Energy giving food: carbohydrates (CH2O)

DEFINITION AND COMPOSITION

Carbohydrates are organic compounds that contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen. Most, but not all carbohydrates have a ratio of one carbon molecule to one water
molecule (hydrate of carbon), hence the term carbohydrate. Carbohydrates are polyhydric
aldehydes and ketones with the general formula CnH 2nOn or Cn(H2O)n.

CLASSIFICATION
The simple carbohydrates
- The simple carbohydrates (the sugars) are those that chemists describe as
monosaccharides (single sugars) and disaccharides (pair of monosaccharides). Of
the simple carbohydrates most important in nutrition, three are monosaccharides and
three are disaccharides.
- The monosaccharides are: glucose, fructose and galactose
- The disaccharides are: malthouse (glucose + glucose), sucrose (glucose + fructose),
lactose (glucose + galactose)

Monosaccharides
1. Glucose - also known as physiologic sugar, blood sugar, dextrose, corn sugar, and
grape sugar. Principal product formed by the hydrolysis of more complex
carbohydrates during digestion. Form of sugar normally found in the blood.
Predominant Energy source for all the cells especially the central nervous system.
Stored in the liver and muscle as glycogen.
2. Fructose - also known as levulose and fruit sugar. Sweetest of the sugars. Highly
soluble and does not readily crystallize. Used commercially and does not readily
crystallize. Used commercially in sweeteners such as high-fructose corn syrup.
Occurs naturally in fruits and honey.
3. Galactose - rarely occurs naturally as a single sugar. Produced from lactose during
digestion.

Disaccharides
1. Sucrose - also known as table sugar or simply “sugar”, cane sugar, beet sugar, and
saccharose. Found mainly in molasses, maple syrup, and maple sugar. Prepared
commercially from sugar cane and sugar beets. When hydrolyzed by digestive
enzymes or acid, it is converted to a mixture of equal parts of glucose and fructose
(invert sugar)
2. Maltose - also known as malt sugar and grain sugar. Formed in plants when seeds
germinate and in human beings during carbohydrate digestion Occurs during the
fermentation process that yields alcohol.
3. Lactose - also known as milk sugar. Only carbohydrate of animal origin that is of
significance in the human diet. About ⅙ as sweet as sugar and is the least sweet
among the common sugars.

The Complex Carbohydrates

The complex carbohydrates are composed of many glucose units and, in some
cases, a few other monosaccharides strung together as polysaccharides. Three types of
polysaccharides are important in nutrition:
 1. Glycogen - often called “animal starch” and is structurally similar to amylopectin but
contains many more branched chains of glucose. Major form of stored carbohydrate
in human and animal tissues. Rapidly synthesized from glucose in the liver and
muscles where it is stored.
2. Starches - storage form of carbohydrates in plants found mostly in grains, legumes,
seeds, root crops, and tubers. Occur in both the amylose form (long straight chains of
glucose units) and the amylopectin form (long branched chains of glucose units).
Produce dextrins as intermediate products during hydrolysis
3. Fiber or Roughage - nonstarch polysaccharides that are not digested by GI tract
bacteria. Nonstarch polysaccharide fibers include cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectins,
gums, and mucilages. Also include some non polysaccharides such as lignins,
cutins, and tannins. Structural parts of plants:
a. Soluble Fiber - fruit, legumes, barley, oats, delays glucose absorption, lower
blood cholesterol
b. Insoluble FIber - wheat bran, corn beans, whole grain breads, cereals and
vegetables accelerate gastro-intestinal transit and delays of glucose
absorption.

FUNCTIONS
1. Source of Energy - yields approximately 4kcal/g
2. Protein sparer - adequate carbohydrates provide the body’s energy needs to ensure
that proteins will be used for building and repairing of body tissues.
3. Regulation of fat metabolism - adequate carbohydrates prevent the rapid oxidation of
fats which results in the accumulation of ketone bodies leading to ketosis
4. Roles in gastrointestinal function - lactose promotes the growth of desirable bacteria,
some of which are useful in the synthesis of the b-complex vitamins. Lactose
enhances the absorption of calcium. Fiber maintains gut integrity and ensures normal
elimination of waste.
5. Vital constituents of body compounds that regulate metabolism

DIGESTION
1. In the mouth - mechanical digestion tears fiber in food and is moistened by saliva.
Salivary amylase (ptyalin) hydrolyzes starch to shorter polysaccharides and to
maltose
2. In the small intestine - pancreatic amylase breaks down polysaccharides to shorter
glucose chains and disaccharides. Disaccharides enzymes dismantle specific
disaccharides. All polysaccharides and disaccharides are broken down to
monosaccharides which are absorbed by intestinal cell. Fiber is not digested and
delays the absorption of other nutrients.

METABOLISM
1. Using Glucose for Energy
- Glucose plays the central role in the carbohydrate metabolism and is used bu
the body as a chief source of energy.
2. Storing Glucose as Glycogen (Glycogenesis)
- After a meal, blood glucose rises and cells in the liver and muscles link
excess glucose molecules by condensation reactions to make glycogen. The
human body stores much of its glucose as glycogen in the liver and muscles.
 - About ⅓ of the body’s glycogen is stored in the liver. Liver glycogen is used
up rapidly and must be replenished daily.
- Muscle cells store the remaining ⅔ of the body’s total glycogen but howard
most of it, using it only for themselves during exercise and other physical
activities.
3. Converting Glycogen Stores to Glucose (Glycogenolysis)
- People who do not eat enough dietary carbohydrate survive by drawing
energy from their glycogen stores. When blood glucose falls, the liver cells
dismantle the glycogen by hydrolysis reactions to produce glucose which is
released into the bloodstream for use by body cells as needed.
4. Making Glucose from Protein (Gluconeogenesis)
- Body protein can be converted to glucose to some extent, but its main role ist
build and repair body tissues. Only a very small portion of body fat (glycerol)
can be converted to glucose. Thus, when dietary carbohydrate is inadequate,
body proteins are dismantled to make glucose for the body’s energy needs.
5. Making ketone Bodies from Fat Fragments
- Inadequate intake of dietary carbohydrate provides less glucose to meet the
body’s energy needs. When this happens, energy metabolism is shifted and
fat takes an alternative metabolic pathway. Instead of entering the main
energy pathway, fat fragments combine with each other forming ketone
bodies (acetone, acetoacetic acid, and beta-hydroxybutyric acid) which serve
as an alternative fuel during starvation.
- When the production of ketone bodies exceeds their use, they accumulate in
the blood causing ketosis. This disturbs the body’s normal acid-base balance.
The body needs at least 50 to 1000g of carbohydrates per day to spare body
protein and prevent ketosis.
6. Using Glucose to Make Fat (Lipogenesis)
- After meeting its energy needs and glycogen stores, the body uses any extra
glucose to make fat which is stored in adipose tissue.
- Glycogen can be stored to a limited extent and provides energy for relatively
short periods only. On the other hand, fat cells can store unlimited quantities
of fat which serves as more permanent energy-storage compounds.

RECOMMENDED INTAKE
- Dietary carbohydrates are the main sources of energy for man, providing 55-65% of
the total energy intake in different countries.
- A wide variation in carbohydrate intake is compatible with health because of the
interrelationships with fatty acids and amino acids in meeting the body’s energy
needs.

FOOD SOURCES
- Carbohydrates are widely distributed in nature, particularly in the vegetable kingdom.
- Cereals, grains, roots, tubers, and noodles contain mainly starch.
- Milk, which contains lactose, is the only animal food that contributes to carbohydrate
intake.

ARTIFICIAL SWEETENERS
The Food and Drug Administration (DFA) has approved the use of several artificial
sweeteners-acesulfame potassium, aspartame, neotame, saccharin, and sucralose. Alitame
and cyclamate are awaiting FDA approval.
1. Acesulfame-K - approved for use by the FDA in 1988 and is used in more than 60
countries. ADI is 15mg/kg body weight
2. Aspartame - approved for use by the FDA in more than 100 countries. ADI is
50mg/kg body weight. Composed of phenylalanine, aspartic acid, and a methyl group
Because it contains phenylalanine, the label must have a warning for people with
phenylketonuria(PKU).
3. Neotame - approved for use by the FDA in 2002. ADI is 18 mg/day. Composed of
phenylalanine, aspartic acid, a methyl group, and an additional side group which
blocks the digestive enzymes that normally separate phenylalanine and aspartic acid.
Ths, both amino acids are not absorbed and neotame need to carry a warning for
people with PKU.
4. Saccharin - approved for use by the FDA in more than 100 countries. ADI is 5mg/kg
body weight. Unique because it is made from sugar that has had 3 of its hydroxyl(-
OH) groups replaced by chlorine atoms. The body does not recognize it as a
carbohydrate so it passes through the GI tract undigested and unabsorbed.
5. Sugar Replacers - the term describes the sugar alcohols like mannitol, sorbitol,
xylitol, maltitol, and dulcitol. Sugar alcohols occur naturally in fruits and vegetables
and are used by manufacturers as a low-calorie bulk ingredient that provides
sweetness in “sugar-free” or reduced-calorie products like hard candies, cookies,
james, jellies, and gums.

CARBOHYDRATES AND HEALTH

● Weight Management, Overweight, and Obesity
○ Taking calories in excess of body needs contributes to weight gain. The
notion that sweet food stimulates appetite and promotes overeating has not
been supported by research. Overweight or obesity can occur without a high
sugar diet.
○ For people whose excess calories come mainly from added sugars, limiting
the intake of foods and beverages high in added sugars can help reduce
weight.
○ Foods rich in complex carbohydrates tend to be low in fat and added sugars.
They can promote weight loss by providing less calories.
○ High-fiber foods add bulk to the diet. They create feelings of satiety and delay
hunger. To use fiber in a weight loss plan, select fresh fruits, vegetables,
legumes, and whole-grain foods. They are economical, nutritious, and provide
fewer calories.
○ Get your daily fiber intake from natural foods, not fiber supplements.
● Dental Caries
○ The onset of dental caries depends on how long food stays in the mouth.
Sticky foods stay on the teeth longer and are fermented by mouth bacteria
which produce an acid that erodes the tooth enamel, causing tooth decay.
○ Another concern is frequent exposure of teeth surfaces to sugar. Bacteria
produce acid for 20 to 30 minutes after each exposure. Thus, it is better to eat
sugar with meals than between meals.
 ○ Good oral hygiene may be more effective in preventing dental caries than
restricting sugary foods.
● Diabetes
○ High-carbohydrate diets per se do not cause diabetes, nor is there convincing
evidence that sugar will cause it. Due to the high association between obesity
and type 2 diabetes, caloric control rather than the limitation of carbohydrate
is the most important factor in delaying its onset in susceptible individuals.
○ High-fiber foods help reduce the risk of type 3 diabetes. Viscous fibers trap
nutrients and delay their transit through the GI tract. They delay glucose
absorption which helps prevent the glucose surge and rebound that seem to
be associated with the onset of diabetes.
● Nutrient Intake
○ Sugar contributes to the caloric intake and palatability of the diet. HOwever,
excessive intake of high-sugar foods delivers glucose and energy with few, if
any other nutrients thus contributing to nutrient deficiencies.
● Heart Disease
○ Among dietary risk factors, saturated fats, trans fats, and excess calories
have stronger associations with heart disease than do sugar intakes.
○ For most people, moderate intakes do not elevate blood lipids. For
“carbohydrate sensitive” individuals, high intakes of sugars can alter blood
lipids to favor heart disease.
○ High-carbohydrate diets, especially those rich in viscous fibers (such as oat,
barley, and legumes) may protect against heart disease and stroke. Such
diets are low in animal fat and cholesterol, and high in vegetable proteins and
phytochemicals.
● Cancer
○ Fibers help prevent colon cancer by diluting, binding, and removing potential
carcinogens from the colon. Viscous fibers stimulate bacterial fermentation of
resistant starch and fiber in the colon producing short-chain fatty acids that
lower the pH and inhibit cancer growth in the colon.
○ Although evidence gathered from studies are inconclusive, health care
professionals recommend a high-fiber diet with at least 5 servings of fruits
and vegetables and generous portions of whole grains and legumes.
● Behavioral Problems
○ Sugar has been blamed for the misbehaviours of hyperactive children,
delinquent adolescents, and lawbreaking adults. The claims are based largely
on personal stories and a few controlled studies. Conflicting reports have
been obtained and until more scientific evidence supports a relationship
between sugar and hyperactivity or other misbehaviors, it is not possible to
draw any conclusions.
● Honey
○ The composition of honey varies, but a typical analysis is given at 36%
glucose, 43% fructose, 2.7% sucrose, and 18.3% water. Contrary to belief,
there are no nutritional advantages in the choice of honey as sweeteners.
Although honey contains vitamins and minerals that are not available in
refined sugars, the trace amounts involved are inconsequential in terms of
daily needs. Because sucrose is rapidly hydrolyzed in the small intestine,
there is little difference between sugar and honey in absorption time.
● GI Health and Fibers
○ Dietary fibers enhance the health of the large intestine. The healthier the
intestinal walls, the better they can block the absorption of unwanted
substances.
○ With ample fluids, fibers help to alleviate or prevent many GI disorders like
diarrhea, constipation, haemorrhoids, and diverticula. They help in the normal
elimination of waste and normalize intestinal transit time.
○ Despite the health benefits of fiber, a diet high in fiber has its drawbacks.
Clearly “more fiber is better” is true only up to a certain point. Balance,
variety, and moderation must be observed at all times.