Next Sustainability 3 (2024) 100026

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Next Sustainability
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Review article

Hazardous effects of waste transformer oil and its prevention: A review

Richa Tiwari a, *, Pratibha S. Agrawal a, Pramod N. Belkhode b, Joseph V.L. Ruatpuia c,
Samuel Lalthazuala Rokhum c, *
a
Department of Chemistry, Laxminarayan Institute of Technology, RTM Nagpur University, Nagpur 440033, India
b
Department of General Engineering, Laxminarayan Institute of Technology, RTM Nagpur University, Nagpur 440033, India
c
Department of Chemistry, National Institute of Technology Silchar, Silchar 788010, Assam, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Transformer oil is the insulating oil that is utilized in power transformers for insulation and cooling during the
Waste transformer oil operation of transformers. After a long run, the properties of the transformer oil such as breakdown voltage, and
Environmental effects dielectric dissipation factor decrease to 32 kV, 0.41% while water content increases by 31 ppm resulting in waste
Greenhouse gas emission
oil. The disposal of waste transformer oil (WTO) is a big issue since it is contaminated with many virulent
Biodegradation
Recycling
pollutants such as PCBs, PAHs, harmful gases, etc. which have adverse effects on the environment and living
Alternate fuel beings. Many scientists in this area studied to reduce its environmental impact and disposal problem by using
different methods of recycling and re-use of WTO or re-refined into new transformer oil and also utilized in
blended form with diesel fuel as an alternative fuel in diesel engines resulting in less smoke and hydrocarbon
emission, increased BTE and NOx emission. In this review, we provide information about waste transformer oil,
its toxic effects on the environment, the various techniques to recycle WTO, and its application in alternate fuels.

1. Introduction so it is discarded as a waste. The impurities present in waste transformer

The distribution of electrical energy by electromagnetic induction
from one circuit to another is done by the electrical device known as a
transformer. Transformers are the crucial tools for the transmission of
energy in distribution and power stations and its life depends upon the
effectiveness of transformer oil used for cooling and insulation [1]. In
HV (high-voltage) power transformers usually petroleum-based trans­
former oils are used, which are a mixture of aromatic hydrocarbons
C15-C50 and paraffins and it enhances the performance of the solid
insulation by filling and penetrating the spaces (in layers), which results
into a dependable insulating system [2]. Therefore, the main purpose of
transformer oil is to provide cooling and insulation during the trans­
formers are in operation, as reported by Rafiq et al. [3]. Mineral trans­
former oil is exposed to mechanical and electrical stresses when
transformers are running and the oil is stable at higher temperature, but
it exhibited low thermal conductivity. As the time passes by, the oil gets
contaminated with impurities and properties of the oil are degraded and
oil such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hy­
drocarbons (PAHs), harmful gases and heavy metals etc. contaminate
the environment and has hazardous impact on land, water, air and on
living beings [4].
To minimize its effect, researchers have found that recycling of waste
transformer oil by eliminating contaminants from it and converting it
into new transformer oil for further use or in blended form it can be used
as an alternative fuel is a better way to reduce the problems generated by
its disposal [5]. However, nowadays, due to the increased consumption
of petroleum products, the need for conventional fuels has increased
exponentially. Briefly, petroleum products such as petrol, diesel etc. are
the conventional fuel sources, while biomass, wind, solar etc. are the
non-conventional sources of energy. The increased use of transport in­
dicates that the demand for conventional fuels will be exceedingly high
in the near future [6]. As time passes by the fossil fuel reserves are
decreasing and India has to import fuels from foreign countries. Most of
the fuels imported in India (approximately 34% million tons/year) are

Abbreviations: WTO, Waste Transformer Oil; DF, Diesel Fuel; GWP, Global Warming Potential; UV-Vis, UV-Visible Spectroscopy; CI, Color Index; FTIR, Fourier
Transform Infrared Spectroscopy; GC-MS, Gas Chromatography - Mass Spectrometry; BTE, Break Thermal Efficiency; PAH, Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbon; SOA,
Secondary Organic Aerosols; PCBs, Poly Chlorinated Biphenyls; POPs, Persistent Organic Pollutants; EC, Electrical Conductivity; DBP, 2,6-di-tert-butylphenol; Ppm,
parts per million; ICP, Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP); HC, Hydrocarbon.
* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: rinz1413@gmail.com (R. Tiwari), rokhum@che.nits.ac.in (S.L. Rokhum).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nxsust.2024.100026
Received 17 July 2023; Received in revised form 24 January 2024; Accepted 29 January 2024
Available online 7 February 2024
2949-8236/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
R. Tiwari et al.
from the Middle East. The worldwide consumption of conventional fuel
is growing day by day, and is predicted to increase by a whopping 36%
by 2035 [7]. The increased use of conventional fuels has a negative
impact on the environment. Similarly, the use of automobiles increases
pollution in the environment and partial combustion of waste materials
releases harmful gases in the atmosphere, which results into diseases
and death of living organisms and humans [8]. Similarly, the improper
disposal of waste materials in the open further increases the pollution and the
materials which were either disposed of in the deep subsurface, open land or
water results
into ozone depletion, problems in human health, global warming,
aquatic pollution etc. [9]Therefore to overcome the problem of limited
fossil fuel reserve, high cost of conventional fuels and emission of
pollutant gases in the atmosphere such as NOx, alternative source of
energy is required and hence the demand for alternative fuels is
increased [8,10]. These are the fuels which are derived from other
sources (some are domestically produced) rather than petroleum and
hence they are needed to conserve the existing fuels, appropriate reuse
of waste produced, economic consideration of fuels, moderate the
environmental issues and lowers the dependence on imported fuels [11].
Sarc and Lorber et al. [12] suggested, that energy can be generated from
the wastes obtained from the industrial and biomedical sectors.
Different processes can restore the calorific value of the waste and hence
the fuels derived from such sources are simultaneously called
refuse-derived fuels. Thus, the demand for conventional fuels can be
fulfilled by these fuels. Many researchers studied use of waste oil such as
waste frying/cooking oils [13], waste animal fat [14,15], waste engine
(lubricating) oils [16], waste plastic oil [17] and tire oil [18] etc. as
alternative fuels. Among those, used transformer oil [19,20] also stands
as one of the most promising candidates due to its high heating value
and similarities in the properties as that of diesel fuel and it can be
utilized as a suitable substitute for diesel fuel. Thus, this review paper
gives a brief discussion about the formation of waste transformer oil, the
types of impurities present in WTO, their hazardous impact on envi­
ronment and the recycling of waste transformer oil.
2. Origination of waste transformer oil
Transformer mineral oil contains compounds of hydrocarbons,
naphthene, aromatics and paraffins and to enhance the quality of the oil
some additives are added like flame retardant, antioxidants etc. How­
ever, the deterioration of transformer oil occurs by the electrical and
thermal stresses and the condition of climate during its loading.
Therefore, the decomposition of transformer oil over the period of time
can be observed during its use, its increased acidity and finally it will be
converted to mid [21,22]. The solid materials present in the transformer
can cause the spontaneous reaction in the oil between complex blends of
hydrocarbon, oxygen and other chemicals at elevated temperature and
this will adversely affect the insulating property of the oil. Hence, at
higher temperatures and due to moisture content, transformer oil de­
grades rapidly and after long use it is disposed of [23,24].
Alshehawy et al. [25] investigated aged transformer oil to identify
the effect of thermal aging on dielectric properties and UV-Vis spectra by
using UV-Visible Spectroscopy. The scientist collected the samples and
stored them in a semi-sealed bottle. The samples were then kept in an
oven for heating purpose at the temperature of 121 ℃ at different time
intervals. It was observed that with the increase in temperature the rate
of degradation of the oil also increases and with every 7.1 ℃ increase in
temperature doubled the rate of degradation of the oil. After that he
tested the degraded oil sample by double beam spectrophotometer
which contains monochromator, 2 placeholders for cuvettes, light
source, 2 detectors and optics. One of the two cuvettes is filled with fresh
oil (reference) and the other one is filled with aged oil. The absorbance
spectrum is displayed by computer software that is connected with the
spectrophotometer. The breakdown voltage, dielectric dissipation factor
and water content was also calculated and it was shown in the Table 1
below:
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Next Sustainability 3 (2024) 100026
Table 1
Characteristic values of fresh and aged oil [25].
Properties Fresh TO Aged TO
Dielectric Dissipation Factor < 0.02 0.02- 0.41%
Breakdown Voltage 61 kV 32 kV
Water Content < 31 ppm 31 ppm
Thus, from the Table 1 it was found that the properties of the
transformer oil degraded after aging. The scientist reported that due to
the presence of oxygen and heating generated the decomposition by-
products which lowers the breakdown voltage of the oil and hydrocar­
bon molecules are breakdown which results in providing hydrogen due
to thermal stresses. However, oxygen is present on the surface of the oil
and therefore the water content in the oil increases.
Furthermore, an increase in dielectric dissipation factor is due to
increase in aging of oil and the data from UV-Visible spectrum showed
the increase in decomposition by-products. Mehmood et al. [26] ana­
lyzes the degradation of transformer oil by adopting spectroscopic
techniques viz. UV-Vis Spectroscopy and Fourier Transform Infrared
Spectroscopy. He collected the oil samples from field aged transformers
and tested their properties. For absorption spectra automated
Spectro-polarimeter (Muller matrix) has been employed which contains
diffraction grating monochromator (6 ± 0.5 accuracy) in which light is
passed through optic cable to the polarization generator and after that
the output light is passed following the interaction with the sample. The
data related to each wave length is recorded and FTIR spectrometer
(Perkin Elmer 1600) was utilized for the characterization of samples of
transformer oil by absorption of infrared radiations. From the analysis of
spectroscopy data, the scientist concluded that aging of the oil is the
main cause of its degradation and lowering of its breakdown voltage.
With the contamination and deterioration of the oil the UV absorbance
increases and percent transmittance decreases and therefore there is a
decrease in breakdown voltage of the oil and there is a change in color of
the oil occurs. Hadi et al. [27] proposed from his experiment that the
quality of transformer oil is first indicated by its color. He determined CI
(color index) of transformer oil by utilizing color comparator as well as
Ultra violet-blue laser at 406–450 nm wavelengths. Twenty samples of
transformer oil were tested and it was estimated that the range of CI is
0.51–7.50 and concluded that with aging the color of the transformer oil
becomes dark. Hence the colour of the oil indicates quality, aging and
the presence of contaminants and therefore transformer oil is assumed to
be scrapped by analysing the colour of the oil as indicated in Table 2.
Hadjadj et al. [28] in Table 2 and Fig. 1 has reported the transformer
oil quality on the basis of its colour. He further explained the effect of
quality of oil on the condition of transformers. These effects are given in
Table 3 as follows:
Therefore, the degradation of oil is indicated by the color change
which normally occurs due to aging. The quantity of WTO disposed
annually is difficult to estimate, but day by day more and more trans­
former oils are in demand while WTO is discarded to greater extent for
higher efficiency of the machine. WTO is considered as perilous waste
[29]. Hence, in short, the reasons by which WTO is originated and dis­
carded are as follows:
Table 2
Classification of Transformer Oil [28].
Transformer oil color Quality of the oil
Pale Yellow Good Oils
Bright Yellow Marginal Oils
Yellow Proposition A Oils
Amber Bad Oils
Brown Very Bad Oils
Dark Brown Extremely Bad Oils
Black Oils in Disastrous Condition
R. Tiwari et al. Next Sustainability 3 (2024) 100026

Fig. 1. : Colour of Transformer oil with Aging [28].

to acids, photo degradation. These are used as additives in coolants and

Table 3
insulating liquids in power transformers [32]. As PCBs are the persistent
Effect of transformer oil quality on Transformer Condition [28].
pollutants of the environment, these cause harmful effects on human
Transformer Oil Effect on Transformer Condition health and animals. Thus, globally PCBs production is banned and
Quality
further its uses also banned but it is still present in old power trans­
Good Oil These are efficiently providing the functions of cooling and formers and capacitors. Therefore, transformers are the main source of
insulation.
PCBs in transformer oil [33]. During manufacturing and servicing many
Marginal Oil The windings are coated by fatty acids. The probability of
sludge in insulation transformer oils get contaminated with PCBs.
Voids increased. Hence, the different contamination level of PCB in transformer oil
Proposition A Oil It provides all the functions but the formation of sludge in from transformers is shown in Table 4. Furthermore, on the basis of
solution starts. content of PCBs in transformer oil it is divided into three types:
Bad Oil The deposition of sludge occurs in fin areas.
Very Bad Oil Deposition of sludges continued. Shrinking of insulation
occurs. a. non-PCB transformer oil which contains < 50 ppm PCB
Extremely Bad Oil Cooling fans are insulated and vents are blocked by sludges b. Transformer oil contaminated with PCBs which contains 50-
thereby increasing the operating temperature. 499 ppm PCBs.
Oil in Disastrous Concern about life of transformer remain and not only the
c. Transformer oil containing >500 ppm PCBs.
Condition condition of oil.

Thus, the transformer oil during use gets contaminated with PCBs
1. Transformer oil spills occur in the environment when a power and becomes hazardous and hence it is discharged. During the discharge
transformer is damaged. of this waste transformer oil the environment is the recipient. It goes into
2. WTO is also generated by overhaul, maintenance, electrical equip­ the environment through incineration of PCBs containing wastes,
ment replacement and other activities. leakage of oil from old electrical equipment, through runoff, improper
3. When the quality of transformer oil is degraded the replacement of disposal of waste oils, volatilization etc. [34]. Fouladi-Fard et al. [35]
old oil with new oil takes place. investigated the content of PCB in transformer oil by electrochemistry
4. Transformer oil is collected in a transformer oil pit collector when method in which the samples of the transformer oil are contacted with
the power transformer is damaged and leakage occurs. molten sodium and PCBs present in the transformer oil are broke up into
biphenyls and chloride ion. After that the chloride ions are transferred
3. Toxins of waste transformer oil
Table 4
The pollutants present in waste transformer oil are polychlorinated Contamination of PCBs in Transformer oil [33].
biphenyls (PCBs), heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and Transformer oil with PCB Percentage of Transformers
hazardous gases etc. which makes the oil more toxic and adversely affect range (ppm)
the environment and living beings and it is shown in Fig. 2 below [30],
<5 85.7
[31]. 5-49 12.4
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) belong to the class of persistent 50-499 1.6
organic pollutants (POPs). These are the organic compounds which are 500-4999 0.1
> 5000 0.1
man-made. These compounds are thermally stable, inert, and resistant

Fig. 2. : Toxic compounds present in Waste Transformer Oil [30].

3
R. Tiwari et al.
into aqueous solution and its quantity was measured using the analyser
(L2000DX) and with the use of conversion factors and the concentration
of PCBs were calculated and found that the concentration of PCBs is
higher than 50 ppm which is above the recommended level. In the Fig. 3
shown below he suggested the PCBs contamination level in the trans­
former oil.
Pelitli et al. [36] tested the samples of transformer oil for PCBs
concentration by the method of solid phase extraction. In this method
hexane is utilized to activate the cartridges of solid phase extraction
(SPE) and then the samples of transformer oil with the use of Supelco
vacuum manifold system flow through the cartridges. The excess solvent
is removed by concentrating the extracts for 5 mins under N2 gas. The
extracts were then transferred to Auto Sampler Vial (100 µl) prior to
GC-ECD analysis. After quantitative and qualitative analysis of the ex­
tracts the scientist concluded that some of the samples had PCB con­
centration over the limit and some samples had limited concentration
and therefore decreasing but widespread contamination of PCB is pre­
sent. Hazardous gases, present in used transformer oil affects the at­
mosphere throughout its disposal. In addition to this, during operation
chemical processes occur in the mineral transformer insulating fluids
and transformer materials to which they are in contact and the adsorbed
gases, present in the atmospheric air due to thermal, mechanical and
electrical stresses [37], [38]. When mineral transformer oil is subjected
to heat it breaks down and the gases, which are generally evolved are
ethane, ethylene and methane [39]. Thus, the decomposition of hy­
drocarbons present in the oil takes place and they decompose into
hydrogen and carbon and these gases then react with each other and
form other gases like methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), acetylene (C2H4),
Hydrogen (H2). Therefore the rise in temperature causes the formation
of these gases in the insulating oil [40], [41]. Further the decomposition
of the cellulose and insulating material paper is caused by the low en­
ergy sparks, corona (partial discharge), and insulation overheating in a
transformer. Carbon dioxide CO2 and carbon monoxide CO gases are
formed by the breaking of glucose ring chains due to depolymerization
and get dissolved in the oil in different quantities. In cellulose oxygen
atoms are present and hence CO, CO2 and H2O are formed [42,43].
Lingvay et al. [44] investigated the transformer oil and in Fig. 4 he
showed the composition of different gases formed in transformer oil at
500 h of thermal treatment and pointed out that the formation of these
flammable gases is automatically accelerated and their formation takes
place by the thermal aging of transformer oil.
Fan et al. [45] detected the dissolved gases in a transformer oil by
chromatographic detector using tin oxide nanometer as gas sensor. In his
experimentation the separation of gases such as CO, CH4, C2H6, C2H2,
Fig. 3. : Contamination level of PCBs in Transformer oil [35].
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Next Sustainability 3 (2024) 100026
C2H4, and H2 were takes place through chromatographic column and
detected by gas chromatography where air act as a carrier gas in chro­
matography column (CC). Due to different distribution coefficients the
gases are separated in CC which then flowed through sensor. The sensor
and CC set at 60 ℃ temperatures and different samples of standard gas
(high and low concentrations) were prepared and transferred to chro­
matogram. With the use of Data acquisition unit, the data is recorded
and it was found that propane with low concentration is exist in a
mixture of gases which evolved from the oil. Ethylene (C2H2) was also
detected which flows through the system and therefore the presence of
gases such as CO, CH4, C2H6, C2H2, C2H4, and H2in transformer oil was
observed. Liu et al. [46] proposed that Fourier transform infrared pho­
toacoustic spectroscopic (enhanced with T-resonator) technique is uti­
lized for the detection of dissolved gases in transformer oil. The
T-resonator contain the resonance and absorption cylinder (┴). Reso­
nance cylinder consist of microphone (on top) far from the path of
incident light and the resonance frequency of T-cell is determined and
the photoacoustic spectra showed the mixture of CO2 and C2H2 gases
which results into detection sensitivity of CO2 (4 µl L-1) and C2H2
(5 µl L-1) in transformer oil under STP conditions. Another pollutant
present in WTO are polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) which are
the persistent organic pollutants (POPs) that remain present in trans­
former oil.
Pillai et al. [47] assessed the concentration of PAHs in transformer oil
by solid-phase extraction method which involves three step in a
sequence of C18, Si (silica) and PAH column. In this process samples of
transformer oil were filled in column C18 where they come into the
contact of sorbent (2 min) and then the samples were washed out with
cyclohexane (3 ml) in Si column. After that with the use of UV lamp
(366 nm light source) the migration of PAHs along with fluorescent
species has been observed. This indicates the presence of carcinogenic
PAHs in transformer oil. Sharma et al. [48] investigated transformer oil
for the contamination with PAHs. The scientist collected the sample by
extraction with n-hexane and then analysed them by GC-MS chroma­
tography technique and concluded that the concentration of PAHs
(13.45 µg kg-1) is higher in winter season. Kim et al. [49] examined
transformer oil for the analysis of PAHs present in it by enzyme immu­
noassay method. The experiment incorporated with solid phase extrac­
tion method which is based on silica and detection of total quantity of
carcinogenic PAHs by enzyme immunoassay process. It was concluded
from the experiment that the levels pf PAHs in TO were 5.7 times greater
than the carcinogenic essay which indicates the presence of PAHs in TO.
During running of transformers some heavy metals are also contaminate
the transformer oil such as Fe, Al, Ag, Pb, Cu, Sn, and Zn. These metals
are present in transformer oil due to the transformer component con­
taining these metals. Transformer windings contain Cu, transformer
tank and core contain Fe, soldered connectors and joints contain Pb,
ceramic insulators and coils contain Al, peripheral components contain
Sn, Zn and Ag [50]. Yang et al. [51] suggested that in running trans­
former oils the metal elements are always exist which come into the
contact of transformer oil simply by transportation and put up, trans­
former productive process and its running processes. The metal quantity
in the samples of transformer oil was tested by the Inductively Coupled
Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP) which indicates the pres­
ence of iron, copper, tin and aluminium in fresh TO, presence of tin,
copper and iron in running transformer oils as well as in faulty trans­
former oils. The metal content in normal and used transformer oils is
shown in Table 5 below.
From the Table 5 the scientist concluded that the copper content in
transformer oil is more than that of iron which indicates metal existence
in the oil. Lin et al. [52] investigated the distribution of metals in normal
and used transformer oil with the use of successive extraction method.
The samples of TO were prepared and tested and it was observed that the
concentration of iron zinc and copper is much higher than other metals
in TO. The continuous extraction process showed that the concentration
of copper in fresh TO oil is low whereas there is a change in copper
R. Tiwari et al.
Fig. 4. : Composition of flammable gases formed inside the transformer oil [44].
Table 5
Content of metal in normal and used transformer oil [51].
Metal Element Normal Transformer Oil Used Transformer Oil
(mg/L) (mg/L)
Cu 0-0.032 0.013-1.133
Fe 0.0089-0.041 0.018-0.164
concentration in used TO. Similar condition was observed, in case of Fe
and Zn. Scientists Liang and Luo et al. [53] determined copper and iron
content in used transformer oil by ICP-MS method which is a common
technique. Samples of TO are first pretreated (ashing and acid dissolu­
tion method) and quantified by inorganic calibration plot and traces of
copper and iron were detected. Thus, the presence of heavy metals in
transformer oil also detected.
4. Biodegradability
The term biodegradability, implies the breakdown of toxic and
complex materials into simple forms and transformer mineral oils are
persistent and not easily biodegradable and generally it ranges from
15–35%. Biodegradation is a procedure where organic matter is
decomposed by the action of microorganisms and made harmless, which
can be accepted by the environment. There are many ways by which
biodegradation is measured like measuring the amount of CO2 produced
during a specific time period, measuring the loss of dissolved organic
carbon for compounds which are soluble in water, measuring the loss of
Fig. 5. : Degree of Biodegradability [54].
5
Next Sustainability 3 (2024) 100026
hydrocarbons etc. Mineral transformer oils are generally used in a wide
range as compared to silicone and synthetic ester in transformer oils and
it is cost effective. Lu et al. [54] determined the percent biodegradation
of mineral oil, silicone liquid and synthetic ester which is shown in Fig. 5
and observed that the degradation of mineral oil and silicone liquid is
less than synthetic ester. Hence mineral oil, silicon liquids are classified
as hazardous and will damage the environment.
Rouabeh et al. [55] in his studies also suggested that mineral
transformer oils have poor biodegradability and hazardous to environ­
ment. Módenes et al. [56] proposed that mineral oil based transformer
oil contains mixture of naphthenic, paraffinic, organic compounds
containing heteroatoms and aromatic hydrocarbons and these were not
easily metabolized and difficult to undergo microbial degradation. The
scientist investigated the biodegradability of mineral transformer oil by
continuous flow aeration method in which the analysis of samples
biodegradability was measured by evolution of Carbon dioxide (CO2).
From his experiment the scientist pointed out that for degradation, ar­
omatic hydrocarbons are first converted into dihydroxy aromatic
metabolite (catechol) and then the catechol ring was broken by enzyme
(dioxygenases) which results into oxalate, pyruvate and acetyl-CoA
which are respiratory process intermediate and the linear hydrocarbon
chain by beta-oxidation are converted into aldehydes, alcohols and fatty
acids. The scientist thus, concluded that the biodegradability of mineral
transformer oil is low and have negative impact on the atmosphere.
5. Effects of WTO on environment
The improper disposal and incineration of WTO causes the exposure
R. Tiwari et al. Next Sustainability 3 (2024) 100026

of toxic pollutants present in waste transformer oil into the environment.

Mehta et al. [57] examined transformer oils and found that mineral
transformer oil are hazardous to environment having low biodegrad­
ability, contaminate the waterways and soil if spilled or leakage occurs
and transformer mineral oils consists of complex mixture of hydrocar­
bons and PCBs components. Since the base fluid of transformer oil is the
mineral oil hence some of the toxic effects are listed below in Table 6.
Anyasi et al. [58] studied the effect of transformer oil on Chromo­
laena odorata plants growth and since transformer oil contains poly­
chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) it inhibits the plant growth. It was
observed that the contaminated soil was acidic in nature and inhibition
in growth of the plant occurs due to different concentration of PCBs in
the soil and the growth of the mature leaf per plant of the Chromolaena
odorata was affected by the oil present in the surrounding and the
number of mature leaf per plant was 50 at 100 pm which becomes zero
Fig. 6. : Gaseous content in the atmosphere of earth [62].
at 200 ppm and still the same at 500 ppm and there is also a change in
the length of the roots which is 50.60 cm at 100 ppm whereas there is
Global Warming Potential (GWP) is measured by climate change.
further reduction in plant root at 200–500 ppm and hence it was
Methods of limitation for the emission of carbon are not sufficient and its
concluded that the plants are affected by the soil contaminated with
emission is increasing day by day. Thus, it is required to reduce about
transformer and hence it pollute the environment.
79% of the emission by 2050 [63].
Otunga et al. [59] investigated the toxicities related to mineral
Jackson et al. [64] showed in Fig. 7 the emission of CO2 by different
transformer oil in Wistar rats. It was observed that levels of red blood
fuel types and estimated that since the use of oil and natural gas is
cells and haemoglobin were increased in female as well as male rats. The
increasing day by day there is an increment of +1.4%/yr. of CO2
albumin, creatinine and serum total proteins also increase. The bile duct
emission.
proliferation and rise in live malondialdehyde was shown in liver of
Global Emissions by different sectors is shown in Fig. 8 in which the
these rats and their kidneys suffered from mild chronic inflammation
electricity sector is more responsible for emission. Thus, when fuels are
and small intestine suffered from chronic inflammation. Hence it was
burnt in power plants harmful gases emit which pollute the environment
concluded from the study that toxication of mineral transformer oil in­
[65]. Sun et al. [66] proposed that the combustion of transformer oil
duces different diseases such as haematological, renal, dermal, small
further enhance the GHGs emission as it contains gases (CO2, CH4, C2H4
intestinal toxicity and hepatic diseases in rats. Similarly, Kurzweil et al.
etc.) which increases global warming. When the combustion of oil takes
[60] also investigated the toxicities caused by waste transformer oil and
place, the heat evolved transferred into the environment and if the oil
suggested that the various pollutants present in it can cause and increase
medium is two-phase (gas-liquid) flow then the combustion process is
the various types of environmental pollution.
different since degree of mixing (oil and air) is low which lowers the
combustion efficiency of the oil. Carbon black particles are produced
5.1. Effect on climate after the insufficient combustion of oil and pollute the environment.
Zhang et al. [67] from his experiment reported that transformer oil
Gases formed in transformer oil during running also have negative comes into the contact of insulated paper board and with time it be­
effect on the atmosphere and increases the content of harmful gases in comes immersed in the oil with increase in the yield of CO and during
the environment. The temperature of the earth has risen during the past the combustion of used transformer oil release of CO in the environment
two centuries. Human activities which are not environmentally friendly takes place. Salama et al. [68] studied the aging, energy loses and
cause climate change and this affect the world. The change in climate thermal performances of oil immersed transformers which support the
would have a negative impact on life and this will include impact on the GHGs emission from Transformer oil. Guo et al. [69] investigated GHGs
economic sector, available resources and health of humans [61]. This emission from power transformers and suggested that during operation
also results in scarcity in water, intense heat, storms, diseases, typhoons the power loss of transformers contributed about 94% of GHGs emission
etc. When waste insulating oils are burnt various gases emit such as which further enhances by transformer oil.
sulfur oxides (SOx), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrous oxide (NOx), organic
compounds, gases of global warming like carbon dioxide (CO2) and
methane (CH4) and pollute the environment [42]. When the concen­ 5.2. Effect on marine and freshwater ecosystem
tration of all greenhouse gases increases in the atmosphere the tem­
perature of the earth surface increases and this is known as global When used transformer oil disposed into the water, it affect the
warming [43]. The earth’s atmosphere contains oxygen, nitrogen, GHGs marine habitat and freshwater ecosystem as it increases the contami­
and some other gases and it is given in Fig. 6 [62] with its percent nation of pollutants which further increase the growth of algae which
quantity. Thus, oxygen is 21%, nitrogen 78%, methane.000422%, argon are toxic and pollute the lake, sea, river etc. and affects the life which
0.9% etc. are present in the earth’s atmosphere. depends on them and this results in reduction in plants and animal di­
versity [70].
Liu et al. [71] analyses different sources responsible for marine
Table 6
Toxic effects of mineral base fluid of transformer oil [57]. ecological environment and observed that different sources have
different contributions to the water pollution. From the analysis the
Standard Properties Mineral Oil
scientist showed in Fig. 9 that 44% marine pollution is accounted for,
OECD Method 301 F Biodegradability < 9.8% from runoff sources, 1% from oil and gas production, 10% from
OECD 203 Acute marine Noxious
dumping, 12% from ship pollution and 33% from air pollution and
toxicity
OECD Methods Toxicity to the soil Noxious/ toxic products are disposing the waste oil in water causes spreading of oil in water which is
formed different for different forms. The oil forms a pool for a long period of
OECD 420 Acute oral toxicity Noxious time when water is in a standing form. Interaction of oil with dregs of
ASTM D1275-06 Corrosive Sulphur Non-Corrosive water bodies affected the aquatic organisms which live on them. In
Method B
rivers and flowing water bodies the oil also flows with them and is

6
R. Tiwari et al.
Fig. 7. : Global CO2 emission by different types of fuel [64].
Fig. 8. : Emission of CO2 by different sectors [65].
Fig. 9. : Contribution of Sources towards marine pollution [71].
collected on the banks where plants grow. Since the composition of oil
contains hydrocarbons and some heteroatom their impact on marine
environment depends upon their molecular weight, solubility and other
effects [72]. The harsh effect of oil on the marine environment is shown
in Fig. 10. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons present in oil are very toxic
and they pollute the water by their binding ability with protein and DNA
7
Next Sustainability 3 (2024) 100026
and are carcinogenic and have other adverse effects on marine organ­
isms even when the oil is present in small amounts in water [73].
Similarly, the disposal of waste transformer oil causes contamination
of toxic pollutants in marine environment. PCBs (polychlorinated bi­
phenyls) present in waste transformer oil goes into the water through
spills, improper disposal and leaks from electrical equipment and
considerable amount of it was found in water, air and soil etc. Dau­
bermann et al. [74] applied three dimensional numerical model to
determine the movement and permeability of transformer oil. The
spilling and leakage of transformer oil causes its flow to the groundwater
through the soil subsurface. During its movement, the pollutant present
in the oil come across with water and air of the subsurface and this is
multiphase flow phenomenon and exist as NAPL (non-aqueous phase
liquid) which may enter the saturated zone and will spread over the
capillary fringe by drifting on the water. The soluble pollutants of the
non-aqueous phase liquid will get mixed with groundwater and move
with local flow [75]. Troisi et al. [76] suggested that PCBs are the im­
mune system and reproductive pollutants in marine system. The samples
of ringed and grey seals were collected and are analyzed for the con­
centration of PCBs present in them by immunoassay methods. He uti­
lized ELISA Microtiter plate kit to quantify polychlorinated biphenyls in
the samples of seals. The diluent solution 50:50 v/v methanol/tris–HCl
buffered saline, 150 mM NaCl, 7% BSA, pH 7.6 was used to dilute PCB
calibration standard. The PCB antibody dilutions (1:5000) and PCB-HRP
(1:2500) conjugate were diluted (50 mM Tris-HCl buffered saline, 0.1%
BSA). For the good assay sensitivity these dilutions produce optimal
absorbance range. The Microtiter well strips were filled with sample
(50 µl), PCP-HRP (50 µl) and PCB antibody (50 µl). At room temperature
the plate was incubated for one hour and washed 3 times with buffer
(250 µl) and after that enzyme-substrate (150 µl) chromogen was added
and then 2 N sulfuric acid was added to terminate the reaction and
estimated the concentration of PCBs. He concluded that the concentra­
tion of PCBs was considerably higher in grey seals.
Peñín et al. [77] investigated the effect of PCBs congeners on Cali­
fornia sea lions lymphocyte functions. He collected the samples from the
animals which undergo rehabilitation at the marine mammal center
(TMMC) and measured NK cell activity that undergone PCB exposure.
From his experiment he concluded that cytotoxicity of NK cell-like was
observed by dioxin-like congener and PCB 138 (non-dioxin-like
congener) also showed an effect on vitro lymphocyte proliferation in an
otariid pinniped. He further reported that PCBs modulate the free
ranging California sea lion’s immune system and thus reduce their
respond to cell transformation and oncogenic viruses. Aganbi et al. [78]
R. Tiwari et al. Next Sustainability 3 (2024) 100026

Fig. 10. : Effect of Disposal and spill of Oil on Organisms of Marine [73].

determined the concentration of PCBs congeners in the collected
groundwater, drainage water, transformer oil in power plants. He
collected the samples of ground water, drainage water, pond water and
transformer oil and found that the concentration of Ʃ14 PCB congeners
were 0.98–2.96 mgL-1in drainage water, 8.5–5.11 mg kg-1in soil,
485–48507 mg kg-1 in transformer oil and 0.17–0.55 mg/L in ground
water and suggested that the concentration of PCBs is above the provi­
sional POP content. Therefore, the presence of oil on the surface of water
affects the freshwater as well as marine ecosystem. Such as nurseries like
coral reefs are important for fishes and other animals which are
adversely affected by the presence of oil on water and by eating them
fishes and shrimps are suffering from different diseases [79,80]. Fishes
are greatly affected when waste oils are disposed of in the water. It
decreases their ability to hatch eggs, decreases the growth and respira­
tion, gills deformation, morphological structure is affected, appetite
loss, circulatory failure [81]. Some of the species of fishes have eggs
which float on the surface of water and when oil is disposed of in water
the eggs come across the direct contact of oil and so their development is
hindered by toxic substances present in the water and hence population
level is also affected [82]. Marine mammals like sea turtles, dolphins,
whales etc. which breathe on the surface of water are very much affected
by the presence of oil on the surface of water and shoreline and suffer
from diseases, lung infection, damage of tissues and low immunity [83].
Novak et al.[84] from his studies suggested that since the mineral oil is
the base oil of majority of transformer oils and they can emit in the
environment in the form of micro drops and oil mist and will accumulate
in groundwater tissues and are threat to marine ecosystem, it can cause
disruption in oxygen gas exchange between atmosphere and water
which threatens the growth of aquatic plants by increasing the tem­
perature of water leading to reservoir eutrophication.
atmosphere is shown in Fig. 11.
The Fig. 11 gives an insight about the atmospheric fate of PAHs while
Fig. 12 shows the short and long term effects when a person is exposed to
PAHs [87]. How much a human is exposed to PAHs is determined by its
effect on human health. As it is earlier stated that polychlorinated bi­
phenyls are one of the main components that is present in transformer
oil and are the persistent pollutants of the environment, these cause
harmful effects on human health and animals. Khanum et al. [88] in his
study discussed the case of PCB exposure to human who has severe
nausea and vomiting and had developed respiratory issue and was
supported by mechanical ventilation. He further suggested that on
exposure humans also suffered from nail and skin pigmentation, head­
ache, weight loss, skin eruptions etc. He presented the case of
Bangladesh woman has been poisoned by transformer oil. Since, trans­
former oil contains poly chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) which is a main
component of transformer oil and is responsible for causing adverse
effect on humans. Generally, PCBs are odorless, tasteless and clear to
pale yellow in color and are highly fat soluble. The patient examined
thoroughly and her ABG (arterial blood gas) analysis exhibit pCO2
12.5 mmHg, TCO2 12.3 mmolL-1, pH 7.582, pO2 220 mmHg, base excess
in extracellular fluid (BEecf) 10.1mmolL-1 and base excess in blood
(Beb) 6.5 mmolL-1. Patient ECG reveals sinus tachycardia and radiog­
raphy of chest showed increased vascularity of both lungs and haziness.
Therefore, it was concluded that transformer oil produces chronic effects

5.3. Effect on human health

The toxic substances present in waste transformer oil makes its

disposal difficult. The composition of transformer oil is complex. As
waste transformer oil’s color deepens, the content of PAHs in WTO is
increased [85]. The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons present in waste
transformer oil are the key components of pollution and have harmful
effects on human health and thus adversely affect human life cycle.
These are organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen.
PAHs enter in the environment when the waste oil is burnt or by
different routes. These are carcinogenic, decreases the immune system
of the body and tends to bind with DNA and proteins and exhibit harmful
effects. Humans are affected by PAHs present in the environment in
different ways such as through contaminated food, dermal contact,
contaminated water, and inhalation [86]. The fate of PAHs in the Fig. 11. : The atmospheric fate of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons [87].

8
R. Tiwari et al.
Fig. 12. : Short- and long-term effects of PAHs on human health [87].
and it mainly affects the electric pole workers and people living near
PCB-disposal facilities and incinerators.
Esser et al. [89] studied the human half-lives which are exposed to
different PCBs congeners from a transformer recycling company,
collected the data and calculated the plasma level of PCBs exposed using
GC-MS (Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry). He determined the
half-lives of eighteen PCB congeners after applying logistic regression
and estimated that on the basis of the applied model the range for
calculated plasma half-lives is from 292 days for PCB 52 to 10548.5 days
for PCB 189 and concluded from their analysis that congeners with
substitution of chlorine at position 4′ and 2,4,5-position showed
half-lives longer as compared to isomers with 1(or 2) free 4-positions.
Lankatilake et al. [90] studied the use of transformer oil contaminated
with PCB at welding shops where it act as a coolant in Sri Lanka and
collected 63 samples from 63 welders and examined it by using Gas
Chromatography.
In Fig. 13 the scientist suggested the different methods of disposal of
used transformer oil adopted by welders and found that approximately
63% of the samples showed positive result for PCB contamination. He
further estimated that PCB concentration ranged in 74.1% samples from
60–179 ppm whereas in 25.9% it was ranged from 180.5–298.9 ppm
and their health was affected by it. Further, Khan et al. [91] investigated
the case study of 19-year old man (Asian/Pakistani) suffering from
transformer oil poising and having altered sensorium. Since transformer
oil consists of methanol and its concentration increases with time
therefore the clinical report indicates the methanol intoxication. The
patient showed acute kidney injury, increased osmolal gap and anion
gap acidosis. Cerebral edema in his head seen by computed tomography.
It was observed during the treatment that since his neurological status
shows improvement but still, he has been suffered from headache with
delirium and have worsened renal functioning.
Fig. 13. : Disposal methods of transformer oil containers by Welders in Sri
Lanka [90].
9
Next Sustainability 3 (2024) 100026
5.4. Effect on soil
The fundamental key for sustainable development of ecosystems and
biodiversity is soil conservation. The anthropogenic activities like fer­
tilizer and chemical applications, urban and industrial sewage disposal
and irrigation affects the soil composition of heavy metals which is made
by parent material, proportion of the solid phase components and the
process the topography, erosive processes and type of the soil [92]. The
degradation of quality of soil due to chemical and toxic substances is
called soil pollution. Soil pollution caused by mineral oil is of major
concern for environmentalists. Lu et al. [93] suggested from his studies
that Human health, food quality and its hygiene, air and water quality
all are affected by soil pollution. Minerals present in waste transformer
oil go into the plants through atmospheric deposition from particulate
and gaseous forms and root uptake. When waste transformer mineral oil
is disposed of it gets mixed with the soil and other toxic substances
present in it also get mixed with the soil. Since mineral oil contains
hydrocarbons, it also pollutes the soil by increasing the concentration of
hydrocarbons and CO2 in it. Thus, the adverse effects of mineral oil on
soil includes soil degradation, heavy surface runoff, increased concen­
tration of carbon dioxide in the soil, it affects the ecosystem of soil etc.
The contaminants and their percent contribution in the soil are
shown in Fig. 14. By 2025 the contamination of pollutants will increase
by 50% [94]. The ability of soil for the ecosystem is decreased after the
contamination and it is considered as dead soil. The atmospheric de­
positions of PAHs into the soil from industrial contamination, waste
incineration, long range transport etc. are also responsible for the soil
pollution. Qazi et al. [95] detected the concentration of PAHs in soil by
Fig. 14. : Contaminants contribution in the soil [94].
R. Tiwari et al. Next Sustainability 3 (2024) 100026

confocal microscopy which utilizes the intrinsic fluorescence process Table 7

and the emission spectra of various PAHs and estimated that naphtha­ Frequency distribution of heavy metals in transformer oil contaminated surface
lene, pyrene and phenanthrene different fluorescence spectra was soil [105].
observed and good quantity (1000 mg kg− 1) of PAHs were traced. As Heavy Concentration (mg/kg) of transformer oil Concentration (mg/kg) of
waste transformer oil contains polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Metals contaminated subsurface soil control soil
(PAHs), these are mixed with soil particles during its improper disposal. Cd 1.62 1.57
The pore throat size and the sorbent particle size of the soils are Cr 20.55 20.35
responsible for the movement of PAHs on the surface. The movement of Cu 65.61 57.04
Fe 177.13 179.00
PAHs on the surface is limited if sorbet particles cannot move much on
Mn 63.18 41.88
the surface as reported by Riccardi et al. [96]. Ni 22.59 23.86
Valentín et al. [97] examined the deposition of PAHs in urban soil Pb 21.67 20.25
and pointed out that its concentration is high because it enters into the Zn 82.80 56.63
soil by both stationary and mobile ways. The stationary way includes
industries, residential combustion and power plants while mobile ways
include road by products, the pollution caused by PAHs. PAHs disrupt Table 8
the balance of pH and organic carbon in the soil and this affects the Frequency distribution of heavy metals in transformer oil contaminated sub­
activity of soil microbiota. Thus, the bioaccumulation of PAHs in the soil surface soil [105].
causes contamination in vegetables, crops and food chain and so this Heavy Metals Concentration (mg/kg) Concentration (mg/kg)
affects human health [98]. The route of contaminated pollutants in the of transformer of Control soil
soil to humans takes place through soil eating, inhalation, skin contact oil contaminated soil
and indirect contact. Furthermore, polychlorinated biphenyls present in Cd 1.67 1.59
WTO comes into contact with the soil and contaminate it while disposal Cr 21.23 19.25
of WTO. Na et al. [99] applied solid phase extraction method using silica Cu 65.30 61.91
Fe 181.13 177.50
adsorbent for the detection of PCB in TO. Polychlorinated biphenyls Mn 62.55 45.38
have high electrical resistance and insulation properties and besides Ni 24.38 22.23
used in transformer oil these are also used for several other purposes Pb 21.32 17.10
such as compressors, casting of wax, compressors, paints etc. Once PCBs Zn 81.72 59.38
are in the environment their natural degradation is not easy and they
remain present in the soil particles and sediments and adversely affect
with organic complexes and hence their mobility and bioavailability is
the pH, soil moisture, its chemistry and drainage. PCBs present in soil
reduced. Thus, when Cd is associated with residual fraction it is gener­
particles move with them by natural or artificial processes. PCBs cause a
ally not harmful to the environment because of its stable growth and
change in the growth of plant species by entering through the roots of a
causes adverse effects on human health. Chromium is highly present in
plant and getting accumulated in the aerial parts of it [100].
the oil impacted soil and its amount showed the stability of the metal in
PCBs are chlorinated organic pollutants and because of their hy­
the petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated soil. Its concentration is high
drophobic nature they absorb to the dry soil and contaminate food
in non-residual fraction like water soluble fraction and hence its
chains and vegetables. When artificial or natural processes move dry soil
generally mobile and readily taken up by plants and impose human
containing PCBs, it goes into the streams, ponds, lakes etc. and pollutes
health risk. In residual fractions its concentration is generally low and it
the aquatic environment. Due to soil erosion, PCBs go into the streams
is stable and does not disrupt the food chain since it is less reactive and
during rainfall and remain at the bottom of the river. Thus, the river
less bioavailable. In the crystal matrix and water-soluble fraction of the
water is contaminated with PCBs through soil and it also affects the
soil Cu has high stability. Since Copper has an affinity for organic
human health by consumption of contaminated animals such as fishes,
complexes it can pollute the environment when oxidation occurs. Nat­
frogs and other animals which eat contaminated plants and drink
ural and anthropogenic both sources are responsible for soil contami­
contaminated water and also touch contaminated soil [101]. The soil
nated with copper [106]. Iron is easily present in the environment and
respiration is disturbed by PCBs which is an important factor for the
taken up by growing plants since it is associated with mobile phases such
cellulosic enzyme activity to break down the organic pollutants. These
as water-soluble fractions and exchangeable carbonates. In the soil
organic pollutants influence the microbial activities in the soil. The
environment Fe is readily absorbed and taken up by plants, other or­
salinity of the soil (amount of salt in the soil) is measured by electrical
ganisms therefore in water soluble fractions it is present in low amounts.
conductivity EC. The capacity of water, texture of soil, nutrient avail­
Residual fractions contain considerably high concentrations of iron and
ability is indicated by EC. Salinity can prevent growth of crops. When
it is considered stable, less mobile and in redox conditions it can change
soils are saline the microbial processes like production of nitrogen oxide
the variations [107].
gases, nitrogen cycle and degradation of organic matter are affected
Like humic and fulvic acids manganese have an affinity for natural
[102]. Soil pH is increased due to the effect of soil pollution and it be­
organic complexes and it is present in the environment. Residual frac­
comes acidic. The acidic soil also contains some number of metals like
tions contain low concentrations of manganese because of poor reten­
iron, aluminum and manganese which will affect the plant growth. Since
tion and association ability in the soil [101]. Nickel is present in residual
PCBs go into the soil, thus the rate of de-chlorination of PCBs decreases
fractions of soil by natural sources. Lead is also present in substantial
with increase in the content of organic carbon and degree of chlorination
amounts in the soil. In the soil zinc is highly available in the residual
in the soil [103]. Heavy metals and PCBs directly go into the ground and
fractions since it is strongly bonded with the crystal lattices of minerals.
contaminate the soil when used transformer oil is disposed improperly.
Its high concentration suggests that it is less available in non-residual
This also leads to adverse effects on soil nitrogen deficiency, soil fauna,
fractions and less toxic for the environment [108]. The high mobility
soil micro flora and imbalance of essential minerals in soil. Through
of heavy metals like manganese and iron in the transformer oil
surface runoff and subsurface soil layers these metals also contaminate
contaminated soil shows that it is originated by anthropogenic activity
the underground water. In soils heavy metals can exist in both solid and
with potential to bioavailable and taken up by growing plants and other
liquid forms [104].
organisms. By single contamination chronic exposure arises and it is
Tables 7 and 8 show the fractions of heavy metals present in surface
toxic to soil microbial health and induce soil pollution [109]. The
(0–15 cm) and subsurface (15–30 cm) transformer oil contaminated soil
mobility factor of heavy metals shows the distribution of heavy metals in
and its comparison to control soil [105]. Generally, metals tend to bind

10
R. Tiwari et al.
different chemical forms influenced by the amount of total metal content
of the soils. In transformer oil impacted soil generally, the mobility
factor of heavy metals is about 60% which shows the stability of metals
in the soil samples. If the mobility factor of heavy metals is above 10% its
bioavailability is high and it is easily taken up by plants [110]. Thus, the
transformer oil impacted soil contaminated with heavy metals is due to
anthropogenic activities and it has adverse effect on human health if the
significant amount of its daily dosage occurs with long term exposure.
Since it also contains persistent organic pollutants (POP) which are
hazardous substances can cause serious environmental effects. As
compared to adults’ children are more vulnerable to contaminated
environmental pollution [111].
6. Recycling of waste transformer oil
To reduce the negative impact of waste transformer oil on the
environment and on other living beings and to solve the problem related
to its disposal there are many recycling techniques to restore its prop­
erties for its reuse and there are other methods also available so that it
can be converted into value added products. Various recycling processes
are shown below in Fig. 15 These recycling processes have been dis­
cussed below.
6.1. By the use of membrane technology
Due to lower consumption of energy, versatility, mild operating
conditions and continuous operation membrane technology which is
used for the filtration or separation has appeared as a growing tech­
nology in comparison with the other separation methods. It is a semi-
permeable process and takes place by a concentration gradient, elec­
tric potential gradient and pressure gradient. When transformers are in
operation the cellulose fibers present in insulation papers are degraded
and therefore humidity and oxygen present in the insulation system
causes deterioration of transformer oil which reduces the dielectric
property of the oil and increases the acidity. Thus, the by-products ob­
tained due to hydrolysis and oxidation of the oil will be settling down or
soluble and hence responsible for the sedimentation of the oil [112].
Thus, the filtration of waste transformer oil is required to increase
the life of transformer oil and also for the ecological and economic in­
terest. There are many methods which are used to restore the properties
of transformer oil however membrane filtration methods are more
effective and can easily apply for the removal of dissolved and sus­
pended particles in waste oils. This technology has a potential for the
elimination of dissolved impurities and further do not release of pol­
lutants [113].
Furthermore, different methods were used for the purification of
waste transformer oil were absorption, ion exchange processes and
distillation but these processes require noisy methods, time consuming
Fig. 15. : Different recycling processes for Waste Transformer Oil.
11
Next Sustainability 3 (2024) 100026
and high equipment costs and also are more energy consuming. Safid­
dine et al. [114] used membrane technology for the regeneration of
transformer oil. Regenerated Cellulose membrane (diameter 47 mm,
pore size 0.45 mm with dry mass 120 mg) which is hydrophilic in nature
was applied for the process. These types of membranes are composed of
cellulose fibres and have properties such as wet strength, spontaneously
wetting, suitable for organic and aqueous media and stable mechani­
cally. The filtration system consists of the upper bowl as well as the
receiving bowl and the membrane was fixed on a removable
plate-support which was placed between the bowls. After dehydration
the waste transformer oil was fed in the upper bowl and the receiving
bowl was connected with a vacuum pump and vacuum pressure (0.5 mm
Hg) was applied so that inhalation of oil and passing through the
membrane filter takes place. The schematic diagram of the process is
shown below in Fig. 16.
From the above Fig. 16 it was estimated that the dehydration process
takes place before the membrane filtration because dehydration is the
most effective process to decrease the water content and dissolved gases
concentration in the oil. For the dehydration of the oil simply vacuum
drying (80 ℃ and 0.5 mmHg) takes place and it also eliminates the
volatile acids however not all acids are removed and by this process the
overall acidity of the oil was not much enhanced. Further the filtration of
the oil occurs in two stages and in the first stage the water was absorbed
by the porosity of 5 µm and in the second stage the dehydrated oil
flowed through the array of filters (0.5 µm) in the vacuum chamber.
There was a formation of thin film by these filters where the filtrate was
accumulated. Some properties of the transformer oil before and after
dehydration process was shown in the Table 8 below.
Thus, from the above Table 9 it was observed that some of the
properties of WTO are improved after the dehydration process and then
the oil has gone through the process of membrane filtration where its
properties are further improved. Therefore, it was concluded from the
above process that oil has regained some of its properties after mem­
brane filtration treatment and by the analysis of the oil using FTIR
spectroscopy and UV spectroscopy different factors such as resistivity,
relative permittivity, and dissipation factor are improved by 49.7, 0.5%
and 32.5% after six successful passes and hence after the treatment
transformer oil properties are retained.
6.2. By the use of activated bentonite catalyst
Collection of waste and aged oil and regeneration of fresh oil is an
efficient way to secure the environment and adsorption method with
bentonite clay can be an alternative way of regeneration which is
economically feasible. Most of the insulating oil after refining consists of
a natural oil inhibitor in a small amount which is made up of 2, 6-di-tert-
butylphenol (DBP) or 2, 6-ditertiary-butyl-para-cresol (DBPC). When
activated carbon and clay were used for the refining of the oil it elimi­
nates the impurities but it may also decrease the quantity of natural oil
inhibitors. Bentonite is available at a low price and a good adsorbent
used for eliminating the impurities from the waste water. Bentonite was
modified with acids to eliminate the impurities and the exchangeable
cations [115].
Raymon et al. [116] proposed a method for the regeneration of the
transformer oil and suggested that two base fluids one was aged trans­
former oil designated as 1 and the other one was fresh transformer oil
which was designated as 2 were taken into consideration. Firstly, the oil
was heated up to 80 ℃ then activated bentonite (5 gm) was mixed with
base fluid 1 (500 ml) using a magnetic stirrer (750 rpm) and then the
mixture was filtered using Whatman filter paper to completely remove
bentonite. The obtained oil has some improved characteristics. 500 ml
of reclaimed base fluid 1 and base fluid 2 was then mixed with antiox­
idants such as butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), propyl gallate (PG),
butylated hydroxy anisole (BHS), alpha tocopherol (α-T), ascorbic acid
(AA) and citric acid (CA) in different combinations. The various com­
binations of the antioxidants are shown in the Table 10 below:
R. Tiwari et al. Next Sustainability 3 (2024) 100026

Fig. 16. : Schematic diagram of membrane filtration process of WTO [114].

contamination in the environment. Thus, in the production of micro

Table 9
emulsions the utilization of co surfactant and Triton X-100 offers more
Some parameters of WTO before and after dehydration [114].
stability in the presence of acids because of the large hydrophobic chain
Properties Before dehydration After dehydration present in it. Hence the decontamination of oil by the micro emulsion
Water content (ppm). 30.71 15 prepared by the use of Triton X-100 [117]. Soares et al. [118] prepared
Oil permittivity (90 ℃) 2.14 2.15 micro emulsion using Triton X-100(surfactant), isopropyl alcohol (co
Acid number (mg KOH/g). 0.25 0.207 surfactant), oil and water and mixed them for 15 min with the use of
Breakdown voltage 37.4 60
Density (g/ml) 0.835 0.820
magnetic stirrer and then it was decant for 24 h so that the phases ( oil
Kinematic viscosity at 40 ℃, (mm2/s) 7.77 7.64 and water) are separated and then water was removed and oil was
washed with water 3–4 times. Ultrasonic agitator (15 min) was used for
the washing process of oil at 20 kHz and this form homogeneous
emulsion. On heating (60 ℃) and adding anhydrous sodium sulphate
Table 10
Various combination of antioxidants [116]. the phases were completely separated and after removing water the
samples were filtered and then heated at 50 ℃ to eliminate the moisture
Model Combination of Antioxidants
from regenerated oil. The hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) of the
123
AO1 BHA AA α-T surfactant and co surfactant was calculated by the formula. The sche­
AO2 BHT CA α-T matic diagram of the whole process is shown in Fig. 17.
AO3 BHA BHT CA
AO4 BHA CA α-T Mh
HLB = 20 ×
AO5 BHT PG α-T M
AO6 PG CA α-T
Where M= molecular weight of the whole molecule,Mh = molecular
weight of the hydrophilic groups.
However, the oil obtained was checked for different properties as it is Thus, the regeneration of TO using a micro emulsion process con­
shown in Table 11. It was observed from the above Table 11 that the taining higher amounts of surfactants led to the improvement in its
reclaimed oil shows enhancement in the properties. Thus, from the properties such as dissipation factor, dielectric strength and acid num­
experiment it was concluded that using the activated bentonite catalyst ber. Further the regenerated oil can be used in the lower voltage ap­
and then the combination of the antioxidants has been proved to be a plications rather than higher voltage applications since its interfacial
favorable technique for improving the characteristics of the oil. Utilizing tension values were not in the IEE limit also the regeneration process
antioxidant combinations are less susceptible to chemical effects. Thus, decreases the impurities and hence increases the life of insulating oil.
this process of regeneration of transformer oil makes it suitable for its re-
use and in near future it helps to overcome the problem of oil scarcity 6.4. By microwave assisted reconditioning process
and it further eludes the improper disposal of waste transformer oil.
Rodiah et al. [119] carried out the reconditioning process on WTO
6.3. Micro-emulsion with Triton X-100 and filtered and heated 1 L of used oil in a microwave heater with a
resistive heater. It was then again filtered in order to remove the solid
When oil was recovered from the rocks then micro emulsion tech­ contaminants. The reconditioning of the oil takes place till the temper­
niques were applied to remove the water from the oil using surfactants. ature reaches to 40, 50, 60,70,80,90 100 and 110 ℃. The input energy
Triton X-100 is a non-ionic surfactant which has good biodegradability, was calculated by the formula.
low toxicity and contains hydrophobic / hydrophilic chains so as to P = V I Δt, where P = input energy, I = current, V = voltage and
mobilize and solubilize the petroleum hydrocarbons and decrease their

Table 11
Different properties of the waste oil before and after reclamation [116].
Parameters Base fluid1 Base fluid 2

Before After
Reclamation Reclamation

Viscosity (cSt). 45.1 37 27.2

Breakdown Voltage 20 25.2 28.1
(kV).
Fire point (℃). 150.3 153 160.2
Flash point (℃). 145.2 147.2 150.4
Fig. 17. : Schematic diagram of regeneration of WTO [118].

12
R. Tiwari et al. Next Sustainability 3 (2024) 100026

Δt = time duration of heating each heater contains timer to set the time Table 12
and the power for heating was measured by wattmeter. The heat energy Summary of the recycling processes carried out by the scientists.
was determined by the formula Scientists Treatment processes of WTO Conclusion

Qh (T − T0 ) ms Csp Adesina Oil purification method, The viscosity and dielectric

Ph = = et al. adsorbent (Fuller’s earth or breakdown voltage of
t t
[120] alumina) – based Reclamation, regenerated transformer oil was
hot oil circulation, Lower Better than WTO
Where Ph = heat energy, Qh (calorie), Csp = specific heat, t = heating
frequency heating
time (s), ms = sample mass (kg) T and T0 are final and initial Liu et al. Re-refined by adsorption process The oxidation by products were
temperatures. [121] using attapulgite- Chitosan (AT- removed by AT-CS composite,
Further the glass beaker was fed with the sample for testing the CS) composites the acid value Decreases from
dielectric strength of the reconditioned oil. The steps of the process are 0.0674 to 0.006. The breakdown
voltage increases from 35 to
shown in the Fig. 18 below.
65 kV, the Tension, volume
It was estimated from the above process that the dielectric properties resistivity, soluble acid value
of WTO were increased by the reconditioning process, the breakdown also increases.
voltage of the oil increased by 140.51% and thus utilizing the micro­ Ali et al. Primary/coarse filtration The breakdown voltage of the
wave was effective in decreasing water content with thermal efficiency [122] Heating, vacuum separation, purified oil was increased by
regeneration and fine filtration 46.13%, thermal conductivity
25.56–40.41%. However, while using microwaves there was a reduction decreases
in dielectric power loss which indicates that the concentration of the Rathna Adsorption process with the Breakdown voltage, flash and
contaminants was decreased. Further there was a decrease in the vis­ et al. Addition of antioxidants fire point were increases,
cosity of the regenerated oil from 13,828 cSt to 11,128 cSt. Thus, some [123] Viscosity decreases, the
Oxidized impurities were
of the recycling processes carried out by the scientists was summarized
Adsorbed by AC
in the Table 12 shown below.

6.5. Waste transformer oil as an alternative fuel

Table 13
FTIR analysis of Diesel Fuel and WTO [128].
Converting waste transformer oil into alternative fuel for energy
Types of Bonds Family Frequency (cm-1) Frequency (cm-1)
generation reduces the negative impact of it. In heavy vehicles diesel Diesel WTO
engines are used for their high efficiency. Because of their requirement
C-H stretching Alkanes 2922.9 2963
the hazardous emissions take place which is of concern. Diesel engines
C-H bending Alkanes 1458.44 1458.39
are responsible for the emissions of NOx [124]. In diesel engines WTO C-X Fluoride 1377.1 1377.17
can be used as a fuel as it shows similarities with those of the properties C-H bend Alkanes 723.4 Nil
of diesel engines [125,126]. Waste transformer oil has high viscosity and C-H out of the plane Alkanes Nil 730.2
because of that it cannot be directly used as a fuel. Therefore, its blended
form can be used. The blend form of waste transformer oil is made by
addition of some amount of WTO and some amount of diesel fuel and by Table 14
knowing the values of viscosity, density and distillation the suitable Chemical composition of WTO [129].
blend for the test fuel is found out [127]. FTIR analysis of waste trans­ Compounds WTO Diesel
former oil indicates that WTO can be used as diesel fuel (DF). The
Carbon 89.95 86.5
compositional groups present in WTO are identified by FTIR analysis.
Nitrogen 0.03 0.18
The IR- spectra of WTO is obtained by the FTIR instrument and it is Hydrogen 9.19 13.2
compared with the IR- spectra of Diesel fuel. From Table 13 it is clear Oxygen by difference 0.44 0
that both the oils are saturated hydrocarbons. The hydrocarbons groups Sulfur 0.35 0.13
Content of Ash Nil Nil
present in the oil indicates that the oil is used as a fuel [128].
Carbon residue 0.02 0.019
Different components present in diesel and waste transformer oil are Content of water Nil Nil
shown in Table 14 and show the similarities between WTO and Diesel.
According to Yildiz et al. [129] while testing the blend forms of waste
transformer oil and diesel it is found that the emission of NOx reduces. availability are the factors responsible for the formation of NOx in diesel
At different loads the emission of NOx is determined and it is almost engines. The increase in break power increases the combustion tem­
equal value for all loads. The combustion temperature and oxygen perature and hence NOx emission. It is found that WTO emits less NOx

Fig. 18. : Flow diagram of reconditioning of WTO [119].

13
R. Tiwari et al.
than diesel fuel. Behera et al. [130] investigated the performance of
blends of waste transformer oil with diesel fuel in DI diesel engine at
different fuel injection nozzle opening and concluded that as compared
to diesel fuel the blended fuelled engine gave increased NOx emission of
about 1.85% and low break thermal efficiency (BTE) about 7.96%,
lowered hydrocarbon emission by 37.88% at all full load. Similarly,
Rajan et al. [131] blended WTO with diesel fuel (30:70) and utilized in
diesel engine to check its performance and concluded that emission of
CO, hydrocarbon and smoke were reduced while NOx emission and
break thermal efficiency (BTE) were increased at high load. Thus, WTO
can be utilized as an alternative fuel in blended form. Somani et al. [132]
converted waste transformer oil into alternate fuel by applying trans­
esterification method. The process involves the filtration of WTO to
remove foreign particles and then de-moisturized at 383 K for ten mi­
nutes and then de-gumming process caried out for the physical refining
of the oil which then undergo esterification process occurs between oil
and the organic acid in the presence of alcohol to form ester. After that
transesterification, distillation, separation and purification processes
were carried out in order to obtain an alternate fuel. Blends of treated
WTO with diesel fuel were prepared and the performance was tested on
diesel engine and it was concluded that viscosity and calorific value
showed by blend B5 were 2.41 and 41.72 as compared to 2.32, 42.3 of
diesel fuel. The brake thermal efficiency of B5 was 22.06% which is
higher than diesel fuel (20.31%). However, because of the lower heating
value the fuel consumption of diesel fuel is lower than the blend B5.
Hence, with further study, it was estimated that WTO after treatment
can be used in blended form as an alternate fuel. Yadav et al. [133]
treated waste transformer oil by transesterification method and pre­
pared different blends of treated WTO with diesel fuel and found that
blend (TWTO25) showed results similar to diesel fuel and on variation of
fuel injection pressure (22 MPa-88 MPa) the engine performance in­
creases because of better atomization. However, with peak fuel injection
pressure there is an enhancement in brake thermal efficiency and
considerable reduction in carbon monoxide, smoke and hydrocarbon
level. Similarly, Rai et al. [134] prepared biodiesel from waste trans­
former oil and tested the properties of obtained biodiesel and prepared
various blends with diesel fuel and tested the emission and performance
of turbocharged DI (direct injection) diesel engine at differing injection
timing 18–23◦ bTDC (deg before top dead centre). It was estimated that
WTOB20 (20% WTOB + 80% DF) showed improved performance and
emission characteristics as compared to diesel fuel. An increase in lower
brake thermal efficiency (8.83%) and decrease in lower specific fuel
consumption (23.2%) was shown by the blend (WTOB20 +19◦ bTDC)
than diesel fuel. The analysis of emission characteristics indicates the
reduction in hydrocarbon (12.63%), smoke opacity (18.21%) and car­
bon monoxide (24.44%) for the blend (WTOB20 +19◦ bTDC) at
maximum loading condition in comparison to diesel fuel and thus it was
concluded that the blend can be utilized in diesel engine as an alternate
fuel.
Transformer oil recycling is essential in preserving the safe and clean
environment. It is already known that the price of insulating oil is
rapidly increasing day by day because of insufficient feedstocks of crude
petroleum oil which is utilized in their production. Therefore, in in­
dustrial scale the deteriorated oil is re-utilized by regeneration or
recycling method in order to restore its physiochemical and dielectric
properties. Hence, different processes have been adopted to retrieve the
effectuality of functionalities of the oil which is near to original condi­
tion. Earlier traditional methods used for the regeneration of oil required
numerous pre-testing procedures that are tremendously energy
consuming and thus nowadays the technology applied for the recycling
of waste oil are cost effective and less energy consuming. As depicted in
this paper the membrane process for the recycling of WTO has advan­
tages as compared to traditional techniques since in this method
expensive solvents, adsorbents or energy-intensive phase change are not
required and recovery of the valuable compounds can be obtained with
the use of membrane with no extra energy costs. Further, sometimes
14
Next Sustainability 3 (2024) 100026
fluids i.e., synthetic liquids namely perchloroethylene and silicone are
applied in transformer systems which are of high cost and breakdown of
liquid insulation results into transformer failure which create repair­
ment cost. Henceforth, the collection of waste or aged oil and their
regeneration is effectual in protecting the environment and thereby the
use of bentonite clay is an alternative economically to other regenera­
tion processes as it has been utilized in removal of the elements because
of its adsorptive nature. Activated bentonite is a low-cost, high perfor­
mance and easily available and thereby it is a pulsating economical tool
that enhances the re-use of waste transformer oil and induces an
improvement in the function of fresh transformer oil. Moreover, the
conversion of WTO into alternative fuel for the energy generation is an
effective way to that reduces the dumping cost of the oil and also pre­
vents the hazardous effect on environment. The blends of WTO with
conventional fuel in varying mass ratios can be utilized in power gen­
erators (low heat) and also in internal combustion engines. The findings
of the studies suggest that low fuel consumption values were obtained
for blends (WTO-DF) and therefore it can reduce the additional costs and
consequently the unemployed waste oils utilization can compensate the
contemporary challenges associated with the depletion of petroleum
products.
7. Conclusion and future outlook
Transformer oil is an important part of the transformer and during
operation the properties of transformer oil after long use degraded and
hence it is discarded as waste and it is known as waste transformer oil.
Used transformer oil contains many toxic pollutants which contaminate
the environment during its disposal as it is less biodegradable. In India
transformer oil is imported from the Middle East and a large amount of it
is discarded. Many scientists investigated used transformer oil by
adopting different methods such as solid phase extraction, GC-MS
chromatography, electrochemistry, dissolved gas analysis etc. to deter­
mine the presence of pollutants such as PCBs, PAHs, harmful gases etc.
and estimated that PAHs are approximately 13.45 µg kg-1 in concen­
tration was found in aged transformer oil, amount of Cu and Fe is about
0.013–1.133 and 0.018–0.164 mg/L was estimated in aged transformer
oil. Therefore, it has hazardous effect on environment when exposed.
Worldwide approximately 40% of water contamination is due to waste
oil. Million liters of groundwater is contaminated by just spilling one
liter of waste oil making it undrinkable. The disposal of WTO in the open
environment causes a change in the climate as it increases the number of
toxic gases like methane, CO and other gases in the atmosphere.
Furthermore, scientists estimated that the toxicity of the oil causes
change in pH of the soil, its acidity and increases the heavy metal con­
tent in the soil which are taken up by the plants and it affects the living
beings and causes carcinogenic diseases in them and thus, the dumping
of waste transformer oil into the environment is not acceptable.
Therefore, to prevent the negative impact of waste transformer oil on
the environment is to recycle it or convert it into alternative fuel.
Nowadays the price of a transformer is multiple hundred thousand
dollars and the cost of dismantling the damaged equipment, installation
of a new one will be in millions. In order to recycle it scientists uses
different techniques such as membrane technology which shows
improvement in resistivity, relative permittivity, and dissipation factor
by 49.7, 0.5 and 32.5, micro-emulsion technology showed a decrease in
the impurity and increases the life of transformer oil, microwave assisted
technology also used and there are some other methods by which the
property of transformer oil can be restored which makes a positive
impact on the economy on disposing and purchasing new transformer oil
and also increases the service life of the transformer. In the treatment of
waste transformer oil, it is required to enhance the electrical properties
without decreasing the mechanical properties namely viscosity and the
reconditioning of waste transformer oil results into the enhancement of
dielectric performance by improving its dielectric strength. As illus­
trated in this paper, the utilization of microwaves is effectual in
R. Tiwari et al.
decreasing the content of water in the oil with thermal efficiency of
25–41% as compared to other heaters. The use of bentonite catalyst is
also an effective way to regenerate the properties of transformer oil since
it is of low cost, easily accessible, present in ample amount and can be
applied on industrial scale. Furthermore, reclamation technique im­
proves the characteristics such as physical, thermal, chemical and
electrical properties of deteriorated insulating oil and decreases the
concentration of toxic components present in the oil. However, the
technique of microemulsion is generally employed in the recuperation of
oil that is present in the rocks and the wettability, viscosity of the oil was
altered by the surfactants thereby facilitate the elimination of water
molecules from the oil. In this paper, surfactant Triton X-100 is discussed
as it possesses low toxicity, highly effective in eliminating hydrophobic
contaminants and considerable biodegradability. The utilization of
Triton X-100 and co-surfactants in the microemulsions formation pro­
vides stability in various hydrophobicity and efficacious in decreasing
the contaminants and on application it improves the acid number,
dissipation factor, dielectric strength and moisture content. Due to
increased use of transportation, the consumption and price of fuel is
increasing day by day and also mineral and fossil fuel reserves are
depleting. WTO can also be utilized as an alternative fuel for diesel
engines as it shows similar properties with diesel fuel as indicated by
FTIR analysis which shows the presence of alkanes which is similar to
diesel fuel and while utilizing blends of WTO and Diesel fuel it shows
decrease in emission of gases and increase in engine performance. Hence
the reuse of waste transformer oil as an alternative fuel will conserve the
fuel source and will also have a positive effect on the economy and
environment. India imports large amount of crude oil from middle east
and dependency on the foreign countries for the fuel can be reduced by
the utilization of waste transformer oil and converting it into alternative
fuel since a huge quantity of transformer oil after deterioration of its
properties is discarded as waste. Many scientists studied the perfor­
mance of blended form of treated WTO on diesel engine and found that
the specific fuel consumption, hydrocarbon and NOx emission were
reduced as compared to conventional fuel. In some cases, B25 (blend 25)
was regarded as the good option for the utilization in diesel engine
whereas it was suggested that for blend 30 the combustion properties
namely peak pressure and heat release rate at higher compression ratios
were improved instead of diesel fuel and therefore the blend can be
efficiently utilized at higher compression ratios (CR 19–20) to operate
the CI engine. Thus, this review paper provides an information about
WTO, its toxic effect and the ways by which WTO can be recycled and
utilized as an alternative fuel.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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