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Toward a Study of Pinball

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Games and Culture

2022, Vol. 0(0) 1–23
Toward a Study of Pinball © The Author(s) 2022
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Ryan Banfi1 

Abstract
Drawing on game theory and interviews that were personally conducted with pinball
pioneers—from CEOs of independent and corporate pinball companies to notable
designers and historians—this essay argues that pinball machines are not solely col-
lector’s items but complex games that contain original narratives. The narratives in the
pinball games are not direct adaptations from the urtext, but rather narratives that arise
through gameplay—the player’s use of the pinball to hit the various lights, toys, and
ramps that represent the game’s narrative.

Keywords
pinball, pinball machine, games history, The Wizard of Oz, The Sopranos, narrative, Stern
Pinball, Inc., Jersey Jack Pinball, Inc., Spooky Pinball LLC

Pinball Studies
Pinball has been undertheorized and under researched in the field of game studies.
Upon searching the word “pinball” in Game Studies’ journal, nine articles arise. Only
one discusses pinball explicitly, namely the history of sound effects in arcades and
pinball machines (Collins, 2016). When the keyword “pinball” is searched in Games
and Culture’s journal, 11 essays emerge. Only one essay contains research on pinball,
specifically a historical investigation on pinball machines in “funfairs and arcades in
mid-20th-century urban England” (Litherland, 2021, p. 139).
Most of the books on pinball are non-academic compendiums (Bueschel, 1988 and
1996; Colmer, 1976; Flower & Kurtz, 1997; Jones, n.d; Kurtz, 1991; McKeown, 1976;

1
Department of Cinema Studies, New York University, New York, NY, USA

Corresponding Author:
Ryan Banfi, Department of Cinema Studies, New York University, 721 Broadway, New York, NY 10003,
USA.
Email: Reb9418@nyu.edu
2 Games and Culture 0(0)

Natkin & Kirk, 1977; Rossignoli, 2002, 2011; Rossignoli & McGuiness, 2007;
Shalhoub, 2002, 2004, 2005, 2008, 2012; Sharpe, 1977; Strasser, 2012; Trapunski,
1979). Many of these books showcase and discuss pinball machines that were released
in chronological order. They commonly contain large photos that display the backglass
art and mechanical features of notable pinball games. There are also maintenance books
on pinball machines (Kamoroff, 2015, 2021; Tolbert & Tolbert, 1978), price guides for
pinball machine collecting (Pinballeric, 2013), personal reflections on pinball culture
(Ruben, 2018), books that teach pinball technique (Polin & Rain, 1979), and a bib-
liographic guide to books on the subject of pinball (Craven, 1983, pp. 122–127). All of
these listed books are targeted toward pinball enthusiasts who are interested in re-
viewing specific pinball machines and learning about pinball culture. Evident from the
years that these documents were published, there has been a halt in producing print
literature on pinball. A main reason for this is that the pinball fan base that these books
are targeted toward has opted to create their own online pinball databases. These
devotees have compiled a massive amount of information on pinball machines to
document and discuss every pinball game that has been produced. The Internet Pinball
Machine Database (IPDB) and Pinside are two examples of pinball databases. There are
also domains that host chat forums for pinball admirers like Pinball Info and Tilt Forum.
Beyond the commercial publications on pinball, independent filmmakers have
produced several non-fiction films on the origins of pinball (e.g., Special When Lit) and
profiles of professional pinball players (e.g., Wizard Mode) (see Table 1).
These movies, like the commercial books, are marketed towards pinball fans. These
films were independently made. They did not receive mainstream theatrical releases nor
notoriety—except for Wizard Mode and Special When Lit.1
According to Gerry Stellenberg, the founder of the pinball manufacturing company,
Multimorphic, Inc, the pinball community is tight-knit. Outsiders do not seem to take
an interest in entering pinball tournaments or in purchasing pinball machines. The cost
of a new pinball machine is anywhere from $6,000 to $13,000 USD. This price tag

Table 1. Non-fiction Films on Pinball.

Title Director(s) and Year

Pinball 101 Elwin and Elwin (2009)

Pinball Passion Bellgraph and Bracken (2008)
Pinball Pirate Robbins (2017)
Road to Pinball Jelusic (2019)
Special When Lit Sullivan (2009)
Springloaded: A Pinball Tale Whittaker (2019)
The History of Pinball Helms (2012)
Things That Go Bump in the Night: The Spooky Pinball Story Reeves (2017)
TILT: The Battle to Save Pinball Maletic (2006)
Wizard Mode Drillot and Petry (2016)
Banfi 3

separates pinball collectors/enthusiasts from casual gamers. The general public will
have the opportunity to play pinball games at (b)arcades (which have been closing due
to COVID-19’s impact on businesses), but many will not be able to purchase them.
Whenever the latest pinball game is released by one of the few manufacturing
companies, there is a large group of collectors who buy the new game. They con-
sistently blog about the additions to their collections on pinball forums (Stellenberg,
2021, Interview by Banfi).
In the realm of academia, there are essays and books that examine pinball in relation
to the history of arcades (Guins, 2014; Huhtamo, 2005; Kocurek, 2012, 2015; Lendino,
2020; Montfort & Bogost, 2009; Newman, 2017), critical law essays that discuss
whether pinball machines should be outlawed or regulated based on the argument that
pinball is a form of gambling (Anonymous, 1950a; Bilek & Ganz 1965; King, 1964;
1966; Lester, 2002; McInturff, 1938), and empirical research on adolescents playing
pinball (Manning & Campbell, 1973). Only recently has there been archival work on
pinball (Collins, 2016; Litherland, 2021) and academic papers on landscapes and map-
like visualizations in pinball games (Edler, 2020; Filiciak, 2020; Kühne, Jenal, & Edler,
2020). These articles on landscapes in pinball machines discuss how the themes of the
pinball machines impact the setting and tone of pinball games. They do not address
game theory or explicit game mechanics in pinball machines.
Given pinball’s controversial legal history in the U.S. as the game was outlawed in
New York City from 1942 to 1976 due to being considered a form of gambling
(Anonymous, 1950b, p. 68; Azin, 2020; Bilek & Ganz, 1965; Guins, 2015, p. 413;
Headlam, 1999; Huhtamo, 2016, p. 25; Jagoda, 2018, pp. 205–206; Lendino, 2020, p.
16; Retro Report, 2015; Ruben, 2018, p. 24; Newman, 2017, p. 25; The New York
Times, 1948; Velzen, 2020, p. 106), recent increase in competitive pinball tournaments
(Frye, 2018; Ozanian, 2017; Sullivan, 2019) mid-COVID–19 pandemic interest in
pinball (Grossman, 2021; Hogan, 2020; Park, 2020), online fandom, pinball’s intricate
gameplay, and the historical competition between pinball manufacturing companies
(Barron, 1991; Buckman, 1998; Headlam, 1999; Kushner, 1999; The New York Times,
1988), it is concerning that game studies has largely left pinball untouched in terms of
gameplay analysis and historical research. Game studies has mainly discussed pinball’s
relation to arcades—emphasis on videogame/arcade preservation, which is a prominent
issue and academic topic (see Lee, 2018; see Newman, 2012).
One explanation for the consumer-friendly literature over academic interest in
pinball may be due to the pinball manufacturers’ dependency on adapting well-known
licenses to create their games. Adapting intellectual property (IP) to pinball games has
partially established the medium of pinball as a collector’s item. Not a game. The
market for pinball machines supports this contention. According to Charlie Emery, the
CEO of Spooky Pinball LLC, the current pinball market “is absolutely a premium
collector’s item market” (Emery, 2020, Interview by Banfi). George Gomez, the chief
creator officer at Stern Pinball, Inc., states that Stern Pinball, Inc., the largest man-
ufacturer of pinball machines in the world, has an “approximately 90% world market
share and about 40% of (Stern’s) production still goes to the commercial market but yes
4 Games and Culture 0(0)

there has been growth in the consumer market” (Gomez, 2021, Interview by Banfi).
Pinball may have gone under the academic radar as one of pinball’s most prominent
golden ages2 (c. 1991–1994; see Maletic, 2006) died before the birth of peer-reviewed
game studies journals, e.g., Game Studies and Games and Culture. Before the decline
of this golden era of pinball, the game was regularly played in arcades—collectors did
not dominate the market. Only one article reviewed pinball’s impact on adolescents
during the arcade era (Manning & Campbell, 1973). It was published in Youth &
Society as game studies, as a field, was not yet fully established. In the current era, many
buyers purchase pinball machines not because they are games, but because they satisfy
their yearning for the nostalgia of interacting with their favorite bands and films/series.
Wizard! (Bally, 1975) was the first pinball game to be based on a license (Porges,
2008). The game’s design was inspired by the rock opera, Tommy (Russell, 1975).
Tommy is “the tale of a deaf, dumb, and blind pinball champ turned new messiah [this]
ushered in [pinball’s] golden era. Hot on the film’s heels came the classic arcade hit
Wizard! and Captain Fantastic [sic]” (Himmelsbach, 2001, n.p.). Tommy helped
popularize pinball. The machine in the film became synonymous with counterculture
(see Craven 1983, p. 123). Succeeding the release of Tommy, Wizard! sold over 10,000
units. A successful selling game would sell around 10,000 to 15,000 machines in this
golden era of pinball. Wizard! was a precursor to the fruitful formula of basing pinball
games on popular licenses. This blueprint would not take hold of the industry until after
the end of the 1990s golden era of pinball. There were numerous best-selling games that
were original games, that is, games not based on licenses (see Table 2).
Evident from table two, seven out of the twelve (58.33%) top selling pinball games
are based on licenses (this data was gleaned from Pinside and Game Room Info).

Table 2. The Top Twelve Best Selling Pinball Games.

Title of Game, Manufacturer, and Year Units Sold

1. The Addams Family (Bally, 1992)a,b 20,270

2. Eight Ball (Bally, 1977) 20,230
3. Flash (Williams, 1979) 19,505
4. Playboy (Bally, 1978)a 18,250
5. Firepower (Williams, 1980) 17,410
6. High Speed (Williams, 1986) 17,080
7. KISS (Bally, 1979)a 17,000
8. Star Trek (Bally, 1979)a,b 16,842
9. Mata Hari (Bally, 1978) 16,260
10. Capt. Fantastic and the Dirt Brown Cowboy (Bally, 1976)a,b 16,155
11. Twilight Zone (Bally, 1993)a,b 15,235
12. Terminator 2: Judgement Day (Williams, 1993)a,b 15,202
a
Denotes license.
b
Denotes TV or film license.
Banfi 5

This table conveys the era of when businesses were purchasing pinball machines,
not just collectors. In 1983, “Pinball was all but consigned to the leisure-time junk pile,
with only a 5 percent share of the $7.13 billion amusement industry market” (Barron,
1991; see Buckman, 1998). In the late 1980s to early 1990s, however, pinball
“commanded a 30 percent share” of the amusement market (Barron, 1991). Toward the
end of the 1990s, pinball sales were declining. By 1999, the last of the original pinball
manufacturers, Williams, shut down its pinball department (Headlam, 1999).
Contemporary statistics on pinball manufacturing and interviews with pinball
manufacturers further supports the argument that buyers purchase pinball games
because they are fans of a particular license. Stern Pinball, Inc., currently the most
globally dominant pinball manufacture, and for most of the aughts, the only pinball
manufacturer in the world, has released 1253 games since 1999 (Pinside’s Game
Archives on Stern Pinball, Inc.). One hundred and eighteen of these 125 games are
based on popular IPs (94.40%).4 Fifteen out of 185 (83.33%) of Jersey Jacks Pinball,
Inc’s., pinball games (2013–present) are designed around licenses. Pinball games are
now seldom original games (they are primarily based on IPs). Greg Freres, the art
director at Stern Pinball, Inc., states that “licensing is important because the player (or
customer if purchasing) already knows the storyline and characters from the movie or
the TV show.” Zach Sharpe, the son of Roger Sharpe,6 and the director of marketing at
Stern Pinball, Inc., echoes Freres’ assessment of licenses. He writes, “More than ever,
manufacturers are relying on well-known licenses to help sell products. There’s already
a built-in audience and fan base” (Sharpe, 2021, Interview by Banfi). Jack Guarnieri,
the founder of Jersey Jack Pinball, Inc., concurs. He states, “In modern times, films/tv
shows/videogames/rock bands give the games an immediate recognition and audience”
(Guarnieri, 2021, Interview by Banfi). Charlie Emery states that “It took us almost 2
years to sell 150 America’s Most Haunted (Spooky Pinball LLC, 2014) original theme
games...it took us 4 hours to sell 750 Rick and Morty (Spooky Pinball LLC, 2020)
games. The instant recognition and fan base of various licenses makes it much easier to
move games” (Emery, 2020, Interview by Banfi, Emery’s emphasis). All four pinball
pioneers—from independent pinball makers (Jersey Jack Pinball, Inc., Spooky Pinball
LLC) to industry giants (Stern Pinball, Inc.)—repeat the same claim: pinball manu-
factures depend on licenses to produce profitable games.
Many of the popular licenses that pinball games are based on are successful TV and
film franchises. Seventy-nine of Stern Pinball’s 125 pinball games are based on
television series or movies7 (63.20%). Twelve out of eighteen (66.66%) of Jersey Jacks
Pinball’s pinball games are adapted from films. Before these companies began pro-
ducing pinball games, five of the twelve best-selling pinball games were based on either
a television series or a popular film (41.66%) (see Table 2).
This essay pays particular attention to pinball games that are based on movies and
TV shows, as research has shown, many designers and academics state that pinball
games convey the same storyline of the film/series that the game is based on. Guarnieri,
for example, claims that his game, The Wizard of Oz (Jersey Jack Pinball, Inc., 2013),
“tells the story of the movie (of the same name, (The Wizard of Oz ([Fleming, 1939]))”
6 Games and Culture 0(0)

(Guarnieri, 2021, Interview by Banfi). Charlie Emery states that “Pinball games are
basically a cross between a video game (rules & objectives to explore), movies (telling a
story with a beginning, middle, and end)” (Emery, 2020, Interview by Banfi). Scholars
also claim that the player must have seen the film/show that the pinball game is based on
to understand the game’s narrative (Edler, 2020, pp. 62–63; Filiciak, 2020, p. 3; Kühne,
Jenal, & Edler, 2020, p. 10; more on these claims in the Themes, Screens, and Artwork
section). This understanding of pinball has categorized the machines not as games with
unique gameplay and a singular narrative, but rather physical containers that encap-
sulate the show or the film that the game is based on.
Drawing on game theory and interviews that were personally conducted with pinball
pioneers—from CEOs of independent and corporate pinball companies to notable
designers and historians—this essay argues that pinball machines are not solely
collector’s items but complex games that contain original narratives. The narratives in
the pinball games are not direct adaptations from the urtext, but rather narratives that
arise through gameplay—the player’s use of the pinball to hit the various lights, toys,
and ramps that represent the game’s narrative.
This essay contains two sections of discussion to analyze how theory, pinball’s non-
linear gameplay design, and technology influence the narrative of pinball. First, the
paper includes an introduction to the terminology used in this essay. It describes the
theory behind narrative in games and how it relates to pinball. This segment of the paper
also analyzes how time operates in pinball. Unlike movies and shows, narratives in
pinball games unfold in non-linear ways. Second, this essay discusses the historical
progression of narratives in pinball. It includes analysis on how contemporary tech-
nology in pinball machines impact storytelling. By academically analyzing pinball
gameplay, this paper aims to close the gap on the lack of explicit scholarly studies on the
game mechanics of pinball.

Narrative Theory and Non-linearity in Pinball

The term “narrative” will be used throughout this essay to describe the storyline
underneath the glass of the pinball machine. “Narrative” was selected over “plot” or
“story” on the basis of definition and how these three terms are distinct from one
another as Barry Ip suggests—they should not be used interchangeably (Ip, 2011a,
pp. 105–106). Porter Abbott explains that “narrative,” is “the representation of an event
or a series of events” (Abbott, 2002, p. 13). According to Ip, “the story is the in-
formation about an event or sequence of events (typically linear), the plot being the
causation and links between events, whereas the narrative is the unique way in which
story is being presented to the audience…narrative [is] regarded as more malleable than
story or plot” (Ip, 2011a, pp. 106–107).
For its malleability and for its ability to represent events, “narrative” is a useful term
to describe pinball’s abstract qualities of storytelling. Although pinball is often a
narrative driven game, the player does not play as a character. Nor can they create a
custom avatar to insert into the narrative, which one can do in role playing games
Banfi 7

(RPGs) like Fallout 4 (Bethesda Game Studios, 2015). Thus, the player will be unable
to identify with their avatar. Luca Papale states that the player’s avatar in videogames is
an important component of their investment in a game’s narrative. This is the case
because players often feel sympathy and empathy for their character (Papale, 2014,
n.p.).
In pinball, the player plays as the Self. Espen Aarseth notes that playing as the Self is
one of the most integral parts of narratives in games. He writes, “We might say that,
unlike literature, games are not about the Other, they are about the Self. Games focus on
self-mastery and exploration of the external world, not exploration of interpersonal
relationships” (Aarseth, 2004, p. 50). The narrative in pinball is abstract in that a metal
ball acts as an extension of the Self. The ball courses through the playfield8 and clashes
against various toys, lights, and ramps that represent aspects of a specific narrative.
Pinball, as a game, tests the Self to master its own extension. In other words, the player
is challenged to control the metal ball to the best of their ability. Because of the various
bumpers and toys underneath the glass of the pinball machine, the metal ball is difficult
to control. This differs from other narrative driven games where the player has absolute
command over their avatar. If the Self can manage the ball they are rewarded with a
high score. The distinguished record gives the player the reward of marking the
machine with their initials to communicate to other players that they earned a notable
number of points (e.g., “JAS” for “Jacob Alexander Smith”). This signature indicates
that the Self, an actual person, achieved this score—not an avatar. In this way, the Self
develops a relationship with the ball. It is the object that interacts with the symbolic
components of the game’s narrative.
Narratives in pinball games give the player/Self specific objectives to accomplish.
The narrative emerges through the player’s completion of these tasks. For example, in
The Sopranos (Stern Pinball, Inc., 2005) pinball the player is asked to engage with the
illicit themes/activities found in the show. For one of the tasks in the game, the player
must repeatedly shoot the pinball against the toy safe to “crack the safe to advance
rank.” Thematically this insinuates a robbery. The player’s completion of this objective
suggests that they are useful to the Soprano’s crime syndicate. This differs from playing
as an avatar who assumes the role of a gangster. For example, in The Sopranos: Road to
Respect (7 Studios, 2006) for the PlayStation 2, the player plays as the character, Joey
LaRocca.9 In that game, LaRocca’s character completes the game’s objectives. The
game revolves around his set character arc. In pinball, it is about the Self’s ability to
complete the game’s tasks. In doing that, the Self engages with the game’s narrative.
The argument of the player playing for themselves and using a ball to do so stands in
contrast to Markku Eskelinen’s claim, “Outside academic theory people are usually
excellent at making distinctions between narrative, drama and games. If I throw a ball at
you, I don’t expect you to drop it and wait until it starts telling stories” (Eskelinen, 2001,
n.p.). In pinball, the ball’s interaction with specific items in the playfield, like the safe,
represent tasks that the player must complete. By the player accomplishing the game’s
goals via the metal ball, the narrative unfolds. In this way, the ball tells a story.
8 Games and Culture 0(0)

“Plot” cannot describe the non-linearity of pinball. Aristotle describes “plot” as “the
organisation of events” (translated by Heath, 1996, p. 11; quoted in Ip, 2011a, p. 106).
The pinball game may reference plot points in the show or film, but because one can
complete the objectives out of order, the “plot” in the pinball game is always in flux.
This allows for replayablility, which pinball designers strive for. Stellenberg states that
pinball “games need to be designed as non-linear for replayable value. It would be
tedious if the player had to complete the same objectives in the same order every time”
(Stellenberg, 2021, Interview by Banfi). Freres attests to this. For him,

it’s more engaging to design the game with at least a loose narrative in place, so as the
player continues to achieve more goals in the game, a storyline can begin to develop and
unfold as they advance. We don’t want to bog the player down with a pure linear line of
storytelling; there needs to be room for the player to discover side-bar elements to the game
play and build upon their knowledge of what may be ahead (Freres, 2021, Interview by
Banfi).

The term, “story,” stands in contrast to “narrative” as “story” signifies a strict

structure, whereas “narrative” is more flexible. Abbott writes, that “A story is bound by
the laws of time; it goes in one direction, starting at the beginning, moving through the
middle, and arriving at the end … the only time involved is the time it takes to read [the
story], and the only order is that of the structure of the essay” (Abbott, 2002, p. 195;
quoted in Ip, 2011a, p. 106). Abbott’s use of the word “story” describes a linear
structure–commonly found in novels, films, or shows. And he notes that a story must
end. Paul Ricoeur concurs. In his seminal series of books Time and Narrative, Vol. 1–3,
Ricoeur states that the conclusion is integral to the structure and meaning of a story. In
Vol. 1, Ricoeur writes, that a story must have an “‘end point,’ which…furnishes the
point of view from which the story can be perceived as forming a whole. To understand
the story is to understand how and why successive episodes led to this conclusion,
which far from being foreseeable, must finally be acceptable, as congruent with the
episodes brought together by the story” (Ricoeur, 1984, pp. 66–67). Ricoeur states that
a story must be structured if it is to have meaning. And that the ending is integral for the
story’s meaning as it allows for the episodes to be brought together to make the story
whole.
It is an open question as to whether pinball games can conclude. Some argue that
there is no definitive ending in a pinball game as one can always earn a higher score10
(Edler, 2020, p. 55; Stellenberg, 2021, Interview by Banfi). According to Charlie
Emery, completing all of the game’s objectives to reach wizard mode11 “is technically
the ‘end of the story’ and you’ve seen all the game has to offer for rules” (Emery, 2020,
Interview by Banfi). In most games, one can play past wizard mode. This is to say that
even after earning this achievement the player can still engage with the various ob-
jectives that represent the game’s narrative. Although a pinball game can be absent of a
traditional ending—a definitive conclusion to the story—this does not negate the
meaning behind the narrative. According to Ricoeur, for a story to have meaning the
Banfi 9

subsequent events must lead to an ending. In the case of pinball, the narrative ma-
terializes through the player’s interactions with the objectives—hitting the various
targets with the metal ball. The player’s actions cannot be structured in Ricoeur’s
consecutive way as their gameplay is unpredictable—many factors can influence their
play. This separates game narratives from other mediums like film and TV.
Lawrence May’s “emergent narrative” theory is useful in explaining how narratives
arise and operate in videogames, and especially in pinball. May writes that emergent
narratives “are those that ‘are not prestructured or preprogrammed, taking shape
through the game play’ and in which elements of the game’s design enable ‘the story-
constructing activity of players.’ Such emergence is possible in videogames because
they function as complex systems and the interactions players have with these systems
elicit ‘unpredictable narrative experiences’ unique to each player” (May, 2021, p. 2; see
Jenkins, 2004, p. 128; see Juul, 2005, p. 73). In pinball, the individual’s play strategies
impact what the player sees in the game—which lights illuminate, which multiball
functions become unlocked. The machine’s various toys and features do not always
present themselves in the same order. This influences the structure of the narrative—
how it unravels, and how it ends (if it does end).
For example, The Wizard of Oz pinball game allows the player to choose which
objectives they want to complete. For their first action, the player can decide to shoot
the pinball at the Wicked Witch of the West’s henchmen, The Winkies. Hitting the
Winkie with the ball insinuates that the player has conquered the enemy. Thus, paving a
safe path to the castle where Dorothy is being held against her will by the Witch.
Defeating the Winkie guards does not have to be the player’s first move. They can hit
the targets to spell “Rainbow” in order to light the Twister. Doing this will earn the
player points, and it will further the overall goal of the player achieving wizard mode.
There are various pathways that the player can take to reach wizard mode. In their
journey through play, unpredictable experiences will arise. No one single game will be
the same. In the path to expertise, the player has agency and no deadline.
Other medium based narratives, like film, have set structures and a time limit. In
movies, there are flashbacks to offer context for a character’s background, but the film
still unfolds linearly within the fixed runtime. The Wizard of Oz is 1 hour and
41 minutes long. It will take the viewer exactly that amount of time to watch it. And the
narrative will unfold in the same manner every time.
Similar to pinball’s relationship with film, the game also subverts TV. The Sopranos
pinball is one example as it mocks the episodic nature of television. In the game there
are modes12 that the player can complete. In The Sopranos pinball, the modes are called
episodes. Naming the modes “episodes” alludes to the structure of TV. The episodes in
The Sopranos pinball are titled: “Arson, Exterminate, Horse Race, Executive Game,
and Satisfaction.” These episodes can be completed out of order, and the game is not
designed around them. Rather, the game is centered on “the player… ri[sing] through
the ranks [from Associate] to Boss” (Stern Pinball, Inc., website). According to George
Gomez, the designer of The Sopranos pinball game, this goal of earning rank is “easy to
convey to a player: ‘oh yeah, I want to be BOSS’” (Gomez, 2021, Interview by Banfi,
10 Games and Culture 0(0)

Gomez’s emphasis). This openness gives the player the ability to choose which targets
to pursue to make rank. In this way, The Sopranos pinball counters the episodic
progression of TV, especially of a premium show like The Sopranos (Chase, 1999-
2007). The Sopranos demands that the viewer watch every episode in chronological
order. This reworks the format of early (network) TV as “You could not rely on viewers
to watch every episode or to remember information from week to week, so storylines
had to conclude in a single viewing” (Metcalf, 2012, p. 2; see Thompson, 1996, p. 14).
The Sopranos is considered to be one of the first major prestige TV shows to alter
viewers’ watching habits (Levinson, 2002, p. 28; Mittell, 2015, p. 29; Nochimson,
2019, p. 63; Polan, 2009). Zach Sharpe stated that Stern recognized this as The So-
pranos “at the time was one of the biggest and most critically acclaimed shows…and
we had a team hungry to incorporate that license and theme into a pinball machine”
(Sharpe, 2021, Interview by Banfi).
The narratives in pinball games could not, from a Ricoeurian optic, contain meaning.
Even if pinball is absent of an official ending, the player still accomplishes goals—for
example, rising through the ranks of the Sopranos’ mob organization. This signifies
achievement. In games, this is where meaning is made. According to Eoghain Meakin,
Brian Vaughan, and Charlie Cullen, games “with their affordance of interactivity, have
moved away from the meaning making strategies prevalent in other media” (Meakin,
Vaughan, & Cullen, 2021, n.p.). Ricoeur’s notion of meaning making is specific to
constructed narratives. Identifying a universal way to discuss narratives across various
mediums “is likely to be insufficient (Koenitz et al., 2018, quoted in Meakin, Vaughan,
Cullen, 2021, n.p.; see Aarseth, 2004). For that reason, it is important to clarify that
pinball, although it is based on films and TV shows, has distinct aspects of narrative
which are objective based. In this way, the narrative in pinball games is not passively
unfolding. In games, theorists have argued that time is equated to “moves.” Craig A.
Lindley argues that the player comes closer to finishing the game by moving their avatar
towards goals or objectives in video games (Lindley, 2005). These “movements” are
“actions [that] are likely to be highly stylized according to the game” (Lindley, 2005,
n.p.). Narratives in pinball are not time dependent. Instead, narratives in pinball games
emerge from the player hitting the targets with the metal ball—this action is highly
stylized as it is specific to pinball.
Completing the game’s goals provide the player with details of what they are
working toward, for example, earning the role of Boss in The Sopranos pinball. This is
specific to the game and not to the narrative of the urtext. The Sopranos series cannot be
condensed to one person making rank. There are many variables in the show. The
pinball game is about the player using their ability to control the ball to earn their
highest score and to complete the game’s narrative. The narrative and reaching a higher
score go hand in hand as finishing tasks reward the player with points. As points are the
reward for play, the player must play within the diegesis of the pinball game for as long
as possible. These are the rules of the game. The game’s meaning arises through the
player’s interactions with these rules (Sicart, 2011). Pinball may be absent of an official
ending, and strict story structure, but not of meaning.
Banfi 11

Themes, Screens, and Artwork

Adapting narratives to pinball games is not a new construction. This design strategy
was also not initially practiced when pinball machines were first being manufactured.
According to Guarnieri, “Early pinball machines reflected popular cultural activities.
Bowling, Baseball, Card Playing, Cowboys, etc. Many times the games were designed
and the theme added later before production” (Guarnieri, 2021, Interview by Banfi).
Stellenberg attests to this. He states that the designers of earlier games “pick[ed] a
theme, and let people flip the ball around. The game was about keeping the ball alive
and getting the highest score” (Stellenberg, 2021, Interview by Banfi). Freres notes that
“In the 1960s and 70s, pinball was more of a scoring driven game” (Freres, 2021,
Interview by Banfi). The nascent pinball games reflect this notion as many were based
on spectacles rather than narratives, e.g., attractions like New York City’s Central
Park—Central Park (Gottlieb, 1966) (see Edler, 2020, p. 59). Olaf Kühne, Corinna
Jenal, and Dennis Edler, examined pinball games that are based on “stereotypical
holiday sceneries [like] South Pacific (Genco, 1950), Caribbean (Genco, 1948), and
Wisconsin (United, 1948). The players are invited to take part in a summer atmosphere,
accompanied by images of enjoyment, recovery, and love” (Kühne, Jenal, & Edler
2020, p. 9). In these games, the player is not playing through a narrative but embracing
a location that is associated with certain cultures and moods.
In the more current era of pinball manufacturing (1975-onward), Freres notes that
designers prepare to make their games based on the specific aspects of the license that
they acquire. This differs from earlier games, where the design came first, and the theme
came later (Guarnieri, 2021, Interview by Banfi). Freres describes the pinball design
process by writing,

Once the license agreement is established, the product development team (design team)
will begin to study the history of the property and design an overview of potential key plot
moments, storylines, music and characters to begin to weave the game’s storyline and
create a Game Design Document. This research period will include watching all movies
and episodes to understand the licensed property and represent the Intellectual Property
(IP) of the license in a positive way. The licensor usually offers a style guide for related
visual elements but depending on the licensor not all style guides are created equal, so
some amount of interpretation may be needed from the graphics departments, both printed
graphics and motion graphics for the screen (Freres, 2021, Interview by Banfi).

As Freres notes, the design team reviews the storyline of the IP and then “weaves” it
into the game. This process provides the game with a distinct narrative, as the
“narrative” in the game is an embodiment of the IP’s “story.” Freres uses the verb
“represent” to note that the game is a portrayal of the IP and not a reproduction of it.
This process of weaving and depicting the urtext suggests that the design team is
building the game (and the game’s narrative), not the creators of the storyline that the
game is based on.
12 Games and Culture 0(0)

Many argue that the story of the IP that the pinball game is adapted from is told
through artwork—on the sides of the machine, on the game’s backglass, and in the
pinball playfield. Guarnieri states that his game, The Wizard of Oz, “tells the story of the
movie [of the same name (The Wizard of Oz)]– The mechanical toys, rules, light shows,
animation, movie clips, custom speech calls [and]…The cabinet artwork tells the story
too” (Guarnieri, 2021, Interview by Banfi).
The contemporary technological components that Guarnieri refers to can help
convey the game’s narrative in a more “cinematic” way. The dot matrix13 was the one of
the first of these advancements. Checkpoint (Data East, 1991) is the first pinball
machine to include one. According to Freres, “the dot matrix display allow[s] for a
more visual representation of the player’s accomplishments than ever before via an-
imation” (Freres, 2021, Interview by Banfi). The dot matrix offers details that can
transcend the abstractness of what the ball clashing against various targets, toys, and
lights signifies.
For example, in The Sopranos pinball the player is asked to start the “Party at the
Bing” by shooting the pinball into the left ramp. The space near the left ramp represents
the Bada Bing! (a “gentlemen’s club” in the show) via the toys of the exotic dancers and
the signpost of the (in)famous club which is posted within that area of the playfield.
Once the ball enters the ramp, the dancers begin rotating on their toy poles, and the
“Bing-Multiball” function becomes unlocked. The animations of the exotic dancers are
displayed on the dot matrix. This insinuates to the player that they have completed the
task of unlocking the Bing-Multiball. The dot matrix presents visuals of the dancers
celebrating the player’s victory. It helps the player identify what they are working
toward; (e.g., their progress in earning the rank of Boss in The Sopranos). Before the
use of animations, pinball machines tallied scores via “spinning wheels and simple
digital displays” (Porges, 2008, n.p.). These components only kept score.
Modern pinball machines contain LCD screens, which are more technologically
advanced than the dot matrixes. The Wizard of Oz was the first pinball game to include
an LCD screen (Crecente, 2016). These screens showcase live action footage from the
film/series that the pinball game is adapted from rather than the less technically ad-
vanced animations that the dot matrixes provide. The live action segments in the pinball
games are not the exact scenes from the show/film. They are altered for the game. In the
videogame industry and in game studies, cinematic segments that are designed to help
explain the game’s narrative are known as cut-scenes (Jenkins, 2004; Juul, 2001;
Klevjer, 2014, p. 485; Lindley, 2005; Ip, 2011a, p. 108; Ip, 2011b, p. 208).
Some have argued that cut-scenes are “a passive mode of narrative” (Ip, 2011a, p.
108; see Klevjer, 2014, p. 485) because they interrupt the gameplay. In the current era of
videogame research many contend that videogames use cut-scenes to transcend cin-
ematics (Denson, 2020, pp.12–14; Ramsay, 2020; Veale, 2012), as the camera’s in-
tegration with the character, for one example, forms something beyond cinema and
gameplay—a hybridity (see Weise, 2003, quoted in Klevjer, 2014, p. 486; see Rehak,
2003, p. 109). In pinball games, the visual component of the screen attached to the
pinball machine does not contain passive footage, but rather complementary details to
Banfi 13

explain the narrative and the game’s objectives. In many instances, the player must
engage with the screen to further the narrative (more on this later in this section).
Academics like Mirosław Filiciak and Kühne, Jenal, & Edler echo the points of the
designers. They state that the animations/images that the machine produces tell the
storyline of the text that the pinball game is adapted from. Filiciak writes, “The image-
based narratives on the pinball cabinets, meant to stir and direct the players’ imagi-
nation, echoed the eye-catching images from the packaging of computer games, often
quite distant from the actual game graphics consisting of a handful of pixels” (Filiciak,
2020, p. 3; see Edler, 2020, pp. 62–63). Filiciak notes that the packaging—or the
exterior of the pinball machine—is what represents the narrative. For Filiciak, the
pinball machine’s artwork communicates this to the player. Kühne, Jenal, & Edler claim
a similar argument. They write,

expert knowledge is required to decode and understand specific meanings and landscape
creations transported by such examples of pinball machines. Even more specific expert
knowledge is required when pinball themes are bound to examples of popular culture, such
as literary fiction, comic books, and movies. The “diegetic worlds” (Wolf, 2014, p. 125) of
these stories can only be fully understood if players have already been confronted with the
original media source. Players would not understand the meaning of the Falling Towers in
Barad-dûr or The Paths of the Dead through the White Mountains in a (spatial) pinball
game, without having seen or read The Lord of the Rings (Kühne, Jenal, & Edler, 2020, p.
10).

This logic is problematic. A similar assertion would be that the viewer will not
understand the film unless they have already read the novel. If they have read the book,
then they will be familiar with the characters and the plot.
Many who play pinball games that are based on popular IPs, like The Wizard of Oz
pinball game, will likely recognize the characters, settings, and themes from the text.
This does not mean, however, that the narrative within the pinball game regurgitates the
urtext. Every adaptation is unique. Narratives like The Wizard of Oz, which have been
repeatedly parodied and referenced in mainstream media, must not be overlooked
because players will have likely seen the film or know something about it.
In the current era of pinball, pinball games contain active artwork instead of static
artwork (artwork on the side of the machine, the backglass, etc.). Active artwork helps
to explain the game’s objectives. In completing these tasks, the narrative unfolds.
Active artwork can be cut-scenes and/or character movements which the LCD screen
displays. These cut-scenes may reflect the core text, but they are often altered for the
game. For instance, in The Wizard of Oz pinball, a scene shows The Scarecrow, The
Cowardly Lion, and The Tin Man looking at the Witch’s castle. A reverse shot shows
the castle with the word “Rescue” labeled across the image of the fortress. This scene is
reworked for the game. The word, “Rescue,” does not surface in this segment of the
movie. It does in the game to insinuate that this is where the player must journey to in
order to save Dorothy. The player is asked to spell out the word “Rescue” by hitting
14 Games and Culture 0(0)

several targets. Their input pushes the narrative forward. The conventional trope in this
game is that the player must rescue the damsel in distress. The machine informs the
player of this by showcasing Dorothy’s capture and by the objective of shooting the
guards to pave a safe escape route. The game does contain some of the film’s plot
points. But the player’s actions and the addition of details not found in the film, suggest
clear differences between the movie and the game.
To earn one of the five different hurry-ups14 in The Wizard of Oz pinball game, the
player must shoot the Winkie guard. The ominous guard is shown on the LCD screen.
The cut-scene gives the player context as to what the enemy looks like and how the
Winkie moves, which could not be shown via static artwork. These images of the
Winkie guard are specific to the pinball game, even though they are ported over from
the diegesis of the core text. For instance, the scene of the Winkie guard is unlike that of
the film. The Winkie is isolated on the LCD screen and his body movement is designed
specifically for the game. Viewers who are familiar with the film would likely recognize
the Winkie as one of The Wicked Witch of the West’s henchmen. One who is not
familiar with the movie would probably understand that the Winkie is an enemy who
must be defeated to advance in the game.
The term “Winkie” is never used in the film. Thus, only visually is the character
recognizable. This counters the argument that the player will be familiar with all of the
components of the game if they have seen the movie. Upon reviewing the screenplay
for The Wizard of Oz, the word “Winkie” appears forty-three times. It only emerges in
the action lines15 of the shooting script. “Winkie” does not appear in the character’s
dialog. The characters do not call the guards, “Winkie guards,” only “guards.” Thus,
inside the diegesis of The Wizard of Oz, the word, “Winkie,” is never said. The Winkies
are mentioned 29 times in the novel, The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (Baum, 2014). They
are described as being The Wicked Witch of the West’s “slaves” (Baum, 2014, p. 46, p.
51). The reader must review the word, “Winkie,” if they read the novel. Therefore, they
would not know the name of the character from the film alone. In this way, The Wizard
of Oz pinball game can be seen as a more of an ode to the urtext, which is the novel, and
not the film.
In The Sopranos pinball game, Stern pinball designer, George Gomez, uses the dot
matrix to enhance the scope of the game, and that of the text. The machine incorporates
illicit games like Tony Soprano’s illegal poker matches by implementing a video poker
sequence into the game. The poker segment arises when the player is completing the
“Executive Game” episode. The player plays their game of poker by interacting with
the dot matrix. On the digital display the player is dealt a hand of seven cards of which
the best five are used. The player can wager more points via using the flippers—they
can push the right flipper to wager more points, or they can press the left flipper to bet
fewer points. After the seven cards are dealt, the dealer reveals their hand. If the player
wins, they increase their total score by 10%; if they lose, their score is decreased by 10%
(description of The Sopranos game on Pinside.com). The gambling aspects of the game
inform the player of the “Mafioso features” that are found in the diegesis of the
Sopranos show, e.g., illegal poker games. And there are many in the show (see The
Banfi 15

Sopranos episode, “The Happy Wanderer,” 2.6, for one example). The poker game is
also a way for the player to explore the underbelly of The Sopranos not by passively
watching another visual segment of the show which will give the viewer more insight
into the diegesis of The Sopranos, but by interacting with the text and reviewing the
consequences of gambling. In this way, the player is placed into a situation where their
currency, the points accumulated in the pinball game, can be lost or doubled. The
Sopranos pinball is a construction of a pinball game that moves beyond the text of the
show, and into the criminal underworld associated with the themes of the series.
These playable narratives give the Self agency within the frame of the game’s narrative.
The player participates in the gambling that is resembled in the show. This brings them
closer to the themes embedded in the text. The player can defeat enemies. They can save
the damsel in the distress. The machine places the player into the specific world of the text
by complementing the narrative with artwork that is not static, but interactive. This allows
for the cut-scenes to contribute to the experience of gambling (just one example). The
narrative behind these tasks is not completed by playing as an avatar or by passively
watching clips. The abstractness of pinball games, and pinball gameplay mechanics need
to be further analyzed. Reviewing how gameplay in pinball games enhance the narrative
can further the theory on how narrative impacts gameplay and vice versa.

Conclusion
This paper has considered the literature on pinball and argued that it has been limited to
commercial analysis. This essay contended that pinball is not a solely a collector’s item.
It is a complex game. Insinuating that the game’s narrative is dependent on the player’s
former knowledge of the storyline that the pinball machine is based on diminishes the
pinball designer’s interpretation of the IP. The historical progression of pinball design
echoes this point. Earlier pinball games were not designed around a theme. Con-
temporary pinball games consider the narrative of the well-known property that the
game is based on. Evident from the machine’s design and the player’s participation, the
pinball game is not the exact narrative of the film/show that it has been adapted from.
Nor can it be due to the differences between film/TV and ludology.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship,
and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.

ORCID iD
Ryan Banfi  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9198-9920
16 Games and Culture 0(0)

Notes
1. Wizard Mode was nominated for the top twenty audience award at the Hot Docs Canadian
International Documentary Festival in 2016. Special When Lit received numerous favorable
reviews from renowned critics.
2. The early 1990s saw one of the most prominent golden ages of pinball. Williams released
some of their most inventive and profitable games. However, the sales began to decline c.
1994. The three most notable pinball companies (before Stern Pinball, Inc. became the most
dominant manufacturer) were Bally, Gottlieb, and Williams. Gottlieb became defunct in
1996. Bally was later sold to Williams in 1988 (The New York Times, 1988). Williams
closed their pinball department in 1999 (Headlam, 1999). One reason for Williams’ failure to
keep their pinball division afloat is due to the company’s endeavor to revive their sales of
pinball machines c.1999. They attempted to do this by revamping the technology under the
glass. Williams’ invention was Pinball 2000, which “incorporate[s] video images into the
action, allowing the player to interact with virtual, as well as physical, targets” (Kushner,
1999; see Maletic, 2006). The marketing director at Williams, Roger Sharpe (the same man
who proved pinball to be a game of skill in 1976), stated that the update was a necessary
change as pinball has “been in a downward spiral for the past three or four years…Before we
pull the plug, we want to see if we can pull off a miracle” (Kushner, 1999). The renovated
pinball machines were too expensive to produce. They did not turn a profit in a timely
manner. This, in effect, ended Williams’ reign over the pinball industry and officially
concluded the 1990s golden era of pinball.
3. The various editions of one game (e.g., the Pro, Premium, and Limited Editions) were
counted as separate games. E.g., The Mandalorian (Stern Pinball, Inc., 2021) Pro, Premium,
and Limited Edition games are totaled as three games. They are tallied this way on Pinside as
well.
4. Only pinball games that were adapted from an intellectual property are tallied in this statistic.
Stern’s list of games that were counted for this statistic can be found on Pinside’s Game
Archives on Stern Pinball, Inc.
5. The various editions of one game (e.g., the Standard, Limited, and Collector’s editions) were
counted as separate games. For example, Pirates of the Caribbean (Jersey Jack Pinball, Inc.,
2018) Standard Edition, Limited Edition, and Collector’s Edition pinball games are totaled as
three games.
6. Roger Sharpe proved pinball to be a game of skill before the New York City Council in 1976
(Blitz, 2013; Harris, 2015, p. 57; McKay, 2016). It was legalized in most cities in the U.S.
thereafter.
7. This list includes the comic franchises which have been adapted into films or shows (e.g., X-
Men (Stern Pinball, Inc., 2012).
8. The main flat surface of the pinball machine, where the gameplay takes place. This is where
the targets, ramps, orbits, flippers, lights, toys, and bumpers reside.
9. LaRocca is Salvatore “Big Pussy” Bonpensiero’s illegitimate son. LaRocca is not a part of
the main cast in the TV series.
Banfi 17

10. However, the pinball designer can alter the duration of the pinball game. For example, in
Total Nuclear Annihilation (Spooky Pinball LLC, 2018), designer Scott Danesi designed the
game to end. According to Emery, “TnA [Total Nuclear Annihilation] is unique because if
you actually do beat the game and destroy the 9th reactor, you can’t do anything more… if
you have a ball left, you can launch it but no longer play. Kind of like a video game ‘kill
screen’ where the code just runs out and stops” (Emery, 2020, Interview by Banfi). Although
this is an exception to the rule of time in pinball, most pinball games do not conclude. The
player can play past the narrative or the achievement of unlocking wizard mode.
11. “Wizard mode is the final mandatory mission that can be started or completed for a chance to
earn a huge score” (definition provided by Pinball Wiki)).
12. a pinball term for specific objectives.
13. “Dot matrix” is defined as “a grid of dots which are filled selectively to produce an image on a
screen or paper” (Oxford Languages).
14. An optional task in which the player must complete an objective within a time limit to earn
points.
15. Written descriptions of what visually occurs in the film.

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Games Cited
America’s Most Haunted. (2014, developed by Spooky Pinball LLC).
Capt. Fantastic and the Dirt Brown Cowboy. (1976, developed by Bally).
Caribbean. (1948, developed by Genco).
Central Park. (1966, developed by Gottlieb).
Checkpoint. (1991, developed by Data East).
Eight Ball. (1977, developed by Bally).
Fallout 4. (2015, developed by Bethesda Game Studios).
Flash. (1979, developed by Williams).
Firepower. (1980, developed by Williams).
High Speed. (1986, developed by Williams).
KISS. (1979, developed by Bally).
Mata Hari. (1978, developed by Bally).
Pirates of the Caribbean. (2018, developed by Jersey Jack Pinball, Inc.).
Playboy. (1978, developed by Bally).
Rick and Morty. (2020, developed by Spooky Pinball LLC).
South Pacific. (1950, developed by Genco).
Star Trek. (1979, developed by Bally).
Banfi 23

Terminator 2: Judgement Day. (1993, developed by Williams).

The Addams Family. (1992, developed by Bally).
The Mandalorian. (2021, developed by Stern Pinball, Inc.).
The Sopranos. (2005, developed by Stern Pinball, Inc.).
The Sopranos: Road to Respect. (2006, developed by 7 Studios).
The Wizard of Oz. (2013, developed by Jersey Jack Pinball, Inc.).
Total Nuclear Annihilation. (2018, developed by Spooky Pinball LLC).
Twilight Zone. (1993, developed by Bally).
Wisconsin. (1948, developed by United).
Wizard!. (1975, developed by Bally).
X-Men. (2012, developed by Stern Pinball, Inc.).

Films Cited
Bellgraph, B. B., & Bracken, B. J. (Directors). (2008). Pinball Passion [Film]. CreateSpace.
Drillot, N., & Petry, J. (Directors). (2016). Wizard Mode [Film]. Gravitas Ventures.
Elwin, K., & Elwin, R. (Directors). (2009). Pinball 101 [Film].
Fleming, V. (Director). (1939). The Wizard of Oz [Film]. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.
Helms, M. (Director). (2012). The History of Pinball [Film]. New Video Images.
Jelusic, I. (Director). (2019). Road to Pinball [Film]. Heavy Media.
Maletic, G. (Director). (2006). TILT: The Battle to Save Pinball [Film]. Future of Pinball LLC.
Reeves, J. (Director). (2017). Things That Go Bump in the Night: The Spooky Pinball Story
[Film]. Reeves Media Group, LLC.
Robbins, A. (Director). (2017). Pinball Pirate [Film]. Research & Wonder.
Russell, K. (Director). (1975). Tommy [Film]. Hemdale Film Corporation.
Sullivan, B. (Director). (2009). Special When Lit [Film]. Steam Motion and Sound UK.
Whittaker, R. J. (Director) (2019). Springloaded: A Pinball Tale [Film]. Filmhub.

Television Shows Cited

Chase, D. (Creator). (1999–2007). The Sopranos [Television Series]. HBO.

Author Biography
Ryan Banfi is a PhD candidate in Cinema Studies at New York University Tisch
School of the Arts. He is a Corrigan Fellow at NYU, and he is a Hispanic Scholarship
Fund Scholar. Ryan holds a BA from the Claremont Colleges in Literature and Media
Studies and a MA in Cinema and Media Studies from the University of Southern
California. He has been published in Flow Online Journal, Studies in European
Cinema, and In Media Res. Ryan’s research interests include game studies, television
studies, and American cinema.

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