Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 35 (2021) 100392

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Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jort

Correlates of crime and environmental design in a Nigerian international

tourist attraction site
Adewumi I. Badiora *, Olanrewaju T. Dada, Temitope M. Adebara
Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Nigeria

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study evaluates crime and safety provisions (in line with Crime Prevention through Environmental Design
Crime concentration [CPTED]) and identifies elements of environmental design that correlate crime incidences at a Nigerian tourist
Tourist site site. The study approach consisted of two steps: the on-site assessment of CPTED and an appraisal of crime in­
Environmental design
cidences over a period of time. The on-site assessment was designed based on the international CPTED audit and
Security
Nigeria
site assessment specifications while crime incidences were collated from accessible information. Findings show
that CPTED strategies (surveillance, access control, territoriality, activity support and image-maintenance) were
applied on the site. Nevertheless, different places in the site did not meet CPTED standards except for activity
support. Findings show notable spatial pattern variation in crime rate and this variation differs with regard to
crime type and the varying environmental characteristics of the study area. Furthermore, significant relation­
ships were observed for surveillance and theft; access control and robbery, fights, vandalism as well as theft;
territoriality and robbery as well as fights and vandalism; activity support and theft. Findings show that there is
still much to be done regarding environmental design elements on the site. Therefore, recommendations and
future research implications are discussed. In a novel approach, this study builds on existing literature from an
African perspective by conducting an on-site assessment of CPTED strategies on a foremost Nigerian tourist
destination and possible links with crime.

Management implications
The study assesses crime patterns and determines whether a tourist
site meets safety standards according to Crime Prevention through
Environmental Design [CPTED] in Nigeria. The findings highlight that
environmental design attributes are important to understand crime
patterns and criminal behaviour in urban tourist sites. For urban plan­
ning and the management of tourist sites, it is important to know that
crime concentrates with notable spatial variation in rate and type.
Hence, the tactics to make the site more secured should be guided by
that variation. Furthermore, CPTED strategies such as surveillance, ac­
cess control, territoriality and activity support are influencing the crime
situation. Finally, the paper highlights the influence of design and the
environmental attributes of a tourist site and articulates what needs to
be done regarding environmental design elements on the site.
1. Introduction
Recently, the Oversees Security Advisory Council ([OSAC], 2019)
indicated that Nigeria has an exceptionally high level of violent crime
(such as kidnapping, homicide, robbery, revolts, bombing, drug and
human trafficking) compared with those in a number of countries in
Africa, Latin and North America, Asia as well as Europe. Similar findings
had earlier been submitted by the World Bank (2010), which indicates
that by all criteria, Nigeria is a home to a substantial network of orga­
nized crime. Furthermore, the indecorous broadcast of crime events in
the national and international news media may have also blotted
Nigeria’s image as an international tourist destination (Hammett, 2014).
These can cause tourists to dislike Nigerian destinations and, in extreme
cases, strengthen their decisions against any trips to the country. While
some of these crime problems are undeniable, this is not to say however,
that all places in Nigeria are home to crime or that this criminal
behaviour takes place often time in the country. Giving these verities
and the fact that some locations are relatively stable in terms of the rate
and complexity of crime (Badiora & Ntammak, 2017), the acknowl­
edgement of a confident depiction to potential tourists cannot be dis­
regarded. More so, Michalko (2004) cautions that it is imperative to
analyze a generalised picture of safety in terms of tourists’ exposure to

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: wumibadiora@gmail.com, adewumi.badiora@oouagoiwoye.edu.ng (A.I. Badiora).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jort.2021.100392
Received 4 May 2020; Received in revised form 13 February 2021; Accepted 18 March 2021
Available online 10 May 2021
2213-0780/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A.I. Badiora et al.
crime since the internal structure of crime varies within and between
countries. Hence, this paper provides the Nigerian experience.
However, explicit and undeniable within the global safety concept
are the daily interactions occurring between people and their environ­
ment. As Boakye (2012) and George (2012) have referred to in their
works, the way in which tourists perceive the environmental design of
the destination (and resulting interactions occurring) may serve to
explain how safe tourists feel while visiting. To date, however, a dearth
of research exists on how environmental design of tourist sites shapes
crime events within and around destinations in sub-Saharan Africa,
particularly Nigeria. There is no doubt that studies have identified
socio-economic variables as motivations for crime at tourist destina­
tions. In Nigeria for instance, Omisore, Badiora, and Fadoyin (2016)
examined crime prevalence at a tourist site and found out that the rates
of victimization differ significantly as reflected by the socio-economic
characteristics of the tourists. Similar findings have been found else­
where (Barker, Page, & Meyer, 2002; George, 2003; Tarlow, 2009;
Woosnam, Shafer, Scott & Timothy, 2015). Nonetheless, all these studies
did not examine environmental design of tourist destinations as it affects
crime incidences. Few studies which have highlighted the importance of
environmental design in tourist destinations (Hall, Timothy, & Duval,
2004; Harper, 2006; Maruthaveeran & Van den Bosch, 2015) are
experimental and perception surveys mostly carried out in western
countries. Hitherto, there is paucity of research that is designed to
measure objective insecurity (crime data) and underlines the impor­
tance of environmental design in explaining crime cases with an on-site
study conducted in a sub-Saharan tourist destination, particularly in
Nigeria.
Environmental design supports Crime Prevention through Environ­
mental Design (CPTED) strategies (Armitage, 2016; Atlas, 2013; Crowe,
2013; Jeffery, 1971). The process of including security into urban
planning and architecture is known as CPTED, and it is based on the
proposition that the appropriate design and application of the built and
surrounding environment can improve the quality of life by deterring
crime. According to Ekblom (2013), CPTED is more than traditional
security tools in urban planning such as building of fences, walls,
installation of alarms, as well as stationing guards on the streets. How­
ever, CPTED focuses more on urban design and architectural security
strategies, such as surveillance, access control, territorial reinforcement,
maintenance and activity support. CPTED is often used to repair public
places that suffer from crime. For example, governments in Nigeria have
carried out regeneration projects to improve the physical environment
of tourist places. Since most public places in Nigeria suffer insecurity
problems (Badiora & Ntammak, 2017), physical restoration usually in­
corporates CPTED to reduce crime and, thus, improve users’ sense of
safety. However, the effectiveness and efficiency of CPTED imple­
mentation in deterring crime in Nigerian public places is still disputed by
urban design and planning experts (Agbola, 1997; Badiora, 2016).
Although many studies have assessed CPTED in relation to objective
and subjective crime events, most previous studies have evaluated this
at the neighbourhood level (Abdullah, Marzbali, & Tilaki, 2013; Marz­
bali, Abdullah, Razak, & Tilaki, 2012), recreation centres (Odufuwa,
Badiora, Olaleye, Akinlotan, & Adebara, 2019; Turkseven-Dogrusoy &
Zengel 2017), business and shopping centres (Badiora & Odufuwa,
2019; Ceccato, 2016; Ceccato & Tcacencu, 2018) and transport places
(Ceccato, 2019; Ceccato & Pazl, 2017; Cozens, 2015; Delbosc & Currie,
2012). CPTED measures are used in different places within tourist sites
and this calls for a concise assessment. Additionally, no study has done
an on-site assessment to determine whether the CPTED strategies are
met in a tourist destination. Therefore, this study is aimed at analysing
how CPTED measures such as access control, activity support and
maintenance among others, influence crime by objectively assessing
CPTED approaches and crime at a travel location level in Nigeria.
Accordingly, this study provides answers to the following questions:
Does the tourist site meet reasonable safety and security standards ac­
cording to CPTED strategies? What are the types, characteristics and
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Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 35 (2021) 100392
pattern of crime on and around the tourist site? What elements of the
environmental design (according to CPTED approaches) have impacted
crime in the study area?
To attain this aim and answer these questions, this study is divided
into phases. First is the on-site assessment regarding CPTED practices on
the site. For this, the survey is designed based on the literature and in­
ternational CPTED audit and site assessment specifications. The survey
questionnaire is divided into five blocks of CPTED strategies: surveil­
lance; access control (and target hardening); territoriality (territorial
reinforcement); image management (maintenance) and activity support.
In the survey, many questions are designed to assess elements of land­
scape (trees, bushes, and others) and surrounding environment (fences,
gates, pathways and others), as well as lighting (brightness, color, illu­
mination, height of pole, lighting at different site areas and elements and
others. The second phase consists of crime incidences identified in the
study area from January to December 2018. The last phase deals with
the identification of factors of environmental design that affect crime on
the site.
This study will provide insights into crime and safety patterns as well
as the effective use of CPTED strategies with a view to achieving safe
tourist locations that would encourage holidaymakers. Through this
research, it is hoped that findings will provide further input towards
enhancing the physical and environmental design aspects of the tourist
destination. In addition to providing an outlook of Nigeria regarding the
crime and safety in an international tourist site, this study is also helpful
in contributing to academic literature on the less-considered area of
leisure industry in sub-Saharan Africa. The rest of this article contains a
review of relevant literature, the methodology of the study, results and
discussion of findings. The paper concludes with recommendations for
tourist destinations planning and design as well as suggestions for future
research directions.
2. Literature overview
In order to understand the focus of this study, it is important to
briefly acknowledge some relevant literature in this section.
2.1. Tourist sites and crime pattern theory
In their work on crime pattern, Patricia and Paul Brantingham
(1995) define the types of problem places. The first category of place is
the crime generator. This is a location that takes people with no criminal
intention and converts them into intending criminals. An example of a
crime generator could be a bar, restaurants, or a pub, where the presence
of alcohol makes people more likely to commit crimes and the presence
of drunken bystanders with cash on hand makes for easy targets.
Research on sporting event arenas/stadiums and theme parks have
found that their presence and events contribute to crime occurrence
(Vandeviver, Bernasco & Daele, 2019). Crime generators create con­
centrations of targets that could tempt both residents and tourists to
criminal opportunities at those locations (Drawve, Kennedy, & Caplan,
2020). Residents are less likely to become victims because they know the
spatial structure of their city/place of residence and can avoid these
places.
The second type of place is a crime attractor, which is a location that
draws in individuals specifically intending to commit a crime. Bran­
tingham and Brantingham (1995) highlight the importance of offenders’
personal past histories attracting them to certain locations for crime
opportunities. These types of spaces see high crime rates due to the
routine presence of particularly easy targets and a lack of guardianship.
A crime attractor could be a mall, where an intending thief knows he can
steal something, or a sport arena, where distracted crowds make for easy
pickpocketing.
The third type of location is a fear generator that leads individuals to
believe that they are in danger of being victimized. A fear generator
could be any graffiti-covered passage that in reality poses no threat.
A.I. Badiora et al.
Finally, there are crime-neutral places, which see little or no crime
events. This could be just about any area that is low in crime (Bran­
tingham, & Brantingham. 2003; Drawve et al. 2020).
Studies have explored the reasons why some tourist resorts and
tourists are at risk (Mawby, 2010, 2011, 2014; Brantingham & Bran­
tingham, 1995; Barker & Page 2002; Drawve et al. 2020; George, 2003;
Hodgkinsoi & Tilley, 2007). Central to all these studies are four scopes:
rewards, justifiability of target, guardianship and accessibility (Mawby,
2011). In terms of reward, Drawve et al. (2020) identify a tourist
destination with a large number and high turnover of tourists as possible
crime generator and attractors at least for property offences. Thus, in
countries where tourists are relatively affluent in relation to the indig­
enous population, they might be especially at risk from robbery, theft or
kidnapping. Brantingham and Brantingham (1995) discuss the nature of
tourist destinations attracting large numbers of people including of­
fenders and victims as one of the main reasons for the quite high crime in
tourist areas. In similar view, Cohen (1997) explains that crime is
affected by the very nature of tourism since a large number of foreigners
are staying in relatively informal, unstructured situations. Thus, tourists
might be more at risk due to low levels of guardianship. This applies to at
least three levels: self, community and formal (public or private)
guardianship. In terms of self-guardianship, tourists in general display
far less concern to minimize risk than they would at home (Mawby,
2014). At the same time, the ability of tourists to rely on others to
provide guardianship is restricted since a high turnover of tourists will
reduce the ability of neighbors to act as guardians and self-police their
environment (Stangeland, 1998); and tourists may be outside the
routine policing arrangements adopted by the public police (Mawby,
2014).
Tourist sites also tend to attract events associated with certain crimes
such as drug and alcohol and associated anti-social behaviour. Tourist
sites possess many characteristics that make them progressively
dangerous places and scholars have debated various features and how
this relates to higher risks of victimization. For instance, Mawby (2010;
2014) argues that the attraction of large numbers of tourists for short
periods, transitory populations of tourists and personnel, high levels of
anonymity, high spending, and the open accessibility as parts of a
certain tourism culture heighten the risk of victimization. Tourists may
be considered justifiable targets when offenders are able to neutralize
their victim’s status (Mawby, 2014). Most times, tourists are easily
identified as strangers from obvious signs of wealth and sightseeing
(Drawve et al. 2020; Hodgkinsoi & Tilley, 2007). For instance, they do
not speak the local language; they are seen with large amounts of
money; they use maps or ask directions; and they appear less confident
of their surroundings (Ryan, 1993). When unfamiliar with an environ­
ment, a person’s fear is increased and they feel less secure and
emotionally stable, which could be well evident in their non-verbal
behaviour (Lynch, 1960). To the offender, a stranger may therefore be
very conspicuous and recognized as an ‘out-of-place’, especially if the
criminal is within his well-known space (Drawve et al. 2020). Some
tourist sites are more vulnerable to crime than others (Barker et al.
2002); particularly, those with high tourist inflow (George, 2003;
Pearce, 1982) and where social disorganization and classification is
more pronounced (George, 2003; Olsen & Pizam, 1999). Accessibility
denotes the degree to which the offender has easy access. It may be
physical (e.g. no barriers restriction) or social (e.g. offender lives near
tourist sites). Holiday lodging may not incorporate safes or security
locks on doors, and where this stimulates tourists to carry valuables on
their persons, their risk of street crimes increases (Mawby, 2014). Be­
sides, tourists may become more accessible targets because their routine
activities (which to a large extent may be a matter of choice, for example
prioritization of leisure facilities and the night-time economy) bring
them into crime hotspots or close proximity to offenders (Drawve et al.
2020).
To this end, a useful framework derived from Patricia and Paul
Brantingham’s crime pattern theory and subsequent explorations of this
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Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 35 (2021) 100392
concept is the Problem Analysis Triangle (PAT). This framework upholds
the principles that any crime requires a victim, an offender and a loca­
tion (or place) that makes it possible. However, a crime can be averted
by eliminating or adapting one of these key elements (Armitage, 2016).
For instance, if a place (e.g. tourist site) was adopted or controlled, the
opportunity for crime to occur in that tourist site would be reduced.
Hence, environmental design is one of the common approaches used to
prevent crime in crime-prone places such as tourist sites.
2.2. CPTED and tourist sites
Supporting the PAT perspective, Jacobs, 1961 posits that building
types, architectural designs and environmental features influence what
occurs in them and their immediate surroundings. This is because the
social interactions that these environments encourage (or attract) at a
particular spot are fundamental in turning these facilities from safe to
unsafe (Jacobs, 1961; Newman, 1972). These ideas stimulate what is
known as Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (Cozens,
Saville, & Hillier, 2005; Glasson & Cozens, 2011; Reynald & Elffers,
2009).
Jeffery (1977) first used the tag “crime prevention through envi­
ronmental design”, but Jacobs’s 1961 classic (The Death and Life of
Great American Cities) significantly influenced the CPTED idea. CPTED
is defined as “the proper design and effective use of the built environ­
ment which can lead to a reduction in incidences of crime, and to an
improvement in the quality of life” (Ceccato, 2017, p. 2) This implies
that environments can be planned in a way that reduces the possibility of
crime occurring, by stimulating surveillance, fostering territoriality and
reducing areas of conflict by controlling access and improving overall
perceived safety. Originally, CPTED focuses on seven key concepts
(Cozens, 2014). Although the construct continues to evolve, modern
CPTED can be defined by the following concepts: surveillance, territo­
riality, access control, activity support, and image maintenance (target
hardening and wider environment). These five concepts are interrelated,
forming the mainstay of modern CPTED approaches, which are imple­
mented through a variety of design measures.
Territoriality refers to designing spaces in a way that provides a sense
of ownership and proprietary concern by users so that they are poten­
tially more likely to act as guardians (Armitage, 2016; Cozens & Love,
2015; Peeters & Beken, 2017). According to this concept, a place with a
close-knit social network can develop voluntary community guardian­
ship. A place that is continuously controlled by its own users, who share
a sense of community, can be more effective than police enforcement
(Jacob 1961). Access control is related to the ease of access to the areas
(Cozens, 2008; Ekblom, 2011). It is related to territoriality in that it
helps define private and public space and controls who enters a specific
site and can include card entry systems, bollards, fencing, and walls
(Atlas, Sorensen, & Hayes, 2008; Cozens et al. 2005). Surveillance is the
ability to observe what happens in the area or around the immediate
environment. It is linked to how visible the site is to neighbors and users
(Armitage & Joyce, 2017; Cozens, 2008, 2014, 2015). Surveillance can
influence the perceptions of safety of those using such space (Armitage,
2016). Surveillance, which includes unobstructed windows, open areas
and clear lines of sight to minimize built-in hiding places for criminals
can be supplemented with digital video (such as Closed Circuit Televi­
sion (CCTV), however not to be replaced by it (Crowe, 2013; Cozens,
2014, 2015). In addition to CCTV, the use of good lighting and security
guards are means of promoting the opportunities for surveillance
(Crowe, 2013; Ziegler, 2007).
Activity support involves attracting legitimate activities into areas
that are perceived as safe. This is achieved through the thoughtful design
of spaces and the use of local events, functions, and other landuses to
attract legitimate users. It is argued that with higher levels of “eyes on
the street,” criminals are potentially less likely to offend since they may
have increased risks of being seen and potentially apprehended (Atlas
et al. 2008). The concept of image maintenance could be traced to
A.I. Badiora et al.
Zimbardo’s 1969 social experiment and Wilson and Kelling’s (1982)
Broken Window Theory. In Zimbardo’s experiment, deliberately
damaged vehicles were abandoned on highways to experiment how they
were vandalized. Findings show that in unmaintained surroundings with
no signs of ownership, vandalism and other crime heightened. It is
therefore believed that in a place where the history of abandoned or
unmaintained properties are more prevalent, vandalism occurs much
more quickly as the community gives off on a "no one cares" atmosphere
(Zimbardo, 1970). The broken window theory considers a building with
a few broken windows; if the windows are not repaired, the tendency is
for vandals to break a few more windows. Eventually, they may even
break into the building, and if found unoccupied, they may perhaps
become squatters. Similarly, consider a path where some litter is drop­
ped. Soon, more litter accumulates. Eventually, people even start leav­
ing bags of refuse there or even break into cars (Wilson & Kelling, 1982).
Thus, to prevent crime, both streets and properties should be maintained
so that an image of civility would be perceived by a potential offender.
Furthermore, Abdullah et al. (2014:32) found that physical incivilities,
particularly “the actual presence of disorder-related cues”, negatively
influenced crime-related problems.
Target hardening focuses on making crime more difficult by limiting
opportunities for crime. It includes using stronger doors and windows
and more efficient locks and alarms and seeks to harden targets by
increasing the effort required to commit a crime (Peeters & Beken,
2017). Wider environment refers to the influence that nearby land uses
and activities may have on the safety and security of a particular site
(Newman, 1973). This particularly relates to land uses that have the
tendency to generate crime, such as alcohol outlets, night clubs, bars and
cafeterias, hotels, vacant lots/buildings, and cash converters outlet
(Newton, 2014).
Environmental design has been found as one of the attributes of
concerns for safety in recreation centres (Yokohari, Amemiya & Amati,
2006; Andrews & Gatersleben, 2010; George, 2003, 2012; Boakye,
2012; Lindgren & Nilsen, 2012; Turkseven-Dogrusoy & Zengel 2017;
Odufuwa et al. 2019). Studies have suggested that high, dense and
unmaintained vegetation is positively linked with crime incidences
(Andrews & Gatersleben, 2010; Lindgren & Nilsen, 2012). Furthermore,
litter increases crime incidences in tourism and recreational parks
(Turkseven-Dogrusoy & Zengel 2017; Odufuwa et al. 2019). Addition­
ally, increased activity (activity support) both in tourism and recrea­
tional parks (Odufuwa et al. 2019; Turkseven-Dogrusoy & Zengel 2017)
and surroundings is an important factor to help visitors feel safer
(Maruthaveeran & Van den Bosch, 2015).
Studies have also shown the link between the overall physical
appearance, signs of negligence and crime in urban tourism and recre­
ational centres (e.g. Altindag, 2014; Sreetheran & Van den Bosch, 2014).
Physical boundaries of a site can limit the prospect and possibility for
potential victims to escape and can make hiding places for potential
offenders. When possibilities to escape are low, the fear of crime can be
high (Maruthaveeran & Van den Bosch, 2015). It is important to design
enclosures of tourist sites to meet safety and privacy needs, while not
preventing the users to leave the sites in case of fear of crime. Therefore,
Woosnam, et al. (2015) argue that fences and the existence of buffers
that restrict users to leave instantly when needed may provoke fear of
crime and cause lower sense of safety, as Stamps’ (2005) experimental
study indicates. Linked with this, long view distance and access to
nearby streets and buildings are important to prevent crime and enhance
sense of safety (Müderrisoğlu & Demir, 2004). Furthermore, it should be
argued that in some cases, visual and physical enclosures of tourism
grounds may provide restorative effects, when users would like to be
alone in nature, probably because of control, security or privacy needs
(Nordh & Østby, 2013). In addition, poor lighting has been found to also
contribute to crime in tourism sites and recreational parks (Warr 1990;
Odufuwa et al. 2019). It has been argued that improved lighting will
encourage users to notice suspicious activities, increase opportunities
for surveillance, and thus act as a restrictive (Painter, 1996; Odufuwa
4
Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 35 (2021) 100392
et al. 2019). In their work, Maruthaveeran and Van den Bosch (2015)
found that environmental security precautions such as guards, police,
CCTV or rule signs are also statistically significant to prevent crime in
recreational parks.
Although these studies have assessed CPTED in relation to objective
and subjective security, most were related to parks and recreation cen­
tres. It should be noted that CPTED are used in different places within
tourist sites as well and this calls for assessment. Moreover, no study
(that we are aware of) has done an on-site assessment to determine
whether tourist sites meet CPTED standards using the COST Action TU
1203 standard. Furthermore, there are very limited studies in Africa on
tourism related crime and security, except for some efforts in Nigeria
(Odufuwa et al. 2019), Ghana (Boakye, 2012) and South Africa (George,
2003, 2012). Multinational insight on tourism-related crime and secu­
rity is vital because findings from developed nations are not automati­
cally transferable to the developing countries (Adu-Mireku, 2002). The
present study seeks to fill the gap in the tourism crime and security
literature from an African perspective in the following ways: first, it sets
out to determine patterns of crime incidences in a Nigerian tourist site,
second, it determines whether the tourist site meets safety standards
according to CPTED and third, it aims to determine the attributes of
environmental design which correlate with crime incidences in the site.
Finally, recommendations are provided to the tourism administrators in
Nigeria on some options to reduce crime events.
3. Methodology
Using a quantitative research design, this study determines whether
a Nigerian tourist site meets safety standards according to CPTED and
identifies the elements of CPTED that correlate with crime incidences at
the site. The methodology is presented under the following sub-
headings.
3.1. Overview of the study area
The study adopted a case study approach. The site is located in
Nigeria, a country consisting of thirty-six (36) states. Nigeria, also
referred to as the “Giant of Africa” (Ottuh, 2015) is located in the west of
the African continent and is an exciting tourist destination for domestic
and international tourists ((United Nation World Tourism Organization
[WTO], 2015). It boasts of numerous tourist attractions, such as his­
torical mountains, diversities of cultures and festivals, islands,
outstanding beaches, as well as high class hotels and restaurants. Among
these attractions, the Olumo tourist site has been chosen for the purpose
of this study because it is a popular attraction site with global recogni­
tion (Ajadi, 2012).
The site is located in Abeokuta, the capital of the Ogun state (See
Fig. 1). It is an area that was historically used as a natural defense zone
during an inter-tribal warfare in the 19th century. It covers a total land
area of 79.44 km2 (although some have been encroached). The site is
managed by the Nigeria Tourism Development Corporation (NTDC) and
visitors are required to pay entrance fee into the site: 1000 naira
(2.5USD) and 500 naira (1.25USD) per adult and children respectively
and 200naira (0.5USD) for parking. There are tour guides on site who
visitors also pay for their services as well. Through design trans­
formation, the Olumo tourist site became one of the most popular tourist
destinations in Nigeria (Ajadi, 2012). As Figs. 2–4 show, large parts of
the site are outdoors, while it also contains indoor offers such as res­
taurants, a club, a cinema among others. Thus, Olumo is an outdoor
recreational and tourism center. The renovations completed in 2016
upgraded the infrastructures (development of a new museum, art gal­
leries, restaurants, water fountain and the revamp of ancient Itoku
market) to take account of international demand and CPTED practices
including development of multiple lane roads, massive removal of
excessive vegetation, graffiti and vandalism; enhancement of lighting
and CCTV facilities, redesign of space to provide barriers, and access
A.I. Badiora et al.
Fig. 1. Map of Ogun State indicating Abeokuta.
Fig. 2. Main entrance with some elements of CPTED.
control (See Fig. 2); improved spatial planning within the site and
revamp of spaces to increase the sensitivity of surveillance among
others.
In 2018, the site documented 65,522 visitors with about forty
percent from other countries in Africa, Europe, Asia and America
(NTDC, 2019). In fact, the tourist site has been described as “an Amer­
ican tourist destination” (Ayodele, 2014, p. 1). For local tourists, less
than fifty percent live in the host town, Abeokuta, while the majority
comes from other towns within and outside Ogun state. At every Olumo
annual festival, the site receives a huge crowd of visitors (See Fig. 3);
most of which had formal education and are at least, middle income
earners (NTDC, 2019). It is evident therefore that high income earners or
affluent people and well-educated people visit the site as compared to
5
Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 35 (2021) 100392
Fig. 3. Some visitors on tour of the site (touring the site).
their counterparts. This may be because of the relatively high fees
required to access the site. Besides, people with lower incomes may be
more likely to face other barriers such as too high transportation costs.
Furthermore, a number of crime incidences have been pervasive in
Abeokuta, particularly in the busiest areas of the ancient town. As such,
Olumo and its immediate environs are among the busiest areas with a
remarkable presence of users spreading over day and night times
(Ayodele, 2014). http://tribune.com.ng/tourism/item/5144-olumo-roc
k-an-african-tourist-destination/5144-olumo-rock-an-african-tourist-de
stinationThe site and its surroundings attract users both during the day
and in the night because of the presence of night-life activities: bars,
restaurants, hotels, motels and night shopping, and brothels among
others. This attractiveness is further enhanced by the existence of the
“Itoku” market and its many shops, varieties of goods and users. The
A.I. Badiora et al.
Fig. 4. Caves in the tourist zone with some messy shady-shrubs.
market lies just outside the site and it is the center of the indigenous
Abeokuta commercial and industrial activities. Despite the renovation,
Olumo area is still known for a subset of neighbourhood tough guys. In
fact, ‘area boys’ (hooligans) are still found around the site. This is why
many of the past Olumo festivals usually ended with fight and vandalism
between and within rival cult groups and area boys. Also, some places
still show some evidences of physical incivilities regarding the design of
the site (see Figs. 4 and 5). Besides, the site is surrounded with low
quality and/or high density areas (See Fig. 6) because of its location
within the pre-colonial neighbourhoods of Itoku, Isale-Ijeun, Sodeke,
Ikija, Ilawo, Ikereku, Idomapa and Ajitaadun in Abeokuta. All these
features are likely to have a significant impact on crime and security
conditions of the site, and the Olumo environment, Abeokuta was
deemed suitable for the purpose of this research.
3.2. Data collection
The data collection and sampling process consists of two steps. The
first step is the on-site assessment according to CPTED strategies and the
second is based on a report of crime. During the on-site assessment, the
sites were subjected to professional investigation by two independent
urban planning and design experts with specialization in CPTED. The
two experts had to check if these elements were present or not (in yes/no
scale). The assessment measures (See Appendix 1) are designed based on
the CPTED audit and site assessment checklists presented in the COST
Action TU 1203 (CEN/TR 14383–7:2009) standard. The assessment was
carried out in relation to different sub-parts of the site. The question­
naire with not less than 30 elements is divided into five blocks.
The blocks are elements of surveillance which includes for example:
Fig. 5. Ancient building in the tourist area with elements of incivilities.
6
Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 35 (2021) 100392
no blind spots or hiding areas; the driveway, or where tourists usually
park their cars should be visible from either the front or back gate;
lighting placed in such a way that it allows people to be recognized from
7.62 m away among other elements. The elements of access control (and
target hardening) include: entrance to the site and parking area is
equipped with opening gates or barrier and dead-end spaces are blocked
off with fences or gates. Included in the elements of territoriality (ter­
ritorial reinforcement) are that main and other entry points into the site
are visible and well-defined (different paving material, architectural,
and landscape design, signage, gates); property lines and private areas
are defined with plantings, pavement treatments, short walls and
parking spaces are clearly marked. The elements of image management
(maintenance) include, among others: height of bushes are not more
than 0.91 m; no evidence of graffiti or filthy crevices and that lighting is
functional and well maintained. The elements of activity support include
that the site is lively and well-used and that there is a diverse range of
landuses at the site. In the assessment guide, a lot of queries are designed
to assess elements of the landscape (trees, bushes among others) and
surrounding environment (a diverse range of landuses), as well as
lighting such as brightness, colour, illumination, height of illuminator
pole among others (see Appendix 1).
An internal consistency of constructs on the assessment criteria
shows that all constructs have a Kuder-Richardson 20 (KR-20) alpha
greater than 0.70 (KR-20 = 0.72), indicating acceptable internal reli­
ability (Cohen, 1965; Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2014). The KR-20
test measures how good the different constructs of the check-list fit to
the five CPTED strategies; in the sense that the different items could be
"merged" to one of the strategies. The KR-20 was chosen over Cronbach’s
alpha since the variable is binary (answered in the yes = 1, no =
0 format) and the KR-20 is a measure of internal consistency reliability
for measures with dichotomous options. It is analogous to Cronbach’s
alpha, except Cronbach’s alpha is commonly used for non-binary or
non-dichotomous measures (Cronbach, 2004).
Regarding the objective insecurity, data on reported crime in­
cidences were retrieved from the police record. The records show places
where the crime occurred. The data included crime events on and
around the site. The crime incidences are not necessarily those targeted
against tourists, but rather, any crime incidence on and within 900 m
radius of the site. This range was designated because it is regarded that
social, economic and environmental (such as crime, poverty, pollution)
impacts of public places/sites would not likely be felt more than a
further distance (Afon 2008; Dada et al., 2020). Crime incidences
around the site were distributed along three strata to show if evidences
of crime concentration and spatial influence exist (see Fig. 7). The first
stratum is in the radius of less than 300 m, the second stratum (300–600
m) and the third stratum (601–900 m). The dominant landuse in the first
stratum is commercial and some local industrial activities with a number
of low quality housings for local industrial casual-workers. Residential
landuse dominates both the second and third strata. Nevertheless, the
quality of residential buildings is better in the third stratum compared to
the second stratum. Data from January to December 2018 were
retrieved and used in this analysis. It should be noted however that, due
to indisposition to report crime, particularly in developing countries
such as Nigeria (Ayodele & Aderinto, 2016) and poor culture of crime
data accounting (Badiora, Okunola, & Ojewale, 2016), the data pre­
sented may not represent precisely the crime events in the study area.
Nonetheless, some logical conclusions are derived.
3.3. Data analysis and interpretation of the findings
Regarding the on-site assessment, each element of CPTED strategies
on the site was assessed as ‘yes’ or ‘no’, with ‘yes’ when the element
meets the CPTED standard and ‘no’ when it does not meet the CPTED
standard in the different sites/places (such as restaurants, caves,
museum, car parks, picnic areas, playgrounds, office buildings among
others) inside and surrounding the tourist site. The final evaluation is
A.I. Badiora et al. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 35 (2021) 100392

Fig. 6. Overview of the pre-colonial neighbourhood surrounding Olumo, Abeokuta.

Fig. 7. Map of Abeokuta indicating 900 m of Olumo Rock.

presented in proportion of elements meeting CPTED standard (See then multiplying by 100. Crime data were analyzed using frequencies of
Table 1). Therefore, a percentage is obtained for “yes” responses by occurrence in the site and its immediate environment (See Table 2).
simply dividing the absolute share (of “yes”) by the absolute total and Frequency analysis provided the direction of possible relationships be­
tween the variables (Cohen, 1965). Although, frequency analysis as used
in this study does not show causality, this analysis was fundamental to
Table 1 identifying significant trends in the data. For the identification of re­
The site evaluation regarding CPTED strategies. lations between nominal variables (elements of CPTED in Table 1) and
S/ CPTED elements Evaluation I Evaluation II Average Score ( crime incidences (in Table 2), Eta-squared correlation analysis was
N (E1) (E2) E1 + E2 computed by the statistical package SPSS 16.0 (IBM 22) (Dennis and
)
2 Cramer (2008). This test allows researchers to test the strength of as­
1 Access control 33.1 35.7 34.4 sociation between an independent variable that is categorical and a
2 Activity support 89.3 86.7 88.0
dependent variable that is scale or interval level. Eta-squared correlation
3 Image 47.4 45.2 46.3
management analysis was preferred over Pearson and/or Spearman correlation ana­
4 Surveillance 58.9 60.2 59.6 lyses for two reasons: first, the dependent variable is measured on an
5 Territoriality 30.9 33.6 32.3 interval scale (crime incidences) and second, the independent variable is

7
A.I. Badiora et al. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 35 (2021) 100392

Table 2 presence of a diverse range of landuses at the site), 88.0% was estimated
Crime incidences in the study area (January–December 2018). on the average.
S/ Crime On the Outside the site In an unanimous submission, the experts noted that territoriality is
N category Site the main issue. In the majority of the observed design strategies, the
<300 300–600 601–900 Total
m m m experts reported that many places are not well-defined and entrance and
exit points as well as certain paths within, to and from the site are
1 Crime against 105 127 101 70 (17.0) 403
property (26.0) (32.0) (25.0) (64.0) (55.0)
neither well-ordered nor thoroughly-secured. The urban planning and
(60.0) (49.0) (56.0) design experts noted that the state of activity support seems better
2 Crime against 56 73 50 (25.0) 22 (11.0) 201 enhanced on the site. Like in most tourist sites globally, the site offers a
persons (28.0) (36.0) (28.0) (20.0) (28.0) variety of activities (e.g. commercial, business, social activities among
(32.0) (28.0)
others) for visitors and local residents. The site evaluators noted that the
3 Crime not 15 57 30 (25.0) 18 (15.0) 120
listed in (1) & (13.0) (48.0) (17.0) (16.0) (17.0) site is by and large, lively and well-used. These findings may likely have
(2) (8.0) (22.0) severe effects on crime at this site. Thus, findings on crime incidences in
Total 176 257 181 110 724 the site are as presented in the next section.
(24.3) (35.5) (25.0) (15.2) (100.0)

Note: Figures in parenthesis are in percentages (columns and row percentages). 4.2. Patterns of crime incidence

binary. Since the independent variable is binary, the Pearson and/or
Spearman non-dichotomous (continuous) assumption is overruled,
while the Eta-squared permits it (Wooldridge, 2002). Eta squared
measures the proportion of the total variance in a dependent variable
that is associated with the membership of different groups defined by an
independent variable (Richardson, 2011). A measure of association
(Eta-squared) ranges from zero to one, with zero indicating no associ­
ation between the row and column variables and values close to one
indicating a high degree of association (Yeaton & Sechrest, 1981). Ac­
cording to Richardson, (2011) and Hair et al. (2014), Eta-squared is
appropriate for a dependent variable measured on an interval scale
(crime incidences) and an independent variable with a limited number
of categories (for example, categorical variables [CPTED evaluation]).
Small correlation is being observed at η2~0.02, medium correlation is
when η2~0.13, large correlation is when η2~0.26 while a value of 0.0
means that our variables are not associated (Hair et al. 2014).
4. Results
Survey findings are as discussed as follows and unless where other­
wise stated, the tables through which findings are summarized are from
the evaluation and survey carried out in 2019.
4.1. On-site assessment of CPTED
The site evaluation regarding CPTED strategies confirms applications
of CPTED strategies regarding primordial, refurbished and newly con­
structed facilities on the site. Nevertheless, the results demonstrate that
the different places within the site (no matter if the place is a newly
constructed, fully modernized or ancient-time built) are not really
designed to meet CPTED standards. The appraisal (See Table 1) shows
that on different places in the site (e.g. car parks, cave, elevators, office,
rest room/toilet entrances, exits and corridors, picnic facilities, restau­
rant and bars, grassed and paved areas for relaxation among others), the
fraction of elements meeting CPTED standards differ considerably.
Furthermore, none of the experts’ scores were the same. Besides, dif­
ferences in the scores were not statistically significant. Thus, these give
the impression of no problem with skewness, and the scores therefore,
appeared to be reliable.
Findings from the appraisal show that elements of surveillance (e.g.
lighting, CCTV and no blind spots or hiding areas) score 59.6% on the
average. For the access control of different places on the site, appraisals
show that 34.4% of observed measures met CPTED standards while
32.3% of observed measures regarding territorial reinforcement met
CPTED standards. For the elements of image management (e.g. bushes
not more than 0.91 m high, no evidence of graffiti and proper repairs of
exterior structures and well-functioning lighting), it is 46.3%. For ele­
ments of activity support (e.g. the site is vibrant and well-used and the
Presented in Table 2 is the summary of crime events in the study
area. In general, a total of 724 cases of crime were recorded from
January to December 2018 (12 months). This shows an average of three
(3) daily crime events on and around the site. Generally, findings show
that a little above half (55%) of crime incidents are property crime while
28% are crime against persons. There are also offences not listed as
crimes against property or person, which composes of 17%. It is obvious
that property crimes both on and outside the site are well ahead of other
listed crimes (above all other crime combined). Overall, crime occur­
rences seem fewer on the site as only one quarter (24.3%) of cases re­
ported occurred there. The remaining occurred in the surroundings of
the site (See Table 2). Similarly, fights, vandalism and other offences are
more likely to occur at the environment outside the site. From the
summary presented in Table 2, it can be seen that the majority of crime
events outside the tourist site were committed at < 300m while the
lowest number of crime were committed between 601 and 900m.
The distribution according to crime type in the surrounding area
revealed that 73 cases (36%) of crime against person occurred at < 300
m, 50 cases (25%) at 300–600 m and 22 cases (11%) at 601–900 m to the
tourist site. Regarding crime against properties, there were 127 (32%),
101 (25%) and 70 (17%) cases at < 300 m, 300–600 m and 601–900 m
respectively. Furthermore, it was found that 57 (48%) cases of other
crime not listed as being against people or properties occurred at < 300
m, while 30 cases (25%) occurred between 300 and 600 m to the site.
The proportion of crime not listed as against people or properties which
occurred between 601 and 900 m radius to the site was 15%. This study
therefore established that crime against person reduces as the distance
from the site increases. Similarly, crime against property decreases with
increasing distance. Other crimes show similar pattern as well. That is, it
reduces as the distance from the site increases.
4.3. Relationships between crime incidences and CPTED features
Presented in Table 3 is the correlation analysis (Eta-squared is esti­
mated) results of the relations between common crime events (theft,
robbery as well as fight and vandalism) and criteria according to CPTED
strategies on the site (as presented in Table 2). This section allows us to
identify the strengths and weaknesses of different built environment
element of tourist site in relation to crime incidences.
For surveillance strategy, the use of poor light in the site is signifi­
cantly related to thefts (η2 = 0.780, p = 0.014 < 0.05) and robbery (η2
= 0.203 p = 0.037 < 0.05). Thus, good lighting on the site environment
will not only serve as a facilitator in enhancing perceived safety but also
reduce theft and robbery incidences. It is argued that good and func­
tional lighting will encourage people to notice suspicious activities, in­
crease opportunities for surveillance, and therefore, act as a deterrent
(Painter, 1996) to thefts and robbery. Regarding territoriality strategy,
the poor usage of pedestrian and traffic signage (such as “no trespassing”
or “users beware”, and “no vehicle traffic” among others) is significantly

8
A.I. Badiora et al. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 35 (2021) 100392

Table 3 5. Discussion of findings

Correlation analysis between selected crime incidences and the site evaluation
regarding CPTED strategies. This study examined CPTED approaches and how these measures
CPTED elements Features observed on Crime incidences influence crime in a Nigerian tourist site. Findings show that CPTED
the site
Theft Robbery Fights &
standards were applied on the tourist site. However, the different places
vandalism within the site are not really designed to meet CPTED standards. Find­
ings show that activity support was the most applied CPTED strategy
Access control (n E.g. No delineation η2 = η2 = η2 = 0.414
= 6) of visitors (No 0.003 p 0.143 p p = 0.001* (the site fulfills the requirement of this strategy for up to 88%). The site
separation of parking = 0.067 = 0.031* is fairly lively and well used. There is a diverse range of land-uses at the
for different visitors, site, and the site has restaurants, a museum, picnic areas, and play
employees and spaces to attract people. Although their study was conducted in and
others)
Activity support E.g. The site η2 = η2 = η2 = 0.014
around a transport station in Nigeria, the present finding is in line with
(n = 5) somewhat vibrant 0.023 p 0.021 p p = 0.071 Badiora, Wojuade, and Adeyemi (2020) who found that CPTED are
and well-used = = 0.013* poorly applied in the Nigerian public transport places. Furthermore,
0.011* similar findings have been uncovered in New Haven (USA) and Kaunas
Image & E.g. Over grown η2 = η2 = η2 = 0.155
(Lithuania) (Matijosaitiene & Hushen, 2015).
maintenance (n vegetation (Height 0.661 p 0.007 p p=
= 8) > 0.91 m) and = = 0.059 0.020** Findings support the theory of crime concentration as postulated by
evidence of graffiti 0.011* crime pattern theory (Brantingham & Brantingham, 1995, 2003; Van­
or filthy or deviver et al. 2019; Drawve et al. 2020). Results show that property
defacement). crimes both on and outside the site are well ahead of other listed crimes
Surveillance (n = E.g. Poor use of η2 = η2 = η2 = 0.009
11) lighting in public 0.780 p 0.203 p p = 0.077*
(above all other crime combined). This may indicate that (with rational
places (e.g. light in = = 0.037* choice perspective and all other things being equal) offenders are likely
parking lot not 0.014* to target affluent residents or visitors/tourists rather than poorer people,
bright or at least for these property offences. Similar findings have been found
malfunction)
elsewhere (Kelly, 1993; Mawby, 2011). Thus, in this kind of tourist
Territoriality:
Reinforcement E.g. Not well-define η2 = η2 = η2 = 0.899 attraction site where holidaymakers are affluent (mostly middle and
(n = 14) or visible entry 0.016 p 0.621 p p = 0.012* high income earners) relative to the immediate residents, they might be
points into the site = 0.065 = 0.022* at the risk of robbery and theft. Moreover, tourists tend to have in their
(architectural, and possessions valuables and easily transportable items that might attract
landscape design,
signs, gates etc.)
offenders: smartphones, laptops, cash, credit cards, hi-tech equipment
Signage (n = 5) E.g. Poor pedestrian η2 = η2 = η2 = 0.021 among others.
and traffic signage 0.880 p 0.019 p p = 0.069 Findings show that among cases of violent crime, there were records
(such as ‘no = = 0.074 where visitors felt threatened by residents or other visitors’ behaviour,
trespassing’, danger 0.012*
physical violence (indecent assaults including sexual assault) as well as
cautions, hours of
usage etc.) verbal assaults or, threats against other visitors. For these crime types,
tourists are usually considered justifiable targets when offenders are
Significant at: ***p < 0.001, **p < 0.01, *p < 0.05.
able to offset their victim’s status. Crime against persons can result from
conflict between tourists and local residents due to a clash of cultural
related to thefts (η2 = 0.880, p = 0.012 < 0.05). Thus, well-used views or interest, represented by conflicting norms of dress, speech and
pedestrian and traffic signage could bring order into the site and help behaviour (Prideaux, 1995). Somewhat differently, the morals of tour­
in controlling pedestrians and vehicle routes against theft. ists may be questioned by locals who see dress codes, interpersonal
Activity support significantly correlates with theft (η2 = 0.023, p = behaviour and so on as indicating that female travellers in particular are
0.011 < 0.05) and robbery incidences (η2 = 0.021, p = 0.013 < 0.05) at ‘asking for it’ and therefore not ‘real’ victims (Mawby, 2014). In the
small correlation values. This may be because the state of activity sup­ category of other crimes are fights, public vandalism, hooliganism and
port seems better enhanced on the site. It is thus likely that activity drug-dealing. This type of crime is common to setting like tourists
support reduces opportunity for theft and robbery probably because a attraction sites (Ajagunna, 2006; Jones, 2012) and the street dedicated
vibrant and well used site attracts more users who can, as well, serve as to the ‘runs’ girls known as prostitutes (Ceccato & Paz 2015; Seiji,
observers. As regards territoriality, the poor visibility and definition of Kazunori, Tomoko, & Yoshiko, 2015). The interloping nature of specif­
entry points into the site are significantly correlated to robbery in­ ically nocturnal activities around the site (e.g. bar, night shopping, and
cidences (η2 = 0.621, p = 0.022 < 0.05) as well as fight and vandalism prostitution among others) may explain this concentration.
(η2 = 0.899, p = 0.012 < 0.05). Thus, if well designed, the boundaries Findings show that the volume of crime reduced as the distance from
and entry points to the site can limit the prospect and possibility for the site increased. Even though no causal relationship is established and
victims to escape and can make hiding places for robbers. That is, crime by no means universal, it does appear that the site is a generator of crime
and concerns for safety is higher when possibilities to escape are low. and disorder as the area closest to the tourist site experienced the highest
Accordingly, it is therefore, important to clearly define the entries and crime rates. Similar findings were reported by Walmsley, Boskovic and
exits to and from the site. Besides, the routes of pedestrians and vehicles Pigram (1983) in New South Wales, Fujii and Mak (1979) in Hawaii, Jud
should be directed to the proper areas within the site and in the right (1975) in Mexico and Kelly (1993) in Queensland. Besides, in the United
directions because when possibilities to escape are low, concerns for Kingdom, Mawby (2011) concludes that an area closest to a tourist site
safety can be high (Nasar & Jones, 1997). Furthermore, in the case of was a significant generator of crime and disorder in some of the major
access control, the poor separation and inappropriate delineation of tourist centres in Cornwall. On the contrary, Pizam (1982), considering
spaces is significantly related to robbery (η2 = 0.143, p = 0.031 < 0.05) the connection between crime and tourist site concludes that the impact
and fights and vandalism incidences (η2 = 0.414, p = 0.001 < 0.05). was at best slight. Pelfrey (1998) has also found little evidence that
Therefore, the separation of different zones within the site is important tourist rates increased the rates of crime in Honolulu and Las Vegas. In
for a better control of pedestrian and vehicles routes, as well as for easy contrast, a consistent finding is that residents fault tourism for many of
identification of potential offenders on site. the crime events in their residential area, particularly in developing
nations (like Nigeria), where indigenous people perceive the impact of

9
A.I. Badiora et al.
tourism on crime occurrences to be intense (Boakye, 2012; George,
2003; Haralambopoulos & Pizam, 1996; Mawby, 2014).
Results are in line with some aspects of crime concentration as
postulated by crime pattern theory by demonstrating that, first, there are
notable geographical variations in crime events and that this variation
differs with regards to crime type and the varying environmental char­
acteristics of the area. For instance, increasing violent crime, fight and
public vandalism may be because this site is located at the core area of
the city with dominant commercial and local industrial activities. Re­
searchers have pointed out that tourist sites have problems similar to
those of city centres (Muderrisoglu & Demir, 2004; Scarborough,
Like-Haislip, Novak, Lucas & Alarid, 2010; Turkseven-Dogrusoy &
Zengel, 2017) because they may be located in places that have liquor
sales points, cinemas, among others which generate activities that pro­
duce drug and violent crime problems. However, regardless of the fact
that these serve as crime generators or attractors, this study did not show
causal relationships. Nonetheless, this study, so far, may suggest that the
design of the environments of this facility influences crime.
Furthermore, significant positive associations are observed between
crime and CPTED strategies. Specifically, significant positive associa­
tions are observed between lighting and theft; good definition of entry
points and robbery, fight and vandalism; proper signage and theft, well-
defined spaces and robbery as well as fight and vandalism; vibrancy and
good usage of site and theft. For instance, findings show that activity
support reduces opportunity for theft and robbery probably because a
vibrant and well used site attracts more users who can, as well, serve as
observers. This is what Atlas et al. (2008) refer to as “eyes on the street”
and the more “eyes on the street” an area has, the safer it is since of­
fenders may have increased risks of being seen and potentially appre­
hended (Atlas et al. 2008, p. 61). Regarding image and maintenance, the
over grown vegetation, graffiti, filth or defacement significantly corre­
late with theft as well as fight and vandalism. This is in line with Zim­
bardo’s (1969) assumption that in unmaintained surroundings,
vandalism and theft heightened. This finding also supported Wilson and
Kelling’s (1982) Broken Window Principle. Therefore, an image of good
manners would be seen by a potential offender if a site is well
maintained.
6. Conclusion and implication for future research
Understanding which design elements might be a crime generator is
a first step in the move to introduce effective crime reduction policies in
tourist attraction sites. In this article, various insights towards crime
incidences, environmental design and greater security of the Olumo
tourist attraction site have been discussed. In line with the assumption of
this research, this study reveals that crime events occur at tourist sites
and their immediate environment and demonstrates that these crime
events are influenced by some environmental design attributes. Findings
like these call for a holistic approach to safety of tourist sites. Tourist
facilities should be safe and pleasant for visitors. Hence, good designing,
planning and well considered CPTED practices can increase the likeli­
hood that major tourist attraction sites are safe for visitors and
personnel. It is fundamental that tourist sites are properly designed to
promote the effective use of the built environment and contribute to the
safety of those visiting the site. In fact, planning for a safe tourism is part
of creating a pleasurable holiday experience.
Based on the findings, we must admit that a design which fosters
security should be integrated into the site and its surroundings. Hence,
the following recommendations are provided. First, since activity sup­
port seems to reduce the opportunity for theft and robbery, additional
vibrant outdoor recreational activities (such as restaurants, club, picnic
facilities) that attract more users should be established on and around
the sites. This will increase the risks of offenders being seen and
potentially apprehended. Second, there is still much to be done in
improving elements of territoriality. For instance, there should be
orientation signs to locate where visitors are. Parking areas should be
10
Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 35 (2021) 100392
clearly marked and separated from pedestrian paths. Also, entry points
should be visible and well-defined (with different architectural, and
landscape design, signs, gates). Public, semi-public and private areas
must be defined with plants, pavement treatments, short walls, or fen­
ces. Signage should be used on the site such as No Trespassing, Hours of
Usage, and No Vehicle Traffic. The elements of access control are also
weak. Hence, there should be no pathways that lead to unpredictable
places. Landscaping should be used to divide the parking areas and
dead-end spaces should be blocked off with fences or gates. The site
should engage more security personnel or police present at the site.
Regarding surveillance, lighting needs to be enhanced probably with
more white-color light to eliminate the effect of darkness. Based on
COST Action TU 1203 CPTED standard, lighting should not glare into
the sky or eyes, but rather into the floor and it should be placed in such a
way that it allows people to be recognized from 7.62 m away. There
should be no blind walls: a visible property is a safe property. The use of
CCTV could also enhance surveillance. To reduce crime, the aesthetics of
the site has to be attractive. The site and closest surroundings have to be
well-maintained and cared for. All abandoned properties should be
cleared and the presence of drunkards, panhandlers, nuisance, illegal
community dump site, graffiti or vandalism should be ridded. All
outdated posters, broken signs, and other displays that are beyond their
useful lives should be removed. Finally, the green area is not all in good
condition as well. Thus, bushes and weeds must be abated. Based on
COST Action TU 1203 CPTED standard, greeneries must not be more
than 0.91 m high, and trees on the site must be pruned up to 2.13 m from
the ground.
In addition to the environmental design suggestions, it is necessary to
develop effective social programs educating the sense of joint re­
sponsibility and positive ownership. A very good example of such a
socio-educational approach may include neighbourhood patrols, con­
flict resolution, sensitivity awareness, as well as physical trainings to
combat assault. It is correct that maintenance and aesthetic quality of a
tourist site increases safety, but it is even safer if its users have conflict
resolution skills. It is true that proper lighting and CCTV in a tourist site
may inhibit crime, but only if users do not stay apathetic and unre­
sponsive towards others being in trouble. It is true that greenery in a
tourist site attracts users and pedestrian flows, but only if it does not
create deadlocks and poor visibility. Besides, it makes sense that crime
prevention strategies be complex and proactive rather than reactive.
Therefore, we request stakeholders in tourism and recreational industry
in Nigeria and abroad to apply the findings and recommendations of this
study at a proper time, at a proper place, with a proper joint effort.
Although this study contributes to the knowledge on the elements of
an environment that affect crime at a tourist site, it does have some
limitations. First, these insightful revelations notwithstanding, require
caution because the study covered only a tourist site in Nigeria and not
the entire country. Secondly, the data range considered is small. This
may mean that the statistical power of correlations may be low. For
instance, the one-year crime events are too small to automatically create
significant accurate correlations that might not be present for a long
range data or large sample. Future analysis may, therefore, consider
many years’ trends. Thirdly, in terms of the data analysis approach,
future studies should consider more robust techniques. Future statistical
analysis should conduct relevant diagnostics of the residuals check for
more statistical interactions. Another area for expanding this research is
the development of more case studies. The comparison of these cases in
different settings will provide a better understanding of this subject. It is
also suggested that some forms of perceived personal safety survey of
visitors could be performed to validate the crime data. Beyond its utility
in assessing CPTED and deterring crime events on tourist site, the
approach developed in this study has considerable relevance. It forms a
research basis that can be further explored in other public places
including transport, hospitals, schools, and retail establishments among
others. This study could serve as the basis for future large-scale surveys
of tourist sites in Nigeria and abroad. Besides, this study should be
A.I. Badiora et al. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 35 (2021) 100392

accepted as a preliminary study in Nigeria that evaluated many impor­
tant dimensions of CPTED using the COST Action TU 1203 standard
especially in a global south society.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Adewumi I. Badiora: Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation,
Supervision, conceived of the presented idea. collated the crime data
while, verified the analytical methods. investigated CPTED measures
and supervised the findings of this work. All authors discussed the re­
sults and contributed to the final manuscript. Olanrewaju T. Dada:
Data curation, conceived of the presented idea. collated the crime data
while, All authors discussed the results and contributed to the final
manuscript. Temitope M. Adebara: developed the theory and per­
formed the computations along with, All authors discussed the results
and contributed to the final manuscript.

Appendix 1. CPTED Strategies Evaluation Checklist

CPTED Strategies Yes No

Elements of surveillance
There are no blind spots in the study area
There are no hiding areas in the study area
The driveway is visible from the front door of the facility
The driveway is be visible from the back door of the facility
The driveway is visible from at least one window of the facility
The car park is visible from the front door of the facility
The car park is be visible from the back door of the facility
The car park is visible from at least one window of the facility
Lighting is placed in such a way that it allows people to be recognized from 7.62 m away
Elements of access control (and target hardening)
Entrance to the parking area is equipped with opening gates or barrier
Dead-end spaces are blocked-off with fences or gates or barrier
Parking spaces are clearly marked and delineated for visitors, employees and others
Elements of territoriality (territorial Signage and reinforcement)
Entry points into the parking area are visible
Entry points into the parking area are well-defined with:
• Different paving material
• Changes in street elevation
• Architectural and landscape design
• Caution signs
• Gates
Property lines are defined with:
• Plantings
• Pavement treatments
• Short walls or fences
Private and public areas are defined with:
• Plantings
• Pavement treatments,
• Short walls or fences
Pedestrian signage (such as ‘no trespassing’, danger cautions, hours of usage etc.
Traffic signage
Elements of image management (maintenance)
Bushes are up to 0.91 m high
Greeneries are well trimmed and conserved
There is no evidence of graffiti or filthy crevices in the study area
There is no sign of vandalism in the study area
Exterior lighting is well maintained
Elements of activity support
The site is vibrant and well-used
There is a diverse range of land-uses/activities at the site
Note: This checklist is adapted from the COST action TU1203: Crime Prevention through Urban Design and Planning (CP-UDP)
Assessment Checklist (http://costtu1203.eu).

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