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Rockburst Mechanisms Monitoring Warning and Mitigation Xia Ting Feng Ed Full Download Chapter
Rockburst Mechanisms Monitoring Warning and Mitigation Xia Ting Feng Ed Full Download Chapter
Edited by
XIA-TING FENG
Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education on Safe Mining of Deep Metal Mines, Northeastern University, Shenyang, China
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Numerical modeling of ground motion near underground excavation boundaries
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The IMS seismic monitoring system
Copyright © 2018 Aleksander J. Mendecki, Gareth Goldswain and Richard Lynch. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Excavation vulnerability and selection of effective rock support to mitigate rockburst damage
Copyright © 2018 Peter K. Kaiser. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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ISBN: 978-0-12-805054-5
1.2 Description of Rockburs(s in Mines 20 3.3 Rockbu rsts in Metal Mines in North Amenca n
MARWAN AL HEIB WILSON BLAKE
v
VI CONTENTS
HE, �tG, REN, F.Q., GONG, WL 6J.3 Feo.clITcs of Shear R�JPtlife Rockburst Cause<1 by the
Fan Mechanism 173
5.3.1 Introduction 133 6.3.4 Sumnmry 174
5.3.2 Moterial 134 References 1 75
CONTENTS vii
9. Microseismic Monitoring Method of the 1 I .1.2 Empirical IndlCes or Evaluation Systems of Mul tiple
10.3.l Perforrnance Analysis of the Velocity MlXlels 336 Spalling Srrengrh App roach 383
RISK ASSESSMENT AND WARNING OF 11.5 Recognition of Rockburst Inten s ity Using
ROCKBURSTS In Situ-Monitored Microseismicity 386
BING·RUI CHEN, XIA·TING FENG
11.1.1 Emp irical Criteria of Rockbursr Evaluat ion Based 11.5.4 Conclusions 388
Preamble 473
12.3, I Methodology 412
15.1 Underground Excavation Behavior 473
12.3.2 Rockburst Warning at D&B Tunncls 414
15.2 Support Selection 499
12. 3.3 Rockburst Warning at TBM Tunnels 418
Nomenclature 515
Reference 421
Acknowledgmen[S \16
12.4 Rockburst Predictions by Seismic References 516
Further Reading 517
Monitoring Data 421
Glossary 517
VICTOR I. GERMAN
12.5.1 Successful Wamingof Rockburst at [he Junde Coal Mine 427 16,2 Successful Examples for Mitigating
12.5.2 Successful Rockbursf War ning at the Sanhcjian Rockburst in CJPL-ll Tunnels China 525
Coal Mine 431 XIA·TlNG FENG. YA·XUN XIAO. GUANGLIANG FENG.
References 437 BlNG-RUI CHEN. SI-IAOJUN LI
References 529
v
MITIGATION OF ROCKBURST RISK 16,3 Successful Examples for Mitigating
Rockbursts in Tunnels Pakistan 530
XIA·TING FE-NO. CUANOLJ.!\NG FENC. YA-XUN XIAO,
13, Avoiding High-Stress Concentrations by
BING·RUI CHEN
Reasonabl e Excavation Methods 441
XIA-TING FENO 16.3.1 elise I: Mitigation of Intense Rockburst Risk 531
16.3,2 Case 2, Moderate Rockb"", Risk Mitigation 532
13.1 Optimization of the Shape of cllC Tunnel Cross SeC[ion 441 References 539
x CONTENTS
1 7. Mitigating Rockbum Effects for Civil 17.7 E ngi neer ing Example Two 546
Engineering Infrastructure and Buildings 541 17.8 Fin,1 Remarks 547
References 547
ZBlGNIEW ZEMBAn', SEWERYN KOKOT, JULlUSZ KUS
Further Reading 548
17.1 Intrcxluction 541
17.2 Ebstic Design Response Spectrutn 541 18. Conclusions and Future Developments 549
17.3 Design Peak Ground Acceleration 543 XIA·TING FENG
17.4 Inch:tstic Design Response Spectrum 545
17.5 Summary of the Methodology 546
17.6 Engineering EX(lmple One 546 Index 551
Contributors
Marwan Al Heib Institut national de l’Environnement Shaojun Li Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese
Industriel et des Risques (INERIS), Nancy, France Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
Gerrie van Aswegen Institute of Mine Seismology, Somerset Zhihua Li Key Laboratory of Deep Coal Resource Mining
West, South Africa (Ministry of Education), China University of Mining and
€
Omer Aydan University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Japan Technology, Xuzhou, China
Wilson Blake Mining & Geotechnical Consultant Hayden, Jian-Po Liu Northeastern University, Shenyang, China
Idaho Caiping Lu Key Laboratory of Deep Coal Resource Mining
Ming Cai Laurentian University, Sudbury, ON, Canada (Ministry of Education), China University of Mining and
Technology, Xuzhou, China
Bing-Rui Chen Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China Richard Lynch Institute of Mine Seismology, Tinderbox, TAS,
Australia
Dongfang Chen Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan,
China Aleksander Mendecki Institute of Mine Seismology, Tinder-
box, TAS, Australia
Linming Dou Key Laboratory of Deep Coal Resource Mining
(Ministry of Education), China University of Mining and Pengzhi Pan Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese
Technology, Xuzhou, China Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
Xia-Ting Feng Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese Krishna Kanta Panthi Norwegian University of Science and
Academy of Sciences, Wuhan; Northeastern University, Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
Shenyang, China Shili Qiu Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese
Guangliang Feng Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chi- Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
nese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China Malyala V.M.S. Rao Former Director-grade-scientist,
Victor I. German Krasnoyarsk Research Institute of Geology National Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad, India
and Mineral Resources, Krasnoyarsk, Russia Ren F.Q China University of Mining and Technology, Beijing,
Gareth Goldswain Institute of Mine Seismology, Tinderbox, China
TAS, Australia Vladimir Shumila ESG Solutions, Kingston, ON, Canada
Gong W.L. China University of Mining and Technology, Jan Šílený Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech
Beijing, China Republic
Yossef H. Hatzor Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Gaolei Song Northeastern University, Shenyang, China
Sheva, Israel Chinnappa Srinivasan Former Deputy Director, National
He M.C. China University of Mining and Technology, Beijing, Institute of Rock Mechanics, Kolar Gold Fields, India
China Guoshao Su Guangxi University, Nanning, China
Ben-G. He Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Boris G. Tarasov The University of Western Australia, Perth,
Israel WA, Australia
Peter K. Kaiser Laurentian University, Sudbury, ON, Canada Cezar-Ioan Trifu ESG Solutions, Kingston, ON, Canada
Seweryn Kokot Opole University of Technology, Opole, Zhaofeng Wang Northeastern University, Shenyang,
Poland China
Rui Kong Northeastern University, Shenyang, China Xin Wang Laurentian University, Sudbury, ON, Canada
Petr Konicek Institute of Geonics of the Czech Academy of Ya-Xun Xiao Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese
Sciences, Ostrava, Czech Republic Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
Juliusz Kus Opole University of Technology, Opole, Poland Hong Xu Northeastern University, Shenyang, China
Stanisław Lasocki Institute of Geophysics, Polish Academy of Fei Yan Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese Acad-
Sciences, Warsaw, Poland emy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
Zhi-H. Li Anhui University of Science and Technology, Yang Yu East China Jiaotong University, Nanchang; North-
Huainan School of mining and safety, Anhui, China eastern University, Shenyang, China
xi
xii CONTRIBUTORS
Zbigniew Zembaty Opole University of Technology, Opole, Engineering and Resources, Southwest University of Science
Poland and Technology, Mianyang, China
Xiwei Zhang Northeastern University, Shenyang, China Hong Zheng Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese
Zhouneng Zhao Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
Academy of Sciences, Wuhan; School of Environmental Zhu G.L. China University of Mining and Technology, Beijing,
China
C H A P T E R
1
Description and Engineering Phenomenon of
Rockbursts
S U B C H A P T E R
1.1
Description of Rockbursts in Tunnels
Xia-Ting Feng*, Bing-Rui Chen*, Guangliang Feng*, Zhouneng Zhao*,†, Hong Zheng*
*
Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China †School of Environmental
Engineering and Resources, Southwest University of Science and Technology,
Mianyang, China
1.1.1 INTRODUCTION
Rockbursts are a dynamic hazard induced by tunneling (Fig. 1.1.1). Many rockbursts have occurred in highway
tunnels: in Norway (Myrvang & Grimstad, 1983); the Kanetsu tunnel in Japan (Saito, Tsukada, Inami, Inoma, &
Ito, 1983); the Karisaki tunnel in Japan (Katusyama, 1994); tunnels in China (Tjong Kie, 1988); a waterway tunnel
in Korea (Lee, Park, & Lee, 2004); the Gotthard Base Tunnel in Switzerland, where the deepest point has a rock layer
of 2450 m (Hagedorn & Stadelmann, 2008); tunnels at Tianshengqiao II Hydropower Station in China (Zebin, 1994);
headrace tunnels at Taipinyi Hydropower Station in China (Wang & Hong, 1995); Qamchiq tunnel in Uzbekistan
(Deng, Liu, Li, & Guo, 2016); and headrace tunnels at Neelum-Jhelum hydroelectric Project in Pakistan (Chen &
Chen, 2016). A total of 10,686 rockbursts occurred in a 13 km length of the Trans-Andean Olmos tunnel (with max-
imum overburden 2000 m) in Peru ( Joe, Willis, Carollo, & Askilsrud, 2008; Antonio, Handa, Tong, Montenegro, &
Tassi, 2011). There were more than 1000 rockbursts that occurred during the construction of Jinping auxiliary tunnels,
drainage tunnels, and headrace tunnels in China. A tunnel can be destroyed by intense rockbursts, as seen in Fig. 1.1.1.
The construction of deep tunnels can also induce earthquakes. For example, a series of 112 earthquakes was
recorded between October 2005 and August 2007 during the excavation of the MFS Faido, the southernmost access
point of the new Gotthard Base Tunnel in Switzerland (Stephan, Kissling, & von Deschwanden, 2012).
The key characteristics of rockbursts in tunnels, including the location and time of occurrence, the influence of geo-
logical structures, and the differences between rockbursts induced by a tunneling boring machine (TBM) and drilling
and blasting (D&B) tunneling will be given in the following subsections.
Rockbursts can occur locally in any zone of the tunnels, but not the whole project; see Fig. 1.1.2 and Tables 1.1.1 and
1.1.2 as examples. The nature of the rockburst depends on the level of in situ stresses, rockmass properties, geological
structures, excavation methods, advance rate, etc.
(A)
(B)
(C)
FIG. 1.1.2 Distribution of rockburst zones along with tunnels at Jinping II Hydropower Station, China; (A) at chainage K5 + 097–K6 + 085 of No. 4
headrace tunnel excavated by drilling and blasting (D&B); (B) at chainage K10 + 050–K11 + 165 of No. 3 headrace tunnel, excavated by D&B; (C) at
chainage K10 + 050–K11 + 165 of No. 3 headrace tunnel, excavated by tunneling boring machine (TBM). ◇-Slight rockburst, ☆-moderate rockburst,
★-intense rockburst. Modified from Feng, X.-T., Chen, B.R., Zhang, C.Q., & Li, S.J. (2013). Mechanism, warning and dynamic control of rockburst devel-
opment processes. Beijing: Science Press (in Chinese).
I. CHARACTERISTICS OF ROCKBURSTS
1.1.2 LOCATION OF ROCKBURSTS IN TUNNELS 5
TABLE 1.1.1 Statistics of Rockbursts at Partial TBM Excavation Zone of No. 1 Headrace Tunnel
No. Chainage Location at tunnel cross section Time Influence
1 15 + 048–15 + 052 Spandrel, vault April 24, 2009 Rockbolt machine damaged
2 14 + 872–14 + 876 Spandrel, vault May 23, 2009
3 14 + 850–14 + 853 Vault May 25, 2009
TABLE 1.1.2 Statistics of Rockbursts at Partial D&B Excavation Zone of No. 2 Headrace Tunnel
No. Chainage Location at tunnel cross section Time Influence
I. CHARACTERISTICS OF ROCKBURSTS
6 1. DESCRIPTION AND ENGINEERING PHENOMENON OF ROCKBURSTS
TABLE 1.1.2 Statistics of Rockbursts at Partial D&B Excavation Zone of No. 2 Headrace Tunnel—cont’d
No. Chainage Location at tunnel cross section Time Influence
Rockbursts can occur at any location of the cross section in a tunnel, including the vault, spandrel, sidewall, working
face, and/or floor of the tunnel; see Fig. 1.1.3 as an example.
The shapes of the rockburst pit in tunnels include a “V” shape controlled by a main geological structure plane, a
shallow nest shape without influence of any macroscopic structural plane, a rugged shape with influence of some stiff
structural plane, and big cracks and/or heave at floor of the tunnels. The first three are shown in Fig. 1.1.4 as examples.
The last one is shown in Fig. 1.1.3F–H.
According to the time of the rockburst after excavation of tunnels, two types of rockbursts are often observed: one is
the immediate rockbursts and the other is time-delayed rockbursts. The rockbursts that occur before reaching balance
are instantaneous ones, while those that occur after the realization of the balance are time-delayed ones. For the imme-
diate rockbursts, that means that the rockburst occurred immediately after excavation of the tunnels. For example,
there is one deeply buried tunnel where 75% of the rockbursts occurred in the first 3 h after the blasting excavation
(Fig. 1.1.5).
After the stress adjustment of the surrounding rocks caused by the excavation in tunnels reaches a balance, the rock-
bursts caused by additional external disturbances from the excavation of the lower bench, from blasting of adjacent
tunnels, or from the impact wave of a rockmass failure was defined as time-delayed rockburst. Time-delayed rock-
bursts can be divided into two types: temporal and spatial-delayed type and temporal-delayed type. In general the
temporal and spatial-delayed types occur out of the influencing range of excavation of the current tunnel face, where
the stress adjustment of surrounding rocks has been basically completed. In addition, it usually delays a certain dis-
tance of the tunnel faces in the space and a period of time after the excavation of rockburst areas in the time. The
temporal-delayed type is mainly found outside the influencing range of excavation in current tunnel faces. However,
the rockburst areas reach a new stress balance state, as the stress adjustment of surrounding rocks resulting from the
excavation in the current tunnel face has been completed in a period of time after the excavation stops.
While judging the time-delayed rockbursts, the following two problems need to be considered. The first is the range
of the stress adjustment of surrounding rocks induced by excavation in the current tunnel faces, namely space criterion.
The second is the time when the stress adjustment of the surrounding rocks reaches balance in the current tunnel faces;
that is, time criterion. Finally, the time-delayed rockburst is comprehensively judged according to these two criteria. In
the zone showing a distance of three times the tunnel span to the tunnel face in the deep tunnel, the stress adjustment of
the surrounding rocks caused by excavation has been basically completed to form a new stress balance state. As for the
space, time-delayed rockbursts therefore occur in the area more than three times that of the tunnel span in the rear of
the tunnel face. In other words, the space criterion of time-delayed rockbursts is that the areas of rockbursts are more
than three times the tunnel span in the rear of the tunnel faces. After the excavation unloading, the balance of the orig-
inal stress of the rock masses is broken, resulting in the redistribution of the stress, then the deformation and even the
destruction of the rock masses, which commonly shows a strong temporal characteristic.
I. CHARACTERISTICS OF ROCKBURSTS
(A) (B)
(C) (D)
(E) (F)
(G) (H)
Floor heave
(I)
FIG. 1.1.3 Location of a rockburst occurrence at the cross section of tunnels. For example, at (A) vault, (B) left spandrel (facing the tunnel face),
(C) side wall in the right (facing the tunnel face), (D) side wall in the right (facing the tunnel face), (E) side wall and crown, (F) working face,
(G) cracking and heave at floor of tunnel, (H) cracking at floor of tunnel, and (I) heave of floor at tunnel.
8 1. DESCRIPTION AND ENGINEERING PHENOMENON OF ROCKBURSTS
(A)
(B)
Broken
plane
Iron manganese
rendering
(C)
Time-delayed rockbursts occurring more than 6 days after the excavation of four headrace tunnels and drainage
tunnels with a total length of 8.2 km and an overburden of 1900–2500 m in the Jinping II hydropower station were
studied. By the end of August 2011, 38 time-delayed rockbursts occurred. As shown in Fig. 1.1.6, nearly 80% of
the time-delayed rockbursts occurred 6–30 days after the excavation and within 80 m of the tunnel face in the space.
At present the latest time-delayed rockbursts happened 163 days after the excavation, with the longest distance from
I. CHARACTERISTICS OF ROCKBURSTS
26 FIG. 1.1.5 The frequency of rock-
During the excavation of vault bursts in a deep tunnel in Summer
24
2004 (in min). From the people who
22 worked at the project.
20
Number of rockbursts
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
100
120
140
160
180
380
400
420
440
460
480
40
60
80
20
320
240
160
80
0
0 40 80 120 160
The time delay of the excavation of rockburst zone (day)
Time-delayed rockburst
90
Delay distance to the tunnel face (m)
60
0
0 6 12 18 24 30
The time delay of the excavation of rockburst zone (day)
10 1. DESCRIPTION AND ENGINEERING PHENOMENON OF ROCKBURSTS
the tunnel face being about 384 m. Under normal working conditions, the occurrence of time-delayed rockbursts
delays in time and space at the same time. They generally happen 6 days after the excavation, with a distance from
the tunnel face more than three times of the tunnel span. Under special circumstances, time-delayed rockbursts merely
present a time delay; that is, the rockburst occurs more than 6 days after the excavation, but within three times of the
tunnel span to the tunnel face. This type of temporal-delayed rockburst occur mainly in slow constructions or when the
construction is stopped a period of time after the excavation, as shown in Fig. 1.1.6.
According to the geological and supporting conditions of time-delayed rockbursts, the analysis shows that
most time-delayed rockbursts occur in the zone with rich original structural planes, such as joints, fractures, inter-
layers, etc. It is mainly supported by shotcrete layers of steel fiber, reinforced concrete, or the combination of the
shotcrete layers and random water-swelling anchors. As shown in Fig. 1.1.7, the structural planes can be divided
into two categories: type I mainly contains the implicit structural planes exhibiting a small angle with the tunnel
axis. Fig. 1.1.7B shows that such structural planes are flesh and therefore present good energy storage capability.
When rockbursts occur, rocks are basically burst to flaked or thin wedged fragments with a thickness of 0.2–
0.5 m, and damages generally extend along the expansion of the structural planes or the fracture of the end part
of the structural plane. One end of structural planes of type II is exposed, while the other end extends to deeper
surrounding rocks. As shown in Fig. 1.1.7C, this type of structural planes generally presents a larger angle with
the tunnel axis. If a region only has this type of structural planes, it shows stability surrounding the rocks; how-
ever, if there are other structural planes that extend and cut each other, the time-delayed rockbursts of high inten-
sity are more likely to occur. Moreover, large wedged rocks are mainly burst with the thickness, mainly varying
from 0.4 to 0.8 m and seldom thicker than 1 m. Under these conditions, damages generally grow along the exten-
sion and slip of structural planes.
1.1.4.1 Rockburst With One Stiff Structural Plane or a Set of Stiff Structural Planes
The typical rockbursts located at the locations where develops one or a set of structural planes as shown in Fig. 1.1.8.
According to the Fig. 1.1.8, the following conclusions can be given:
(1) The stiff structural planes are located in the spandrel or near to the vault of the tunnel. The stiff structural planes
show large angles with the axis of tunnels and the maximum tangential stress. When the rockbursts occur at the
footwall of the stiff structural planes, deep damage pits are generated with high intensities. Meanwhile, the upper
boundaries of the damage pits are controlled by the stiff structural planes while the rest boundaries are
multistepped surfaces (Fig. 1.1.8A and B).
(2) The stiff structural planes are located on the sidewall of the tunnel and present a large angle with the axis of the
tunnel along with a small angle with the maximum tangential stress. In these cases, after the occurrence of
rockbursts, the stiff structural planes that are located basically at the centers of the damage pits and both sides of
the rock mass fall off, resulting in steep scarps. Moreover, the damage pits show moderate depth. The rockbursts
are mainly slight and moderate (Fig. 1.1.8C and D).
(3) The stiff structural planes are found on the sidewall of the tunnel and form smaller angles both with the tunnel axis
and the maximum tangential stress. In these cases, after the occurrence of rockbursts, the edges of the damage pits
I. CHARACTERISTICS OF ROCKBURSTS
1.1.4 INFLUENCE OF GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES ON ROCKBURSTING AT TUNNELS 11
Water swelling anchors FIG. 1.1.7 Geological and supporting
Structural planes conditions associated with the damages of
rockburst, (A) Structural planes and sup-
port system, (B) rockburst dominated by
implicit structural planes with a small angle
with the tunnel axis, and (C) rockburst
dominated by combined structural planes
North wall Advancing direction
(Chen et al., 2012).
Shotcrete with steel fiber concrete
South wall
(A)
Implicit structural planes
Shotcrete with steel Water swelling exhibiting a small angle
fiber reinforced anchors with the tunnel axis
concrete
Flaked or thin
wedged
fragments
(B)
Largest fragment:
1⫻ 1.5 ⫻ 0.5 m
Implicit
structural planes
exhibiting a
small angle
I. CHARACTERISTICS OF ROCKBURSTS
12 1. DESCRIPTION AND ENGINEERING PHENOMENON OF ROCKBURSTS
Damage pit
Drainage
tunnel
(M) Facing to the west
FIG. 1.1.8 Typical rockbursts with a development of one or a set of structural planes in the tunnels of the Jinping II hydropower station.
(A) Intense rockburst at chainage 0 + 077–0 + 122 of a tunnel (D&B method), (B) strong rockburst at chainage K8 + 237–K8 + 220 of headrace tunnel
(D&B method), (C) moderate rockburst at deep underground laboratory tunnel (D&B method), (D) slight rockburst witnessed at chainage K7 + 915 of
headrace tunnel (D&B method), (E) moderate rockburst at chainage K9 + 721–K9 + 710 of headrace tunnel (D&B method), (F) intense rockburst at
chainage K8 + 950–K8 + 990 of headrace tunnel (D&B method), (G) intense rockburst at chainage K11 + 040–K11 + 054 of headrace tunnel (TBM tunnel-
ing), (H) moderate rockburst at chainage BK9 + 512.8 of auxiliary tunnel B (D&B method), (I) intense rockburst at chainage K11 + 045–K11 + 054 of
headrace tunnel (D&B method), (J) moderate rockburst at chainage K6 + 081–K6 + 100 of headrace tunnel (D&B method), (K) moderate rockburst at
chainage SK5 + 138–SK5 + 143 (D&B method), (L) intense rockburst at chainage K10 + 150–320 of headrace tunnel (TBM tunneling), (M) extremely
intense rockburst occurred at SK9 + 283 9 + 322 (TBM tunneling). Modified from Feng, X.-T., Chen, B.R., Zhang, C.Q., & Li, S.J. (2013). Mechanism,
warning and dynamic control of rockburst development processes. Beijing: Science Press (in Chinese).
I. CHARACTERISTICS OF ROCKBURSTS
1.1.4 INFLUENCE OF GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES ON ROCKBURSTING AT TUNNELS 13
are stepped scarps. In addition, the stiff structural planes cut through the damage pits and lead to deeper damage
pits and higher intensities of rockbursts (Fig. 1.1.8E–G).
(4) The stiff structural planes are located on the working face, and the boundary of the damage pit is controlled by the
stiff structural planes (Fig. 1.1.8H).
(5) A set of stiff structural planes has developed which are approximately parallel, the boundaries of rockburst
damage pits parallel to the stiff structural planes are also controlled by those planes. The newly generated damage
surfaces are arranged directionally and steps are found in the pits, while the rock masses vertical to the stiff
structural planes are broken with steep ridges. The damage pits are deeper and have higher intensities of
rockbursts. (Fig. 1.1.8I–L).
(6) When the stiff structural planes presenting a small angle with a tunnel axis cut through the vicinity of a tunnel,
especially through the bottom, the stiff structural planes are exposed to form the boundaries of the damage pits
after the occurrence of rockbursts. The damage pits are deep and cause damage of a large range which high
intensities of rockbursts, for example, extremely intense rockbursts (Fig. 1.1.8M).
From the perspective of macroscopic fracture surfaces, there are visible scratches on fracture surfaces generated in
the rockbursts. Meanwhile, some stepped scarps are in angular shapes, while the other parts are less angular. Most of
the rockbursts form the fragments and a few blocks. Moreover, scratches are found on some of the blocks. It shows that,
apart from the high stress, rockburst occurrence is affected by the stiff structural planes as well.
The above analysis shows that the locations, intensities, and shapes of rockbursts are controlled by stiff structural
planes. Firstly, the intensities and shapes of the rockbursts are closely related to the quantity and occurrence of stiff
structural planes, as well as their spatial relationship with tunnels. In general, rockbursts controlled by structural
planes located in the spandrel or vault of tunnels, showing large angles with the tunnel axis and the maximum tan-
gential stress are more intensive, as well as those in the sidewall presenting small angles with the two factors. This is
compared with those controlled by stiff structural planes in tunnel sidewalls presenting large angles with the tunnel
axis and small angles with the maximum tangential stress. In addition, when stiff structural planes forming small
angles with the tunnel axis cut through the vicinity of tunnels, rockbursts of high intensities affecting deep areas
and causing wide ranges of damage are likely to be induced. Secondly, rockbursts controlled by a set of joints impact
a larger range and show a higher intensity than those controlled by a joint. Thirdly, the edges of damage pits generally
exhibit stepped surfaces, which form scarps. When there are stiff structural planes, most of the surfaces are shown to be
inclined planes or bedding joint surfaces.
1.1.4.2 Rockbursts With Two Stiff Structural Planes With Different Azimuths or Two Sets of Stiff
Structural Planes
The rockbursts affected by two stiff structural planes having different azimuths or two sets of structural planes are
shown in Fig. 1.1.9. Rockbursts basically occurred at the intersection of two sets of stiff structural planes.
When the two stiff structural planes are nearly orthogonal, the boundary of the damage pits is controlled by a struc-
tural plane, and the rockburst generate a shallow area (see Fig. 1.1.9A). However, when two sets of stiff structural
planes are nearly orthogonal, rock masses are broken at the stiff structural planes to form stepped scarps from the
inside to the outside of rock masses (Fig. 1.1.9B).
With two sets of stiff structural planes with an obtuse angle, rockbursts inflict damage in a wide and deep range of
rock mass. Thereinto, one set of the stiff structural planes controls the boundary of damage pits while the other group
forms steep scarps (Fig. 1.1.9C); or the two sets of stiff structural planes are destroyed to form apparent stepped scarps
(Fig. 1.1.9D). In addition, if there developed two sets of stiff structural planes with an acute angle, the damage range of
rockbursts is relatively small when accompanying the shallow damage pits (Fig. 1.1.9E).
In the case of two stiff structural planes with an obtuse angle, the damage pit is deep and in a V-shape formation
(Fig. 1.1.9F and G).
If the two stiff structural planes are in a V-shape formation, then the boundary of damage pits is governed by the stiff
structural planes and the whole damage pit is also V-shaped (Fig. 1.1.9H).
When one tip of a joint is revealed while another tip extends to the insides of surrounding rocks showing a large
angle with the tunnel axis, rockbursts damage a small range of rock mass if there is no explicit structural plane
(Fig. 1.1.9C and D). Otherwise, the damage range of rockbursts is large (Fig. 1.1.9I).
In terms of the macroscopic fracture surface, obvious scratches can be found on the fracture surface of rockbursts
with some angular stepped scarps. Most of rockbursts are fragments, along with a few blocks. In addition, scratches
I. CHARACTERISTICS OF ROCKBURSTS
14 1. DESCRIPTION AND ENGINEERING PHENOMENON OF ROCKBURSTS
can be observed on the surfaces of some blocks. All the phenomena indicate that the generation of rockbursts is not
only affected by the high stress, but also by the control of stiff structural planes.
By comparing Figs. 1.1.8 and 1.1.9, it can be seen that most of the stiff structural planes in the rockburst areas are
commonly closed without filling materials and water and are endowed with poor extensibility.
From the analysis above, it can be concluded that the locations, intensities, and damage pit shapes of rockbursts are
generally controlled by stiff structural planes. It can be explained as follows:
(1) Rockbursts are more likely to occur at the intersection of structural planes.
(2) The rockbursts controlled by two sets of stiff structural planes caused a larger range with higher intensity than
those controlled by two stiff structural planes with different azimuths.
(3) The spatial organization of structural planes is closely related to the intensities of the rockbursts.
(4) When a tunnel passes through the vicinity, especially the tip of stiff structural planes, the rockbursts shows a high
intensity and impacts a large range.
I. CHARACTERISTICS OF ROCKBURSTS
1.1.5 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ROCKBURSTS IN D&B TUNNELS AND TBM TUNNELING 15
North footing North footing
North spandrel North spandrel
Crown center Crown center
South spandrel 84- 4
South spandrel
South footing South footing
(B)
Broken through
Local magnitude Fault B
−4.00
−3.58
Advancing −3.16 Advancing
−2.73
−2.31
−1.89
−1.47
−1.04
−0.62
−0.20
There are major differences between rockbursts that occur during TBM tunneling and D&B tunneling including the
number, intensity, and frequency of rockbursts.
It can be seen from Tables 1.1.1 and 1.1.2 that there have been more rockbursts during TBM excavation than D&B
excavation by comparing the chainage K14 + 096–K15 + 048 in TBM tunnel and the chainage K14 + 105–K15 + 041 in
D&B tunnel (i.e., two parallel tunnels having the same overburden and similar geological conditions, the spacing
of two tunnel central lines is 60 m, 12.4 m in diameter for TBM tunnel, and 13 m in diameter for D&B tunnel, which
I. CHARACTERISTICS OF ROCKBURSTS
16 1. DESCRIPTION AND ENGINEERING PHENOMENON OF ROCKBURSTS
TABLE 1.1.3 Relationship Between Geological Structural Planes and Rockburst Occurring at Chainage SK8 + 200–K8 + 800 in a
Drainage Tunnel
Chainage Location of rockburst Intensities of rockburst α (degrees) β (degrees) γ (degrees)
Note: α is the angle between the strike of structural plane and the axis of tunnel, β is the angle between the maximum tangent stress of the tunnel and the strike of the
structural plane, γ is the dip angle of the structural plane.
was excavated by two benches and 8.7 m height for the upper bench). It has 17 rockbursts in TBM tunneling, but only
seven in D&B tunneling.
In order to further compare the differences of rockburst risks during TBM tunneling and D&B tunneling, the zones
having similar geological conditions, overburden, and rockmass (marble), but different excavation method have been
selected in Fig. 1.1.11. The selected zones for comparing are D&B tunneling for the working face 3-3-W at chainage
K5 +765–K6 + 200 of No. 3 headrace tunnel, the working face 3-4-W at chainage K5 + 405–K6 + 085 of No. 4 headrace
tunnel and TBM tunneling for chainage K10 + 050–K11 + 165 of No.3 headrace tunnel at Jinping II Hydropower Station,
China. Both lengths are 1115 m; the former overburden is 1852–2132 m, and the latter overburden is 1864–2230 m. It can
be seen from Fig. 1.1.12 that rockburst events are more active during TBM tunneling than D&B tunneling. The reason for
that is the distribution peak value of microseismic events having larger local magnitude (Fig. 1.1.13A), larger rupture
[
Legend [ [
[
Marble Crystalline Slate Packsand
limestone
T2b
No.1 Headrace tunnel
S 58° E
N 60 m 4000 4000
F27
No.2 Headrace tunnel [
[
60 m [ T2b
3000 3000
Elevation(m)
60 m
D&B 3-4-W
No.4 Headrace tunnel
2000 2000
45 m A B
D&B TBM
Advancing direction
Drainage tunnel 1000 1000
No. 3 No. 2 No. 1 5 + 000 6 + 000 7 + 000 8 + 000 9 + 000 10 + 000 11 + 000
Auxiliary Auxiliary Auxiliary
Chainage(m)
tunnel tunnel tunnel
FIG. 1.1.11 Comparison of TBM tunneling zone and D&B tunneling zones (A) in plane graph and (B) geological cross section.
I. CHARACTERISTICS OF ROCKBURSTS
1.1.5 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ROCKBURSTS IN D&B TUNNELS AND TBM TUNNELING 17
7
6 - Intense - Moderate - Slight
5
lgE (J) 4
3
2
1
Date(day) (April 2011)
0
10 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20th no event 21 22 23 24 27
−1
1 6 11 16 21 26 31 36 41 46 51 56 61 66 71 76 81 86 91 96
(A) Microseismic events
7
6
5
4
lgE (J)
3
2
1 - Intense - Moderate - Slight
0
5 8 9 10 Date(day) (June 2010) 11 12 13 14 15 16 21
−1
1 5 9 13 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 45 49 53 57 61 65 69 73 77 81 85 89 93
(B) Microseismic events
FIG. 1.1.12 Rockbursts associated with distribution of microseismic events. (A) D&B tunneling and (B) TBM tunneling.
200 200
Number of MS events
Number of MS events
0 0
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
(A) Local magnitude (B) Radius of apparent volume (m)
Number of MS events
5 10
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
(C) lgE (J) (D) Time (h)
FIG. 1.1.13 Comparison of microseismicity during TBM tunneling and D&B tunneling. (A) Magnitude distributions of microseismic events. (B)
Distribution of rupture scale of a microseismic source. (C) Energy distribution of microseismic events. (D) Interval between microseismic events that
occurred in succession. The ratio of microseismic events generated within 12 h of the total microseismic events is 81.7% in TBM and 80.2% in D&B,
respectively.
I. CHARACTERISTICS OF ROCKBURSTS
18 1. DESCRIPTION AND ENGINEERING PHENOMENON OF ROCKBURSTS
scale (Fig. 1.1.13B), higher energy (Fig. 1.1.13C), and occurring at an earlier time (Fig. 1.1.13D) during TBM tunneling
than during D&B tunneling. It can also be seen that a higher concentration of microseismic events has greater energy
during the TBM tunneling than during D&B tunneling (Fig. 1.1.14).
Usually, there are several lower intensities of rockbursts before an intense rockburst or an extremely intense
rockburt during TBM tunneling, but it doesn’t have lower intensities of rockbursts before a main rockburst in D&B
tunneling; see Fig. 1.1.15.
Usually, most rockbursts occurred at and near the working face in TBM tunneling. However, rockbursts can occur at
the working face of the tunnel or a certain distance from working face of tunnel; see Fig. 1.1.16.
FIG. 1.1.14 Comparison of the spatial distribu- No.3 Headrace tunnel No.3 Headrace tunnel
tion of microseismic events during (A) TBM tunnel- K6+094 K6+145 K11+015 K11+068
ing and (B) D&B tunneling.
Local magnitude
–4.00
–3.44
–2.89
Advancing Advancing
–2.33
–1.78
–1.22
–0.67
–0.11
0.44
1.00
(A) (B)
8
30
6
20
4
10 2
0 0
8-15 8-16 8-17 8-18 8-19 8-20
(A) Time (month-day)
2.0
15
1.5
10
1.0
5
0.5
0 0.0
1-7 1-8 1-9 1-10 1-11 1-12 1-13 1-14
(B) Time (month-day)
FIG. 1.1.15 Characteristics of rockbursts at D&B and TBM tunneling. (A) There are several lower intensities of rockbursts before an intense or an
extremely intense rockburst in TBM tunneling. (B) There are usually no lower intensities of rockbursts before a main rockburst in D&B tunneling. ◇;
Slight rockburst, ☆; moderate rockburst, and ★; intense rockburst.
I. CHARACTERISTICS OF ROCKBURSTS
REFERENCES 19
50
40
Frequency
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
(A) Chainage difference between rockburst and working face
16
14
12
Frequency
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
(B) Chainage difference between rockburst and working face
FIG. 1.1.16 Chainage difference between locations of rockbursts and working face in tunnel excavated by different construction methods:
(A) TBM and (B) D&B. Note: The chainage of rockburst locations means the chainage of the center of the rockburst zone here. The chainage difference
is zero if the rockburst occurred at the working face. The zones for statistics have similar geological conditions, overburden, and length.
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I. CHARACTERISTICS OF ROCKBURSTS
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