14,
Nis
v6.
will
is forgetting; Ebbirghaus's curve of Forgetting, Types
of forgetting; Theories of forgetting—The trace decay
theory; The interference theory; The repression theory;
Summary; References and Suggested Readings.
INTELLIGENCE
Introduction; Defining intelligence; Theories of intelli-
gence—Unitary theory, Multifactor theory; Two factor
theory; Group factor theory; Vernon's hierarchical
theory; Guilford’s model of intellect; Conclu-
sion “about theories of intelligence; Nature of
intelligence; Effect cf heredity and environment on
intelligence; Distribution of intelligence; Individual
differences in intelligence; Intelligence and changes in
age; Intelligence and sex differences; Intelligence and
racial or cultural differences; Assessment of intelligence;
Individual verbal tests; Individual performance tests;
Group verbal tests; Group Non-verbal tests; Concept of
Mental age and 1.Q.; The constancy of I.Q.; The
Classification of I.Q.; Mentally retarded; Gifted;
Summary; References and Suggested Readings.
APTITUDES
Meaning and nature of aptitudes; Aptitude-Ability and
achievement; Intelligence and aptitudes ; Aptitude and
interest; Measurement of aptitudes; Utility of aptitude;
tests; Summary; References and Suggested Readings.
PERSONALITY .~
Meaning and Nature; Definitions: Distinguished
features and characteristics of personality;
Theories of personality; Type approach— Hippocrates
Kretschmer; Sheldon; Jung; Trait approach — Allport;
Cattell; Type-cum-trait approach—Eysenck's theory;
Developmental approach — Freud's psychoanalytic
theory; Adlers theory Carl Roger's Self-theory; Dollard
Miller's Learning theory of personality; Bandura &
Walters Social tearning theory; Assessment of persona-
lity—Difficulties in the measurement of personality
Observation Situational tests; Questionnaire;
Personality iventory, Rating scale Interview, Pro-
jective technigues—The Rorschach Ink-blot test; TAT;
CAT; Word association tests; Sentence-completion test;
Summary: References and Suggested Readings.
Glossary
Index
320
242
253
285
29914
INTELLIGENCE
Trour day foahiy eonveration we eflen comment that a part
cubic oll OF HIVATIAL by vory TIGHT ont Or possoases mere OF lov.
intelligence, Our all seh commonta are baved on the observation at
the performance OF bohaviowt of the tidividial concerned preter
ably iy comparison With others of hie owe group. The question atives
what makes an tidividial behave of portorm se well ar pootly, No
doubtinterest, attitude, desired Knowledge okil andl similar other
attributes count toward sueh performance or behaviour but sill thers
dy something loft that can weigh more. Li payohotogy the tern uved
is intelligence, Tn anciont India our geoat riide named Vi
Defining lutolligenc
Intelligence asa concept has boon understood in diferont ways
by tho dilforont prychologiits and sonsoquontly Chore stands a wale
varioty of dolinitions, Lot us start with the reproduction of a tow,
Woodworth and Marquis: “Latolligence moans intellect pur (0 Use.
It is the ase of intellectual abllition for handling a) situation or
accomplishing any task." (1948, p. 43).
Stern: “Intolligonco is a gonoral capagity of an individual cou
sciously to adjust his thinking to now roquiremonts. Ut is goucral
mental adaptability to now problems and conditions of lite.” (INE,
pd).
Terman: “Aw individual ts intelligent in proportion as he is able
to carry on abstract thinking.” (1921).
Wagnon: y intel gence Is tho capacity to learn and adit 0
relatively new and changing conditions.” (1937, p. 401).
Thorndike; Antelligenco may bo dotined ax “the power of good
responses from the point of view of truth or fact." (191).
Apart from the above given definitions, more of such detliitions
can furthor be chted. All those dofinitions, when taken separatelys
give an incomplete pleture because they partly emphasise that!
intelligence is the ability to learn
it is the ability to deal with abstraction,Intelligence 221
—it is the ability to make adjustment or to adapt to new
situations.
—it is the ability or power of making appropriate responses to
certain stimuli in a given situation.
In view of the weaknesses of the existing definitions, David
Wechsler, author of the adult intelligence test, tried to provide a
somewhat comprehensive definition of the term intelligence fy saying
that “Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of an individual
to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with
his environment,” (1944, p. 3). In his further attempt Wechsler also
provided a criterion for defining intelligent behaviour in terms of
the four characteristics i.e., intelligence involves awareness, it is goal
directed, it is rational, and it has value. Taking the cue from this
criterion Stoddard tried to define intelligence as “the ability to under-
take activities that are difficult, complex and abstract and which aro
adaptive to a goal, and are done quickly and which have social value
en sikichy lend to the creation of something new and different,”
1943, p. 4).
However, both these so-called comprehensive definitions have
also come under severe criticism due to difference of opinion among
psychologists.
However, leaving aside the nature of the terminology and
language used in defining intelligence, there seems to be some agreo-
ment among the psychologists as below:
Intelligence must be understood as the mental capacity or
mental enorgy available with an icdividual at a particular time
ina particular situation,
—This mental capacity helps him in the task of theoretical as
well as practical manipulation of the things, objects or events
present in one's environment in order to adapt or face new
challenges and problems of life as successfully as possible.
—Judgment about one’s capacity or fund of mental energy
available with him can only be considered in terms of the
quality of his behaviour or performance.
Keeping in view all these basic factors, We may have some works
able definition of the term intelligence as under:
Aoeltizence may be veparded aso sort of mental enerty (athe form of mental
ive abilities) available. with un individval to enable. him to bundle his
in terms of adaptation and facing novel situations as effectively as
Evaluating on (he basis of the above workable definition we can
call 8 person intelligent in proportion to his being able to use his
mental energy in handling his actual !ifs" yroblems and leading a
happy and well contented life, .2m General Paychology
Theories of intelligence
With the help of definitions, we are able to understand how
intelligence operates—what type of behaviour of an individual makes
him intelligent of unintelligent, But it does not explain what ts the
structure of intelligence or in other words, what are the different
components or, elements of intelligence. ‘The theories of intelligence
propagated by psychologists from time to time have tried to answer
this question. Below we examino some of these theories:
1, Unitary theory or monarchic theory: This theory, oldest in
origin, holds the view that intelligence consists of one factor
namely a fund of intellectual competence, which is universal for all
the activities of the individual.
A man who has vigour can move as much to the east as to the
west, Ina similar way if one has a fund of intelligence he can utilize
it to cover any area of his life and can be as successful in one area
asin the other depending upon his fund of intelligence, But in
actual life situations, the ideas propagated by this theory do not seem
to fit well, We fing that children who aro bright in mathomatics
may, despite serious interest and hard work, not be so good in. civics,
A student very good in conducting science experiments does not find
himself equally competent in learning languages, This brings us to
the conclusion that there is nothing like one single unitary factor in
intelligence. Therefore the unitary theory stands rejected,
2. Anarchie theory or multifector theory: The ) propagator
of this theory was E.L, Thorndike. As the namo suggests, this
theory. also named as atomistic theory of intelligence, considers
intelligence a combination of numerous separate elements of factors,
cach one being a minute clement of an ability, So there is no such
thing as general intelligence (a single factor) but there are many
highly independent specific abilities which go into different tasks.
In this way Monarchic and Anarchic theories hold two extremes.
Just as We caiinot assume good intelligence a guarantee of success
in all the fields of human life so also we cannot say which certain
specific type of abilities one will be entirely successful in a particular
area and completely unsuccessful in another, Actually Gardner
Murphy puts it, “there isa certain positive relationship between
brightness in one field and brightness in another and so on." (1968,
p. 358). This brings us .o the conclusion that there should be #
common factor running through all tasks. The failure to explain such
phenomenon gave birth (o another theory named Spearman's two
factor theory,
3. Spearman's two factor theory: This. theory was advocated
by Spearman. According to him evory different intellectual activity
involves a general factor ‘g’ which is shared with all intellectzal
activities and a specific factor ‘s’ which it shares with none.
In this way, he suggested that there is something which might b*
called genoral intelligence—a sort of general mental energy, runningIntelligence 223
through all different tasks but in addition to this general factor thero
are specific abilities, which make an individual able to deal with
particular kinds of problems. For example, an individual's perfor-
mance in Hindi is partly due to his general intelligence 2nd partly
to some kind of specific ability in language which he might possess
ie. g-++s1 or in mathematics his performaace will be due to g-+sz; in
drawing it will be due to g+-s) and so or and so forth. Tho factor g
(in lesser or greater degree) will enter in all specific activities. The
total ability or intelligence of such an individual (symbolized as A),
thus, will be expressed by, the following:
ots +2 tot... ed
This two-factor theory of Spearman has been criticized on various
grounds. The main reasons are given below:
(i) Spearman said that there are only two factors expressing
intelligence but as wo have seen above there are noi only two but
several factors (g, 51, 52, 53 +++. ete.),
(ii) According to Spearman each job requires some specific ability.
This view was not proper as it implied that there waz acthing com-
mon in the jobs except a general factor and professions such as those
of nurses, compounders and ¢octors could pot be put in a group. In
fact the factors 51, 52, 53, $4... tC. ate not mutua'ly exclusive.
They overlap and give birth to certain commoa factors.
This idea of overlapping and grouping consequently led toa new
theory called Group Factor theory.
4, Group factor theory: For the factors not commoa to all of the
intellectual abilities, but common to certain activities comprising a
group, the term ‘group factor’ was suggested. Prominent among tho
propagators of this theory is L.L. Thurstone an American psychologist.
hile working on a test of primary mental abilities, he came to the
conclusion that certain mental operations have in common a primary
factor which gives them psychological and functional unity and which
differentiates them from other mental operations. These mental
Operations constitute a group factor. So there are a numer of groups
of mental abilities. each of which has its own primary “actor. ‘Thur-
Stone and his associates have’ differentiated nine such faciors. They
are: .
(i) Verbal factor (V); concerns comprehension of verbal rela-
tions, worde arc’ ideas,
(ii) Spatial factor “S): involved in any task in which the subject
. manipulates an object imaginatively in space.
(iil) Numerical factor (N): ability to do numerical calculations,
rapidly and accurately.
(iv) Memory factor (M): involving the ability to memorize
quickly.
(v) Word Fluency Factor (W): involved whenever the subject is
asked to think of the isolated words at a rapid rate,224 General Psychology
(si) Inductive reasoning factor (RI): ability to draw inferences on
usions on the basis of specific instances.
c reasoning factor (RD): ability to make use of
olving ability factor (PS); ability to solve pro-
ndent efforts.
weakest link in the group factor theory was that it discarded
t of common factor. [t did not take Thurstone very long
to realise his mistake and to reveal a general factor in addition to
group factors.
5. This theory was propagated by G.H. Thompson, a British
vlogist. It assumes that the mind is made up of many independ-
nt bonds or elements. Any specific test or school activity samples
some of these bonds [1 is possible that two or more tests sample and
utilize some bonds, then a general common factor can be said to exist
m. It is also possible that some other tests sample different
amon|
bonds, then the tests have nothing in common and each is specific.
‘The sampli ‘ory seems tocombine various theoretical view-
points !
(i) It appears to be similar to Thorndike’s multifactor theory
excep! that he concedes to the practical usefulness of a concept
(ii) At the same time Thompson seems to maintain that the
concept of group factor (G) is of equal practical usefulness.
Vernon's Hierarchical Theory. British psychologist P.E. Vernon
suggested a hierarchical structure for the organisation of one’s intelli-
gence as illustrated in the figure given below:
> MUI
Fig.
Vernon's hierarchical structure of human intelligenceIntelligence 225
Consequently, as Vernon (1950) suggested we could think of mind
asa kind of hierarchy where 'G! is tho most prominent mental ability
(i.e. an overall factor measured through intelligence tests). Uncer 'G*
we have two major group factors, called Ved and KM, representing
two main types of mental abilities, Where the first major group
factor, Ved, is concerned with the verbal numerical and educational
abilities, the other major group factor KM is related with practical,
mechanical, spatial and physical abilities. These two major factors can
be divided into minor group factors and ultimately these minor
factors may be further sub-divided into various specific factors related
with minute specific mental abilities.
Guilford's theory involving a model of intellect
J. P. Guilford and his associates while working in the psychologir
cal laboratory at the University of Southern California developed a
model of intelligence on the basis of the factor analytical research
studies conducted by them with the help of a number of intelligence
tests. They arrived at the conclusion that every mental process or
intellectual activity can be described in terms of three different basic
dimensions of parameiers known as Operations—the act of thinking;
contents—the terms in which we think (such as words or symbols);
and products—the ideas we come up with (Guilford, 1961).
Each of these parameters—operations, contents and products—
can be further sub-divided into some specific factors of elem.nts as
@esctibed below:
J Operations UM Contenus MI Products
Evaluation (BE) Pigura! Factor (F) Units (U)
(i.e, concrete material
Convergent perceived through Clauses (C)
Thinking. (C) senses)
Relations (RY
Divergent Symbolic (5)
Thinking (D) material in the form Systems (S)
of signs and symbols),
Memory (M) Transformation (T)
Semantic (My
Cognition (C) (i.e, material in the form Implication (1)
of verbal meaning of
ideas)
The above classification in terms of the parameters and specific
factors can be represented diagrammatically as given on the next
page. \
In this way, according to tho model of intellect presented by
Guilford, structure of human intelligence can be viewed in terms of
the three basic parameters along with their divisions into specific
number of fictors. There could be 4x 5x 6=120 factors in all whichwb ‘ General Psychology
may constitute the human intelligence. Each one of these factors has
trigram symbol i.e,, at least one factor from each category | of the
three parameters must bo iecessarily present in any specific intellec-
tual activity or mental task. .
i
PRODUCTS
‘Systems|
Transformations,
SS
Implications}
Fig. 14.2, Guilford’s three dimensicnal model of tho
atructure of the intellect.
Conclusion about theories of intelligence
Each of the above theories of intelligence tries to provide a
structure of intelligence in terms of its constituents or factors in its
own way. The Unitary theory is right in claiming that intelligence
in its functional form is always used as a whole in the form of a total
fund of mental energy. However, for understanding what works
insidp one's intelligence we must try to build an eclectic view by
incorporating the essence of all the workable theories of intelligence.
Consequently, any intellectual activity or montal task may be adjudged
to involve the factors given below. These factors could be arranged
in hierarchical order as suggested by Vernon or in the form of somo
model as Cesigned by Guilford.
(i) General factor g (common to all tasks) as advocated by
Spearman in his two factor theory.dntells
(i) Group factor 'G' (common to the take bel
specific group) as advocated by Thurstone and «
Group factor theory.
(iii) Specitic factors sy. 9, fe. (Vory specific Co the task as adver
cated by Thorndike in his multifactor theory),
ers in the
Nature of intelligence
The problem regarding the identification of the true nature of
intelligence can be solved by taking into consideration the different
aspects given below:
~Defining intelligence for the understanding of its im
Discussing various theories explaining its str
of various constitutes or factors.
—Deseribing various other aspects and characteristics related to
intelligence and its functioning.
Wo have already covered the first (wo points, above in the
present chapter, let us now concentrate briefly on the last point
through the headings mentioned below:
minis
wo in terms
The effect of heredity and environment on intelligence
The relative importance of nature and nurture has been investi-
gated by different sociolcgists and psychologists, The conclusion of
their studies reveals that intelligence is the product of heredity and
environment. Both are necessary for the intellectual growth of an
individual, and one cannot be considered more essential than the
other,
Distribution of Intelligence: The distribution of intelligence is not
uniform among the human beings. It resembles the distribution of
health, wealth, beauty and similar other characteristics. It is a
normal dis'ribution that is governed by a definite principle which
states that the majority of the people are at the average, a few very
bright and a few very dull.
Individual Difference in intelligence: There exists wide individual
differences among individuals with regard to intelligence. ‘Truly
speaking, no one of us even the identical twins or the individuals
nurtured almost in similar environments have equal amount of
mental energy flowing ir them, The assessment of intelligence through
various tests has given use ough ground to believe that not only the
intelligence varies from indivi>-al to individual bu; in {he saine indi-
vidual from age to age and on to situation,
Intelligence and Changes in age: As the child grows in age, so
does tho intelligence as shown by intelligence tests. Now the ques.ion
arises—at what age does this increase cease? The age of cessatio. of
mental growth varies from individuul to individual, However ia a
siajority of cases, intelligence reaches its maximum, somewha' at
the age of 16 to 20 in tho individual, After that the vertical growih
au