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GROUNDWATER PROVINCES IN INDIA

India is a vast country having diversified geological, climatological and

topographic set up, giving rise to divergent groundwater situations in different
parts of the country.
The prevalent rock formations, ranging in age from the Archaean to the Recent,
which control occurrence and movement of groundwater, are widely varied in
composition and structure.
Variations of landforms varying from the rugged mountainous terrain of the
Himalayas to the flat and featureless alluvial plains of the northern river valleys
and coastal tracts, and aeolian deserts of Rajasthan are no less important. The
topography and rainfall virtually control runoff and groundwater recharge.
The high relief areas of the northern and north-eastern regions, the Aravali range
of Rajasthan, and peninsular regions with steep topographic slope and
characteristic geological set-up offer high run-off and little scope for rain water
infiltration. The groundwater potential in these terrains is limited to
intermontane valleys.
The large alluvial tract in the Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra plains, extending from
Punjab in the west to Assam in the east, constitutes one of the largest and the
most potential groundwater reservoir in the world. The aquifer systems are
extensive, thick, hydraulically interconnected and moderate to high yielding. To
the north of this tract, all along the Himalay'lfo
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foot hills, occur the linear belt of
Bhabar piedmont deposits, and the Tarai ~elt down the slope with characteristic
auto-flowing conditions.
Almost the entire peninsula~ India is occupied by a variety of hard and fissured
formations with patches of semi consolidated sediments in narrow intracratonic
basins. Rugged topography, compact and fissured nature of the rock formation,
combine to give rise to discontinuous aquifers with limited to moderate yield
potentials.
The near surface weathered mantle forms the all important groundwater
reservoir, and the source for circulation of groundwater through underlying
fracture systems. In the hard rock terrain, deep weathered pediments, low-lying
valleys and abandoned river channels generally contain adequate thickness of
porous material, to sustain groundwater development under favourable hydro
meteorological conditions. Generally, the potential water saturated systems
occur down to 100 metre depth. The friable semi-consolidated sandstones also

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form moderate yielding aquifers and auto flowing zones in these formation are
not uncommon.
The coastal and deltaic tracts in the country form a narrow linear strip around
the peninsular plateau. The eastern coastal and deltaic tract and the estuarine
areas of Gujarat are receptacles of thick alluvial sediments. Though highly
productive aquifers occur in these tracts, salinity hazards impose quality
constraints for groundwater development.
The groundwater provinces occurring in India have been classified into 8 as
follows
1. The Precambrian Crystalline province

2. Precambrian Sedimentary province

3. Gondwana Sedimentary province
4. Deccan Trap province
5. Cenozoic Sedimentary province
6. Cenozoic Fault Basin province
7. Indo-Gangetic Alluvial province
8. Himalayan High Land province

Precambrian Crystalline Province

·The province underlain by igneous and metamorphic rocks of Precambrian age
extends from Kanyakumari in the south to Delhi in the north, these rocks are
weathered up to 30 m and groundwater occurs under water table conditions.
Groundwater occurs under semi-confined to confined condition depending upon
the depth and nature of the fracture.
Groundwater development is largely by open dug wells and large diameter wells.
Well yielding 20 cum to 200 cum/ day are common. Groundwater movement is
mainly along joints. Quartzites and marble devoid of primary porosity, opening is
not numerous. Generally these are considered to be poor aquifers. In case of lime
stone characterized by solution cavities can be expected to give higher yield.
Precambrian Sedimentary Basin
This province comprise of Limestone, Shale, Sandstone, Quartzites and local
conglomerate belonging to Precambrian to early Paleozoic age. These province is
found in I) Cuddapah basin ii) Raipur basin iii) Vindhyan basin iv) Western
Rajasthan basin. Because of compaction and cementation process, the rocks
mostly devoid of primary porosity, but the introduction of structural features, the

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secondary porosity developed and karstification of calcareous rocks have yielded
copious supply of groundwater. Weathering varies from up to 200 m.
Groundwater occurrence is largely limited to 150 m, Yield characters ranges
from 5 to 200 cum / day for small drawdown.
Gondwana Sedimentary Province
This province occurring as disconnected patches mainly fluviatile or Locustrine
sediments of sandstone, shale and with little amount of limestone. These rock
formations are classified into lower and upper formations. Total thickness of the
formation range from 6 to 7 km. Lower Gondwana is compact and it is devoid of
water because source rock is compact shale. Upper Gondwana sediments form
very good aquifers, because those are more arenaceous. Water table lies
generally within 30 m. dug wells in productive sand tone yielded maximum
water.
Deccan Trap Province
Deccan trap province comprising Basalt flows includes hard, massive traps,
Vesicular traps, Tuffs, Breccias, Ash and Intertrappeans. Age ranging from late
cretaceous to early Eocene. The flows are flat but dip of 5 o to 15 o is also seen in
some places. The traps have been divided into three groups viz., upper, middle
and lower Gondwana, which are 450, 1200, and 1500 m thick
The occurrence of "red boles", which is reddish brown clayey material, water
bearing causes problems during drilling. Groundwater occurs under water table
conditions in weathered and jointed traps. Bore well drilled in traps have given
higher yield mostly trapping 2 or more flows. At places the contact between the
traps and the basement rock have yielded considerable quantity of water.
Cenozoic Sedimentary Province
This province comprise of narrow coastal plains along the Kerala and Tamil Nadu
coast, coastal fringes of Saurashtra and Kutch peninsula. In the east coast, the
seaward dipping strata contain several artesian aquifers. This province
characterized by sand stone and shale. Shale is more compact, impervious and
yield little water. Whereas sand stone and conglomerates are highly permeable
and yield about 150 cum, example Cuddalore sand stone. In Cambay basin, the
sediments of deltaic estuarine and lagoonal alternate with Marine sediments,
which are generally saline. Springs are also developed in hilly tracts.

Cenozoic Fault Basin

These discrete fault basin are included viz, the Narmada, Purna and Tapti valleys.
They contain quaternary valley fill deposits consisting of sand and gravel

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intermixed with silt and clay affected by faults. Thickness ranging from SOm to
150m. These lenses are of ~and and gravel, which form moderately, yielding
aquifers.
The Ganga - Brahmaputra Alluvial Province
It is the next most extensive province covering almost northern Indian planes,
after Precambrian Crystalline province, deposited in fore deep or crustal buckle;
the thickness increases from south to north. The basement is hard rock under the
alluvial sloping at an average of 1 o to 3o. In alluvium, groundwater occurs in
three-distinct physic-graphic and hydrological belts such as Bhabhar consist of
talus material from the hill slope, which is highly permeable unsorted boulder,
grave sand with little clay. The belt merges with Terai consisting of permeable
water bearing gravel, sand, and pebble intermingle with silt and clay. The axial
belt, which comprises of stratified fine gravel, silt and clay deposited by the river
system.
Water table in this area is less then 10 mbgl. Wells have recorded free flow of 100
- 300 cum/hr. Groundwater have been developed by dug, dug cum bore wells,
casing wells and tube wells yielding up to 300 cum/hr for 6 to 109 m of
drawdown.
Himalayan High Land Province
This province includes a group of highly folded and faulted sediment~ry rock
ranging in age from Paleozoic to Cenozoic. These sedimentary rocks are mainly
comprising of limestone, sandstone and shale, and their metamorphic
equivalents traversed by deep gorges and intermundane valley filled with
alluvium this acts as conduits and transmits large quantities of water which
recharges Ganga Bhramputra province. Whenever the alluvium is thick dug well
for domestic purpose yield 100 - 200 cum/hr. with ion dissolved solid content.
The above description leads as to the conclusion that the groundwater resource
are influenced by a number of natural conditions of which climate (particularly
rainfall and temperature), relief features (topography), geological structure and
hydrological setup are of outstanding significance. Accordingly Dr. R.L. Singh
(1971) has divided India into 8 groundwater provinces, described as under:

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INDIA
I GROUND WATER PROVINCES
(AMer R.L. Singh) fJ

C HI N A

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/ GROUNOWATER
, A RABIAN PROVINCES
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FIG. 16.5. India : Ground Water Province (After R.L Singh)

1. Pre-Cambrian Crystalline Province:

It extends over half of the country's geographical area covering Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Dandakaranya, Bundelkhand and
Aravali range. This province is deficient in groundwater resources.
2. Pre-Cambrian Sedimentary Province:
It extends over Cuddapah and Vindhyan basins where the rocks belong to
Cuddapah and Vindhyan systems. This province is also not much suitable for
groundwater development and contains inadequate amount of groundwater.
3. Gondwana Sedimentary Province:
The Gondwana sedimentary rocks of the Barakar and Godavari river basins
contain good aquifers of groundwater.

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4. Deccan Trap Province: b It over the surface
. f ·mpermeable asa .
These are 1 200 metre thick covering o I h I province is deficient in
' f As such the w O e h
which obstructs percolation o water. ' d •n the fractures w ere
"fers preserve are I h
groundwater resources. The on lY aqm at times in t e
. h athered moorums ,
secondary porosity develops m t e we bl trata as also in the
intertrappean beds sandwiched between two impermea e s
vesicles and amygdales.
5. Cenozoic Sedimentary Province:
This province includes the Andhra Pradesh, Tami.1 Na d u, Kerala and Gujarat
.
coasts. These areas have tertiary sandstones an d t h e province as a whole has
good aquifers.
6. Cenozoic Fault Basin:
The rift zone of the Narmada, the Purna and the Tapi provides good resource of
groundwater in their 80-160 metre thick alluvial cover of sand, silt and clay.
7. Ganga-Brahmaputra Alluvial Province:
This is the richest groundwater province of the country. The Bhabar, Tarai and·
the axial belts are well defined. The streams disappearing in the unassorted
materials of the Bhabar zone seep out in the Tarai belt. Moreover, the
groundwater table is also high.
8. Himalayan Province:
This complex structural and geographic unit is not very significant with respect
to groundwater resources. Local springs are common but wells are a rare feature.
The areal extents of the above provinces are:
1. The Pre-Cambrian Crystalline Province:
The Pre-cambrian province stretches over about 50 per cent of the total area of
the country, especially over Peninsular India. It sprawls over Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Chotanagpur Plateau
and Aravallis. This province is generally poor in under-ground water resource.
2. Pre-Cambrian Sedimentary Rocks Province: The Archaean, Dharwar,
Cuddappah and Vindhyan formations are included in this province. These regions
are also not rich in ground-water resource.
3. The Gondwana Sedimentary Province
Stretching over the Godavari basin, this province is fairly rich in underground
water resource.

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4. The Deccan Trap Province: Stretching over the states of Mahrashtra, parts of
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, this
province is also deficient in underground water resource. In fact, the Deccan Trap
is a deep lava formation of the Cretaceous Period in which the seepage of water is
possible only through the cracks and fissures. The limited under-ground water is
however, of immense help for the irrigation of cereal crops, orchards, sugarcane,
vegetables, flowers, and grasses.
5. The Cenozoic Sedimentary Province: This province includes the coastal areas
of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Gujarat. The sandstones of the
Tertiary Period in these regions are rich in the undergrpund water resource.
6. The Cenozoic Fault Basin : The rift valleys of the Narmada and Tapi rivers are
included in this province, which are quite rich in underground water.
7. The Ganga Brahmaputra Alluvial Province: Sprawling over Punjab, Haryana,
Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam and parts of Rajasthan,
this province has the richest underground water resource. About 44 per cent of
the Indian underground water resource is found in this province. Thousands of
tube-wells have been installed in the Northern Plains of India to utilize this.
resource for irrigation, domestic, and industrial purposes.
8. The Himalayan Province: This is complex structural, physiographic and
geographical region of India. In general, it is deficient in underground water
except the intermontane valleys, like the Dun, Kashmir, Kangra, Kullu, and Manali
valleys. There are numerous springs in this region.