Chapter 4 Topic 1: Basic Areas of Ethical Study

Introduction

A framework is defined as a set of assumptions, concepts, values and practices

that constitutes a way of viewing reality (Framework, n.d.) We may understand basic
theories as frameworks in ethics as a system of rules, ideas, notions, theories, or
principles that assists man in his moral decisions and judgments.

In Ethics there are three major areas of study: meta-ethics, normative ethics, and
applied ethics. Under these major subject areas are various ethical theories as
frameworks.

1. Normative Ethics

Normative ethics was regarded as that branch of ethical inquiry that considered
general ethical questions whose answers had some relatively direct bearing on practice
(Normative Ethical theories, 2020). In a sense, it is a search for an ideal litmus test of
proper behavior (Fieser, n.d.). Normative Ethics is concerned with the standard and
criteria by which we can judge man’s actions to be morally right or morally wrong. This
was the prevalent form of ethics in philosophy until the end of the 19th Century. It includes
a consideration of the importance of human freedom, and a discussion of the limits of a
human’s responsibility for moral decisions and for the consequences of actions) (Ethics,
9).

The crucial thesis of normative ethical ethics is that there is only one ultimate
principle or standard of moral conduct, whether it is a solitary law or a set of rules. It
stresses three elements: the person who performs the act (the agent), the act, and the
consequences of the act. Generally, there are three categories of normative ethical
theories: deontology, teleological ethics and virtue ethics.

Deontology

Deontological normative ethical theories place the locus of right and wrong in
autonomous adherence to moral laws or duties (Deontological Theories 2002). It
emphasizes the correlation between duty and morality of human acts.

In deontological ethics an action is considered morally good

because of some characteristic of the action itself, not because the
product of the action is good. Deontological ethics holds that at least
some acts are morally obligatory regardless of their consequences
for human welfare. Descriptive of such ethics are such expressions
as “Duty for duty’s sake,” “Virtue is its own reward,” and
“Let justice be done though the heavens fall.” (Deontological ethics,
n.d.)
 Also called duty-based ethics, deontology is interested with what man does, not
with the consequences of his actions. It advises people to do the right thing because it is
the right thing to do and keep away from wrong things because they are wrong. People
are counseled to do the right thing, even if that produces more harm than doing the wrong
thing. People have a moral obligation to do the right thing, even if it produces a bad result.

Teleological Ethics

This theory of morality derives duty or moral obligation from what is good or
desirable as an end to be achieved (Teleological ethics, n.d.). It believes that the
rightness or wrongness of a human act is contingent on its outcome. Hence, a human act
is considered morally right if it produces a good outcome. Since the moral goodness of a
human act is dependent only on its results, the more good results a human act produces,
the better or more right that human act is. The results of a human act generally eclipse all
other considerations.

Every teleological moral theory locates morality in the outcomes of human actions.
Teleological ethical theorists contend that every human act is teleological in the sense
that man reasons about the means of realizing certain goals. Thus, all moral conduct is
goal-directed.

Virtue ethics

This is a broad term for theories that emphasize the role of character and virtue
in moral philosophy rather than either doing one’s duty or acting in order to bring
about good consequences (Athanassoulis, N. n.d.). Therefore, the fundamental
component of moral behavior is the person’s character rather than ethical duties and rules
about the acts themselves or consequences of particular actions. This moral theory is
character or person-based rather than action based because it places special emphasis
on the moral character of the person executing the act.

Virtue ethics is primarily concerned with traits of character that are

essential to human flourishing, not with the enumeration of duties.
It falls somewhat outside the traditional dichotomy
between deontological ethics and consequentialism: It agrees with
consequentialism that the criterion of an action’s being morally right
or wrong lies in its relation to an end that has intrinsic value, but
more closely resembles deontological ethics in its view that morally
right actions are constitutive of the end itself and not mere
instrumental means to the end (Virtue ethics, n.d.).

Virtue ethics is not only concern with the morality of individual acts, but it is also a
source of counsel as to the type of attributes and behaviors human beings should realize.
It does not just focus its attention on particular moral acts, rather more concerned with
the whole of a person's life. It believes that a moral being is someone who lives virtuously,
someone who possesses and actually applies the virtues he has learned.

Watch your thoughts; they become words.

Watch your words, they become actions.
Watch your actions; they become habits.
Watch your habits; they become character.
Watch your character; it becomes your destiny.
- Frank Outlaw

2. Meta-ethics

Meta-ethics is a branch of analytic philosophy that explores the status, foundations,

and scope of moral values, properties, and words. (Meta-ethics, n.d.) It is an inquiry about
the nature of ethical assertions, attitudes, and evaluations. Meta-ethics belongs to the
three branches of ethics considered as framework, the others being normative
ethics and applied ethics.

Garner and Rosen (1967), claimed that there are three kinds of meta-ethical
problems, or three general questions:

1. What is the meaning of moral terms or judgments? (moral semantics)

2. What is the nature of moral judgments? (moral ontology)
3. How may moral judgments be supported or defended? (moral epistemology)

The first meta-ethical problem or general question investigates the meaning of the
terms: good, bad, right and wrong. Question of the second kind inquires on the
universality or relativity of moral judgments. The third problem raises the question on our
ability to know if a human act is right or wrong, if at all. Garner and Rosen (1967), argued
that answers to the three basic questions are not unrelated, and sometimes an answer to
one will strongly suggest, or perhaps even entail, an answer to another.

Meta-ethical theories are commonly categorized semantically as either cognitivism

or non-cognitivism; substantially as either universalism or relativism; and
epistemologically as empiricism, rationalism, or intuitionism.

Moral Cognitivism versus Moral Non-Cognitivism

a. Moral Cognitivism holds that moral statements do express beliefs and that they are
apt for truth and falsity (Moral Cognitivism vs. Non-Cognitivism, 2018). It claims that
ethical sentences convey propositions that are capable being true or false. It also
declares that right and wrong are matters of fact. Moral realism and ethical
subjectivism are the two most common forms of cognitivism.

a.1 Moral Realism (or Moral Objectivism) is the position that ethical
sentences express propositions that refer to objective features of the world, that is,
 features independent of subjective opinion (Shafer-Landau,2015). It assumes that
moral values are objectively true and their truth does not depend or
are independent of our opinions, perception, beliefs, feelings or attitudes of them.

a.2 Ethical Subjectivism is the meta-ethical view which claims that the truth or
falsity of such propositions is ineliminably dependent on the (actual or
hypothetical) attitudes of people (Brandt ,1959). Contrary to moral realism, ethical
subjectivism argues that there are no objective moral truths. The truth or falsity of
ethical propositions is dependent on our opinions, perception, beliefs, feelings or
attitudes towards them. Ethical sentences are arbitrary because they do not
convey unchanging truths.

b. Moral Non-cognitivism holds the view that ethical statements lack truth-value which
means they are neither true nor false. According to Garner and Rosen (1967),
noncognitivist denies the cognitivist claim that moral judgments are capable of being
objectively true, because they describe some feature of the world. If moral statements
cannot be true, and if one cannot know something that is not true, noncognitivism
implies that moral knowledge is impossible (Garner and Rosen,1967). Moral truths are
not the type of truths that can be known.

b.1 Emotivism is a meta-ethical view that claims that ethical sentences do not
express propositions but emotional attitudes (Garner and Rosen,1967). It assumes
that the purpose of ethical propositions is to convey emotions of approval or
disapproval. To a certain degree they are also imperatives meant to sway the frame
of mind of other people.

Moral Universalism versus Moral Relativism

a. Moral Universalism which is also called moral objectivism proposes

that ethical implications of an action is universally applicable to everybody,
regardless of circumstance. It believes that there is a universal moral
system which applies to anyone which transcends culture, nationality, race,
religion, sexuality or other distinguishing feature.

b. Moral Relativism is a philosophical position which believes that moral

judgments are true or false only relative to some particular standpoint (for
instance, that of a culture or a historical period) and that no standpoint is uniquely
privileged over all others (Westacott, n.d.). Moral judgments differ from person to
person and are all equally valid and no one’s belief of right and wrong is really
better than any other. There is no objective and ultimate standard of morality, so
each moral judgment about right and wrong is relative to a person’s cultural,
social, historical or personal circumstances and preferences.
Moral Empiricism versus Moral Rationalism versus Moral Intuitionism

a. Moral Empiricism is an ethical perspective which assumes that moral knowledge

is based on one’s experiences and observations. It claims that moral learning and
knowledge is not possible without experience. This ethical view is an extension of
empiricism in epistemology that states that knowledge comes only or primarily
from sensory experience (Psillos and Curd, 2010). Empiricism emphasizes the
role of empirical evidence in the formation of ideas, rather than innate
ideas or traditions (Forrest and Kaufmann, 2008). Other forms of moral
empiricism suggest that moral truths are reducible to matters about man’s
judgments and beliefs or cultural practices and therefore are recognizable by
observation and experience of their practices.

b. Moral Rationalism is a view in meta-ethics (specifically the epistemology of

ethics) according to which moral principles are knowable a priori, by reason alone
(Capps and Pattinson, 2017). It considers reason as the main source and test of
moral knowledge. Because of reason, certain moral truths exist and that the
intellect can directly grasp these truths.

c. Moral Intuitionism argued that moral truths are self-evident, that is, evident in
and of themselves and so can be known without the need of any proof or
reasoning. What is morally right or morally wrong is self-evident in nature and
cannot be known through human experience.

Intuitionism teaches three main things: (1) There are real objective moral
truths that are independent of human beings. (2) These are fundamental truths
that can't be broken down into parts or defined by reference to anything except
other moral truths. (3) Human beings can discover these truths by using their
minds in a particular, intuitive way (Intuitionism, n.d.).

The concepts of right and wrong and objective moral truths do exist and
culture does not change those. A fundamental moral truth is like any fundamental
truth and no one can't attempt to break it down any further because things that are
moral good are simply morally good. Man has the ability to intuitively know if
something is right or wrong.

Intuitionism does not mean that all moral decisions are reached by
relying on intuition. Intuition enables the discovery of
the basic moral truths, and everyday moral decision-making then
involves thinking about the choices available and making moral
judgements in an ordinary sort of way. (Intuitionism, n.d.)

3. Applied ethics

Applied ethics, in a broad sense, refers to any use of philosophical methods

critically to examine practical moral decisions and to treat moral problems, practices, and
policies in the professions, technology, government, and the like (Applied ethics, 2020).
As a problem-solving branch of ethics, it strives to find out the application of moral
knowledge into practice. In other words, it bridges ethical theory and practical and feasible
solutions. It has produced principle-based attitude toward ethical issues which in many
instances result in solutions to particular problems that are not globally acceptable.

This discipline studies difficult moral questions and controversial moral issues that
human beings actually face in their lives like: abortion, euthanasia, death penalty, suicide,
cloning humans, vaccination, harassment, discrimination, gay or lesbian relations, war
tactics, animal rights, capital punishments or nuclear war and environmental issues.

Some of the key areas of applied ethics are: bioethics, environmental ethics,
business ethics, sexual ethics, and social ethics.

Bioethics

This is branch of applied ethics that studies the philosophical, social, and legal
issues arising in medicine and the life sciences (Chadwick, n.d.). Bioethics devotes its
time and attention in studying the moral controversies brought about by advances
in biology and medicine. It is concerned with scientific advances that can alter the way
we understand health and illness and, ultimately, the way we live and die. It is
multidisciplinary because it draws contributions from many different academic disciplines
or professional specializations such as philosophy, theology, history, anthropology, law,
medicine, nursing, health policy, social work and the medical humanities.

Issues that are considered in bioethics include: cloning, surrogate motherhood,

human genetic engineering, genomics, stem cell research, organ donation and
transplantation, transplant trade, medical and genetic data privacy, cyber-
attacks against medical devices and systems, biohacking, biological differences based
on inequalities in wealth, bioterrorism, technological sexuality, assisted reproductive
technologies, ethical issues on brain imaging and testing, nanotechnologies (using small
particles to deliver medicine or other medical treatments), and genetically modified food.

Environmental Ethics

This is the discipline in philosophy that studies the moral relationship of human
beings to, and also the value and moral status of, the environment and its non-human
contents (Environmental ethics, 2015). It deals with man’s moral obligation to the
preservation and care of the non-human world.

Environmental ethics rests on the principle that all life forms on earth have the right
to live. Human beings and nature are closely linked with each other because they depend
on one another for their existence. Owing to their inseparable relationship, the guiding
principles of man’s life and his ethical values should include it. By destroying the
environment and its non-human contents, man unjustly and immorally denies its right to
live.
 The topics for debate in environmental ethics include: global climate change, the
depletion of natural resources, loss of biodiversity, destruction of ecosystems, water and
air pollution, waterways, the use of fertilizers, animal experimentation, and endangered
species preservation.

Business Ethics

This can be understood as the study of the ethical dimensions of productive

organizations and commercial activities (Business ethics, 2016). It is interested in the
analyses of the ethical problems and principles in the manufacture, supply, advertising,
and selling of products and services.

Business ethics is beyond just a moral code of right and wrong in the workplace.
Over and above their obligation to the law, business organizations must be conscious of
the moral impact of their activities on customers, employees, shareholders, communities
and the environment in all aspects of their operations.

More than knowledge and experience in managing a business the interests of the
community are of paramount importance. There should be a balance between the
purpose of business, which is to make money and its unwritten social responsibilities to
its employees and society.

Corporate governance, employee rights, unions, insider trading, bribery,

misleading advertising, discrimination, corporate social responsibility, fiduciary
responsibilities, and even slavery are some of the controversial subjects addressed in
business ethics.

Sexual Ethics

This is commonly understood as the study of human sexuality and sexual behavior.
It seeks to investigate thoroughly moral behavior regarding with whom people have sex
and how they do so. It is an attempt to bring about a comprehensive understanding of the
moral conduct of interpersonal relationships and sexual practices from social, cultural,
religious, medical, legal and philosophical perspectives.

Sexual ethics explores topics such as procreation, abortion, contraception,

adultery, extramarital sex, sexual harassment, sexual abuse, polyamory, seduction,
flirting, prostitution, homosexuality, pornography, masturbation, incest, rape,
sadomasochism, bestiality, pedophilia, sexually transmitted infections, genital
modification and mutilation, teenage pregnancy, celibacy, and marriage.

Social Ethics

This is an analysis of the set of rules, guidelines, values, behaviors and

responsibilities people have toward themselves, each other, and the world as a whole.
The collection of social principles regulate relationships within a society, specifically with
regard to determining what is considered morally right, just and noble. The rules which
society judges acceptable are expected to be followed because they are meant to guide
people in their ethical choices and values.

Social ethics teaches what each person will and will not tolerate from each other
within society. To maintain social equilibrium, the welfare of society as a whole must be
placed ahead of the interests of any individual. People in a society cannot do as they
please. There are social norms and laws that prescribe boundaries and encourage social
responsibility.
Social ethics validates if people’s decisions and actions cause harm to society or
the environment. Each person is responsible to act in manner that benefits his society
and not solely himself.

Social ethics closely and thoroughly examines problems such as: environmental
pollution, global warming, antisocial behavior, poverty, malnourishment, lack of access to
food and clean water, access to clean and affordable living, unemployment,
homelessness, discrimination and violence, drug abuse, alcohol abuse, political
corruption, prostitution, sexual abuse, rape, early pregnancy, same-sex marriage, birth
control, HIV/AIDS, prostitution, gay marriages, gender issues, child labor, lack of
proper access to education, the shortage of schools, the lack of infrastructure, alcoholism,
food and drug safety, suicide, drug abuse, capital punishment, animal abuse, human
rights, women's rights, children’s rights, world population, organ & body donation,
euthanasia & assisted suicide, death penalty, consumer debt and bankruptcy, judicial
reform, censorship, gun control, terrorism, nuclear weapon production, immigration,
tobacco, nuclear proliferation, cancer, health care reform, religious conflict & war, political
polarization, government accountability, lack of access to credit, eating disorders, obesity
and the lack of physical fitness programs.