SUBDIVISION OF ANATOMY

Anatomy and Physiology

• Anatomy is the study of the structures of the body
– Systemic anatomy is the study of the body by organ systems
– Regional anatomy is the study of the body by areas
– Surface anatomy uses superficial structures to locate deeper structures
• Physiology is the study of the processes and functions of the body
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
Characteristics of Life
Collectively, all living species show:
 organization: - functional interrelationships between parts
 metabolism: - sum of all chemical and physical changes sustaining an organism
- ability to acquire and use energy in support of these changes
 responsiveness: - ability to sense and respond to environmental changes
- includes both internal and external environments
 growth: - can increase in size - size of cells, groups of cells, extracellular materials
 development: - changes in form and size
 - changes in cell structure and function from generalized to specialized –
differentiation
 reproduction: - formation of new cells or new organisms
- generation of new individuals
- tissue repair
HOMEOSTASIS
 homeostasis - maintenance of constant internal environment
variables: measures of body properties that may change in value
Examples of variables:
 body temperature, blood glucose levels, heart rate, blood cell counts, blood pressure,
respiratory rate.
SET POINT: normal, or average value of a variable
NORMAL RANGE: normal extent of increase or decrease around a set point
Example: over time, body temperature fluctuates around a set point of about 98.6o 18
set points for some variables can be temporarily adjusted depending on body activities, as needed:
examples common cause of change body temperature (fever) heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory
rate (exercise)

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
SKELETAL

Compact: dense, smooth, homogenous

Compact Bone Tissue

 Location: outer part of diaphysis (long bones) and thinner

surfaces of other bones
1. Osteon
o structural unit of compact bone includes lamella, lacunae,
canaliculus, central canal, osteocytes
2. Lamella
o rings of bone matrix
3. Lacunae
o spaces between lamella
4. Canaliculus
o tiny canals transport nutrients and remove waste
5. Central canal
o center of osteon contains blood vessels

Spongy: small needle-like pieces of bone

Spongy (Cancellous) Bone Tissue

Spongy bone

 It is located at the epiphyses of long bones and center of other

bones.
  It has trabeculae, which are interconnecting rods, and spaces
that contain marrow.
 It has no osteons.

Ribs
o Articulates with the vertebral column posteriorly and then curves downwards and toward the
anterior body surface
o True Ribs: first 7 pairs - Attached by costal cartilage
o False Ribs: next 5 pairs - Not attached to the sternum directly
o Last 2 pairs lack sternal attachment also called: Floating Ribs

Calcium
o Calcium levels in the blood
o Pull of gravity and muscles on the skeleton
- Hypocalcemia: parathyroid glands will release PTH into the blood, which activate osteoclasts to
break down bone matrix and release calcium ions to the blood
- Hypercalcemia: calcium is deposited in bone matrix as hard calcium salts

Homeostatic Imbalance 5.1:

Rickets: - disease in children where bones fail to calcify, bones soften, weight bearing bones of the
legs show definite bowing - due to lack of calcium in diet or lack in vitamin D (which is needed for
calcium absorption)
Major role is to store calcium and to release it on demand when the muscle fiber is stimulated to
(calcium provides the final “go” contraction)

o Events at the Neuromuscular Joint:

• Calcium Channels Open: calcium channels open, Ca2+ enters the terminal
• Release of Acetylcholine: calcium

 Attachment of the myosin cross bridges to actin requires Ca2+

o Where does the Calcium come from?
• Action potentials pass deep into the muscle cell along membranous tubules that fold inward from
the sarcolemma
• Inside the cell, the action potentials stimulate the SR to release Ca2+ into the cytoplasm
• The Ca2+ trigger the binding of myosin to actin, initiating filament sliding
• When the action potential ends, calcium ions are immediately reabsorbed into the SR storage
areas and the muscle cell relaxes and settles back to the original length

NOREPINEPHRINE
Norepinephrine is either actively transported back into the presynaptic terminal or broken down by
enzymes.
‘

ENDOCRINE HORMONE
1. Which of the following are lipid-soluble hormones? Select all that apply.
Multiple select question.

Steroid hormones

Thyroid hormones
Reason:
Although thyroid hormones are made from amino acids, they are soluble in lipids.

Peptide hormones

Protein hormones

Correct Answer
Steroid hormones
Thyroid hormones

2. How are hydrophobic hormones transported through the body?

Multiple choice question.

Hydrophobic hormones are carried through the blood by carrier proteins.

Hydrophobic hormones are transported cell to cell through gap junctions.

Hydrophobic hormones are carried by ducts.

All hormones are hydrophilic, so transport is not an issue.
Correct Answer

3. Hydrophobic hormones are carried through the blood by carrier proteins.

Which of the following best describes how lipid-soluble hormones travel in the blood?
Multiple choice question.

Lipid-soluble hormones attach to binding proteins for transport.

These hormones are small and freely soluble in the blood.

Lipid-soluble hormones are transported by specialized white blood cells.

Correct Answer
Lipid-soluble hormones attach to binding proteins for transport.

4. Identify the changes that occur in healthy, elderly adults due to age-related decreases in
endocrine secretions. Select all that apply.
Multiple select question.

Change in sleeping patterns

Decrease in bone mass

Decrease in adipose tissue

Inability to regulate blood glucose levels

Decrease in muscle mass

Increased susceptibility to infection

Correct Answer
Change in sleeping patterns
Decrease in bone mass
Decrease in muscle mass
Increased susceptibility to infection

5. What are the two chemical categories of endocrine hormones?

Multiple select question.

Free
Neurohormones

Water-soluble

Lipid-soluble

Bound
Correct Answer
Water-soluble
Lipid-soluble

6. Thyroid and steroid hormones are Lipid -soluble hormones.

Correct Answer
Blank 1: lipid or fat

7. Lipid-soluble hormones are ______ and must bind to hydrophilic transport proteins to get
to their destination.
Multiple choice question.

hydrophobic

hydrophilic
Correct Answer
hydrophobic

8. Why is it that some hormones need assistance to travel in the blood? (Select all that
apply.)
Multiple select question.

They are easily filtered from the blood into the kidney tubules.

They are small enough to be easily digested by blood enzymes.

They cannot dissolve in the blood because they are water-soluble.

They have low solubility in blood plasma due to their chemical nature.
They are only in their activated form if treated with blood enzymes.
Correct Answer
They are easily filtered from the blood into the kidney tubules.
They are small enough to be easily digested by blood enzymes.
They have low solubility in blood plasma due to their chemical nature.

9. Age-related changes to the endocrine system can lead to all of the following except one.
Which one?
Multiple choice question.

Altered sleep patterns

Decreases in bone and muscle mass

Decrease in the ability to respond to decreases in blood pressure

Decrease in adipose tissue

Correct Answer
Decrease in adipose tissue

10. Hormones are divided chemically into Lipid -soluble and Water -soluble groups.

Correct Answer
Blank 1: lipid
Blank 2: water

11. Identify hormones that decrease in secretion with age in normal, healthy individuals.
Select all that apply.
Multiple select question.

Melatonin

Insulin

Parathyroid hormone

Thymosin

Growth hormone
Correct Answer
Melatonin
Thymosin
Growth hormone
 NERVOUS
Parasympathetic Nervous System
(PNS)/Cholinergic ○ “rest and digest”/ “house-keeping” response
○ Acetylcholine
■ High Impact Concepts:
Parasympathetic – “Everything is low and slow, except GI and GU.”