Chapter 12: Developmental Aspects of the Central Nervous System

The brain provides for voluntary movements, interpretation and integration of sensation,
consciousness, and cognitive function.
Early brain development yields the primary brain vesicles: the prosencephalon (cerebral
hemispheres and diencephalon), mesencephalon (midbrain), and rhombencephalon (pons,
medulla oblongata, and cerebellum).
As a result of cephalization, the diencephalon and superior brain stem are developed by the
cerebral hemispheres.
Because the brain grows more rapidly than the membranous skull that contains it, it folds up
to occupy the available space. (SLO-12.1.1)
Cerebral hemispheres
Diencephalon
brain stem (midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata)
Cerebellum
Central cavity, surrounded by a gray matter core, external to which is white matter.
The cerebrum and cerebellum have an outer gray matter layer, which is reduced to scattered
gray matter nuclei in the spinal cord. (SLO-12.1.2)
The ventricles of the brain are continuous w/ each other, and with the central canal of the
spinal cord. They are lined w/ ependymal cells, and are filled w/ cerebrospinal fluid.
a) The paired lateral ventricles lie deep w/in each cerebral hemisphere, and are separated
by the septum pellucidum.
b) The third ventricle lies w/in the diencephalon, and communicates with the lateral
ventricles via two interventricular foramina.
c) The fourth ventricle lies in the hindbrain and communicates with the third ventricle
via the cerebral aqueduct. (SLO-12.1.3)
GYRI: elevated ridges of tissue.
SULCI: shallow grooves
FISSURES: deeper grooves
LONGITUDINAL FISSURE: separates the cebral hemispheres
TRANSVERSE CEREBRAL FISSURE: separates the cerebral hemispheres from the
cerebellum bellow.
CENTRAL SULCUS:
lies in the frontal plane, separates the Frontal lobe from the Parietal lobe.
PRECENTRAL GYRUS: bordering the central suclus anteriorly.
POSTCENTRAL GYRUS: bordering the central sulcus posteriorly
OCCIPITAL LOBE is separated from the PARIETAL LOBE by the PARIETO-OCCIPITAL
SULCUS
LATERAL SULCUS outlines the flaplike TEMPORAL LOBE and separates it from the
parietal and frontal lobes.
INSULA: is buried deep within the lateral sulcus and forms part of its floor. (SLO-12.2.1)
To be specialized in one side of the brain. (SLO-12.2.2)
ASSOCIATION FIBERS connect different parts of the same hemisphere.
COMMISSURAL FIBERS connect corresponding gray areas of the two hemispheres.
PROJECTION FIBERS either enter the cerebral cortex from lower brain or cord centers or
descend from the cortex to lower areas. (SLO-12.2.3)
The basal nuclei receive input from the entire cerebral cortex, as well as from other
subcortical nuclei and each other. (SLO-12.2.4)
Thalamus, the epithalamus, and the hypothalamus. (SLO-12.3)
Produces rigidly programmed, automatic behaviors necessary for survival.
Brain stem consists of the
1) Midbrain:
Contains cerebral pedicles (motor tracts, substantia nigra (produces dopamine), tegmentum
(houses red nuclei, helps maintain posture), Tectum (Also called quadrigemina)
2) Pons:
 Contains fiber tracts that complete conducting pathways between the brain and spinal
cord.
 The pontine nuclei relay information from the cerebrum to the cerebellum.
 Also houses nuclei for cranial nerves V, VI, VII, VIII, and IX.
 Pontine sleep center, which initiates rapid eye movement sleep
 Pontine respiratory center, which works with the respiratory centers in the medulla to
help control respiratory movements.
3) Medulla oblongata:
 Pyramids: houses motor projection tracts (corticospinal or pyramidal tracts) most of
which cross to the opposite side (decussation)
 Cranial nerve nuclei
 Part of the reticular formation
 Cardiac center: regulates heart rate and force of contraction
  Vasomotor center: controls blood pressure
 Medullary respiratory center: regulates respiratory rate
 Nuclei that are involved in coughing, sneezing, salivation, swallowing, gagging and
vomiting. (SLO-12.4)
The cerebellum processes inputs from several structures and coordinates skeletal muscle
contraction to produce smooth movement.
There are two cerebellar hemispheres consisting of three lobes each. Anterior and posterior
lobes coordinate body movements and the flocculonodular lobes adjust posture to maintain
balance.
Three paired fiber tracts, the cerebellar peduncles, communicate between the cerebellum and
the brain stem.
Cerebellar processing follows a functional scheme in which the frontal cortex communicates
the intent to initiate voluntary movement to the cerebellum, the cerebellum collects input
concerning balance and tension in muscles and ligaments, and the best way to coordinate
muscle activity is relayed back to the cerebral cortex. (SLO-12.5)
Functional brain systems consist of neurons that are distributed throughout the brain but work
together
The limbic system: is involved with emotions, and is extensively connected throughout the
brain, allowing it to integrate and respond to a wide variety of environmental stimuli. It's
located on medial aspect of each cerebral hemisphere and diencephalon. Encircles upper part
of brainstem and includes parts of rhinencephalon (septal nuclei, cingulate gyrus, Para
hippocampal gyrus, dentate gyrus, and C-shaped hippocampus).
Amygdala: fear.
Cingulate gyrus: expressing emotions through gestures.
The reticular formation: extends through the brain stem, keeping the cortex alert via the
reticular activating system, and dampening familiar, repetitive, or weak sensory inputs.
(SLO-12.6)
Broca's area and Wernicke's area (SLO-12.7.1)
Emotional state, Rehearsal, association, automatic memory. (SLO-12.7.2)
EEG- Graphic record of the electrical activity of nerve cells in the brain.
Alpha- relatively regular and rhythmic, low-amplitude, synchronous waves.
Beta- are also rhythmic, but less regular than alpha waves and with a higher frequency.
Theta- are still more irregular. Though common in children, theta waves are uncommon in
awake adults but may appear when concentrating.
Delta Waves- are high-amplitude waves seen during deep sleep and when the reticular
activating system is suppressed, such as during anesthesia.
Clinically, consciousness is defined on a continuum that grades behavior in response to
stimuli as
1. alertness,
2. drowsiness or lethargy (which proceeds to sleep),
3. stupor, and
4. coma (SLO-12.7.4)
Slow-wave sleep is presumed to be restorative. REM sleep may
1. give the brain an opportunity to analyze the day's events and work through emotional
problems in dream imagery, or
2. eliminate unneeded synaptic connections—in other words, we dream to forget. (SLO-
12.7.5)
Meninges Cover and protect the CNS. Spinal Fluid is a watery cushion. The blood brain
barrier protects the brain from harmful substances in the blood. (SLO-12.8.1)
Formed from Blood Plasma. (SLO-12.8.2)
Cerebrovascular accidents (CVA's) - Stroke, blood supply to brain blocked. Signs:
Transient Ischemic Attacks (TIAs) temporary blood blockage
Alzheimer's Disease - Results from progressive degenerative disease, leads to dementia.
Destruction of ACh receptors & producers. Creates tangles of neurons.
Parkinson's Disease - Results from deterioration of dopamine secreting neurons of
Substantial
Negra. Loss of coordination and movement. Resting Tremor
Huntington's Disease - Fatal Hereditary disorder that results from deterioration of basal
nuclei and cerebral cortex, cannot start/stop movement easily. Due to extra-long sequence of
CAG on chromosome 4. Signs are genetic, autosomal dominate. (SLO-12.9.1)
PET Scans, MRI. (SLO-12.9.2)
Spinal cord enclosed in the vertebral column extends from the foramen magnum of the skull
to the level of the first or second lumbar vertebra, just inferior to the ribs. provides a 2-way
conduction path to and from the brain. (SLO-12.10.1)
Paralysis- any localized damage to the spinal cord or its roots leads to some functional loss-
loss of motor function
Paresthesia- sensory loss
Flaccid paralysis- severe damage to ventral root or ventral horn cells. Nerve impulses do not
reach these muscles, which consequently cannot move either voluntarily or involuntarily.
Without stimulation, the muscles atrophy.
spastics paralysis- when only the upper motor neurons of the primary cortex are damaged.
The spinal motor neurons remain intact and the muscles continue to be stimulated irregularly
by spinal reflex activity. The muscles remain healthy longer, but their movements are no
longer subject to voluntary control. The muscles become permanently shortened. (SLO-
12.10.2)
Decussation- most pathways cross from one side of the CNS to the other at some point along
their journey
-relay- most pathways consist of a chain of 2 or 3 neurons (a relay) that contribute to
successive tracts of the pathway.
-Somatotopy- most pathways exhibit somatotopy, a precise spatial relationship among the
tract fibers that reflects the orderly mapping of the body.
-Symmetry- All pathways and tracts are paired symmetrically with a member of the pair
present on each side of the spinal cord or brain. (SLO-12.11)
Ascending- spinocerebellar, dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathway, spinothalamic
pathway
-Descending- pyramidal (lateral and ventral corticospinal) pathways, Rubrospinal tract.