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Hi t

I’m getting a real Native-

Spanish-Mexican-Anglo
vibe here!

This pueblo
is cool.

That’s right. Texas

and California, too!

So the Southwest
was once part of
Mexico?

LAND FROM
MEXICO
How the United States
Claimed the West
 January 2020

Disco er America
Discover Americann Histor
i tory

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 F EATU R E S A C T I V I T I E S
4 Gold’s Lure 37 Borrowed Words
by Diana Childress by Nick D’Alto

9 Rethinking a Holiday
by Andrew Matthews DEPARTMENTS
12 The Rise of New Spain 2 Getting Started
by Judith E. Harper 24 Did You Know?
by Chris Ware
15 From Tejas to Texas 40 Going Global
by Diana Childress and Meg Chorlian by Bryan Langdo
42 In Other News
20 Alta California Becomes a Sttate by Emily Cambias
by Will Bremen page 44 Freeze Frame
24 45 Your Letters
26 The Final Piece 46 Spotlight On . . .
by Andrew Matthews
by Ebenezer
28 A Famous Telegram 47 Dr. D’s Mystery Hero
by Dennis Denenberg
by Barbara Brooks Simons
49 Just for Fun
30 Neighbors North and South
by Kathiann M. Kowalski

34 Celebrating Our Southwest Heritage:

An Interview With Khristaan Villela
by Kathiann M. Kowalski
page
30

We discovered a
Mexican dessert
that you are going
to love!
What’s the
big surprise,
Ebenezer?

page
It’s the 28
Southwest’s
cool cousin to
the donut!
It’s called
a buñuelo!
 Getting Started
D id you know that the
Spanish arrived in North
America more than 100 years
Over the course of 300 years,
the cultures of the original native
inhabitants and the Spanish
stopped east of the Mississippi
River. But some Americans
believed that it was the United
before the English settled their conquerors in Mexico assimilated. States’ right to expand and to
first colonies in Virginia and In the 1800s, their Mexican settle the land from coast to coast.
Massachusetts? The Spanish were descendants fought for and won They called it Manifest Destiny.
the first Europeans to explore their independence from Spanish Claiming Manifest Destiny, the
Florida. They were the first rule. An independent Mexico United States went to war with
Europeans to walk across Texas. assumed control of Spain’s North Mexico in 1846. When Mexico lost
They were the first Europeans to American territory. But those the U.S.–Mexican War in 1848,
see the Grand Canyon, the Pacific claims were vast, and the borders it ceded more than
Ocean, and the Pacific Coast. And were undefined. 500,000 square
everything they saw, they claimed Around the same time that
for Spain. In fact, Spain once Mexico was assessing its terri-
claimed about two thirds of the tory to the north, the United
land that makes up the continental States was eyeing the land
United States. to its west. Officially,
Spain’s explorations of the the United States
then-uncharted United States
mostly were launched by land
from Mexico, which the Spanish
conquered in 1521. Spanish
expeditions headed northward
into the present-day American
Southwest. They reached as far
north as Northern California.
They traveled as far east as
Kansas. They also sailed
along the Pacific Coast
to Alaska.

Assimilated means
absorbed a minority
culture into a
prevailing culture.
Ceded means
surrendered
possession of.
A cession is a territory
that is surrendered by
treaty.

2
miles of territory—more than
half of its total area. The Mexican
Cession transferred Mexico’s New
Mexico and California territories
to the United States. They were the
last big sections of land to go from
Mexican to U.S. control.
By that time, the United States
already had purchased Louisiana
from France in 1803. It had
acquired Florida from Spain in
1821. In 1845, it had annexed
the Republic of Texas, which
had declared its freedom from
Mexico in 1836. And it had settled
boundary disputes in the Pacific
Northwest with Spain in 1821 and
Great Britain in 1846.
The Gadsden Purchase in 1854
resulted in the final transfer of a
small piece of Mexican territory to
the United States.
Within 50 years, the United
States tripled in size. Arizona,
California, Nevada, Texas, Utah,
and parts of Colorado, New
Mexico, and Wyoming all once
were part of Mexico. Even larger
portions of the United States
were once claimed by Spain. We
step back in history to explore
how that land transferred
ownership. e
3
G ld’s Lure
by Diana Childress
Barter is the act of
trading goods and
services without the
use of money.
Christopher Columbus convinced
the king and queen of Spain to
finance his trip to find a western
trade route to India.
he promise of gold and a
T sea route to India. Those
were the two main reasons
why Spain’s King Ferdinand and
Queen Isabella backed Christopher
Columbus’s voyages. Columbus
made four journeys across the
Atlantic Ocean between 1492 and
1502. He didn’t find a trade route
to India. Instead, he landed in the
Americas. Thinking it was India,
he called the land “the Indies” and
the people there “Indians.” And he
claimed the land for Spain.
Columbus also found gold.
Gold was discovered in rivers on
Hispaniola (present-day Haiti and
the Dominican Republic), Cuba, and
Puerto Rico. With money replac-
ing barter as a way to do business,
Europeans wanted precious metals.
Those Caribbean islands on which
Columbus first landed supplied
Spain with an average of one ton of
gold annually for many years before
the supply gave out. But the Spanish
rulers sought greater riches than
that.

The Search Continues

In 1508, King Ferdinand opened
the mainland of the Americas to
Spanish exploration, conquest, and
settlement. Conquistadors jumped
at the opportunity. Vasco Núñez
de Balboa had failed miserably at
farming on Hispaniola. To escape
his creditors, he stowed away on a
ship bound for the northern coast of
South America.
Balboa founded the first Spanish
settlement on the American main-
land—present-day Panama—in
1510. His tireless searches for gold
led to the discovery of the Pacific
Ocean in 1513. He also heard stories
of a wealthy nation with plenty of
gold that lay to the south. But when
a rival accused him of treason, he
was executed before he had a chance
to look for those treasures.
Also in 1513, Juan Ponce de León
sailed northward from the colony
he had founded on Puerto Rico. He
was determined to find a mysterious
land known as Bimini. The local
Taino people had shared stories of it.
Perhaps it was full of gold.
Ponce de León did not find gold,
either. His fame comes from being
the first known European to explore
Florida. But his attempts to colonize Native Caribbeans were forced
it failed. He was mortally wounded to work collecting gold for the
in 1521 after the native Calusas Spanish conquerors.
attacked and drove away the Spanish
settlers.
Hernán Cortés gave up a leader-
ship position on Cuba to lead an
expedition to the Yucatan peninsula
in 1518. When the plan was can-
celed, he defied orders and sailed off
anyway.
Cortés’s renegade exploration led
Conquistadors refers
him into the Gulf of Mexico and the to the 16th-century
heart of present-day Mexico. After Spanish soldiers who
he conquered the wealthy Aztec explored and conquered
the Americas.
Empire in 1521, he sent the Spanish
Treason is the betrayal
king more than two tons of looted of one’s country often
gold. He also sent silver, pearls, jade, by offering aid to an
enemy.
and emeralds.

5
 Francisco Pizarro had arrived
in Panama with Balboa. A decade
later, Pizarro acted on Balboa’s
information about a source of gold.
Traveling south, he entered the Inca
Empire in present-day Peru. After
failing twice to conquer the Incas,
he overthrew them and executed
the Inca ruler, Atahualpa, in 1533.
Pizarro sent more than 7.7 tons of
gold to Spain.

A Wild Goose Chase

Rumors of other gold bonanzas
dazzled men’s minds. One story told
of a land so rich that its leader was
ritually coated in gold dust. He then
dove into a sacred lake, while his
subjects tossed gold offerings into
the water. The Spanish called the
leader and his realm El Dorado— When Vasco Núñez de Balboa saw the
“the Golden One.” Pacific Ocean, he claimed it for Spain.

FAST FACT
M b off Francisco
Members F i
Vázquez de Coronado’s
expedition were the
first Europeans to see
the Grand Canyon.

Juan Ponce de León was

wounded in a fight with the
local Calusa people.
 Hundreds of men joined entradas
to find El Dorado. They crisscrossed
swampy plains and steep moun-
tains in present-day Venezuela and
Colombia. They fended off jaguars
and crocodiles. They suffered the
bites of malarial mosquitoes. They
fought hostile inhabitants with
poison-tipped arrows. They also
gathered gold nuggets and orna-
ments. But they did not find
El Dorado.
Seven Cities of Gold
In 1536, the viceroy of Mexico
heard about seven rich cities to the
north. He sent Friar Marcos de Niza
to investigate. Accompanied by a
native guide, the friar traveled as
far as present-day New Mexico. He
reported seeing many tall buildings
glittering with gold. He only viewed
the city from a distance because he
was afraid to enter it. His guide,
Estevan, called it Cibola. He said
that the other six cities were even
grander.
In 1540, Spanish conquistador
Francisco Vázquez de Coronado led
another expedition to find the seven
gold cities. He departed Mexico and
headed northward following De
Niza’s trail. He found a Zuni pueblo
built on a high bluff. At sunset,
it did look golden. But the Zunis
had no gold. They also denied the
Spanish entrance into their village.
The Spanish attacked and entered by
force.
Using the village as a base, Entradas were Spanish
Coronado sent out small groups exploring expeditions in
the Americas.
to explore. Coronado himself fol-
A viceroy is an official
lowed a guide toward the east. The
who governs a territory
guide told him that the cities he in the name of monarch.
sought were in Quivira (present-day A Zuni is a member of a
Kansas). That, too, proved a disap- native group who lives in
the southwestern United
pointment when Coronado found States.
only a small native village. A pueblo is a settlement
In the mid-1500s, rich lodes of multi-storied adobe
houses found in the
of gold and silver were found in
southwestern United
Mexico and the Andes mountains. States. A Pueblo is a
The mines provided the wealth to member of various
make the Spanish Empire a power-
Native American
tribes living in pueblo
ful international presence until settlements, mostly
in New Mexico and
the early 1800s. In the end, gold
Arizona.
mania resulted in the loss of many
Lodes are veins of
European and Native American mineral deposited
lives. It also increased European between layers of rock.
knowledge of the Americas. With
that knowledge came European
colonization. e
Light from the sun shining on a
pueblo may have made it look
Diana Childress is the author of Barefoot Conquistador:
Cabeza de Vaca and the Struggle for Native American like a golden city to Spanish
Rights. conquistadors.
7
 A Focus on Florida
pain’s expeditions to
S Florida in the early 1500s
made other nations aware of
Florida’s existence. In 1562,
Jean Ribault sailed from France
to attempt to colonize the
Americas. He built a fort in
present-day South Carolina.
It was abandoned within a
year. Ribault returned to the
Americas two years later and
built Fort Caroline in present-
day Jacksonville, Florida.
Word that the French were
attempting to claim Spanish
territory spurred the Spanish
government into action. Pedro
Menéndez de Avilés sailed from
Spain in 1565 with settlers and
The Castillo de San Marcos,
completed in 1695 and the oldest
and largest masonry fort in the
United States today, still stands
in St. Augustine, Florida.
by Will Bremen
supplies. His orders were to
establish a colony and push
the French out. He did both.
He settled St. Augustine and
attacked Fort Caroline, mas-
sacring the French defenders.
Today, St. Augustine is the
oldest continuously inhabited
European settlement in the
continental United States.
Control of Florida passed
into and out of Spain’s hands.
Spain claimed the area until
1763. Then Great Britain con-
trolled it from 1763 to 1783.
Spain regained control in 1783.
But Florida did not add much
value to Spain’s empire. In the
1800s, Americans began to
cross the border with more fre-
quency. They claimed parts of
western Florida. In 1819, Spain
was ready to give up Florida to
the United States.
The Adams–Onís Treaty
became official in 1821. In it,
Spain ceded Florida to the
United States. The United
States agreed to pay $5 million
toward Americans’ legal claims
against Spain and to recognize
Spain’s claims in Texas. The
two nations also agreed to
a boundary line between
the United States’ Louisiana
Territory and Spain’s New
Spain. Florida became a U.S.
state in 1845.
 Rethinking
a Holiday

Some Italian
Americans see
Columbus Day as
by Andrew Matthews a way to honor
Christopher
Columbus’s

C olumbus Day has been an official U.S. holiday since 1937. But some
people question the idea of celebrating Christopher Columbus’s
arrival in the “New World.”
That’s because of what followed that “discovery.” News of Columbus’s
voyages spread across Europe. It began the Age of Exploration. It led to
exploration
achievements.

many more transatlantic journeys from Europe to the Americas. Contact

between Europeans and native people led to deadly conflicts. It also
exposed the local inhabitants to European diseases. Native people had no
natural immunities to those illnesses. Nor did they understand how the
diseases traveled. Their efforts to flee from places filled with dying people
ended up spreading the diseases.
Just prior to Spanish arrival in 1492, it is believed that an estimated
50–100 million indigenous people lived in the Americas. Disease may
have wiped out 90 percent of them. Millions of indigenous people died
of smallpox, measles, cholera, and other contagious illnesses. Within
50 years of contact with the Spanish, the native Tainos, who welcomed
Columbus in 1492, no longer existed as a distinct group.
The Spanish also employed the encomienda system in their colonial
Indigenous means
holdings. The system “gave” conquistadors a specific community or num-
native or original to
ber of native people. The native people were expected to work for their a place.
Spanish overlord and to pay a tribute in goods or produce. In exchange, A tribute is a
the Spanish conqueror was expected to take care of his laborers. He was payment made by
an individual to an
supposed to teach them about Christianity and the Spanish culture. He overlord.
also was supposed to protect them.

9
 In reality, the encomienda system was a form of enslavement. Spanish
overlords terrorized their native laborers. Many native people died of over-
work in fields or mines. If they resisted, the Spanish rulers cruelly punished
or killed them.
After learning of the abuses of the encomienda system, Spain’s King
Charles I passed the New Laws in 1542. The laws outlawed slavery. They
stated that the native people were Spanish citizens and should be treated as
such. The laws also ended the encomienda system. But Spanish leaders in the
Americas refused to enforce the New Laws, which were repealed several years
later. The enslavement of indigenous people continued. As native people suc-
cumbed and died under the harsh system, the Spanish found another source
of labor: enslaved Africans.
The idea of celebrating an event that introduced so much destruction has
led to a rethinking of the October holiday in the United States. A few states
and a growing number of cities have decided not to observe it. They have
chosen to keep the focus on native people. They celebrate Native American
Day, American Indian Day, or Indigenous Peoples Day. Some of these remem-
brance days have replaced Columbus Day on the second Monday in October.
Others are observed on the fourth Friday in September.
Perhaps that is more fitting. For many years, history has portrayed
Europeans as the discoverers of the Americas. In reality, the first “discover-
ers” arrived some time between 13,500 and 16,000 years ago. Many of them
most likely migrated over a land bridge in the Bering Strait. That bridge cre-
ated a physical link—for a time—between Asia and North America’s Alaska.

ERIKSON WAS FIRST

C hristopher Columbus wasn’t the first European to reach
the Americas. In 1960, archaeologists found evidence
that Vikings had landed in Canada in the late 10th century—in
L’Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland, to be exact. That’s
500 years before Columbus. Led by Leif Erikson, the Vikings
sailed in their longboats from Greenland until they saw the
northernmost tip of Newfoundland. They called their colony
Vinland. They abandoned the colony after about a decade
and returned to Greenland. Some stories claim that they
found the native people hostile. That hostility may have
sprung from the fact that the Vikings killed some natives who
were found sleeping under their canoes. Other stories point
to evidence of a dramatic drop in temperature as the reason
for the Vikings’ departure. It got too cold, making life in North
America and traveling across the ocean too difficult.

10
Recent archaeological discoveries also point to prehistoric humans reaching The Mayas were an
the coast of Chile in South America even earlier and by way of coastal migra- advanced native Mexican
tion—traveling by boat. culture that built elaborate
temples, such as Tulum.
Over the centuries, those early inhabitants stopped wandering around the
continent and began to stay in one place. They went from being hunters and
gatherers to farmers. They began to grow food instead of chasing after it.
They built cities and developed complex, advanced cultures.
Archaeologists believe that the Clovis site in New Mexico is the earliest
known native site in North America. Recent findings at the Monte Verde site
in Chile have made it the oldest known inhabited site in the Americas. But
the list goes on. The Olmecs in Mesoamerica. The Mayas and the Aztecs in
Mexico. The Chavins and the Incas in Peru. The Mississippian culture over
large portions of the Middle and Southeastern United States. The Pueblos in Mesoamerica is a historic
geographic and cultural
the American Southwest. These cultures are just a few examples of the many area that extended from
Native American groups that flourished in the Americas prior to the arrival central Mexico southward
of Europeans. e
through Central America.

11
 The Rise of
New Spain

Within a couple of years of arriving in Mexico, Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztec Empire.

by Judith E. Harper

W hen Spanish conquistadores explored the land known today as

Mexico in 1519, they were dazzled by its riches. They marveled at
the majestic stone buildings that graced the cities of the Aztecs
who ruled the area. Beyond the cities lay fertile, irrigated fields lush with corn
and other crops. And marketplaces brimmed with a great variety of vegetables
and textiles.
Two years later, Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés and his men con-
quered the people and took control of the area in the name of King Charles
I of Spain. Cortés initiated the building of Mexico City on the ruins of the
Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán. The site that had once been an important Aztec
city became the most important European city in the Americas.

12
 Disputed
Territory
British Possessions

Columbia

Spanish
Louisiana Indiana
Territory

Snake
Northwest
Territory By 1800, Spain’s claims to

Misso
Pla t
te
Indiana
Northwest
Territory
land in North America were

uri
Territory
hi
o
at their peak.

ois
O

n
Illi
Arkansas
do
lora UNITED STATES
Co e
se

pi
es

ip
nn

siss
Te
Atlantic

M is
Red
Ocean
Mississippi
Territory
Ri
o
Gr
an
de

Spanish
Possessions Gulf of
Mexico
Pacific Indigo is a plant from
Ocean which blue dye, also
called indigo, is made.
Cacao is a plant that
produces seeds from
which chocolate is
made.
Cochineal is a red dye
At the time, Spain was the most powerful nation in Europe. In the years that that is extracted from a
followed Cortés’s conquest of Mexico, Spain continued to acquire territory. It South American insect.
claimed most of the Caribbean islands, Central America, and western South Peninsulares were
residents of New Spain
America. It seized part of Italy and sections of northern Africa. The European
who had been born in
Low Countries (the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg) became part Spain.
of Spain, as did the Philippines and much of Portugal. The Spaniards named
their new possessions in the Americas Nueva España (New Spain). New Spain
became a viceroyalty, which meant that it was a political entity ruled by the
Spanish crown. A viceroy governed it in the name of the Spanish monarch.
New Spain became the most prosperous colony in Spain’s vast empire.
Mining, in particular, brought great wealth to Spain. v was hig lyy
prized. Many countries used silver as money when tra g in
Europe and Asia. New Spain exported other goods, oo..
Major products were sugar, gold, indigo, cacao, vanil a,, DID
tobacco, cochineal, and chili peppers. New Spain
YOU
became an important market for Spanish goods as
KNOW
well. Spanish peninsulares wanted to live as they had
at home. They preferred Spanish foods, livestock,
clothing, and other products. (1754–
he Fren
when F
ra
ch clai
n
m ed L
ce lost ouisiana in 1
T ?
1763), the 682. B
Spain’s chief rivals in Europe were England it from it ceded the French and In ut
falling territo dian W
and France. In the 1600s, those two countries also under i n to British r y t o Spai ar
Spanis h n to
the Fre h co a n d s . Lo k
claimed lands in North America for their empires. nch (co ntrol from 1 uisiana eep
m 763 to w
The result was war—not just one, but several. (comin
g from ing from Can 1800. N as
Over time, fighting in those conflicts drained vast in Mex ada) either
land te ico) attempt nor the Span
rritory e ish
Spain’s treasury. So, too, did a rise in the cost of negoti
ated w . In 180 d to coloniz
0, Fran e the
goods. Defeat on the battlefield brought added wor- Louisia ith Spain to ce sec
retly
ries. By the 1700s, England and France had grown na. It t regain
to the h e n so c o ntrol o
more powerful. United ld the territ f
States or y
in 1803
.

13
 Criollos were
residents of New
Spain who had been
born in Mexico but
whose ancestors
were Spanish.
TOP to BOTTOM: Cacao,
vanilla, and chili peppers
were products that were
exported from Mexico to
Spain.
FAST FACT
SSpain
i did nott officially
ffi i ll
or diplomatically
recognize Mexico’s
independence until
1836.
14
In New Spain, the situation was com-
pletely different. The colony was thriving.
Its ruling class and landowners—the
peninsulares and the criollos—were
prospering. The native communities,
meanwhile, had mostly suffered—either
by being enslaved or by succumbing to
European diseases. New Spain had grown
able to supply its own needs. It no longer
depended on Spanish imports.
The French Revolution (1789–1799)
and the European movement known as
the Enlightenment in the 1700s caused Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla
shifts in politics. People in New Spain was an early leader of the
thinking their relationship with Mexican Revolution.
ain. The landowners decided
that they no longer wanted Spanish rulers or Spanish interference
in their trade with other nations. They also did not want to pay
xes to Spain. Gradually, the idea of independence spread.
Then, in 1808, startling news reached New Spain. French emperor
and military leader Napoleon Bonaparte had invaded Spain. Before
i n, he had forced Spain’s King Ferdinand VII to renounce the throne.
Napoleon
l then named his brother Joseph as Spain’s new king.
Outraged, the people in Spain rebelled. In 1814, they forced the French to
leave. They reinstated Ferdinand VII to his throne. Yet, all was not as it had
been before. Many Spaniards sought changes to the constitution that would
give them more freedoms. The result was a new constitution in 1820.
The years of chaos in Europe affected Spain’s relationship with New Spain.
For many New Spain residents, the time seemed right to seek independence.
Back in September 1810, a Mexican priest, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, had
issued a call for independence from Spain. He gave a speech called the Cry of
Dolores. The speech encouraged Hidalgo’s parishioners in the town of Dolores
to free themselves from Spain’s bad governance. Hidalgo rallied thousands of
poor people in an uprising, but the Spanish authorities had better-trained and
better-supplied soldiers. Hidalgo and other leaders were captured and executed
10 months later.
The call for independence was not completely silenced, however. Other
Mexicans stepped forward to lead the struggle. The fight to be free of Spanish
colonial control continued for a decade. In 1821, Mexico officially broke free.
At first, it established itself as an independent monarchy. Then, in 1823, 300
years after Spain claimed it, Mexico became the independent United Mexican
States. Its boundaries extended from present-day Mexico northward to the
present-day American Southwest and from California eastward to Texas. e
Judith E. Harper is a freelance writer who specializes in history.
 T
he republic of Mexico—

Tejas
newly independent from
Spain—faced some big

From
problems in the early 1820s. Among
them was not having enough people,

to Texas
especially on its northern frontier.
Mexico needed people to establish
settlements and to develop the land.
Where to get them was the question.
One answer was from its northern
neighbor. In the three decades since
the United States had adopted its
by Diana Childress and Meg Chorlian
own constitution, its population had
doubled to almost 10 million. After
the United States bought Louisiana
from France in 1803, stories about
the vast new territory pulled people
TEXAS THROUGH THE YEARS westward. People also were pushed
1521–1821 part of New Spain westward by crowding in the east
1821–1824 part of the Mexican Empire and rising food and land prices.
1824–1836 part of United Mexican States/Republic of Mexico Americans had already started
to cross the Sabine River from
1836–1845 Republic of Texas
Louisiana into Mexico. Some of
1845–1861 U.S. state
them were poor squatters
1861–1865 Confederate state looking for free land. Some
1870–present Restored to Union as U.S. state were pirates and smug-
glers on the wrong side of
the law. Still others were
military adventurers with
wild plans for starting
a new nation.
But those

15
 UNITED STATES
Alta California

Nuevo México

Sonora Texas

Baja California
Chihuahua

MEXICO
Coahuila

Nuevo Gulf of Mexico

Durango León

Pacific Ocean Sinaloa Zacatecas Tamaulipas

San Luís
Potosí Querétaro
Aguascalientes
Jalisco Tlaxcala
Guanajuato Yucatán
Michoacán Veracruz
Colima
Puebla
Mexican States Tabasco
México
Rebelling Mexican States Oaxaca Chiapas
Claim Made by Republic of Texas
Final Boundary of State of Texas

This map shows how present-day Texas emerged from Mexico in the first
half of the 1800s.

illegal immigrants were not what
Mexico wanted.
Mexico passed its first coloniza-
tion law in 1823. It provided for
empresarios (agents) to recruit
ts of any
live in
taxes for six years. Married couples
and self-supporting individuals
could become citizens of Mexico in
three years.
Mexico’s first empresario was
American Stephen F. Austin. Austin’s
father, Moses, had negotiated with

DID
he empre- Spanish authorities to become an
eceived empresario, but he died in 1821.

YOU ?
ds in the Stephen petitioned the new Mexican
of land. government to honor his father’s

KN OW r R
o
ené-R ort in
b e r t e law prom-
ed at least
contract to allow him to bring 300
American families to settle peacefully
p lo re t a f
, F r e nch ex S a lle, buil in g for th e 77 acres of in northern Mexico. The “honest,

I
16 8 5 d e l a n a im y
n
a li e r, Sieur e h a d b ee m i s sed it b and to each industrious farmers and mechanics”
t
Cav
e r n T exas. H pi River bu y e a r s . But armer and that Stephen promised were just the
a s t s ip r e e
south
e
f t h e Missis for only th l a ims to ,428 acres kind of people Mexico wanted.
h o e d h c
mout
e s . I t surviv ed to Frenc assert f land to Mexico passed a second coloni-
m il c e l in t o
400
ri e f e xisten p t e d Spa oast of ch rancher. zation law in 1824. It added some
t s b r o m n c
i
e x a s . That p he souther nd. comers did precautions to prevent invasions. It
t a
T
n t ro l over ic a’s mainl ave to pay prohibited foreigners from owning
c o A m e r
N or th
16
land near its borders or coast. It outcome of American migration to Rescinded means
reserved the right to stop immigra- Tejas. “It may be easily foreseen that voided or repealed.
tion from a particular nation. It if Mexico takes no steps to check
also put a cap on how much land this change, the province of Texas
foreigners could own. The new law will very shortly cease to belong to
left the appointment of empresarios that government.”
to each Mexican state. In fact, Mexico had begun shift-
Over the next decade, the com- ing to a less democratic approach
bined northeastern Mexican state to governing its provinces. It ended
of Coahuila y Tejas issued contracts self-government and introduced
for more than 8,000 families. military occupation. By the mid-
Although some empresarios were 1830s, Texians (Anglo American
Mexican and European, most were immigrants living in northeastern
Anglo Americans bringing settlers Mexico), had had enough. They
from the United States. They were joined with Tejanos (Spanish
eager to take advantage of Mexico’s Mexicans) to fight for independence.
cheaper land. Immigrants began to
outnumber Mexicans in the fertile
farmlands of northeastern Mexico.
The hard-working newcomers
improved the economy, but they did
not adapt to Mexican society. They
kept to themselves. Almost none
of the new colonists were Roman
Catholic. They did not learn Spanish,
and they considered Mexicans to
be inferior to them. Another source
of friction was the fact that many
U.S. colonists brought with them
enslaved African Americans. In their
eagerness to attract settlers, Mexican
authorities had not enforced the
country’s antislavery laws.
When the Mexican congress
ended immigration from the United
States in the 1830s, settlers still
came illegally. When the congress
rescinded the law in 1834, the
number of people entering from the
United States soared again.
French historian Alexis de
Tocqueville visited the United
States in the 1830s. He predicted the

Stephen F. Austin was the first

empresario to lead American settlers
into northeastern Mexico.

17
 Although the Battle of the
Alamo resulted in a victory
for the Mexicans, the Texans
turned it into a rallying cry
for independence.
Annex means to
incorporate a
territory into an
existing political unit.
18
In late 1835, the rebels forced the
Mexican military out of the province.
An army of about 200 men—Texians,
Tejanos, and African Americans—
seized the Mission San Antonio de
Valero (known as the Alamo) in
present-day San Antonio, Texas.
Founded in 1718 by the Spanish, San
Antonio had became an important
northern Mexico settlement.
In early 1836, Mexican general
Antonio López de Santa Anna and
his 1,800 troops lay siege to the
mission. When it fell after 13 days,
there were few survivors. The hand-
ful of nonmilitary people who were
allowed to leave fled eastward to
Gonzalez. Sam Houston, the new
general of the Texas military, was
gathering men there. The survivors’
descriptions of the Battle of the
Alamo and Santa Anna’s cruelty ral-
lied the Texians.
Hoping to gain time and gather
more men, Houston at first retreated
from any open battle. Finally, on
April 21, 1836, Houston surprised a
portion of the Mexican Army at the
Battle of San Jacinto. He captured
Santa Anna a day later.
The Treaty of Velasco ended fight-
ing in the war. But Mexico refused to
recognize the independent Republic
of Texas. Dealing with constant
threats of invasion from Mexico
and weak economics, Texans hoped
the United States would annex their
country. But Texas allowed slavery,
and slavery was a controversial issue
in the United States. Members of
Congress did not want to add a slave
state and tip the political balance in
the country to slavery supporters. It
also did not want to provoke a war
with Mexico.
Finally, in December 1845,
the United States admitted Texas
to the Union as the 28th state.
Congress’s fears of creating diplo-
matic problems with Mexico were
well founded. Mexico and Texas
had not agreed on the boundary
between their countries in 1836.
Texas claimed that the line was at
the Rio Grande. Mexico claimed the
line was further north at the Nueces
River. In late April 1846, Americans
moved southward toward the Rio
Grande and into contested territory.
That action provoked fighting in the The Alamo has been preserved and is a popular tourist destination in
U.S.–Mexican War (1846–1848). e San Antonio, Texas.

The Amazing Story of

Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca
by Andrew Matthews

F ifteen years after Juan Ponce

de León claimed Florida for
Spain, another Spanish expedition
sailed from Cuba for Florida. It
landed near present-day Tampa
Bay in the spring of 1528. Its leader,
Pánfilo de Narváez, had been
granted Florida by the Spanish
king. Hurricanes, a lack of food and
supplies, and conflicts with native
people took a devastating toll on
the expedition. Of the 400 or so
men that began the journey, only a
handful survived.
Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca was
one of those men. He was on one
of two makeshift boats that made it across the Gulf Mexico. Finally, in 1534, he and three other survivors
of Mexico to the east coast of Texas. After struggling started walking westward across Texas. Two years
through the winter, the few survivors were taken in later, they met a Spanish slave trader on the edges of
by the local Karankawa, who treated them as labor- Mexican territory. Cabeza de Vaca’s small group were
ers. Cabeza de Vaca lived with the native people the first Europeans to travel overland in the south-
for five years, always hoping for a way to return to western United States.

19
 Alta California
Becomes a State
by Will Bremen
This 1750 map captures the
Spanish belief—based on the
Baja Peninsula—that
California was
an island.
Missions were
religious outposts
established by the
Spanish to share
Roman Catholic
beliefs with Native
Americans.
20
A
couple of decades after arriving in Mexico, Spanish explorers
began to sail northward along the Pacific Coast. The first group
was led by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo. Setting out in three ships
in June 1542, the men became the first Europeans to see San Diego Bay.
The expedition continued beyond San Francisco with-
out noticing its bay before turning around. They
claimed the land that they had seen for the
Spanish Empire. They called it California.
Other nations also explored the west-
ern coast of North America. In 1579,
while sailing around the world, Sir
Francis Drake resupplied his ship
near Point Reyes in present-
day Northern California. He
named the land New Albion
and claimed it for England.
Neither the Spanish nor the
English established a colony
right away, however.
Two hundred years later,
Europeans recognized that the
Pacific Coast of North America
was important for trade.
Spain’s King Charles III ordered
Spain’s Alta (Upper) California
to be explored and settled. In 1769,
ships carried an expedition to San
Diego. There the Spanish founded the
first permanent European settlement in
California. Some members of that expedition,
led by Gaspar de Portolá, continued their journey
overland through California. They claimed present-day
San Francisco for Spain.
Spain built a network of 21 missions along the coast to back up its
claims to the land. Headed by Roman Catholic priests, the missions aided
Spanish colonization and converted the Native Americans to Catholicism.
The Spanish also divided the land into four military sections and constructed
presidios to oversee and defend them. But the Spanish
settlements were few in number and spread out over
large distances.
Before the end of the 18th century, both Russian
and American merchants also sailed along the
northern Pacific Coast of North America. In 1812,
the Russians built a fur-trading fort called Fort Ross
north of present-day San Francisco. The presence of
other nations in Alta California concerned Spanish
authorities. But Spain soon had its hands full with a
rebellion in Mexico.
After a decade of conflict, Mexico won its inde-
pendence in 1821. The new Mexican republic took
over Spain’s claims in North America. In 1833, the
Mexican government secularized the missions. It
encouraged large, privately owned ranches. But the
distance from Mexico to Alta California created problems attracting Although claimed by Mexico, Alta
Mexican settlers. California locations such as San
Meanwhile, some adventurous Americans crossed into Alta California Francisco were remote outposts.
from the east. They didn’t, however, submit official land grant applications.
Nor did they show any interest in becoming Mexican citizens. In 1846,
José Castro, the Mexican military commander in Alta California, issued a
warning that foreigners would be expelled and their claims to land nulli-
fied. Rumors spread that Castro was accepting delivery of 170 horses to use Presidios were
to round up the foreigners and force them out of California. fortified bases set
up by the Spanish to
A small group of American settlers decided to stop the horses from defend large areas
reaching Castro. After intercepting the herd, they brought it to the camp under its control.
of U.S. Army captain John C. Frémont. Frémont had arrived in the area Secularized means
earlier that year. With signs that a war with Mexico loomed, the U.S. transferred to
nonreligious use.
government wanted to be ready to act. In the mid-1800s, it took time for

Spanish missions, such as the

Mission Basilica San Diego de
Alcalá, were used to help the
Spanish stake their claim in Alta
California.

21
 German-born Swiss immigrant
John Sutter received a Mexican
land grant and built Sutter’s
Fort in Sacramento, California,
in 1839. Ten years later, gold was
discovered there.
The presence of the Russians’ Fort
Ross trading post in Northern
California concerned Mexican
authorities.
22
news and people to travel from one coast of the country to the other coast.
Frémont was part of a mapping party on an expedition in the West. He
became the leader of a civilian effort to take control of Alta California
from Mexico.
The United States had been trying to pressure Mexico to sell all of
its claims in Alta California and New Mexico. President James K. Polk
supported the concept of Manifest Destiny. He and other prominent
Americans claimed that the United States was meant to occupy and rule
the continent from coast to coast.
When efforts to purchase the land from Mexico failed, Polk provoked an
attack. He sent U.S. forces to a disputed area on the Rio Grande between
Texas and Mexico. Mexican forces attacked. Polk informed Congress of the
attack by saying that the Mexicans “have at last invaded our territory and
shed the blood of our fellow citizens on our own soil.” Congress responded
by declaring war.
Just two months after hostilities began in the U.S.–Mexican War
(1846–1848), the Americans in Alta California made their move. They
seized the lightly defended town of Sonoma in June 1846. Naming them-
selves the Bear Flag Republic, they declared
the region to be independent of Mexico. On
July 7, 1846, U.S. commodore John D. Sloat
arrived in Monterey, the capital of California.
Sloat had been ordered to be ready to seize
California once war was declared between
the United States and Mexico. Sloat’s fleet
in San Francisco Bay supported Fremont’s
efforts on land. Two days later, Captain John
B. Montgomery raised the U.S. flag in San
Francisco. All of Alta California soon came
under U.S. control.
Brief battles were fought in Alta
California. Most of the fighting in the war
took place in Mexico. On February 2, 1848,
the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the
U.S.–Mexican War. The United States got
the lands it wanted for $15 million. That sum was less than the sum Polk
would have paid at the outset. It amounted to slightly more than 50 per-
cent of Mexico’s land.
After the fighting stopped in
Just before the treaty was signed, carpenter James W. Marshall found flakes the U.S.–Mexican War, most of
of gold near a mill he was building for German-born Swiss immigrant John Mexico’s northern possessions
Sutter near the Sierra Nevada. News of gold at Sutter’s Mill drew tens of thou- (yellow) were ceded to the
sands of people to California. The flood of newcomers created an immediate United States.
need for an organized govern-
ment. In 1849, a constitutional
convention met in the capital
of Monterey to discuss plans
for statehood.
The United States wanted
to avoid any chance of
California’s becoming a sepa-
rate nation. Congress moved
quickly to accept California
as the 31st state in the Union.
Its statehood became official
on September 9, 1850. The
rest of the Mexican Cession
eventually was carved into
the states of Nevada (1864),
Utah (1896), Arizona (1912),
and parts of Colorado (1876),
Wyoming (1890), and New
Mexico (1912). e

WHY NOT BAJA?

S panish California originally included the UNITED STATES
present-day U.S. state of California and
the Mexican peninsular states of Baja California San Diego
and Baja California Sur. In 1804, the Spanish
split California into two provinces: Baja (Lower)
Baj

and Alta (Upper) California. During negotia-

aC

tions with Mexico after the U.S.–Mexican War

alif

(1846–1848), the United States wanted to Pacific

orn

Ocean
MEXICO
ia

acquire Baja California, too. Mexico refused to

include it. It did not want to be hemmed in by
the United States from the north and the west.
But Mexican leaders agreed to one compro-
mise: The slight angle to Mexico’s border with
California gave the United States the important
port of San Diego.

23
 ou
K no w
?
The Mayas of southern
Mexico and Central America
ground roasted cacao seeds
into a paste. They then mixed
the paste with a variety of
ingredients including water,
cornmeal, and chili peppers.
From that bitter, ceremonial
drink evolved our hot
chocolate!

Cinco de Mayo (the fifth of May) is a relatively

minor holiday in Mexico. It marks Mexico’s
victory over France in 1862. In the United
States, however, it has become a popular holiday
when people of all backgrounds come together
to celebrate Mexican culture and traditions.
24
 The indigenous people of Mexico were
the first to cultivate and cook wild
tomatoes. “Tomato” comes from the
Aztec word tomatl. Spanish conquerors
of Mexico introduced the vegetable to
Europeans. The English thought that the
bright red color of tomatoes meant that
it was dangerous to eat.

Mariachis are Mexican bands that

play a variety of musical styles and
instruments. Today, mariachi bands
often can be seen in the United States
at Mexican festivals and restaurants.
In their distinct mariachi clothing,
they perform as they roam around
crowds or among diners.

People often associate piñatas

with Mexico. In fact, those colorful
papier-mâché objects filled with
candy and treats and whacked at
by excited children were imported.
The Spanish brought the tradition
to Mexico in the 1500s. They also
discovered that the indigenous
people had a similar custom of
breaking a filled pot.
25
 The Final Piece
$
by Andrew Matthews 10 million for 29,670 conflict. Yet, Mexico and the United
square miles of land. States continued to disagree about
That was the result of the where the boundary was between
Gadsden Purchase of 1854. It was their two nations. The treaty stated
the final sliver of land to be trans- that the Rio Grande was the bound-
ferred from Mexico to the United ary between Mexico and Texas.
States. The treaty was less clear about the
Looking at a map, it’s not imme- boundary between Mexico and the
diately obvious why the land had newly created U.S. territory of New
value to the United States. The Mexico along the Gila River.
Gadsden Purchase’s story begins Another part of the Gadsden
The dark green color in the with the conclusion of the U.S.– Purchase’s story involves the idea
map depicts the land that was Mexican War in 1848. The Treaty of of a transcontinental railroad.
the Gadsden Purchase. Guadalupe Hidalgo had ended the In the early 1800s, powerful new
steam engines offered a promising
new method of transportation—
railroads. At first, short spurs
UNITED STATES of railways were tested in major
Arizona Santa Fe cities on the coasts. Then, longer
lengths of rail linked together cit-
Phoenix New Mexico ies. By the mid-1840s, Americans
Yuma Alamogordo talked of building the nation’s first
Tucson
Sierra Las Cruces transcontinental railroad—a route
Vista
connecting the nation from coast to
coast by train.
But members of Congress could
MEXICO not agree on where to build the
railroad. Should it be built in the

26
North, ending in Washington State’s
Puget Sound? Should it have a more
central route and try to tackle the
Sierra Nevada before terminating in
northern California? Or should it go
through the South? The flat terrain
in the South certainly offered the
least expensive route. That route
also involved a major obstacle. Not
all of the proposed path was in
the United States. A portion of the
southern route meant going through
Mexico.
Enter South Carolina railroad
executive James Gadsden. President
Franklin Pierce named Gadsden as
the new U.S. minister to Mexico
in May 1853. He was authorized to
offer $50 million for a large portion
of Mexican land including Baja
California. But if Mexican leaders
said no to that idea, a smaller strip
of land for $15 million would be
acceptable. The main objective was
to acquire Mexico’s Mesilla Valley
for the railroad.
Mexico needed money, but
President Antonio López de Santa
Anna refused to sell Baja California.
He did, however, agree to the sale
of land in northern Mexico. By the
end of December, the two sides had
negotiated the Treaty of Mesilla. The
U.S. Congress made some changes
to reflect a lower dollar amount and
a smaller amount of land and then
approved the treaty on April 25, 1854.
Southerners had hoped the
Gadsden Purchase would eliminate
the obstacle to a southern railroad Flat land
route. By that time, however, the certainly is
issue of slavery in the United States easier for
building a
made passing any laws in Congress
railroad!
impossible. The nation was dividing
politically into North and South.
The route of the transcontinental
railroad would bring jobs, money,
and people to the areas it went
through. Antislavery Northerners
refused to give up those benefits to
proslavery Southerners.
When the American Civil War
started in 1861, Southern states
seceded from the Union. As they
left, their politicians resigned from
Congress. The sectional obstacles to
passing laws were removed. In 1862,
Congress passed the Pacific Railway
Act. It promised federal support
for a transcontinental railroad—
Seceded means
through the middle of the country. formally withdrew.
The Southern Pacific transcontinen- Sectional means
tal railroad was built, too—in the related to a part of
a larger whole.
1880s. e
27
 A Famous Telegram
by Barbara Brooks Simons
M
ore than 60 years after the United
States and Mexico fought their last
battle over land, a new conflict threat-
ened the two countries’ relationship.
Americans read all about the
horrible fighting in World War
I in 1914. But they were safely
on the other side of the Atlantic
Ocean. That location allowed
them to stay out of Europe’s
problems.
Early in the war, the Germans
had introduced a frightening
new weapon. They called it an
Unterseeboot (“undersea boat”).
It was shortened to “U-boat” and
was also known as a “subma-
rine.” At first, U-boats targeted
British navy ships that had been
set up to blockade Germany’s
access to food and supplies. Then
Germany announced in 1915 that
it would start attacking merchant
ships that entered its war zone.
Merchant ships carried both
passengers and
Munitions are war
materiel, such
cargo.
as weapons and In early May
ammunition. 1915, Germany
The German bombing of the
Lusitania created tensions
between the United States and
Germany in World War I.
28
torpedoed the British passenger
ship Lusitania, off the coast of
Ireland. The ship—with nearly
1,200 passengers and crew—sank
within minutes. Among the trav-
elers were 128 Americans. It later
turned out that the ship had been
carrying munitions as well.
German officials did not want
the United States to join the war
against them. After some negotia-
tions, the Germans promised to
stop U-boat attacks on merchant
ships, and the United States agreed
to remain neutral.
From 1914 to 1917, fearsome
new weapons and new ways of
fighting killed or wounded hun-
dreds of thousands of soldiers in
World War I. By January 1917,
Germany was determined to end
the conflict. The British naval
blockade in the North Sea had
grown too effective. German
officials informed the United
States that it would renew unre-
stricted submarine attacks on
ships headed to Great Britain.
German leaders believed that its
U-boats could defeat Great Britain
on the seas within months. They
gambled that even if the United
States decided to join the fight,
the war would be over before the
Americans had time to aid the
Allies. U.S. president Woodrow
Wilson still refused to declare
war. But in February 1917, he
broke diplomatic relations with
Germany.
Then, a new threat was
revealed. German foreign secre-
tary Arthur Zimmermann had
sent a secret coded telegram to
Germany’s ambassador in Mexico
back in mid-January 1917. The
telegram presented a proposal for
the Mexican government: Mexico
should join Germany and form
an alliance with Japan to oppose
the United States. In exchange,
Germany would help Mexico take
back Texas and other territory
in the American Southwest that
had once belonged to it. Germany
hoped that while Mexico kept the
United States distracted in North ZIMMERMANN TELEGRAM, DECODED
America, Germany would defeat
Great Britain in Europe.
Berlin, 13 January 1917
Not only was Mexico not
Very urgent
interested in the plan, but British
naval intelligence intercepted (send with secret cipher)
and decoded the telegram. They
did not immediately reveal it for Most secret. Decipher yourself.
two reasons: They did not want
Germany to know its code had We intend to begin on the first of February
been broken. They also had to be unrestricted submarine warfare. We shall
sure that the Americans would endeavor nonetheless to keep America neutral.
believe it was authentic. They
wanted the United States to be
In the event of this not succeeding, we propose to
motivated to help in the war.
On February 24, the British Mexico an alliance on the following basis: Conduct
shared the decoded telegram with war jointly. Conclude peace jointly. Substantial
U.S. officials. The story of “the financial support and consent on our part for
Zimmermann Telegram” broke Mexico to reconquer lost territory in Texas, New
in U.S. newspapers less than a Mexico, Arizona. The settlement in detail is left
week later. When Zimmermann to your Excellency.
confirmed that he had written the
telegram, the American public was Your Excellency will present to the President the
outraged. Wilson had to take action.
above most secretly as soon as the outbreak of war
On April 2, 1917, the president
with the United States is certain, and add the
asked Congress for a declaration
of war. He told Congress that suggestion that he should, on his own initiative,
the United States had to “make invite Japan to immediate adherence, and at the
the world safe for democracy.” same time mediate between Japan and ourselves.
On April 6, 1917, the United
States officially declared war on Please call the President’s attention to the fact that
Germany. The telegram proved to the ruthless employment of our submarines now
be a tipping point. e offers the prospect of compelling England in a few
Barbara Brooks Simons is a freelance writer living in
months to make peace.
Boston but who always loves to travel to the other
places where history happens.

29
 Neighbors
NORTH A ND SOUTH
Refugees from the Mexican
Revolution in the 1910s head
for Marfa, Texas.
30
by Kathiann M. Kowalski
I t’s complicated. In modern times,
Mexico and the United States
have had almost a love-hate rela-
tionship. “On the one hand, the two
countries are close. But on the other
hand, they’re also distant because
there are big, big differences,” said
Richard Miles. He’s a former dip-
lomat at the Center for Strategic &
International Studies in Washington,
D C Here
D.C. Here’ss a look back and
nd ahead
ahead.
Looking Back
Even before the U.S. Border Patrol
officially began in 1924, immigra-
tion officials patrolled the southern
U.S. border. In 1904, officials
worried about Chinese people
coming into the United States
that way. Meanwhile, up to 16,000
Mexicans were working on U.S.
railroads during the first decade
of the 20th century. Hundreds of
th housands more people
moved north after a
m
revolution broke out in
Mexico in 1910.
M
Tensions grew
between the two
b
ccountries as political
upheaval continued in
u
Mexico. U.S. president
M
Woodrow Wilson
W
sent U.S. Marines
too Veracruz in 1914.
Mexico had wrong-
M
f ully detained several
UU.S. soldiers. Wilson
aagain sent troops in
1916 after Francisco
“Pancho” Villa
aattacked Columbus,
NNew Mexico. Things

settled
l dddown a bbit once Mexico
i ber
adopted a new Constitution in 1917.
Mexicans were largely exempt
from U.S. immigration quotas in the
1920s. Then the Great Depression
began in 1929 and attitudes
shifted. President Herbert Hoover
announced a program of “American
jobs for real Americans.” The gov-
ernment deported up to 1.8 million
people. Most of the deportees may
have come from Mexico, but a num-
UNITED STATES
MEXICO
Mexican workers helped build
railroads in the southern
United States.
b off the
h deportees
d were American
i Exempt means free from
citizens. any obligation.
In 1933, President Franklin D. Quotas are fixed
numbers of people
Roosevelt said America would be a allowed into a place.
“good neighbor.” But relations grew The Great Depression
tense when Mexico’s government (1929–1939) was the
took over the nation’s oil compa- United States’ worst
economic downturn.
nies in 1938. U.S. companies had
Deported means
invested money in those companies. expelled from a country.
But Roosevelt didn’t send troops.
Mexico eventually paid millions of
dollars to U.S. oil companies for
properties it had taken. And the two
countries fought on the same side in
World War II (1939–1945).
Beginning in 1942, the Bracero
program brought more than 4.5 mil-
lion temporary workers from Mexico
to the United States. Most of the
workers found jobs on farms and for
railroads. Yet, anti-immigrant feel-
ings surged again as Americans came
home from serving in World War
II and then the Korean War (1950–
1953). In 1954, President Dwight D.
31

Mexican laborers have filled
agricultural jobs in the United
States, working as seasonal
fieldworkers gathering and
packaging fresh produce.
The border wall has become
a controversial topic today as
the United States tries to find
ways to curb immigration.
32
Eisenhower’s administration began
Operation Wetback. The program
deported more than 1 million people
of Mexican descent.
After the Bracero program
ended in 1964, the Mexican gov-
ernment built factories in border
towns. The factories gave jobs to
many people. And low wage rates
attracted companies to Mexico.
Companies imported raw materials
from the United States. They sent
finished goods back. Both countries
benefited. Mexico made more
money after offshore oil reserves
were found in the Gulf of Mexico.
However, its government borrowed
heavily, so the national debt grew.
And income inequality—the gap in
income between rich and poor or
middle-class people—was a serious
problem in Mexico. The problem
grew worse as inflation rose and oil
prices fell.
Inflation also was a problem
in the United States in the 1970s.
Yet, Americans were still better off
overall. “Any time you have two
countries side by side in which
there’s a big difference in riches and
wages, you’re going to have people in
the poorer country trying to migrate
to the richer country for jobs,” Miles
said. The United States passed the
Immigration Reform and Control
Act in 1986. Unlawful migration
slowed for a while but then grew
again in the 1990s.
Worries about drugs and crime
have been another big issue.
President Richard M. Nixon’s
administration announced a “war on
drugs.” It began beefing up border
patrols and inspections. Money from
the drug trade fueled corruption in
Mexico. Crime and drugs remain
serious concerns for both countries,
although progress is being made.
Today—and the Future
Mexico lowered some trade bar-
riers and loosened government
control over parts of its economy
in the late 1980s and early 1990s.
In 1994, Mexico, Canada, and the
United States entered into the North
American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA). That treaty further low-
ered trade barriers. The countries’
leaders agreed to minor changes in
2018. As of 2019, Mexico was the
United States’ third-largest trading
partner.
Mexico’s economy improved
under NAFTA, and many workers
have returned there. Immigration
from Mexico to the United States
has slowed. Today, most people who
want to migrate across America’s
southern border are fleeing violence
and poverty from other countries in
Central America.
That situation presents tensions
for the United States and Mexico.
President Donald J. Trump has
called for a “wall” along the border.
Security experts say it wouldn’t Inflation is an increase in
really secure the border. Trump has prices accompanied by
a fall in the purchasing
also expressed various anti-Mexican value of money.
sentiments. Meanwhile, Mexican Antagonistic means
president Andrés Manuel López showing or feeling open
Obrador has expressed some anti- hostility or opposition
to someone or
American feelings. “Neither Mexico something.
nor its people is going to be the
piñata of any foreign government,”
he said during his campaign in 2018.
Both countries have leaders
whose political speeches are often
antagonistic. Nonetheless, the
United States and Mexico are mak-
ing progress. Communication and
cooperation take place at a variety FAST FACT
of levels, Miles noted. Overall, that’s Th GINI Index
The I d
good. measures income
“The neat and special thing about inequality. A 0 would
our relationship with Mexico is it mean a country had
touches the daily lives of more U.S. complete equality.
citizens than any relationship in A 100 would signal
the world,” former ambassador Earl perfect inequality. As
Wade said in 2017. Yet, even with of 2016, the World Bank
shared interests in trade, security, estimates that Mexico’s
and culture, challenges remain. GINI Index was 48.3.
That’s down from 54.8
Only the future will show how well
in 1996. The United
the two neighbors deal with their
States’ score was 41.5 in
differences. e 2016. That’s up from 38.2
Kathiann M. Kowalski has written 25 books and stories in 1991.
for young people. She writes often for COBBLESTONE.
33
 CELEBRATING OUR
SOUTHWEST HERITAGE
A Talk With Khristaan Villela
by Kathiann M. Kowalski
T he Southwest was once part
of Mexico. Before that,
it spent centuries under
Spanish colonial rule. And Native
groups have lived in the area for
thousands of years before that.
These roots continue to influence
the Southwest’s art, music, stories,
architecture, and other aspects of its
culture.
To learn more, COBBLESTONE
talked with Khristaan Villela. He is
executive director at the Museum of
International Folk Art in Santa Fe,
Khristaan Villela New Mexico. The museum’s mission
is to help visitors see folk art as a form
of creative expression and as a way to
find common bonds among people
from different backgrounds. Villela
also is the chair of Arts and Science
for the New Mexico Department of
Cultural Affairs. The Department of
Cultural Affairs works to preserve the
state’s diverse cultural heritage.
What sets the
Southwest apart
from other parts of the
United States when it
Demographics are
comes to cultural
statistical data related influences?
to a population. The demographics of who lives in
Cuisines are styles of the Southwest are distinct from
cooking.
many parts of the United States.
34
There are large populations of
Native Americans, as well as
Hispanic descendants of the Spanish
colonial settlers. Plus there are peo-
ple of Mexican descent who moved
more recently to the Southwest.
How is the way the
area sees its culture
distinct from citizenship
or national boundaries?
Both Mexico and the United
States as modern nation-states are
relatively recent additions to the
map. So is the current international
border. Hundreds of years of arts
and culture and language predate
Mexico here in the Southwest. There
are rich inputs from Spain, and
from indigenous people, as well as
from Anglo American settlers. A lot
of shared cultural aspects span the
border.
What is an obvious
way in which we see
that cultural heritage?
Food brings people together.
Enchiladas, tortillas, beans, and chili
peppers are all food of Mexican ori-
gin. Lots of regional or local cuisines
are ultimately related to Mexico. But
they look different whether you’re in
Arizona or Southern California or

A traditional Mexican dish, enchiladas
has become a familiar meal to many
Americans.
Texas or Chicago. Cuisines are living
traditions.
What’s a less obvious
example of the area’s
Hispanic heritage?
Cowboy culture in the Southwest
largely comes from Mexican and
earlier Spanish colonial ways of
ranching.
Why is it important
to preserve and learn
about buildings and other
sites that date back to the
area’s days of Spanish and
then Mexican rule?
They’re like time capsules. Buildings
such as the Palace of the Governors
in Santa Fe were built in the early
1600s. There probably were even
some foundations that were laid
before the Pilgrims landed [in
Massachusetts] in 1620. Those
buildings are the legacy of the
colonial period, of the struggles
of the European powers in North
America. They remind us also that
the Spanish and the Mexicans were
settlers here, just as the later Anglo
Americans were. And the first
people whose land this was, the
Olmecs and Native American
tribes, have not disappeared.
What should
people appreciate
about the Southwest’s
artistic traditions?
[Before Americans claimed] the
Southwest, the different native
tribes all had vibrant arts and
cultural traditions. When the
Spanish arrived in 1598, they An exhibition at the Museum
of Indian Arts and Culture
brought a whole other group of
highlighted the talents of
arts and culture. Some interesting
Diné weavers, who produced
blending happened.
complex saddle blankets.
For example, famous Navajo
weaving resulted from the introduc-
tion of Spanish sheep. There was
the introduction of some European
dyes. Silverwork also came from the
The Palace of the Governors
Spanish. The Spanish taught the
dates to 17th century, when
native Pueblo and Navajo people the building served as the
silver-working methods. So, you seat of Spain’s New Mexico
have parallel traditions. territory.
35

Porous describes
something that is easy
to pass through.
Curators at a museum
make decisions
about materials for a
collection and how
those materials are
interpreted through
exhibits.
Los Comanches celebrates
when Spanish and Pueblo
people came together to
protect New Mexican land
from invading forces, often
the Comanches. Performers
re-enact the Comanche
dances, drumming and
dancing door to door.
36
What
should
people
appreciate
about
stories,
music, and
dance in the
Southwest?
Some music and
dance traditions
in the Southwest
can be traced all
the way back to Spain via Mexico. Visitors to Santa Fe can browse a
Others can be traced back to Spain Native American market, at which
via Mexico with really significant native craftspeople display and sell
their work.
variations. That’s because they’re
being performed in a part of the
world where there are large numbers How do you see the
of indigenous people, who also have area’s cultural
traditions of music and dance and history as being relevant
folklore. The traditions are mixing. to current political
discussions about the
border?
Many people in the Southwest are
not migrants to the United States.
In some cases, their ancestors were
living here before the U.S. govern-
ment controlled the area. Some like
to say that they didn’t cross the bor-
der, the border crossed them. The
U.S.–Mexican border was porous
until the early 20th century. It’s not
a hard line, even today.
What do you love
about your job?
My favorite things are seeing what
the curators find that they would
like to add to our collections. I also
love when school groups come to our
museum. Sometimes, it’s the first
time a child has been to a museum. e
 BORROWED
WORDS
ave you eaten in cafeteria
coffee shop”)? ave you
swatted away a mosquito
m Just look at the names of a few
(little fly)? Have you ever seen an
armadillo (“little armored one”) or
an alligator (“lizard”)? Those are
all English words that have Spanish
origins. When a large section of
western territories in North America
became part of the United States in
the 1800s, more than land changed
hands. Many Spanish words and
phrases were introduced into the
American lexicon. Americans
still use many of those words and
phrases today.
by Nick D’Alto
western states. Montana is Spanish
for “mountain.” Nevada means
“snow-covered” or “snow-capped.”
Colorado translates to “colored
red,” which describes the color of
that state’s major river. For many
years, Texas was believed to have
come from tejas. And d that word was
credited to the Ca ho lan e as
meaning “friend.” A recentt s
points to tejas as more
m likely der ving
from an early S anish word for a
“bald cypress e
Borrowed panish words
also help u escribe the
western la scape.
The West t-
37
 toppeed mountains are roams freely in the wild is called a
c ed mesas (meaning
calle mustang. That word is a combina-
“tabbles”). Its deep val- tion of mestengo and mostrenco, both
leys with steep sides are of which mean “without owner.”
called canyons (from We also use Spanish to order
caañón, meaning “a now-familiar foods. For example,
ube”). On hot days,
tu barbecue comes from the Spanish
a cool breeeze feels delightful. barbacoa, meaning “meat cooked by
Inn Spanissh, briza is “wind.” fire.” Burrito means “a little burro”
A mor dramatic weather (donkey). Just as a burro
b can carry
vent—aa tornado—is scary.
event
ev many things, a buurrito can be fil ed
Itt evolved from two Spanish with many different foods.
foods
words: tronada, which means
w Today, these tw
w
wo-
“tthunderstorm,” and tornar, language words
which
w means “to turn.” highlight how
Words for other aspects English- and
of western life evolved from Spanish-speakingg
Spanish terms. Cowboy peoples inter-
comees
e from vaquero, which means
“cowboy.” English-speaking people
“cow
had difficulty pronouncing vaquero.
Theey used buckaroo. The cowboy’s
l sso comes from lazo, which
la
means “to tie.” A popular horse-
riiding contest for cowboys is the
roodeo. In Spanish, rodear means
“to go around,” which is similar to
how rodeo horses and riders move
in a ccircle. A bronco is a wild or
rough horse to ride. In Spanish,
bronco means “rough” or
“wild.” A horse that

38
acted as history brought them ¡HOLA, FAMILIA! (HELLO, FAMILY!)
n this letter, an American settler in the West writes to his fam-
together. Knowing the origins of
English words makes us savvy. Iily back East. Can you replace the phrases in quotes with the
words that Americans borrowed from Spanish to make the letter
That’s from the Spanish word saber,
which means “to know” or “to be complete? Answers on page 49.
well-informed.” Well, it’s time to
vamoose. Yep, you guessed it. That’s Hello from the Wild West! It’s been snowing a lot here, so I
another Spanish word. It means guess “the snowy place” (1) is a really good name for where
“leave quickly.” It comes from I am staying. I never imagined that I would mind cows for a
mos, meaning “let’s go.” e
vam
living, which out here makes me a “buckaroo” (2). I follow
Nick D’Alto
D escribió esto. That is Spanish for “wrote this.” the cows down into the “valleys with steep walls” (3) and
Both the
t Spanish escribió and the English inscribe derive
from tthe Latin word inscribere, meaning “to write.” then up to the “flat mountaintops” (4). I saw the strangest-
looking creature the other day. The people here call it a
“little armored one” (5). I am learning to do fancy tricks
with my “tying rope” (6). I have even entered a “horse-riding
contest” (7), where I attempted to ride a “rough horse” (8).
We usually eat “food cooked over a fire” (9). The weather
often is fine, with a “cool wind” (10). But you
wouldn’t want to see the dangerous “turn-
ing thunderstorms” (11) we sometimes
get here.
At first, I didn’t know anything about
this new land or how to describe it. But
now, I feel “well-informed” (12)!

39
 ING
B A L
GL o

y
La
anng
do
First People
r
by B efore Americans, before Mexicans, before

B Spaniards, different indigenous groups claimed

the Southwest as their home. Take a look.

The Hopis
Located in northeastern
Arizona, the Hopis are a group of
Pueblo Indians. They live in pueblos,
which are communities of dwellings
made from bricks of limestone or adobe.
The Hopis are deeply religious and follow
the Hopi Way. This philosophy encourages
peace, generosity, and a responsibility to pro-
tect Earth’s resources. Spanish settlers tried to
force the Hopi people to give up their religion and
adopt Christianity. In 1882, the U.S. government estab-
lished a reservation for the Hopis in Arizona. Most Hopis
still live there today. The reservation is surrounded by the
much larger Navajo reservation. The situation has resulted in
ongoing land disputes between the two Native American groups.

40
The Apaches
About 1,100 years ago, the Apaches
migrated from modern-day Canada to
New Mexico, Arizona, and Texas. Some
Apaches were farmers, but most were
hunter-gatherers. They raided Pueblo
villages and gained a reputation as
fierce warriors. For years they defended
their land—and their nomadic way of
life—against the U.S. military. During the
1860s and 1870s, however, many Apaches
surrendered and settled on reservations.
One Apache leader, Geronimo, escaped
multiple times from reservations. Leading
a small army, he led raids in both Mexico
and the United States. In 1886, nearly
a quarter of the U.S. army pursued
Geronimo. After a few months on the
run, he became the last Native American
leader to surrender to the United States.

The Kumeyaays
The Kumeyaays have lived along
the southwestern Pacific Coast in
California and Mexico for 12,000
years. For a long time, they lived
peacefully. They farmed corn and
other crops. Without a written
language, much of their culture was
passed down through song. In the
1700s, many Kumeyaays fell under
Spanish control. They were enslaved
and were forced to convert to
Catholicism. Control of their land
passed to Mexico and then to the
United States. With each change in
government, the Kumeyaays’s plight
grew worse. New settlers encroached
on their lands. Many Kumeyaays lived
as enslaved people. Eventually, the
Kumeyaays were forced onto reser-
vations, where they often lived in
poverty. Today, the Kumeyaays run a
large number of casinos.

41
 er
n e w s New world Players
S
tories about the 13 Original Colonies can make it seem like England
was the only European country sending settlers to colonize North
by America. In addition to England and Spain, several other nations vied
for territory in the New World.

as neW
When neW YorhkAmW
erica in 1609. D u tch trading co mpanies sent
trading
in Nort fur-
The Dutch arrived an . T h o se exp e d itions established
e Atlantic Oce
explorers across th
outposts along
the Hudson and
he
Delaware rivers. T
Dutch town of New
e
Amsterdam on th
island of present-
day Manhattan
Frigates are three-
enjoyed a huge
masted sailing ships natural harbor and
that carried about access to the deep
Hudson River. It
30 cannon.
New
grew to be a suc- e C ar ib b ean , an d North America.
th
l ce n te r o f trad e between Europe, d e d to se ize it. In August 1664,
cessfu h deci
w as so su cc e ss ful that the Englis T h e su rp rised city lead-
Am st e rd am ’s h ar b o r.
d En gl is h fr ig ate s sailed into the city o u t a fight. The English
fo u r ar m e nd e re d w it h
si d e re d fi gh tin g b ut ultimately surre
ers con
d it New York.
eventually rename

42
 In Dire Straits
In 1741, a Russian expedition
of two ships set sail from
the far edge of Siberia. The
ships were led by Danish-
born explorer Vitus Bering
and Alexei (also spelled
Aleksei) Chirikov. The
men were charged with
mapping the eastern
coastline of Siberia
and discovering where
North America lay
in relation to it. Bad
weather separated
the two ships, but
both sailed across
the Bering Strait
and along the coast
of present-day
Alaska. Bering’s crew
was stranded on an island for several
months, and Bering died there. The other ship and some sur-
vivors from Bering’s ship managed to return to Russia. They
brought with them sea otter pelts. Russian traders set out to
claim the new hunting grounds. Russia controlled the area Sovereignty is the power
that a government has
until 1867, when the Treaty of Alaska transferred sovereignty
over a territory.
to the United States.

Voyage of opportunity
The French focused their early explorations of North America along the St.
Lawrence River in present-day southeastern Canada. The initial New France settle-
ments were small and sparse. Most of the immigrants were men: missionaries,
soldiers, or trappers. Jean Talon, the head of civil administration in New France,
worried that the colonies were not growing fast enough. He proposed that King
Louis XIV send women. To his delight, the king agreed. From 1663 to 1673, 800
women—called les filles du roi, or “the King’s Daughters”—were given free passage to A dowry is an amount
North America and a dowry. The young women often were poor and without means of money or goods that
of support in France. Talon’s scheme worked. The majority of the women married in a woman brought to her
marriage.
New France and permanent families began to populate French towns.

43
f eze
e
fram

I n 1680, the Pueblo people in

New Mexico had had enough
of Spain’s cruel colonization
methods. They launched a
large-scale rebellion and suc-
cessfully pushed the Spanish
out. In 1692, the Spanish reas-
serted control, but the Pueblo
people resisted a return to
complete domination. In 1997,
New Mexico chose the Pueblo
leader of the revolt, Po’pay, or
Pope, to be the subject of one
of its statues in the National
Statuary Hall Collection in the
U.S. Capitol. The collection
includes two statues from each
state. Each state decides the
individuals they want to honor.

44
 R
E R S
LET T
Funky Fish

Amos, age 6
River Falls, Wisconsin

It’s Tax History Time

Asian Americans
The Roaring 20s

Draw a picture or write a poem or short essay that connects to

one of the above COBBLESTONE themes on which we currently
are working. All contributions must be your original work.
Include a note from a parent or legal guardian clearly stating:
“This is my child’s original work, and COBBLESTONE has
permission to publish it with my child’s name, age, and
hometown, in print and online.” We will include as
many as we can in the upcoming issue to which your
work relates. Mail it to the address shown here, or
email it to cobblestone@cricketmedia.com.

45
 lIght
Spot

on. . .
To Santa Fe!
r
eze
en

S
E b
by anta Fe, New Mexico, is sometimes called “the city different.” The city has
earned that distinction because it likes to do things in its own way! Founded in
1610, it is the third-oldest permanent European settlement in the United States
and the oldest in the Southwest. The Colonel, the squirrels, and I had a great time
exploring the city, which once was the capital of New Spain’s New Mexico province.
We visited the 400-year-old Santa Fe Plaza, where Native American and Spanish
markets capture the rich history of the city. Our favorite place was the New Mexico
History Museum in the Palace of the Governors—the oldest public building in
the United States. The museum has wonderful exhibits about the history of the
Southwest in general and New Mexico specifically. You can explore more about the
New Mexico History Museum at www.nmhistorymuseum.org and the Palace of the
Governors at www.palaceofthegovernors.org/index.php.

46
 . D’sy

FOR SOCIAL
er
Myst
Hero
erg
nb

JUSTICE!
ne
De
s
Denni
by

T his month’s mystery hero has been a leader in

the migrant civil rights efforts for more than
50 years. She worked side by side with a man
who became the symbol of the movement in the
1960s and 1970s. Although few Americans recognize
her name, her heroic deeds were just as valuable as
his efforts.
Our hero was born in 1930. She grew up in the
Great Depression, which was a decade-long severe
economic downturn. Her family was of Mexican
heritage and poor. As farm laborers, our hero’s
parents worked hard for low pay. When our hero
was three years old, her parents divorced. Life
became even tougher as she and her two broth-
ers lived with their single mother in Stockton,
California.
Our hero’s mother worked tirelessly at a
number of jobs to support the family. She
encouraged her children to work hard in
school and to be involved in activities. She
modeled kindness and compassion to others
as she helped community groups provide
for farm workers. That example showed our
hero the path to a life of service.
Our hero’s father was not directly
involved in raising her, but he also mod-
eled good lessons. He was a hard worker.
He went from being a coal miner to
a farm worker and a union organizer.
The people of New Mexico eventually
elected him to the state legislature. Migrant means a laborer
In 1962, our hero and Cesar E. Chavez who moves from place
organized farm laborers to form the to place in search of
work or better living
National Farm Workers Association. conditions.
The union made better wages and liv-
ing conditions for migrant workers a priority. It continues
today as the United Farm Workers. This month’s mystery
hero’s name should always be included when the story of
rg—
Chavez’s organizing for justice is told. Can you guess who
n n i s D e ne n be
r. De an
she is? Answer on page 49. o k n o wn as D s. For more th aking
ls e
a
“Dr. D”— ry and real he
ro a n d sp e s 4 u s
te aching, oe
loves h is to
e n writ in g ,
it w ww.her
s, he’s b e a . V is and
20 year ov e r Americ w in n in g book
ll award -
eroes a
about h r n a ll a bout his .
lea a rd s
.com to ir tue trading c
-V
his Hero
 We grow with you!

Save 25% off your subscription at Shop.CricketMedia.com/Try-Discount

 STn y ,
FoR
Fu H e
K i d s!
We’re looking for a funny caption for this photo. Send your
idea, name, and address to: Just for Fun, COBBLESTONE,
Cricket Media, 70 East Lake Street, Suite 800, Chicago, IL
60601, or email it to cobblestone@cricketmedia.com.
Include a note from a parent or legal guardian clearly
stating: “This is my child’s original work, and COBBLESTONE
has permission to publish it with my child’s name, age, and
hometown, in print and online.” If your caption is chosen,
we’ll mail you a copy of the issue in which it appears.

he E ve r y b o d
, w h at’s t huddle! m
y, tea
So lan?
p o, a g
e 11 Joey Cicio
n Yo t ts tte,
Ro b i s s a ch u se Ellsworth age 9

September Winners!
a , Maine
M
And over,

!
m e et i n g
ly
Fami ryn Startt, eaogregia
9

Ca m riet ta , G
Ma

Answers to ¡Hola Familia! (Hello Family!) from page 39: 1. Nevada; 2. cowboy; 3. canyons; 4. mesas; 5. armadillo; 6. lasso; 7. rodeo; 8. bronco; 9. barbecue; 10.
breeze; 11. tornadoes; 12. savvy.
Answer to Dr. D’s Mystery Hero from page 47: Dolores Huerta

Picture Credits: Cover Svineyard/Shutterstock.com; ii (UL), 5, 6 (B), 12, 14 (TR), 19 (B), 21 (T), 23 (T) North Wind Picture Archives; ii (UR), 19 (T) Kenneth Keifer/Shutterstock.com; ii (B), 21 (B) RCPPHOTO/
Shutterstock.com; ii (C), 35 (BR) stellamc/Shutterstock.com; 1 (TR), 31 (T) Courtesy of the Palace of the Governors Photo Archives (NMHM/DCA)014193, photo by C.G. Kaadt, ©1903); 1 (BR), 4,
6 (T), 17, 18, 22 (T), 28, 30 LOC; 2-3 Harvepino/Shutterstock.com; 4-8 (border) babysofja/Shutterstock.com; 7 Nick Fox/Shutterstock.com; 8 travelview/Shutterstock.com; 9 ProStockStudio/
Shutterstock.com; 10 Michael Rosskothen/Shutterstock.com; 11 DC_Aperture/Shutterstock.com; 12-14 (BKGD) Triff/Shutterstock.com; 13, 16, 26 (inset), 31 (B) Ad_hominem/Shutterstock.com;
14 (TL) Valentina Razumova/Shutterstock.com; 14 (CL) Valentyn Volkov/Shutterstock.com; 20 Steven Wright/Shutterstock.com; 22 (B) MightyPix/Shutterstock.com; 23 (B), 30-33 (BKGD) Bardocz
Peter/Shutterstock.com; 26-27 (BKGD) ratselmeister/Shutterstock.com; 26-27 (B) brinlietravels/Shutterstock.com; 28-29 (BKGD) PANGI/Shutterstock.com; 32 (T) David A. Litman/Shutterstock.
com; 32-33 Bill Lawson/Shutterstock.com; 34-36 (border) Diana Jo Marmont/Shutterstock.com; 34-36 (BKGD) Grey Cat/Shutterstock.com; 34 New Mexico Department of Cultural Affairs; 35 (TL) Elena
Eryomenko/Shutterstock.com; 35 (TR) H.C. Yountz Collection, courtesy of John and Linda Comstock and the Abigail Van Vleck Charitable Trust (9052/12), Courtesy Museum of Indian Arts and
Culture, photo by Blair Clark; 36 (T) rawf8/Shutterstock.com; 36 (B) Los Comanches, Ranchos de Taos, New Mexico, New Year’s Day, 2019. Photo by the author. Library and Archives, Museum of
International Folk Art; 37-39 iaodesign/Shutterstock.com; 37 (TL) ArtLovePhoto/Shutterstock.com; 37 (BR) lalito/Shutterstock.com; 38 (TL) Bill45/Shutterstock.com; 38 (CL) Johnny Adolphson/
Shutterstock.com; 38 (BL) Tom Tietz/Shutterstock.com; 38 (R) Y Photo Studio/Shutterstock.com; 42 Everett - Art/Shutterstock.com; 42-43 lpedan/Shutterstock.com; 43 Anton Balazh/
Shutterstock.com; 44 Architect of the Capitol; 46 Jimack/Shutterstock.com; 47 Music4mix/Shutterstock.com; 49 (T) Grigorita Ko/Shutterstock.com; 49 (B) Giedriius/Shutterstock.com; back
cover Vaclav Sebek/Shutterstock.com
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