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The Origins of Public Diplomacy in Us Statecraft Uncovering A Forgotten Tradition 1St Edition Caitlin E Schindler Auth Ebook Full Chapter
The Origins of Public Diplomacy in Us Statecraft Uncovering A Forgotten Tradition 1St Edition Caitlin E Schindler Auth Ebook Full Chapter
Series editors
Philip Seib
University of Southern California
Pasadena, CA, USA
Kathy Fitzpatrick
American University,
Washington, DC, USA
Aim of the Series
At no time in history has public diplomacy played a more significant
role in world affairs and international relations. As a result, global inter-
est in public diplomacy has escalated, creating a substantial academic
and professional audience for new works in the field. The Global Public
Diplomacy Series examines theory and practice in public diplomacy
from a global perspective, looking closely at public diplomacy con-
cepts, policies, and practices in various regions of the world. The pur-
pose is to enhance understanding of the importance of public diplomacy,
to advance public diplomacy thinking, and to contribute to improved
public diplomacy practices.
Very few Americans have an adequate idea of the historical role America
has played [sic]…The penetration of American missionaries in the Balkans
during the early part of the nineteenth century will some day be considered
the brightest pages in the annals of the peninsula…The significance of their
activities in the Near East…is much greater than it seems to many…
—American Influences in Bulgaria, Prof. Constantine Stephanove1
vii
viii Preface
Upon arriving in Smyrna, the first task for Fisk and Parsons was to
ascertain what was most needed in the region. “Our time has been occu-
pied thus far, and will principally occupied for months, perhaps years,
in studying languages, and in collecting information about the country,
and in distributing Bibles and Tracts.”5 Both Fisk and Parsons learned
Greek, Italian, Arabic, French, and Turkish within the first few years of
living in the Empire. They wrote to family and friends about the peo-
ple they encountered, conversations with locals, the food, how people
dressed, customs, and the government. Reports were also sent to the
ABCFM corresponding secretary. These reports were then published in
the ABCFM monthly publication The Missionary Herald. Missionaries
helped to provide knowledge of countries and people overseas.
Pamphlets, newsletters, and public talks about missionaries’ encounters
with different cultures overseas expanded the USA’s understanding of
people overseas.6
Shortly after commencing their explorations of the Empire, Fisk and
Parsons received word from ABCFM that they were sending a printing
press along with two more missionaries, Reverends Daniel Temple and
Jonas King. The arrival of the first print press heralded one of the more
significant contributions American missionaries made to the region, an
impact which reverberates through the present day. Though the mission-
aries saw the press as a tool to print religious materials, not all of the
publications were religious. As one American touring a Turkish school
noted, “[it] was gratifying to perceive that to America this and almost
every other great school in Turkey and Greece is indebted for its elemen-
tary books of instruction.”7 The missionaries took American textbooks,
translated them into Greek, Turkish, Armenian, and Arabic to use with
students. By 1850, the missionaries used their presses to print periodi-
cals in five languages, dictionaries, volumes of history and literature, and
one magazine, which was credited as having the largest circulation in the
Ottoman Empire.8
Beyond just providing texts in local languages, the American mis-
sionaries in some instances helped to establish print versions of local lan-
guages.9 US missionaries ensured languages, which the Turks, Greeks,
or Russians were trying to eliminate, thrived. Not only was a standard
removable Arabic type created, but the missionary press at Malta revived
Armenian and Bulgarian languages. When missionary Cyrus Hamlin
opened Bebek Seminary in 1840, he
Preface ix
…found a great many Turkish words mixed in, I resolved not to use them,
but so far as possible speak a pure Armenian. Bebek Seminary had no small
influence in the introduction of a purer style of speaking and w
riting the
modern Armenian…Our mission saw clearly that, as the language of the
Armenian race, we must adopt it and make the best of it. The idea of trans-
lating the Bible into such a language was ridiculed…The history of mis-
sions proves, by many examples, that no language is so degraded that
the simple truths of salvation cannot be expressed in it…The modern
Armenian is now wholly transformed; it has become a beautiful and culti-
vated language.10
more influence in the Ottoman Empire and Persia than American pub-
lic officials; and with the help of philanthropists obtained “mandates”
over most of Turkey, something many European nations never obtained
except through force and occupation.18
Following the success of the American Revolution, the people of the
US and their leaders desired to shrink away from Old World entangle-
ments and to enjoy independence. Yet this was a luxury the US could
not afford. For at least the next forty years, the USA’s relationship with
the rest of the world would be of utmost importance to the nation’s sur-
vival. Beset by pirate attacks emanating from the North African Barbary
States19 since declaring independence and surrounded by European
powers: Britain, France, and Spain; the US could not isolate itself
from the world. Despite these dangers, America’s foreign ministry, the
Department of State (DoS), remained a tiny government institution with
very few ministers or consular officers posted overseas. Thus, much of
America’s interactions overseas were not initiated or maintained by the
US government, but rather by private citizens, primarily merchants and
missionaries up until the late nineteenth century.20
For at least a century, the US unwittingly conducted public diplo-
macy throughout the Ottoman Empire. Missionaries, private citizens,
and merchants set up libraries, schools, translated books, and arranged
for students to study in the US, sometimes at great personal risk. The
first Americans entered into the region as the Empire became known
as the “sick man of Europe.” As the Bulgarian professor, Constantine
Stephanove, would later note in 1930, few Americans are aware of the
historical role their nation played in the region or the world. This is espe-
cially true about America’s experience with public diplomacy.
Notes
1. Attached to Despatch No. 1616, Sofia, March 16, 1930, Record
Group (RG) 59, Central Decimal File (CDF) 1930–1939, Box 5065,
811.42774/1.
2. James Morone, 2003. Hellfire Nation: The Politics of Sin in American
History (Yale University Press: New Haven); Michael B. Oren, 2007.
Power, Faith, and Fantasy: America in the Middle East, 1776, to the
Present (W.W. Norton & Co.: New York, NY).
xii Preface
Index 315
xv
Abbreviations
xvii
xviii Abbreviations
xix
CHAPTER 1
We ought not to look back, unless it is to derive useful lessons from past errors,
and for the purpose of profiting by dear bought experience. To enveigh against
things that are past and irremediable, is unpleasing; but to steer clear of the
shelves and rocks we have struck upon is the part of wisdom…
George Washington to John Armstrong, March 26, 17811
Conceptual Ideological
1 RECONNECTING THE PAST AND PRESENT 5
produced on the need for reform and new public diplomacy initiatives,
there is little done to clarify and solidify the conceptual understanding of
public diplomacy itself.12 Cull’s comprehensive historical work on the
United States Information Agency (USIA) from 1945 through its even-
tual dissolution recounts the repetitive structural and organizational
problems which plagued the institution.13 Many of these same issues are
noted by Richard Arndt, Wilson Dizard, and Hans Tuch: the discon-
nect between public diplomacy and policymaking; overlap between USIA
and other government agencies’ work; and problems clearly defining
USIA’s mission, to name a few. Even after the USIA’s absorption into
the Department of State in 1999, structural and organizational problems
continue to undermine the practice of public diplomacy.14 US political
ideology is not often cited as a specific issue confronting American public
diplomacy, but some scholars and practitioners have made passing refer-
ences to this issue.15 For example, Hans Tuch refers to an observation
made by a public diplomat and how Americans assume the world is sym-
pathetic to American ideas and by extension the nation’s policies.16 The
cases featured in the proceeding chapters will show how the USA’s politi-
cal orthodoxy sometimes impeded or spurred the use of public diplomacy
in statecraft, as well as questions about the United States’ role in the
world and how relations with the rest of the world should be conducted.
Conceptual
Why is defining public diplomacy so difficult? For those scholars and
practitioners well immersed in the area of public diplomacy, the question
raises discussions about the term’s affiliation with propaganda and dis-
cussions about whether public diplomacy is or is not propaganda. In the
context of the United States, the association with propaganda is a source
of great discomfort and anxiety for any policymaker or member of the
US public. Due to negative connotations associated with the term, many
believe the US should not use propaganda or must not because propa-
ganda violates liberal, democratic principles. However, if public diplo-
macy in the US context is not propaganda, what is it?
What is Diplomacy?
Much of the existing discussions on the concept of public diplomacy
often relegate it to a function of communication, marketing, public
relations, public affairs, or propaganda, as discussed in the previous sec-
tion. Edward Guillion’s coining of the term and definition does seem
to lend credence to those who argue the term is just another word for
propaganda. And yet, to suggest that public diplomacy as a euphemism
of propaganda raises the ire of some academics and practitioners. What
is perhaps more surprising is how little the concept is ever discussed as
an element of diplomacy, though the word is in the concept. The his-
toric cases of US public diplomacy in the following chapters reveal public
diplomacy to be more concerned with diplomacy than communication, or
of conveying a message.
Given the historical ties of public diplomacy to WWI, WWII, and
propaganda, it is understandable that public diplomacy as a concept is
tied to communication, rather than diplomacy. Compounding this is
the contemporary tendency to distinguish and label certain activities
with the term public diplomacy and others as diplomacy. What would
be readily labeled as public diplomacy today would not be identified as
such a hundred years ago. Based on the works of Francois de Caliéres34
and Abraham de Wicquefort,35 the practice of diplomacy by profes-
sional diplomats encompassed many activities, including spying, which
are not typically considered to be within the sphere of a modern dip-
lomat’s practice. Diplomacy was a broad term used to describe many
activities undertaken by an official representing another state or leader
in another country, and even in the late eighteenth century still an evolv-
ing practice among states, varying in style and practice even among
different nations.36 Though public diplomacy is a twentieth-century
concept; diplomacy as generally understood today is also a product of
twentieth-century interpretation. This being said, much of the existing
literature on diplomacy tends to evaluate past diplomacy using a modern
1 RECONNECTING THE PAST AND PRESENT 9
What is Propaganda?
As briefly discussed, a frequent criticism and concern for American pub-
lic diplomacy consistently throughout the Cold War up to the present
day is the concept’s relationship to propaganda, perhaps the most dif-
ficult conceptual issue confronting US public diplomacy. Propaganda
became something of an enigma after America’s experience with propa-
ganda from World War I (WWI) to the end of World War II (WWII).
Upon the conclusion of WWI, Americans were incensed by revelations
of propaganda used by foreign governments and the US government to
encourage support for the war. The fallout of WWI propaganda spurred
intellectuals and journalists to publish exposés, to engage in experimental
studies, and to investigate the use of propaganda by foreign and domes-
tic entities.42 Ironically, looking at the period from the passage of the
Smith-Mundt Act in 1948 to the creation of the USIA in 1953 and the
popularization of the term public diplomacy, the term propaganda is
1 RECONNECTING THE PAST AND PRESENT 11