indicate that it should be used on the development of functional foods, which can
prevent and treat obesity and dyslipidemia.
Sánchez-Sáenz et al., (2015) studies the mathematical modeling on the drying process of
orange bagasse, associating convective methods and infrared radiation; they have concluded
that the best drying operation conditions were at a temperature of 50ºC and an infrared
radiation application time of 150 seconds, due to the final moisture content. Page’s model was
the empirical model that best fit this dehydration and the effective diffusivity was described
by the Arrhenius equation.
Watermelon Rind Flour
Watermelon is a fruit with high moisture and its rind is often wasted by industries and
consumers. However, it has the potential to be used and industrialized.
Lima et al., (2015) has developed watermelon rind flour using the following steps:
i) separation of the peel, rind, pulp, and seeds; ii) rinds were cut in 3 mm of thickness; iii)
bleaching (100ºC/1 min); iv) samples disposed in trays with thickness of 0.5 cm; v) dried in
trays drier with air circulation (3 ms-1) at 60ºC for 240 minutes; vi) dried product was crushed
and stored. The composition of the watermelon rind flour is shown in Table 2, and
demonstrates that the flour has a source of minerals that needs to be used and consumed by
people.
Table 2. Composition of watermelon rind fresh and flour
Component Watermelon rind

Fresh Flour
Moisture (%) 96.64 ± 0.01 9.55 ± 0.29
Water activity 0.990 ± 0.01 0.221 ± 0.010
Protein (%) 0.58 ± 0.05 11.16 ± 0.40
Pectin (g calcium pectate/100 g) 0.11 ± 0.03 10.80 ± 1.36
Ash (%) 0.83 ± 0.01 9.97 ± 0.41
Iron (mg/100 g) 0.51 ± 0.02 12.30 ± 0.08
Calcium (mg/100 g) 67.77 ± 0.16 465.36 ± 0.44
Phosphor (mg/100 g) 13.30 ± 0.29 178.63 ± 0.41
Adapted from Lima et al., 2015.
Mango Peel Flour
Mango is a tropical fruit, usually consumed fresh or processed as juice, pickled or canned
slices, minimally processed, and others. To encourage the reduction of waste in the mango
process, Siriamornpun et al. (2016) studied flours from the green and ripe peel of mango
(Mangifera indica). Peels were cleaned twice with tap water followed by washing with
distilled water and then dehydrated with a hot-air oven at 60ºC for 6-8 hours (resulting in a
product with a moisture content of 7%). It was ground into a fine powder and sieved through
an 80 mesh sieve.
Flour of green mango peel has presented 9.78% of fiber, while the flour of ripe mango
peel has 5.59%. Both flours resulted in a high content of compounds and antioxidant activity
(Siriamornpun et al., 2016). A difference in the composition of flours based on the stage of
maturation of mangos should be highlighted in further studies in adding this flour in the
creation of new products.
Potato Peel Flour
One of the most common vegetables consumed around the world is potatoes (Solanum
tuberosum). It is a versatile product, due to its applicability on the diet (animal and human)
and food industry. A big problem in food industries regarding potatoes are the peels that are
discarded. However, potato peels are a good source of nutrients and can be used in the
development of flours.
Jeddou et al., (2017) developed potato peel flours by dehydrating the peels in an oven at
50ºC for 48 hours. In addition, they concluded that this flour has shown a high fiber and
protein content, so the inclusion of it in formulation of industrialized products is a way for
improvement of nutritional value of those products. In addition, the flour obtained has
presented a great technological potential as having a water binding and fat absorption
capacity.
Potato peel flour has an important percentage of water soluble polysaccharides, and they
are a promising source of natural antioxidants that can be used as an additive in food and
pharmaceutical or cosmetic preparations (Jeddou et al., 2016). Khan et al., (2017)
recommended potato peel flour as the cheapest source of getting polyphenols.
Pomegranate Peel Flour
Punica granatum L. (popularly known as pomegranate), is a fruit grown in tropical and

subtropical countries. The consumption of pomegranate is mainly as a fresh fruit; however its
industrialization is increasing in recent years, and consumers can see products like jams, jelly,
beverages, and juices emerging (Gullon et al., 2016).
Pomegranate peel is traditionally dried for treatment of many diseases, such as headache,
colitis, aphthae, diarrhea, dysentery and ulcers (Bachoual et al., 2011). This peel presents
many bioactive compounds, which have antioxidants and antimicrobial activities (Dey et al.,
2012; Hasnaoui et al., 2014).
Gullon et al., (2016) concluded that pomegranate peel flour had considerable levels of
polyphenolic compounds, and its chemical composition results in an antimicrobial activity
against Salmonella sp., Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus.
Those microorganisms are some of the most common sources of food-borne diseases. So, the
use of this residue can decrease the environmental impact and increase the functional value of
food products. In addition, this flour could be used on formulations of food packagings.
Jackfruit Seed Flour
Jackfruit is the largest edible fruit on Earth; however its seeds are less popular as a
vegetable. However, some people eat them boiled or roasted; the seeds are rich in
carbohydrates, proteins, fiber and some vitamins.
As a flour, jackfruit seeds present 16.01% of protein, 0.98% of fat, 3.56% of fiber and
42.49% of carbohydrates (Miah et al., 2017). Also, this flour presents a great quantity of
minerals and amino acids important for human health (Table 3). Khan et al., (2016)
recommends jackfruit seed flour more than wheat flour on the development of new bakery
products, due to the better nutritional composition. Meethal et al., (2017) has recommended
the development of this flour as a way to introduce this fruit to children’s diets.
Table 3. Composition of minerals and essential and non-essential amino acids of

jackfruit seed flour
Component Quantity
Minerals Lithium (mg/100 g) 0.05
Sodium (mg/100 g) 38.41
Ammonium (mg/100 g) 12.33
Potassium (mg/100 g) 705.71
Magnesium (mg/100 g) 115.85
Calcium (mg/100 g) 96.75
Essential amino acids Lysine (%) 10.30
Isoleucine (%) 8.61
Leucine (%) 6.73
Methionine (%) 4.82
Threonine (%) 3.90
Valine (%) 1.73
Histidine (%) 1.92
Non-essential amino acids Aspartic acid (%) 4.80
Arginine (%) 2.44
Glutamic acid (%) 4.34
Serine (%) 4.46
Glycine (%) 4.94
Tyrosine (%) 6.67
Adapted from Miah et al., 2017.
FUNCTIONAL FOODS
Functional foods are those foods that have properties that go beyond their quality as a
source of nutrients (Cuppari, 2005). One of the most comprehensive definitions describing
functional foods as those states that, in addition to basic nutrition, they bring benefits to one
or more organic functions, improve health and well-being, and reduce disease risks (Carvalho
et al., 2006).
Roberfroid (2002) defined a functional food as:
 A natural food;
 A food which a component has been added;
 A food which a component has been removed;
 A food which the nature and/or bioavailability of one or more components has been
modified.
Functional foods account for 5 to 7% of the world food market. The benefits of the
consumption of food products with functional properties has been increasing in the last
couple decades and has been further developing the interest of researchers and consumers.
Several studies have demonstrated the positive effects of functional feeding in the treatment
and prevention of many diseases, such as hypertension, diabetes, cancer, arthritis,
constipation, cardiovascular diseases, among others (Cuppari, 2005; Lima, 2007; Marques et
al., 2016).
This link between food consumption and the development of some chronic diseases has
led to the concept that health can be achieved through food (Behrens et al., 2000).
Nowadays, functional foods are among the great advancements achieved by man in order
to: promote health, provide people with a better quality of life and fully reuse food. Recent
research has shown the presence of specific ingredients in foods that, in addition to the
nutritional aspect, have important biological activities. The properties that these functional
foods possess in relation to health are linked to their components, and may be dietary fibers,
oligosaccharides, modified proteins, carbohydrates, antioxidants, minerals, phytochemicals,
prebiotics and probiotics, polyunsaturated fatty acids and other substances (Blenford, 1994;
Vieira, 2001; Craveiro & Craveiro, 2003).
Mazza (1998) pointed out that due to these functional virtues, some foods or groups of
natural foods are being recommended. Cereal grains, oilseeds, fruit peels and whole flours are
excellent sources of dietary fiber, either in their natural or processed form resulting in their
functional properties and their positive effects in preventing chronic diseases. Examples of
functional foods and their effect on human health can be observed in Table 4.
Table 4. Examples of functional foods and their function on human health
Nutrients Sources Functions

Fatty acids Fish, seaweed; Blood clotting intervention;
Omega-3 and 6 Oils (soybean, sunflower, olive). Control of inflammatory processes.
Allicin; Garlic. Cholesterol reduction;
Aliina; Hypotensive function;
Dialyne sulfide. Fibrinolytic and anticoagulant function.
Beneficial bacteria Dairy drinks with lactobacilli Increased resistance to infections;
(probiotics). (fermented milks); Impediment of colonization of pathogenic
Bifidobacteria (yoghurts). bacteria;
Cholesterol reduction.
Food Fiber; Cereals (oats, bread, whole Cereal fibers prevent cardiovascular disease;
Starch flours); Vegetables protect against colon and rectal
Cabbage, broccoli; cancer;
Beans, pods, lentils. Starch present in cereals and legumes prevents
colon cancer and lowers cholesterol.
Phytoestrogens Legumes (beans and soybeans); Reduction of estrogen, acting in the prevention
Isoflavones Cereals. of breast cancer.
Lignanas,
Flavonoids. Red wine; Antioxidants;
Grape. Inhibition of atheroma formation.
Lycopene. Tomato. Protection against lung, prostate and stomach
tumors.
Vitamins A, C, E; Fruits (papaya, orange, lemon, Antioxidants.
β-carotene; acerola);
Selenium mineral. Vegetables (beets, spinach,
carrots, tomatoes, broccoli);
Eggs and cereals.
Adapted from Cuppari (2005).
The development of products with functional activities has been increasing since research
aimed at the discovery and characterization of these products have been increasing along with
the consumer market. Flours from unconventional sources (green banana peel, carrot leaves,
papaya peel) top the list, since they can be obtained from industrial food waste and used as
raw material for the production of food perfectly fit to be included in the human diet, such as
breads, biscuits, cereal bar, cake, pasta, adding nutritional value and maintaining its
characteristics even after processing (Lima, 2007; Gassi et al., 2016; Lima et al., 2015; Khan
et al., 2016; Coelho et al., 2017). The use of flours on the development of new products are
shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Examples of functional foods made by flours of vegetable waste
Product Vegetable waste flour Reference

Cereal bar Grape seed flour Soto et al., 2012
Jabuticaba peel flour Casari, 2016
Pineapple peel flour Damasceno et al., 2016
Biscuit/cookie Potato peel flour Khan et al., 2017
Papaya peel flour Bokaria & Ray, 2016
Peruvian carrot shoots Gassi et al., 2016
Yogurt Pineapple bark flour Neres et al., 2015
Passion fruit peel flour Vieira et al., 2015
Grape skin flour Marchiani et al., 2016
Fermented milk Passion fruit peel flour Celia et al., 2015
Grape marc flour Frumento et al., 2013
Apple peel flour Casarotti & Penna, 2015
Beef burguer Moringa seed flour Al-Juhaimi et al., 2016
Tomato pomace flour Namir et al., 2015
Apple pomace flour Younis & Ahmad, 2015
Cake Green banana peel flour Turker et al., 2016
Jackfruit seed flour David, 2016
Potato peel flour Jeddou et al., 2017
Bread Grape seed flour Hoye Jr. & Ross, 2011
Cupuassu peel flour Salgado et al., 2011
Chempedak seed flour Zabidi & Aziz, 2009
Jam Grumixama peel flour Silva et al., 2015
Jabuticaba peel flour Silva et al., 2017
Passion fruit peel flour Silva et al., 2012
One of the characteristics that makes those flours a “functional food” is the presence of
dietary fibers. Not because of the quantity present, but because of its function in the organism.
Fibers are a class of compounds of plant origin formed mainly by polysaccharides and other
associated substances which, when ingested are not hydrolyzed and do not undergo digestion
or absorption in the small intestine of humans (Cuppari, 2005).
The fibers are divided into two classes, according to their solubility in water: soluble and
insoluble. Both are not absorbed in the small intestine, reaching the large intestine without
degrading (Lima, 2007).
Soluble fiber has several benefits to human health. When associated with low-fat diets,
they lower blood cholesterol, thereby reducing the risk of heart disease (Martins, 1997).
Among the soluble fibers, pectin, mucilage and resistant starch are mainly found in oats,
grains, nuts, seeds, fruits and legumes. This type of fiber forms a gel, staying longer in the
stomach, giving a sensation of satiety, thus playing an important role in the treatment of
obesity and blood sugar control (Lima, 2007).
Insoluble fibers are found mainly in wheat and vegetable bran. Its consumption helps in
the treatment of constipation, hemorrhoids, diverticular disease, cancer and other intestinal
problems (Thebaudin et al., 1997).
The metabolic effects of fiber consumption include: decreased rate and effectiveness of
nutrients such as glucose, lipids and cholesterol (Montonen et al., 2003), appetite regulation
(Davidson & Mcdonalds, 1998), reduction of risks of onset breast cancer and cardiovascular
diseases (Merchant et al., 2003).
In a study carried out by Souza et al., (2008), the passion fruit peel flour had high dietary
fiber content and the functional properties analysis indicated a high water retention,
absorption and adsorption capacity. Based on the analytical results, there is the potential for
using passion fruit peel flour to enrich products such as breads, biscuits and cereal bars,
improving its nutritional and technological qualities, as well as being an alternative to reduce
the byproduct waste food industry.
CONCLUSION
Food industries lose a lot of resources by waste. Vegetable residue is considered a source
of nutrients that is important, not only for human health, but also in food industries in
substitution of ingredients in the formulation of many products.
Peel, seed, bagasse, albedo, as well as other residues from the food industry can be used
in the production of functional flours. These flours produced have a very rich composition,
based on nutrients and can help with the introduction of those important nutrients in the
human diet, mainly in children or the elderly. In addition, the processing and storage
conditions have to be studied with the aim of preserving nutrients and bioactive compounds.
Functional flours from residues are highly applicable and have technological
charateristics; they should be added in the creation of many kinds of functional foods, such as
cereal bars, cookies, cake, biscuits, yogurt, among others.
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ABOUT THE EDITOR
María Dolores Torres Pérez

(Researcher)
University of Cambridge
Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering
Email: lolytorresp@hotmail.com
INDEX
115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 122, 133, 137, 138,
A 143, 144,146, 147, 149, 150, 156, 163, 164, 165,
167, 168, 171, 172, 174, 197, 224, 232, 235, 249,
acid, viii, 6, 8, 17, 18, 20, 21, 23, 24, 33, 34, 35, 36,
250, 252, 253, 254, 256, 257, 258, 259, 265, 270,
37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 52, 56, 72, 73, 82,
271, 272, 282, 283, 284, 296, 319, 320, 321, 326,
100, 101, 102, 103, 111, 116, 117, 124, 127, 161,
327, 328, 329, 330, 331
169, 173, 178, 179, 180, 182, 189, 197, 198, 200,
activity, viii, 13, 14, 17, 18, 36, 40, 43, 45, 70, 73,
202, 203, 204, 206, 207, 218, 221, 223, 227, 228,
84, 85, 86, 87, 93, 94, 112, 113, 120, 144, 146,
231, 233, 234, 236, 239, 240, 241, 244, 245, 246,
156, 164, 165, 167, 168, 232, 235, 259, 265, 282,
248, 249, 252, 256, 261, 263, 265, 270, 276, 282,
319, 321
283, 286, 296, 305, 306, 311, 320, 323
Argentina, xi, 185, 187, 197, 220, 259, 260, 270,
acidic, 6, 23, 81, 111, 228, 244
271, 272, 288
acidity, ix, 69, 72, 81, 82, 97, 103, 111, 143
Aroma, 61, 136, 169, 176, 177, 184
additives, xi, 7, 9, 12, 115, 142, 179, 183, 186, 193,
Arrhenius equation, 320
195, 197, 202, 207, 257
ascorbic acid, 9, 78, 86, 88, 90, 91, 94, 161, 164,
adverse effects, 152, 303, 309
170, 195, 196, 197, 198, 200, 205, 207, 208, 209,
Africa, xi, 70, 176, 220, 226, 236, 247, 253, 259,
210, 239, 248, 319
260, 288, 297, 298
Asia, xi, 67, 220, 225, 226, 236, 259, 260, 288, 293,
agricultural sector, 148
297, 298, 317
agriculture, 41, 98, 288, 313
Asian countries, 18, 122
air temperature, 84, 144, 286
ataxia, 308, 313
alanine, 127, 275
atherosclerosis, 38, 49, 182
alcohols, 177, 178, 180, 181
atherosclerotic plaque, 232
aldehydes, x, 175, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181
athletes, xii, 108, 259
alpha-tocopherol, 240
autoimmune diseases, 314
amino acid, 6, 12, 33, 75, 119, 127, 151, 152, 182,
avoidance, 288, 309
188, 199, 222, 232, 235, 238, 240, 244, 246, 259,
261, 270, 275, 322, 323, 329
amylase, 5, 9, 49, 52, 53, 54, 58, 60, 101, 124, 174, B
179, 201, 203, 207, 244, 276, 295
analysis, ix, xii, 21, 52, 63, 67, 72, 75, 82, 87, 97, bacteria, 18, 49, 202, 203, 224, 228, 313, 324, 327
101, 105, 108, 110, 113, 116, 117, 123, 126, 133, bakery products, viii, ix, 2, 6, 9, 12, 17, 27, 51, 60,
135, 137, 153, 154, 169, 186, 193, 213, 233, 250, 97, 98, 99, 106, 115, 128, 129, 142, 143, 148,
255, 257, 265, 269, 272, 275, 276, 326, 328 151, 152, 155, 157, 159, 162, 169, 191, 196, 197,
ANOVA, 22, 74, 105, 126 202, 203, 205, 216, 217, 223, 291, 295, 296, 304,
antioxidant, viii, ix, xii, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 28, 310, 322
31, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 66, 69, banana pseudo-stem flour, ix, 97, 98, 99, 107, 109,
70, 71, 73, 74, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 110, 111, 112, 148, 158
91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 98, 99, 103, 104, 112, 113, Bangladesh, 137, 168, 229, 328
336 Index
Barley (Hordeum vulgare), 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 25, 34, 36, cancer, viii, 8, 31, 32, 35, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 98,
42, 110, 148, 154, 160, 161, 165, 166, 168, 174, 148, 189, 218, 224, 265, 288, 323, 324, 326
186, 215, 216, 225, 228, 234, 237, 238, 239, 240, carbohydrate, viii, ix, 12, 22, 31, 50, 55, 58, 59, 60,
241, 244, 247, 250, 251, 254, 255, 289, 291, 295, 62, 65, 67, 69, 70, 72, 77, 91, 98, 100, 105, 106,
296, 309, 310, 312 111, 121, 122, 124, 126, 127, 128, 129, 146, 147,
beer, 3, 176, 237, 295, 297 149, 150, 152, 153, 154, 155, 204, 216, 219, 237,
beneficial effect, 49, 98, 200, 202, 218, 230, 232, 246, 247, 276, 308, 309, 319
237 carbon dioxide CO2, 6, 131, 149, 150, 178, 181, 184,
benefits, viii, x, xi, 2, 8, 17, 32, 40, 45, 48, 49, 63, 195, 305
65, 85, 98, 122, 129, 137, 185, 189, 215, 216, carboxymethyl cellulose, 149, 162
218, 224, 230, 232, 237, 240, 249, 251, 281, 284, cardiovascular disease, viii, 31, 32, 37, 39, 42, 98,
308, 313, 323, 325 116, 148, 151, 224, 232, 251, 296, 324, 326
betel leaves powder, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, carotene, 37, 38, 42, 220, 319, 324
77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85 carotenoids, 34, 36, 38, 40, 41, 43, 78, 225
bioactive compound(s), 9, 12, 13, 23, 31, 49, 85, 99, cattle, xi, 220, 234, 259, 318
142, 165, 215, 313, 315, 322, 326 cellulose, 34, 49, 56, 75, 98, 189, 224, 230, 266, 308,
bioavailability, 66, 88, 154, 202, 246, 271, 323 311
biologically active compounds, 155, 230 cereal flour, vii, 148, 160, 164, 215, 277
blends, x, 12, 21, 25, 26, 86, 132, 142, 143, 148, 155, chemical characteristics, 88, 89, 137, 149, 163, 167,
158, 163, 167, 168, 170, 171, 286 172, 283, 319
bonds, 6, 161, 162, 197, 201, 231, 262 chemical pretreatments, 88
Brazil, xi, 17, 19, 185, 186, 187, 191, 197, 198, 199, chemical properties, ix, 67, 69, 70, 87, 88, 91, 97, 98,
220, 242, 289, 315, 319, 327 138, 143, 164, 173, 250, 283
bread, viii, x, xii, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, Chinese steamed bread, vii, x, 9, 137, 175, 176, 177,
25, 27, 31, 32, 33, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 50, 54, 178, 179, 181, 183, 184
56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 65, 66, 89, 106, 110, 115, 118, chlorogenic acid, viii, 17, 18, 21, 24, 246
119, 126, 131, 132, 133, 134, 137, 138, 139, 141, chlorophyll, 78, 79, 90, 93
142, 143, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 158, 159, 160, cholesterol, 34, 35, 39, 40, 42, 50, 56, 64, 65, 98,
161, 162, 163, 164, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 110, 122, 151, 224, 230, 232, 237, 240, 296, 306,
172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 181, 182, 311, 319, 324, 325, 326
183, 184, 189, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, chronic diseases, viii, 8, 31, 32, 40, 50, 67, 76, 265,
201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 287, 306, 314, 324
211, 212, 215, 216, 217, 219, 225, 228, 232, 237, classification, 6, 59, 130, 192, 193, 293
buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), vii, 1, 2, 8, climate, 48, 108, 177, 225, 234, 237, 250, 296
186, 215, 216, 219, 234, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, colon, 34, 35, 41, 49, 56, 76, 129, 166, 219, 224,
246, 250, 251, 253, 254, 256, 257, 258 274, 296, 306, 307, 308, 311, 324
Bulk density, 72, 77, 79, 278 cancer, 56, 76, 166, 274, 296, 324
buns, ix, 121, 123, 124, 125, 126, 128, 129, 130, color, ix, xi, 6, 12, 20, 22, 23, 28, 38, 40, 41, 42, 54,
131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 206 60, 61, 70, 72, 77, 78, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91,
Burdock, v, vii, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 27, 28, 92, 93, 94, 95, 104, 122, 125, 126, 132, 133, 134,
29 136, 144, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153,
by-products, vii, 1, 12, 33, 41, 42, 63, 88, 98, 152, 154, 155, 163, 169, 173, 176, 185, 189, 201, 202,
255, 288, 293 220, 225, 232, 246, 250, 267, 268, 274, 281, 297,
303, 304, 305
colorectal cancer, 34, 49, 219, 237
C commercial, viii, ix, 15, 18, 31, 33, 43, 54, 58, 59,
61, 63, 73, 90, 97, 99, 106, 107, 109, 110, 111,
calcium, xii, 12, 18, 42, 70, 92, 98, 100, 106, 199,
112, 119, 169, 212, 213, 234, 235, 291, 294, 320,
216, 221, 222, 228, 237, 252, 254, 259, 264, 277,
328
303, 306, 321
community(ies), 276, 286, 298
calibration, 73, 74, 100, 103, 104, 193
complex carbohydrates, 216, 276, 314
calorie, 12, 72, 100, 105, 106, 121, 126, 128, 129,
composite breads, xii, 149, 150, 170, 259, 267, 268,
150, 152, 224
269
Index 337
composite flour, vii, x, xii, 66, 99, 128, 131, 135, cultivation, 27, 99, 108, 176, 191, 225, 242, 243,
139, 141, 142, 143, 148, 149, 152, 154, 155, 156, 247, 288, 295
157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 167, 168,
170, 171, 174, 273, 279, 281, 282, 283, 285
composite flour blends characteristics, 142 D
composition, vii, ix, xii, 2, 6, 8, 21, 22, 24, 33, 34,
deficiency, 6, 32, 106, 108, 148, 222
43, 44, 45, 48, 64, 66, 72, 77, 86, 87, 89, 91, 92,
deformation, 11, 134, 161, 173, 174, 193, 197, 199,
94, 97, 98, 99, 106, 109, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119,
206
121, 122, 124, 126, 127, 128, 129, 135, 137, 138,
degradation, 71, 78, 79, 81, 85, 143, 145, 146, 147,
139, 147, 148, 152, 153, 154, 157, 163, 166, 167,
202, 226, 257, 295, 317
170, 173, 178, 204, 211, 216, 218, 219, 221, 222,
dehydration, 122, 143, 146, 172, 173, 320
223, 224, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233,
Department of Agriculture, 18, 29, 229
235, 236, 238, 244, 246, 247, 251, 253, 254, 261,
derivatives, 16, 35, 38, 201, 310, 311
263, 266, 271, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 284, 285,
developed countries, 222, 230, 295
286, 299, 303, 306, 310, 314, 315, 318, 320, 321,
developed nations, 305
322, 326, 328, 329, 330, 331
developing countries, 142, 162, 222, 230, 288, 295,
compounds, viii, x, 12, 13, 17, 18, 21, 22, 23, 24, 31,
306
34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 41, 45, 49, 58, 75, 78, 81, 83,
developing nations, 288, 305
84, 85, 90, 92, 99, 112, 116, 119, 122, 127, 133,
diabetes, viii, 31, 32, 34, 35, 48, 49, 50, 65, 76, 98,
142, 143, 150, 162, 165, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179,
148, 182, 218, 224, 240, 249, 265, 306, 307, 308,
180, 181, 188, 202, 215, 222, 224, 225, 226, 235,
309, 311, 313, 323
256, 263, 265, 272, 274, 313, 315, 319, 321, 322,
diabetic patients, viii, 47, 50, 58, 65
325, 326
dietary fibre, viii, ix, x, xi, 7, 10, 12, 13, 18, 21, 23,
constipation, 3, 32, 35, 76, 98, 129, 148, 182, 189,
24, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 40, 41, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50,
246, 296, 306, 307, 308, 311, 324, 326
51, 53, 56, 57, 58, 60, 62, 63, 66, 67, 75, 88, 91,
constituents, 39, 56, 93, 119, 144, 146, 162, 187,
94, 97, 98, 99, 101, 105, 106, 109, 110, 115, 117,
207, 224, 226, 265, 275, 276
119, 122, 127, 128, 130, 137, 138, 139, 148, 150,
consumers, viii, x, xi, 31, 32, 47, 48, 50, 60, 61, 62,
151, 152, 163, 164, 165, 167, 171, 172, 180, 182,
133, 134, 136, 151, 152, 155, 185, 194, 198, 251,
185, 189, 202, 203, 205, 207, 216, 219, 222, 224,
267, 277, 316, 321, 322, 323
226, 228, 231, 235, 237, 244, 253, 255, 259, 266,
consumption, viii, 3, 8, 11, 12, 18, 27, 31, 32, 34, 40,
269, 274, 287, 288, 296, 309, 312, 313, 314, 318,
48, 49, 50, 51, 65, 66, 122, 143, 147, 151, 190,
324, 325, 326, 328, 329, 330
216, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 224, 229, 230, 231,
Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 288
232, 234, 240, 254, 260, 274, 288, 292, 296, 306,
dietary habits, x, 175, 176
309, 313, 317, 319, 320, 322, 323, 324, 326
dietary intake, 222, 249
contamination, 190, 210, 278, 304
differential equations, xiii
cooking, xi, 10, 64, 66, 81, 145, 152, 185, 190, 194,
differential scanning calorimetry, 269
195, 196, 197, 204, 206, 228, 250, 281, 293, 295
diffusivity, 157, 282, 320
corn, vii, xii, 1, 2, 8, 10, 12, 15, 31, 39, 67, 147, 158,
digestibility, vii, 6, 12, 41, 49, 51, 54, 58, 59, 60, 62,
164, 182, 183, 186, 215, 216, 220, 221, 223, 229,
63, 64, 65, 67, 75, 117, 120, 138, 168, 174, 202,
246, 247, 249, 250, 251, 252, 256, 258, 287, 288,
212, 230, 244, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 277,
294, 295, 310, 314
279
coronary heart disease, 49, 64, 148, 151, 164, 218,
digestion, 7, 11, 35, 39, 50, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60,
240, 254, 288
62, 63, 81, 98, 100, 129, 130, 224, 265, 308, 325
cost, 18, 71, 79, 143, 145, 147, 150, 152, 275, 317
digestive enzymes, 49, 60
crop(s), x, 18, 31, 42, 48, 99, 158, 162, 175, 176,
diseases, 2, 32, 36, 38, 40, 148, 182, 189, 265, 288,
182, 191, 215, 216, 219,225, 229, 234, 237, 242,
298, 307, 322, 323, 329
247, 255, 288, 290, 293, 294, 296, 298, 310, 317
disorder, 3, 157, 240
crust, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 201, 267, 299, 301,
dispersion, 20, 276
304, 305, 311
distilled water, 52, 53, 54, 71, 73, 74, 102, 103, 104,
cultivars, 87, 107, 111, 118, 119, 137, 167, 173, 212,
125, 280, 321
255, 258, 328
distribution, 5, 20, 22, 33, 91, 113, 144, 162, 165,
174, 221, 267, 317
338 Index
dough mixing behaviours, 159 175, 176, 177, 187, 210, 218, 219, 222, 226, 227,
dough rheology, x, 1, 9, 11, 15, 65, 137, 138, 143, 228, 274, 280, 283, 284, 287, 298, 303, 304, 311,
160, 163, 167, 169, 172, 194, 197, 200, 202, 203, 328
204, 207, 209, 213 extracts, 36, 39, 42, 73, 83, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93,
dry matter, 22, 55, 57, 59, 101, 103, 104, 107, 108, 103, 104, 112, 113, 116, 117, 119, 138, 165, 167,
112, 123, 130, 146, 227, 228, 246 256, 265
Drying, viii, 10, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, extrusion, 15, 66, 94, 250
27, 51, 52, 63, 69, 70, 71, 72, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79,
80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92,
93, 94, 95, 100, 123, 124, 138, 142, 143, 144, F
145, 146, 147, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168,
fat, viii, ix, 7, 10, 12, 33, 41, 69, 70, 72, 75, 76, 77,
169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 191, 221, 228, 230, 282,
81, 88, 98, 100, 105, 106, 121, 122, 124, 126,
288, 319, 320, 330
127, 128, 129, 142, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 152,
method, viii, ix, 17, 69, 70, 71, 72, 76, 81, 82, 83,
153, 154, 155, 169, 173, 181, 221, 222, 224, 230,
84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95,
232, 238, 239, 245, 248, 274, 276, 277, 285, 305,
143, 145, 147, 163, 164, 165, 166, 168, 171,
306,322, 325, 329
172, 173
fatty acids, 8, 13, 33, 34, 35, 49, 56, 127, 151, 153,
165, 180, 181, 182, 188, 201, 202, 235, 244, 259,
E 270, 274, 276, 324
fermentable carbohydrates, 293, 295
East Asia, 90, 122, 176 fermentation, 5, 6, 9, 35, 65, 98, 117, 150, 177, 178,
edible mushroom, ix, 121, 122, 123, 137, 138 179, 194, 195, 196, 198, 200, 202, 203, 209, 211,
Egypt, 176, 274, 287 217, 228, 266, 267, 275, 277, 279, 282, 300, 303,
electron, ix, 97, 105, 113, 122, 183 304, 305, 313
electrophoresis, 254, 262 ferric ion, 74, 104
endosperm, 4, 7, 8, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37, 42, 64, 112, fertilizers, 229, 238
113, 115, 186, 187, 188, 216, 221, 238, 244, 260, fiber content, 27, 193, 222, 232, 266
266, 291, 294, 295, 297, 299, 301, 306, 310, 311 Fiber(s), viii, ix, xii, 17, 24, 25, 27, 34, 44, 63, 65,
energy, viii, ix, 4, 11, 27, 31, 32, 40, 60, 66, 69, 72, 66, 87, 88, 116, 117, 118, 119, 165, 172, 173,
77, 100, 105, 124, 144, 146, 147, 154, 161, 168, 182, 188, 189, 193, 194, 195, 196, 198, 199, 201,
172, 192, 193, 216, 218, 219, 224, 230, 249, 274, 202, 203, 211, 215, 219, 221, 222, 223, 226, 227,
276, 288, 290, 291, 294, 307, 309, 310, 316, 317, 228, 232, 235, 236, 238, 240, 247, 249, 250, 255,
328 260, 263, 266, 270, 272, 274, 281, 287, 288, 295,
environment, 43, 107, 232, 271, 276, 315, 316 296, 304, 306, 308, 309, 311, 314, 318, 319, 320,
environmental conditions, 5, 247, 295 321, 322, 324, 325, 326, 329, 330, 331
environmental factors, 34 flavonoids, 10, 13, 18, 34, 37, 40, 41, 93, 118, 147,
environmental impact, 315, 322 188, 219, 222, 229, 235, 244, 252, 257, 265, 272,
enzymatic activity, 18, 78, 143, 189 274, 284, 319
enzyme, 6, 36, 54, 56, 94, 116, 130, 161, 187, 188, flavor, xi, xii, 90, 176, 178, 180, 181, 185, 195, 222,
200, 201, 202, 203, 207, 211, 262 225, 250, 260, 273, 278, 281, 292
enzyme immunoassay, 262 flora, 35, 284
enzyme inhibitors, 6 flowering period, 229
equipment, xi, 11, 144, 164, 186, 187, 278, 299 folate, 8, 35, 202, 222, 225, 226
essential fatty acids, 8, 182 folic acid, xii, 18, 222, 225, 232, 257, 264, 287, 311
ethanol, 20, 53, 101, 102, 111, 178, 211, 221, 294 food additive, 205, 266
Europe, vii, 17, 18, 43, 176, 199, 220, 225, 226, 235, food chain, 151, 316
236, 238, 242, 243, 295, 317 food industry, vii, ix, 1, 12, 48, 49, 97, 147, 150,
European Union, 186, 197, 198 224, 271, 295, 296, 316, 319, 320, 322, 326
evaporation, 75, 81, 82, 143, 152 food industry waste, 316
exopolysaccharides, 203 food intake, 67, 98
exposure, 83, 85, 320 food production, 175, 281, 297
extraction, x, xii, 18, 33, 35, 43, 45, 73, 83, 84, 89, food products, vii, ix, x, 8, 48, 49, 50, 57, 60, 62, 64,
92, 93, 94, 100, 101, 103, 111, 147, 168, 172, 74, 78, 79, 81, 97, 99, 105, 109, 110, 115, 122,
Index 339
127, 137, 141, 143, 145, 151, 156, 158, 163, 205, germination, 4, 244, 257, 265, 275, 276, 277, 278,
211, 215, 216, 220, 223, 225, 232, 237, 252, 274, 279, 280, 283, 284, 291, 295, 300
278, 281, 293, 295, 296, 318, 322, 323, 327, 331 ginger, 84, 87, 88, 89, 147, 165
food safety, 144 glass transition temperature, 158
food spoilage, 143 glucoamylase, 49
force, 11, 125, 161, 298, 301, 312 glucose oxidase, 52, 53, 54, 125, 161, 200, 203, 205,
formation, 6, 10, 22, 84, 85, 113, 130, 153, 157, 162, 212, 252
170, 177, 178, 194, 195, 197, 198, 200, 201, 204, glucose regulation, 50, 60
208, 210, 213, 232, 305, 324 glucose tolerance, 67
formula, 176, 177, 266, 298 glutamic acid, xi, 127, 259, 261, 270, 275
free radicals, 34, 36, 38, 39, 113, 122, 265 glutamine, 2, 6, 199, 201, 261
freeze drying, viii, 20, 69, 71, 77, 80, 82, 85, 89, 90, glutathione, 33, 189, 208, 210
145, 146, 147, 172 Gluten content, 176
fructooligosaccharides, 17, 18, 21, 23 gluten-free, vii, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15,
fructose, 18, 111, 262, 266, 295 16, 65, 66, 115, 138, 158, 162, 163, 165, 169,
fruits, vii, x, 1, 3, 4, 12, 17, 32, 37, 39, 49, 56, 70, 170, 171, 172, 203, 209, 222, 232, 237, 244, 250,
78, 79, 86, 92, 115, 117, 118, 119, 120, 141, 143, 253, 262, 282, 297, 310, 311, 329, 331
144, 146, 162, 165, 169, 171, 260, 310, 315, 316, glycine, 127, 275
317, 318, 319, 326, 329 granules, ix, 5, 97, 113, 116, 117, 154, 230, 280,
Functional, vii, viii, ix, x, xii, 6, 10, 15, 17, 19, 22, 301, 303
24, 31, 32, 33, 41, 42, 43, 45, 48, 50, 51, 62, 63, grass, 225, 257, 274, 290
66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 82, 87, 88, 89, 91, 92, 94, 97, green banana, vii, viii, 47, 48, 49, 51, 55, 58, 59, 60,
98, 99, 119, 122, 123, 130, 133, 137, 139, 141, 64, 66, 68, 75, 79, 87, 117, 138, 149, 150, 167,
142, 143, 145, 147, 151, 152, 154, 156, 162, 164, 170, 325, 331
167, 168, 170, 171, 173, 174, 179, 181, 182, 187, growth, 7, 8, 49, 70, 74, 78, 105, 126, 142, 146, 181,
188, 202, 203, 209, 210, 211, 229, 230, 231, 232, 195, 240, 243, 280
233, 243, 252, 255, 260, 262, 270, 273, 275, 277, rate, 7, 74, 105
278, 279, 281, 283, 285, 286, 291, 295, 299, 301,
310,
flours, 315, 316, 318, 319, 326 H
ingredient, 10, 17, 42, 45, 48, 66, 98, 142, 152,
hardness, ix, 25, 54, 61, 118, 122, 125, 126, 133,
162, 252, 255, 331
135, 152, 153, 155, 163, 166, 179, 188, 189, 194,
properties, vii, viii, xii, 19, 32, 48, 66, 69, 70, 71,
226, 233, 268, 269, 298
82, 87, 89, 91, 92, 94, 99, 119, 133, 137, 143,
harvesting, 27, 48, 97, 122, 288
145, 162, 167, 168, 170, 171, 174, 187, 202,
health benefits, viii, x, xi, 32, 40, 45, 48, 49, 63, 65,
209, 210, 211, 230, 232, 233, 260, 262, 270,
98, 122, 129, 137, 185, 189, 215, 216, 230, 232,
273, 275, 277, 278, 279, 281, 283, 286, 299,
240, 249, 251, 281, 284, 313
310, 311, 323, 324, 326, 328, 329
health effects, 40, 49
functional changes, 279
health problems, 32, 48
functional food, ix, 32, 41, 42, 43, 48, 50, 51, 62, 66,
health promotion, 242
97, 122, 123, 130, 156, 173, 181, 182, 255, 316,
heart attack, 232, 274
319, 320, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 330
heart disease, 34, 48, 76, 151, 182, 313, 325
fungi, 190, 191, 282
Helicobacter pylori, 116
hemicellulose, 7, 49, 56, 110, 137, 224, 266
G hormone, 37, 190
hot-air dryers, 144
galactomannan, 266 hot-air dying, 71
gastrointestinal tract, 49, 189, 230 human body, 56, 181, 307, 310, 311
gel, 56, 66, 91, 169, 208, 210, 254, 276, 326 human health, 32, 44, 49, 98, 110, 146, 205, 216,
gelatinization temperature, 5, 181, 233 314, 316, 318, 322, 324, 325, 326
genotype, 41, 43, 113, 232 humidity, 144, 145, 151, 190, 247
genus, 115, 186, 225, 260, 270, 274 hybrid, 224, 225, 309
geographical origin, 283, 285 hydrocarbons, x, 175, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181
340 Index
hydrogen bonds, 199, 262

hydrogen peroxide, 43, 200
K
hydrolysis, viii, 34, 42, 47, 50, 51, 54, 56, 58, 59, 60,
ketoacidosis, 312
64, 75, 150, 152, 174, 201, 265, 331
ketones, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181
hyperglycemia, 116, 265
kinetics, 90, 91, 93, 94, 319
hypertension, 108, 115, 237, 246, 323
KOH, 52, 53, 125
I
L
identification, 43, 94, 138
labeling, 91, 118, 138, 210, 327
image(s), ix, 22, 97, 113, 115, 183
lactic acid, 313, 327
immune system, 34, 122, 232, 308, 310, 311
Lactobacillus, 179, 203, 209
impurities, 300, 301
large intestine, 35, 56, 98, 130, 265, 325
in vitro, vii, 57, 58, 59, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 86, 91,
Latin America, 119, 295, 298, 317, 327
117, 212, 224, 251, 265, 284, 326, 327
legume, xi, 64, 119, 152, 154, 158, 164, 165, 170,
Starch Hydrolysis, 57
259, 267, 270
in vivo, 18, 24, 58, 265
lignans, 18, 33, 34, 37, 40, 41, 202, 229, 256
incidence, 151, 182, 265, 314, 329
lignin, 7, 34, 49, 56, 75, 98, 118, 189, 224, 227, 228,
incubation period, 52
266
incubation time, 54
linoleic acid, 45, 181, 182, 244, 276
individuals, 2, 62, 256, 306, 308, 309, 319
lipases, 188, 201, 209
Indonesia, 70, 220, 229, 289
lipid oxidation, 65, 75, 78, 122, 146, 153, 330
industry(ies), x, xi, 2, 3, 4, 50, 81, 119, 142, 147,
lipid peroxidation, 38
181, 191, 194, 195, 196, 148, 152, 165, 185, 191,
lipids, 8, 18, 21, 24, 33, 39, 50, 60, 78, 174, 187,
196, 198, 202, 215, 216, 221, 235, 274, 277, 294,
188, 200, 218, 222, 223, 226, 227, 235, 236, 237,
295, 299, 310, 311, 315, 316, 318, 320, 321, 322,
244, 246, 254, 263, 278, 319, 326
326
lipodystrophy, 319, 329
infants, 228, 232, 249, 279
liquid chromatography, 21, 43, 93
infection, 300, 307, 308
Listeria monocytogenes, 322
inflammation, 253, 309, 310, 311, 326
livestock, 3, 220, 225, 260
inflammatory bowel disease, 34
low glycaemic index, viii, 47, 48
infrared spectroscopy, 204
lutein, 38, 42, 133
ingestion, 3, 48, 255, 313
lysine, 6, 12, 33, 132, 201, 222, 231, 235, 240, 244,
ingredients, ix, xi, 2, 9, 10, 15, 25, 32, 42, 48, 49, 51,
270, 275
52, 60, 61, 66, 70, 85, 115, 122, 123, 138, 142,
144, 146, 152, 162, 166, 169, 172, 177, 183, 186,
195, 196, 209, 211, 221, 266, 278, 281, 292, 315, M
324, 326
inositol, 43, 253, 257 magnesium, xii, 18, 79, 98, 100, 106, 216, 222, 226,
insects, 190, 191, 265, 300 232, 234, 237, 246, 259, 264, 277, 287, 306, 311
insulin, 8, 34, 40, 50, 58, 59, 67, 230, 237, 254, 308, Maillard reaction, 22, 24, 75, 78, 94, 200, 267
309, 311 Maize (Zea maysPoaceae family), 3, 219, 220, 221,
insulin sensitivity, 50, 254 222, 223, 224, 225, 234, 252, 253, 255, 289, 294
integrity, 84, 151, 152 majority, 40, 61, 142, 221
intestine, 34, 49, 56, 309, 310, 311 malabsorption, 309, 311
iron, xii, 12, 70, 74, 99, 100, 104, 107, 151, 189, Malaysia, 47, 51, 52, 54, 62, 69, 70, 71, 86, 89, 90,
216, 222, 226, 237, 249, 259, 264, 277, 287, 301, 97, 99, 100, 114, 115, 119, 121, 123, 126, 141,
304, 311 142, 162, 166, 169, 172, 257, 258
irradiation, 278, 282 malnutrition, 32, 48, 128, 148, 249
irrigation, 38, 177, 229 manganese, 100, 107, 189, 222, 226, 237, 246, 249,
irritable bowel syndrome, 189 264, 277
manufacturing, 11, 24, 111, 136, 188, 192, 195, 249,
278, 295
Index 341
marketing, 27, 43, 44, 187, 217 mycotoxins, 190, 191, 206, 213
mass, 2, 34, 80, 230, 237, 303, 308, 320
materials, 11, 14, 48, 80, 123, 133, 142, 143, 144,
147, 159, 165, 277, 279, 300, 301, 316 N
matrix, 10, 56, 80, 81, 84, 131, 133, 157, 160, 162,
natural food, 323, 324
194
Netherlands, 170, 175, 253
matter, 36, 101, 103, 104, 107, 108, 109, 112, 264,
neurohormonal, 232
277
niacin, xii, 35, 70, 189, 222, 232, 234, 249, 287, 303,
measurement, 11, 20, 21, 27, 42, 63, 102, 116, 125,
306, 311
157, 166, 169, 252, 267
nicotinic acid, 264
mechanical properties, 159, 164, 204, 312
Nigeria, 220, 255, 282, 285, 289
medical, 70, 218, 307, 308
nitrogen, 101, 127, 167, 221, 229, 261, 279
melatonin, 232, 252
North America, 171, 222, 238, 293, 317
mellitus, 265, 271
nutraceutical, 147, 150, 296
Mesquite, vi, vii, 259, 264, 266, 269, 270, 271, 272
nutrients, x, 22, 32, 34, 40, 48, 51, 60, 69, 75, 85,
meta-analysis, 116
145, 146, 147, 148, 155, 162, 182, 186, 188, 222,
metabisulfite, 51, 87, 94, 100, 108, 280
231, 241, 249, 257, 270, 277, 278, 281, 291, 306,
metabolic change, 329
310, 311, 315, 316, 317, 318, 320, 322, 323, 326,
metabolic disorder, 308
330
metabolic responses, 58, 59
nutrition, vii, xii, 1, 13, 28, 29, 31, 32, 41, 42, 43, 44,
metabolism, 64, 88, 190, 224, 246, 251
45, 48, 50, 62, 63, 64, 65, 67, 69, 86, 87, 89, 91,
metabolites, 56, 203, 204, 232, 265
92, 95, 115, 117, 118, 120, 138, 142, 163, 164,
methanol, 73, 74, 82, 83, 103, 104
166, 168, 169, 170, 171, 180, 181, 186, 205, 206,
methodology, 20, 21, 67, 137, 208
208, 211, 213, 216, 222, 223, 227, 230, 234, 236,
micronutrients, 12, 32, 122, 148, 162, 252, 305
243, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 257, 258,
microorganisms, 49, 56, 70, 78, 240, 265, 308, 322
259, 270, 271, 281, 284, 286, 287, 293, 312, 313,
microstructure, ix, 87, 94, 97, 98, 105, 113, 114, 145,
314, 323, 327, 329, 330, 331
206, 208
Nutritional, v, vi, vii, viii, ix, x, xi, xii, 1, 2, 6, 7, 10,
milling, 4, 7, 10, 33, 34, 37, 39, 43, 44, 106, 108,
11, 12, 13, 17, 19, 21, 23, 24, 27, 31, 32, 41, 44,
180, 182, 186, 187, 189, 205, 211, 213, 216, 219,
45, 48, 49, 50, 51, 62, 63, 69, 70, 71, 75, 86, 91,
220, 221, 222, 226, 228, 230, 233, 235, 238, 251,
97, 121, 128, 137, 138, 139, 141, 142, 144, 146,
254, 255, 256, 262, 280, 292, 293, 295, 298, 299,
148, 149, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 162, 164, 165,
303, 310, 312, 314
167, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 176, 179, 180, 181,
minerals, viii, x, xi, 4, 12, 18, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 39,
183, 185, 186, 188, 189, 190, 194, 202, 203, 205,
40, 48, 70, 76, 82, 98, 99, 100, 106, 107, 108,
211, 215, 216, 218, 219, 221, 222, 224, 228, 229,
115, 122, 127, 129, 169, 181, 185, 188, 189, 202,
231, 232, 235, 237, 238, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244,
216, 218, 219, 222, 224, 226, 230, 231, 233, 234,
249, 250, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 259, 260, 261,
237, 238, 239, 246, 248, 249, 253, 256, 259, 264,
269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 281, 283, 285,
270, 274, 277, 281, 288, 290, 306, 307, 310, 320,
287, 288, 297, 299, 303, 304, 306, 307, 313, 314,
321, 322, 323, 324
315, 316, 318, 320, 322, 324, 325, 326, 331
Missouri, 52, 101, 102, 103, 254, 255, 256, 257
aspects, 202, 215, 216, 254, 313
mixing, x, 6, 9, 11, 123, 135, 141, 143, 157, 158,
composition, vii, xii, 86, 273, 318, 322
159, 160, 162, 164, 167, 174, 177, 187, 192, 196,
values, vii, viii, ix, x, xii, 69, 70, 71, 121, 141,
197, 198, 202, 211, 225, 270, 272, 278, 281, 291,
146, 154, 155, 186, 215, 273, 316
305, 310, 312
nutritional aspects, 202, 215, 216
modifications, 72, 73, 74, 104, 230, 298
nutritional status, 128
moisture content, viii, 17, 18, 24, 27, 70, 72, 74, 77,
nutsedge, vii, xii, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279,
80, 84, 87, 105, 122, 126, 128, 143, 144, 153,
280, 281, 282, 284
155, 162, 182, 183, 227, 228, 247, 320, 321
molecular weight, 2, 99, 113, 161, 201, 202, 262
molecules, 18, 79, 84, 146, 147, 160, 162, 201, 265,
271
mucosa, 3, 228, 309, 310, 311
342 Index
phenylalanine, 235, 276

O phosphate, 53, 101, 102, 253, 305
phosphorus, 39, 70, 98, 106, 189, 216, 222, 226, 234,
Oat (Avena sativa L.), viii, 2, 7, 42, 47, 50, 51, 52,
237, 277, 306, 311
56, 110, 148, 186, 215, 234, 235, 236, 237, 240,
physical characteristics, 169, 211, 331
249, 251, 254, 255, 256, 257, 291, 296, 305, 309,
physical properties, vii, ix, 63, 64, 65, 67, 71, 86, 89,
310, 313, 314, 324, 326
91, 93, 117, 121, 131, 136, 146, 149, 155, 156,
obesity, viii, 31, 32, 48, 49, 148, 182, 189, 218, 246,
162, 167, 171, 209, 233, 258
285, 320, 326
physicochemical characteristics, 22, 27, 94, 330
oil, ix, x, 49, 69, 70, 73, 80, 81, 89, 145, 175, 181,
physico-chemical properties, vii, x, 1, 5, 64, 66, 67,
182, 221, 274, 276, 278, 280, 281, 282, 283
70, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94 97, 98, 117, 120,
oil holding capacity, ix, 69, 73, 80
138, 141, 143, 144, 145, 148, 150, 164, 173, 174,
oleic acid, 199, 244
181, 222, 250, 280, 282
oligosaccharide, 179
physiology, 63, 116, 117
olive oil, 169, 274, 276
phytosterols, 33, 34, 39, 40, 43, 202
omega-3, 8, 66, 276
plants, 12, 34, 37, 70, 71, 98, 108, 112, 113, 118,
operations, 11, 147, 188, 251, 278, 293, 310, 317
157, 162, 170, 172, 179, 221, 230, 237, 242, 272,
organ, 182, 190, 320
276, 280, 291, 320, 331
organic compounds, 224, 276
polymers, 5, 58, 64, 130, 161, 201, 249
oxidation, 78, 83, 84, 133, 146, 149, 197, 198, 200,
polyphenols, 34, 40, 56, 78, 83, 92, 138, 147, 249,
209, 235, 246, 303
260, 265, 270, 271, 322
oxidative damage, 113, 224
polysaccharides, 4, 7, 34, 58, 68, 80, 88, 98, 110,
oxidative stress, 232, 265
128,162, 173, 198, 199, 228, 230, 244, 265, 276,
oxygen, 83, 84, 85, 197, 200, 319
322, 325, 328
oyster, vii, ix, 121, 123, 124, 126, 127, 128, 129,
polyunsaturated fatty acids, 324
130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139
population, xii, 3, 11, 216, 219, 229, 242, 254, 278,
oyster mushroom flour, 122
281, 287, 288, 290, 310, 320
potassium, xii, 18, 52, 70, 98, 100, 106, 115, 124,
P 216, 222, 232, 234, 237, 246, 259, 264, 274, 287,
306, 311
Pakistan, 40, 42, 86, 118, 163, 171, 256 potato, 2, 18, 75, 78, 86, 88, 89, 113, 116, 152, 154,
pantothenic acid, 306, 311 158, 161, 163, 166, 167, 168, 170, 173, 174, 212,
pasta, vii, viii, x, xi, xii, 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 31, 32, 33, 50, 276, 285, 314, 322, 328, 329
57, 60, 66, 92, 118, 176, 185, 189, 190, 191, 192, starch, 113, 116, 158, 173, 212
193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 204, 205, prebiotic, viii, 17, 18, 50, 63, 240, 274
206, 208, 212, 219, 243, 255, 287, 288, 291, 292, preparation, iv, 5, 10, 51, 102, 104, 134, 137, 138,
310, 313, 325 148, 152, 153, 155, 191, 195, 230, 330
Pasting, 21, 25, 26, 28, 157, 158, 254 preservation, 18, 86, 122, 143, 144, 282
Properties, 21, 25, 28, 157, 158 prevention, 36, 38, 41, 43, 49, 67, 76, 189, 190, 207,
pepsin, 52, 54, 124 224, 232, 271, 323, 324, 328
peptide(s), 2, 201, 202, 308, 310 primary antioxidants, 113
perceived health, 60 probiotic(s), 324, 327
peripheral nervous system, 246 processing, viii, x, xi, xii, 4, 12, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22,
permission, 260, 262, 267, 268 23, 24, 33, 34, 41, 44, 63, 71, 78, 84, 85, 88, 90,
pH, ix, 20, 23, 52, 53, 54, 69, 72, 81, 82, 85, 87, 97, 94, 99, 106, 108, 117, 122, 130, 141, 143, 144,
102, 104, 111, 124, 147, 161, 209, 262 146, 151, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 170,
pharmaceutical, 112, 113, 181, 221, 276, 277, 322 175, 176, 179, 180, 181, 186, 187, 190, 191, 194,
Phenolic, 18, 35, 36, 42, 45, 73, 103, 112, 116, 118, 195, 197,205, 207, 213, 221, 222, 226, 229, 230,
138, 181, 244, 246 231, 235, 244, 251, 253, 255, 273, 274, 275, 276,
compounds, viii, 12, 14, 17, 18, 33, 45, 70, 82, 83, 277, 278, 279, 281, 288, 299, 310, 314, 316, 317,
85, 89, 94, 112, 120, 133, 138, 147, 168, 172, 318, 319, 325, 326, 328, 329, 330
224, 231, 232, 244, 255, 320 product quality, xi, 11, 142, 144, 145, 166, 185, 200,
phenolphthalein, 72, 103 208
Index 343
Product(s), v, vi, vii, viii, ix, x, xi, xii, 6, 9, 11, 14, redistribution, 162, 202, 211
18, 23, 28, 31, 33, 39, 48, 49, 50, 55, 57, 60, 62, reducing sugars, 132, 200, 244
63, 70, 71, 74, 78, 79, 80, 81, 85, 87, 93, 105, requirements, 48, 57, 70, 122, 148, 151, 176, 187,
116, 117, 118, 125, 126, 128, 130, 134, 135, 138, 191, 230, 246, 218, 225, 261, 264, 312
142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 156, 157, researchers, 40, 99, 108, 111, 179, 237, 276, 278,
159, 160, 162, 164, 165, 166, 170, 172, 173, 174, 315, 323
175, 176, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, residues, 7, 22, 53, 57, 76, 97, 101, 125, 151, 155,
186, 187, 188, 191, 194, 195, 196, 198, 200, 202, 181, 199, 201, 207, 283, 304, 316, 318, 319, 320,
205, 206, 208, 216, 220, 221, 222, 230, 232, 235, 322, 326
243, 256, 260, 267, 270, 271, 272, 277, 281, 283, resistance, 6, 49, 56, 130, 161, 162, 179, 192, 193,
285, 291, 295, 301, 306, 319, 320, 321, 328 196, 197, 199, 295, 308, 316, 324
proliferation, 68, 78, 179, 190, 232 resistant starch, viii, ix, 32, 34, 35, 40, 42, 43, 44, 47,
proline, 2, 6, 261, 275 48, 52, 53, 55, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 121, 122,
Prosopis alba, vi, vii, xi, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 124, 129, 130, 137, 145, 150, 154, 156, 170, 224,
264, 270, 271, 272 230, 240, 252, 254, 255, 281, 326
protease inhibitors, 244 resources, xi, 156, 182, 186, 193, 316, 317, 326
protection, 32, 40, 232, 288 response, 34, 50, 58, 59, 60, 63, 64, 65, 94, 137, 138,
protein structure, 197, 279 208, 224, 331
proteins, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 21, 33, 39, 75, rheological properties, 16, 110, 119, 141, 156, 157,
82, 83, 92, 106, 162, 167, 174, 187, 188, 189, 159, 160, 161, 164, 167, 168, 169, 171, 173, 174,
194, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 204, 205, 207, 176, 179, 193, 206, 207, 208, 213, 228, 285
208, 211, 212, 213, 216, 218, 219, 222, 226, 228, rheology, x, 1, 9, 11, 15, 65, 137, 138, 143, 160, 163,
230, 231, 237, 238, 240, 244, 247, 250, 254, 261, 167, 169, 170, 172, 194, 197, 200, 202, 203, 204,
262, 267, 270, 271, 272, 278, 288, 291, 306, 307, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 213
308, 309, 310, 314, 322, 324 riboflavin, xii, 35, 70, 189, 222, 231, 232, 246, 287,
proximate composition, viii, ix, 21, 24, 69, 89, 91, 303, 311
100, 105, 121, 124, 126, 128, 136, 139, 146, 147, Rice (Oryza sativa L), vii, x, xii, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
148, 154, 167, 226, 231, 233, 275 10, 12, 16, 31, 39, 55, 67, 98, 110, 115, 119, 137,
Proximate Composition, 74, 105, 124, 126, 128, 245, 138, 142, 158, 159, 163, 169, 171, 172, 174, 175,
256 186, 215, 216, 220, 222, 224, 225, 228, 229, 230,
pseudo-cereal, vii, 1, 2, 215, 247 231, 232, 233, 234, 238, 242, 246, 247, 250, 251,
pulp, 56, 91, 99, 105, 108, 109, 112, 142, 149, 152, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 276, 287, 288, 291,
155, 156, 171, 172, 261, 262, 263, 264, 266, 318, 293, 294, 310, 330
319, 321, 329 rice flour, 1, 6, 7, 12, 16, 67, 158, 232, 233, 234,
252, 254, 255, 257, 330
risk, 31, 32, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 64, 98, 148, 151,
Q 164, 189, 190, 204, 205, 219, 224, 237, 240, 254,
265, 296, 309, 312, 313, 314, 323, 325, 326, 329
quality assurance, 110
Romania, 102, 215, 220, 235
quality control, 94, 191, 278
room temperature, 53, 71, 73, 74, 101, 103, 104, 125,
quality of life, 32, 324
153, 177, 280
quantification, 271, 330
root(s), viii, x, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 24, 27, 49, 70, 141,
quercetin, 18, 246
158, 216, 274, 320, 328
Rye, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 13, 25, 34, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41,
R 42, 110, 148, 160, 171, 186, 215, 216, 219, 225,
226, 227, 228, 229, 234, 237, 238, 250, 251, 252,
rancid, 195, 235, 303 255, 256, 258, 289, 291, 292, 296, 297, 298, 305,
random numbers, 54 308, 309, 310, 312, 313
raw materials, 10, 12, 62, 134, 143, 148, 281
reaction mechanism, 213
S
reactions, 2, 10, 70, 74, 78, 105, 122, 132, 146, 160,
178, 207, 246, 312
safety, 78, 119, 144, 186, 206, 282
recombination, 187, 188, 189
salts, 56, 218, 228, 307
344 Index
saturated fat, 151, 182, 244, 276 standard deviation, 21, 23, 26, 55, 57, 59, 61, 74, 76,
science, 11, 16, 118, 205, 206, 211, 247, 283, 284, 77, 80, 82, 83, 105, 106, 107, 109, 110, 111, 112,
299, 313, 314, 315 126, 127, 129, 131, 132, 134, 136
scope, 8, 269, 305, 308 starch, v, vii, viii, ix, 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16,
seed, 10, 13, 79, 91, 119, 137, 150, 153, 154, 166, 18, 25, 27, 28, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 39, 40, 42, 43,
168, 173, 174, 186, 188, 191, 256, 261, 262, 266, 44, 47, 48, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59,
270, 271, 272, 274, 282, 284, 290, 293, 294, 296, 60, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 87, 88, 97, 98, 101,
297, 306, 322, 323, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329, 331 110, 111, 113, 115, 116, 117, 118, 120, 121, 122,
seedlings, 276, 320, 331 124, 129, 130, 135, 137, 138,
selenium, xii, 222, 226, 234, 237, 287, 306, 311 Steamed bun, ix, 121, 122, 123, 128, 132, 134, 135
sensitivity, 2, 3, 64, 309, 313 storage, 2, 4, 6, 18, 20, 23, 32, 39, 65, 67, 74, 78, 79,
Sensory attributes, 122, 136, 151 87, 90, 93, 105, 126, 127, 128, 146, 149, 150,
serine, 127, 261, 276 153, 155, 183, 188, 191, 199, 203, 205, 207, 209,
shelf life, x, 18, 27, 48, 70, 115, 122, 127, 128, 141, 213, 218, 233, 237, 240, 255, 278, 300, 303, 304,
142, 143, 144, 146, 148, 149, 151, 155, 158, 162, 316, 317, 319, 320, 326
166, 179, 183, 187, 188, 194, 195, 196, 198, 201, structure, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 27, 39, 41, 49, 58, 81, 83, 84,
203, 209, 278, 305, 315, 318, 319 98, 110, 113, 118, 131, 134, 138, 145, 149, 150,
shoots, ix, 97, 99 320, 325, 328 151, 154, 158, 172, 179, 182, 189, 194, 195, 197,
significance level, 21, 55, 74, 105, 126 198, 199, 201, 207, 208, 212, 213, 217, 226, 228,
skin, ix, 3, 48, 51, 99, 122, 125, 132, 133, 325 230, 232, 237, 246, 251, 267, 268, 281, 291
small intestine, 35, 39, 49, 50, 56, 58, 65, 98, 130, substrates, 35, 56, 60, 179, 200
224, 265, 309, 311, 325 sucrose, xi, 111, 259, 262, 266, 295
smoothness, 303, 304 sugarcane, 67, 98, 119
snack bar, vii, viii, 47, 48, 50, 51, 52, 55, 56, 57, 58, supplementation, 41, 138, 142, 153, 154, 194, 196,
59, 60, 61, 62, 67, 237, 329 198, 253, 320
sodium, 8, 9, 12, 51, 53, 54, 72, 73, 74, 94, 100, 102, supply chain, 316, 317, 318, 330
103, 104, 106, 108, 115, 122, 125, 149, 162, 164, susceptibility, 60, 122, 313
177, 199, 204, 207, 210, 228, 232, 237, 277, 280, sweeteners, 60, 91, 295
284, 305, 306, 311
software, 21, 54, 55, 74, 100, 105, 126
solid phase, x, 175, 176, 177 T
solid waste, 318, 331
Tannin Content, 103, 104, 112
solubility, 5, 6, 20, 22, 23, 34, 39, 92, 143, 146, 183,
tannins, 18, 115, 244, 246
277, 278, 279, 325
techniques, ix, 18, 91, 108, 115, 143, 161, 162, 164,
solution, 5, 6, 20, 34, 38, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 56, 60,
165, 191, 277, 315
72, 73, 74, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 108, 113,
technology(ies), x, xii, 91, 118, 142, 143, 147, 162,
124, 177
170, 175, 176, 182, 183, 186, 197, 205, 206, 211,
solvents, 6, 86, 89, 92, 115
221, 222, 247, 254, 255, 257, 270, 283, 284, 287,
Sorghum (Sorghum Bicolor), 215, 247
299, 312, 313, 314, 315, 316, 328
South Africa, 220, 222, 242, 251, 254
temperature, vii, xiii, 5, 9, 17, 20, 21, 24, 25, 52, 71,
South America, 119, 220, 226, 236, 238, 297
73, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86,
soybeans, xii, 115, 171, 287, 288, 324
88, 89, 90, 91, 93, 94, 101, 103, 128, 132, 143,
species, xi, xii, 18, 88, 108, 115, 122, 127, 145, 165,
144, 145, 146, 147, 157, 158, 160, 161, 162, 168,
186, 190, 225, 259, 260, 261, 273, 274, 291, 297
172, 187, 188, 211, 233, 278, 280, 281, 285, 300,
Specific Volume, 125, 131
320
specifications, 300, 303, 304
texture, ix, xi, 10, 40, 58, 60, 61, 64, 89, 94, 100,
sponge, 152, 153, 167, 169, 171
121, 125, 131, 133, 143, 144, 146, 148, 149, 150,
Sri Lanka, 70, 168, 252
151, 152, 154, 155, 162, 169, 176, 177, 178, 182,
stability, 23, 40, 74, 87, 92, 93, 105, 126, 149, 156,
185, 190, 194, 196, 198, 201, 203, 206, 230, 235,
158, 159, 160, 161, 188, 192, 193, 197, 200, 201,
258, 267, 269, 280, 281, 328
209, 277, 278
Thermal Profile, 157
stabilization, 197, 209, 234, 235, 280, 283
thermal properties, 66, 157, 167, 233
thermal treatment, 75, 87, 91, 262
Index 345
thiamin, 35, 249, 306, 311 vegetables, vii, x, 1, 12, 32, 37, 39, 56, 89, 118, 141,
threonine, 33, 235, 240, 276 143, 144, 155, 162, 176, 295, 308, 310, 311, 315,
tocopherols, 34, 38, 39, 45, 235, 252 316, 317, 318, 321
total flavonoid content, ix, 69, 73, 82, 83, 103, 112, Vietnam, 102, 127, 137, 229
147 viscoelastic properties, 2, 166, 191, 195, 196, 201,
total phenolic content, 34, 83, 86, 91, 97, 103, 112, 215
147, 149, 156, 165, 328 viscosity, 5, 7, 21, 25, 58, 80, 155, 157, 158, 159,
total soluble solid, ix, 69, 72, 82, 97, 102, 111, 143 161, 165, 201, 233, 235, 278, 279, 319
total titratable acidity, ix, 69, 72, 82, 111 vitamin A, 70, 220, 231, 264
trace elements, 22, 108, 182, 183, 222 vitamin B1, 70, 246, 257, 319
transformation, 5, 145, 146, 207, 256, 280 vitamin B6, 232, 234, 246, 249
transport, 79, 288, 290, 310, 316, 320 Vitamin C, 18, 70, 93, 179, 222, 231, 239, 246, 248,
transportation, 18, 79, 316, 317 264, 319
treatment, 3, 49, 75, 76, 83, 84, 86, 87, 92, 93, 161, vitamin E, 38, 231, 232, 306, 307, 311
165, 168, 178, 187, 188, 189, 197, 208, 209, 265, vitamins, viii, x, xi, xii, 12, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 40, 48,
282, 283, 286, 288, 308, 310, 319, 322, 323, 326 70, 82, 122, 181, 185, 188, 189, 216, 218, 219,
triglycerides, 40, 42, 201 222, 225, 226, 230, 231, 233, 237, 238, 239, 245,
trypsin, 244, 257 246, 248, 249, 264, 274, 287, 288, 290, 303, 306,
tryptophan, 222, 232, 235 307, 310, 311, 320, 322, 324
tuber starches, 158
tumors, 116, 122, 190, 265, 312, 324
type 1 diabetes, 309 W
type 2 diabetes, 64, 246, 254, 271, 308, 309, 311,
waste, vii, 48, 85, 94, 98, 144, 148, 164, 315, 316,
312, 314, 329
317, 318, 320, 321, 325, 326, 327, 328, 330
Tyrosine, 210, 213, 240, 241, 246, 249, 261, 276,
waste management, 315, 316, 331
323
water absorption, 20, 23, 135, 143, 145, 152, 156,
158, 159, 182, 192, 193, 194, 196, 226, 277, 279
U Water activity, 72, 77, 78, 321
water desorption, 24
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), 18, 29, water evaporation, 151
218, 219, 220, 223, 225, 226, 229, 231, 233, 234, Water holding capacity, 80
235, 236, 238, 239, 241, 245, 248, 257, 288, 307 Wheat, v, vi, vii, viii, ix, x, xi, xii, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
United Kingdom, 235, 242 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 21, 25, 26, 27, 31,
United Nations, 166, 174, 251, 254, 271, 315, 316 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44,
United States (USA), xi, 14, 18, 20, 29, 41, 44, 45, 45, 57, 60, 64, 66, 67, 86, 89, 97, 98, 99, 106,
52, 53, 55, 71, 72, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 115, 116,117,
117, 119, 123, 126, 185, 186, 187, 197, 198, 199, 118, 119, 121, 122, 123, 124, 128, 129, 133, 134,
220, 229, 250, 255, 256, 257, 259, 260, 288, 289, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 141, 142, 143, 144, 146,
292, 295, 305, 314 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156,
157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166,
167, 168,
V flour, vii, ix, x, xi, xii, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12,
21, 25, 26, 27, 32, 33, 34, 35, 38, 39, 40, 42,
vacuum, 20, 76, 94, 143
43, 60, 64, 89, 97, 99, 106, 107, 109, 110, 111,
Valencia, 150, 174
112, 115, 118, 119, 122, 123, 128, 129, 133,
valine, 235, 240, 276
134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 141, 142, 143, 144,
variations, 7, 9, 108, 186
148, 149, 150,151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156,
varieties, vii, xii, 2, 6, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 42, 45, 64,
157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 166,
66, 70, 90, 111, 117, 145, 146, 170, 171, 176,
167, 168, 169, 171, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177,
177, 178, 180, 181, 183, 191, 204, 215, 216, 230,
178, 179, 180, 181, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188,
232, 237, 247, 251, 252, 273, 274, 275, 276, 278,
189,
279, 281, 283, 286, 287, 293, 294, 295, 328
wheat germ, x, 33, 39, 40, 42, 44, 154, 164, 175,
vegetable oil, 39, 283, 310
180, 181, 184, 188, 190, 206, 226, 292, 307
346 Index
whole grain, vii, viii, x, xi, 12, 31, 32, 34, 36, 40, 41,
42, 44, 45, 182, 185, 186, 187, 194, 195, 196,
Y
197, 198, 202, 203, 205, 210, 212, 213, 217, 218,
yeast, 5, 6, 9, 102, 122, 123, 124, 149, 177, 178, 195,
219, 223, 238, 250, 254, 303, 304
199, 200, 204, 211, 217, 266, 291, 292, 295, 296,
whole pod flour, xii, 259, 261, 263, 266
305, 313
World Health Organization (WHO), 49, 50, 67, 190,
yield, ix, 2, 11, 22, 27, 69, 72, 77, 85, 138, 167, 172,
261, 271, 308, 314
190, 196, 276, 312, 320, 331
worldwide, 3, 32, 49, 148, 176, 216, 217, 220, 249,
young people, 249
274
X Z
zinc, xii, 99, 106, 222, 226, 237, 246, 259, 264, 277,
xanthan gum, 10, 149, 159, 162, 174
306, 311
xanthophyll, 38, 133
X-axis, 193

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FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Additional books in this series can be found on Nova’s website

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NUTRITION AND DIET RESEARCH PROGRESS

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MARÍA DOLORES TORRES PÉREZ

NOTICE TO THE READER

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN:  H%RRN

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York

Chapter 10 Whole Grain Wheat Flour: Definitions, Production,

GLUTEN-CONTAINING FLOURS VERSUS

María D. Torres Pérez 1,*, Frédéric Baudouin2 and Javier Seijo3

Keywords: coeliac, dough rheology, rice flour, starch, wheat flour

ADVERSE REACTIONS TO GLUTEN-CONTAINING FLOURS

Table 1. Main cereals production and uses

CEREAL AND FLOUR PRODUCTION

FLOUR COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES

The traditional classification of wheat proteins is based on solubility in different solvents

COMMON FLOURS APPLICATIONS

Table 2. Proximate composition of representative gluten-free flours compared

Component Wheat Rice Corn Quinoa Amaranth Buckwheat Sorghum

BURDOCK (ARCTIUM LAPPA L.) ROOT FLOUR

Thaísa de Menezes Alves Moro1,, Ana Paula Aparecida Pereira2,

Keywords: functional ingredient, fructooligosaccharides, chlorogenic acid

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Burdock Root Flour Processing

Figure 1. Flowchart of burdock roots flour processing

a) Conventional drying: performed in a drying oven with forced air circulation at 57 ºC

Burdock Root Characterization

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1. Physicochemical characteristics of burdock flours obtained by conventional

Floursa CDF FDF

Addition of Burdock Flour to Blends of Whole and Refined Wheat Flour:

Cheynier, Véronique., Pascale. Sarni-Manchado, and Stéphane. Quideau. 2012. Recent

THE NUTRITIONAL AND

Keywords: wheat, functional, nutritional, dietary fiber, bioactive compounds

Table 1. Distribution of the major components in the main morphological layer of

HEALTH BENEFICIAL COMPONENTS OF WHEAT

Total fibre Soluble fibre (g/100g) Insoluble fibre

Vitamins and Minerals

Table 3. Compositions of cereal grains (Elgün and Ertugay, 1995)

Wheat Corn Rice Sorghum Barley Rye

Tocols, lipid-soluble antioxidants, are classified as tocopherols (saturated phytyl group)

Pascal, S. L., Segal, R. (2006). Phytosterols–biological active compounds in food. Journal of

IN VITRO STARCH DIGESTIBILITY OF SNACK BAR

Lee-Hoon Ho1,*, Norhidayah Che Dahri1 and Thuan-Chew Tan2

Green Banana Flour Preparation

Snack Bars Preparation

Table 1. Formulations of snack bars preparation

Ingredients Types of Snack Bar

Total Starch Determination

Resistant Starch and Digestible Starch Determination

Glycaemic Index Determination

Hydrolysis Index (%) = (AUCsample/AUCreference) × 100%

In Vitro Starch Hydrolysis

Hydrolysis Index and Estimated Glycaemic Index

Table 4. Estimated glycaemic index and hydrolysis index of snack bars

Samples Estimated Glycaemic Index Hydrolysis Index

Table 5. Sensory evaluation of snack bars

Parameter SBF0 SBF5 SBF10 SBF15 SBF20

BETEL LEAVES (PIPER BETLE L.) POWDER:

ISBN: H%RRN