GCE Geography AS Level Student Book

1st Edition Linsay Frost

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Series editor: Lindsay Frost
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Contents
How to use this book 4
Assessment outline for AS and A Level 6
Fieldwork investigations 8
Synopticity 16

Topic 1 Tectonics 18
Thinking Synoptically: Melting Ice 66
Topic 2 Glaciated Landscapes and Change 68
Topic 3 Coastal Landscapes and Change 116
Thinking Synoptically: Chinese Coastal Flooding 170
Topic 4 Globalisation 172
Thinking Synoptically: Regeneration 220
Topic 5 Regenerating Places 222
Topic 6 Diverse Places 272
Appendix: Maths and statistics answers 323
Glossary 328
Index 339
Acknowledgements 343
 How to use this book
Introductory pages Exam support
The introductory pages outline the objectives of the topic and There are AS and A Level style exam style questions with
the skills that are covered within it. There is also a paragraph guidance on every enquiry question, providing practice for your
about synoptic links, which is a theme running throughout the exams.
specification. If you have studied geography at KS3 or GCSE level
there is a reminder of the content and concepts that you should AS level exam-style A level exam-style
know linked to the AS/A level topic. question question
With reference to earthquake Explain the link between
(seismic) waves, explain two plate boundary type and the
reasons why it is difficult for strength o f earthquake
buildings to remain intact (seismic) waves. (4 marks)
during an earthquake event.
(4 marks) Guidance
Think about which types of
Guidance plate boundary create the
Each type of earthquake most strain and release
(seismic) wave moves the greatest amount of
through the ground seismic energy and why,
differently, and all the and which release very
waves arrive within little and why. Make
seconds of each other. reference to body and
Anything attached to the surface waves.
Key terms and glossary ground would also move.
The key terms you need to know are highlighted for you in bold
and there is an extensive glossary at the back of the book to help There are focussed exam pages at the end of every topic with
with your revision. sample questions, sample answers and guidance for both AS and
A level.
Activities and extension
Preparing for your AS level exams Preparing for your A level exams
Frequent activities contain academic questions to reinforce your
Sample answer with comments

learning and help you to develop and apply numerical, statistical,

cartographic, graphical, ICT and literacy skills in geographical
contexts. Extension activities will also stretch and challenge your
knowledge.

ACTIVITY
TECHNOLOGY/ICT
SKILLS
Investigate the aims and
actions of a UK coastal
ICZM, perhaps an area in
which you have undertaken
fieldwork. Assess how
successful the ICZM is for
m anaging the coastal zone
sustainably.
4
Extension
The Shoreline Management
Plans for England
and Wales are on the
Environment Agency
website, and often on
local council websites.
Investigate the SMP for
your fieldwork area and
examine the local coastal
processes, land use,
defences and plans, and the
reasons behind the SMP.
Synoptic links Maths and literacy tips
The synoptic links from the specification are highlighted in the We have included maths and literacy tips in the topics to support
text and there are developed explanations of these synoptic your learning. There are also answers to the statistical questions
links throughout to help you make links of your own. at the back of the book so that you can check your learning.

Synoptic link
Thinking synoptically pages
One effect of globalisation is increased migration, especially
Our thinking synoptically pages provide interesting material to
of refugees. While environmental refugees may only be a
small part of this process at the moment, the global link take you beyond your studies, linking topics together and giving
between countries is likely to become much more important you an opportunity to apply your skills and knowledge and
in the future, as more people are displaced by sea-level prepare for synoptic assessment.
rise and coastal storms. This will also affect sovereignty,
for example, if whole island communities move to another
country; what happens to territorial waters if the land is
flooded? (See page 207.)

The key and an example of the text highlighted

Such criteria-based ethical and environmental ratings
have subsequently become commonplace for business-to-
business corporate social responsibility and sustainability
ratings, such as those provided by Innovest, Calvert and
Domini. Businesses have become aware of the importance of
ethical considerations, and increasingly present themselves
to their consumers as morally and environmentally aware.
Summary knowledge check
At the end of each topic is a summary knowledge check with
For example, Marks & Spencer announced their 'Plan A' in
questions which test your learning and a checklist of key links
2007. This set out 100 commitments to source responsibly,
and ideas you will need when preparing for your exams.
reduce waste and help communities over five years. To
support their goal of becoming the world's most sustainable
retailer Marks & Spencer have launched their Plan A 2020. This Book 1 covers all of the Edexcel AS level Geography
The plan combines 100 existing commitments with revised topics, so if you are just studying for an AS Geography
and new ones. qualification you just need to use this book. The same
PAF themes topics also form part of the Edexcel A level Geography
Yellow = Players (P), Orange = Attitudes and actions (A), specification, and if you are following this course you will
Purple = Futures and uncertainties (F) need to study the topics in this Book 1 and also the topics
featured in Book 2 of this series.

5
 Assessment outline
for AS and A Level
Table 1: Specification content
Year 1: AS Year 1 and Year 2: A
Compulsory topics: Compulsory topics:
Topic 1: Tectonic Processes and Hazards and Topic 3: Topic 1: Tectonic Processes and Hazards
Globalisation Topic 3: Globalisation
Topic 5: The Water Cycle and Water Insecurity
Topic 6: The Carbon Cycle and Energy Security
Topic 7: Superpowers
Optional topics: Optional topics:
Topic 2A: Glaciated Landscapes and Change or Topic 2A: Glaciated Landscapes and Change or
Topic 2B: Coastal Landscapes and Change Topic 2B: Coastal Landscapes and Change
and and
Topic 4A: Regenerating Places or Topic 4A: Regenerating Places or
Topic 4B: Diverse Places Topic 4B: Diverse Places
and
Topic 8A: Health, Human Rights and Intervention or
Topic 8B: Migration, Identity and Sovereignty

Table 2: Specification assessment

Year 1: AS Year 2: A
Paper 1:1 hour and 45 minutes (90 marks): 50% of qualification Paper 1: 2 hours and 15 minutes (105 marks): 30% of
Section A: Topic 1 and Section B: Topic 2A or Section C: Topic 2B. qualification
Including questions on glaciation or coastal fieldwork, and a Section A: Topic 1
synoptic question linking Topic 1 to Topic 2A or Topic 2B (and P, Section B: Topic 2A or Topic 2B
A, F themes). Section C: Topic 5 and Topic 6
Includes 20 mark extended writing questions.
Paper 2:1 hour and 45 minutes (90 marks): 50% of qualification Paper 2: 2 hours and 15 minutes (105 marks): 30% of
Section A: Topic 3 and Section B: Topic 4A or Section C: Topic 4B. qualification
Including questions on regeneration or diversity fieldwork, and Section A: Topic 3 and Topic 7
a synoptic question linking Topic 3 to Topic 4A or Topic 4B (and Section B: Topic 4A or Topic 4B
P, A, F themes). Section C: Topic 8A or Topic 8B
Includes 20 mark extended writing questions.
Paper 3: 2 hours and 15 minutes (70 marks): 20% of the
qualification
Sections A, B and C are all synoptic: Based on linked topics and
Players, Attitudes and actions, and Futures and uncertainties,
within a resource booklet about a geographical issue. There are
18 and 24 mark extended writing questions.
Paper 4: Independent Investigation (70 marks): 20% of the
qualification.
Exam command words
It is important for you to know the meaning of command words do not answer the question, even if you write lots of correct
in exams so that your answer is phrased in the correct way so geography. Use the exam question analysis at the end of each
that it answers the questions. Marks can easily be lost if you chapter to help you.

Table 3: AS and A examination command words

Command word and use Explanation
Analyse (A) You must use all of your academic geographical skills to investigate an issue. You must divide
the issue into its main parts and make logical connections on the causes and effects of the
links between these parts. You must use evidence (e.g. examples and case studies) wherever
possible to support the points you make. This command word will be used with longer answer
questions worth more marks.
Assess (AS & A) You must use evidence to show the significance of something relative to other factors. Spend
equal time on each factor in the main part of your answer, and in a conclusion identify the
most important.
Calculate (AS) A mathematical or statistical calculation, but always show your full working.
Compare (AS) You must explore the similarities and differences between two elements in a question. You
must try to balance the similarities and differences but recognise if one is stronger.
Complete (AS & A) You must finish a diagram, map or graph using the data provided.
Define (AS) You must give the meaning of a geographical term.
Describe (AS) You must give a geographical account of the main characteristics of something or the stages
of a process (e.g. where and what). Your points or concepts should be well developed, with
examples, but do not need reasons or justification.
Draw or Plot (AS & A) You must create a graphical representation of data provided.
Evaluate (AS & A) You must write about the success or importance of something, and provide a balanced
judgement based on evidence (e.g. data) that you have included in your answer. You should
have a powerful conclusion that brings together all of the ideas, including strengths and
weaknesses, and explores alternatives. This command word will be used with longer answer
questions worth more marks.
Explain (AS & A) You must provide reasons (e.g. how and why) for a geographical pattern or process. You must
show your understanding within your answer, supported by justification and evidence - often
in the form of examples.
Identify or Give or Name or State You must recall specific pieces of information.
(AS)
Suggest (AS & A) You must provide a reasoned explanation of how or why a geographical pattern or process
may have occurred in an unfamiliar situation. You should provide justification and evidence
for your suggestions based on your geographical understanding and knowledge of similar
situations.

7
 Fieldwork investigations
ACTIVITY
Find out when your AS
fieldwork will take place,
and when you will be
expected to collect data
for your independent
investigation.
ACTIVITY
Browse the four examples
of fieldwork provided in
this book. Note how these
compare (similarities and
differences) with fieldwork
and investigations that
you completed at GCSE
level. These examples are
suggested projects, there
are many others you may
wish to choose, just as you
may choose to use different
approaches to analysing
and presenting the results.
8
An essential part of geographical study is the collection of data and information. This requires you
to develop and enhance your
• Practical fieldwork and investigative skills (Table 3)
• Data analysis and presentation skills (Tables 3 and 4)
• Academic skills needed for analysing and concluding, and
• Ability to evaluate data, information and methodologies (including risk assessments) (Table 2)
The Edexcel specification requires a minimum of 2 days of fieldwork to be completed during the
AS year as part of the Geography course, including one physical geography (glaciation or coasts)
investigation, and one human geography (regenerating places or diverse places) investigation.
This will be organised and structured by a school's geography department. In the second year for
those studying the A Level you are required to complete an independent investigation based on
further fieldwork, this will be organised and structured by you. A minimum of 2 further days of
fieldwork are required to meet the specification requirement of 4 days in total for the two-year A
level course. This could be completely new fieldwork or extensions arising from the AS fieldwork
days. Guidance and advice for the independent investigation will be available from the school’s
geography department and teachers, and group work may be used to collect data. The fieldwork
must include both a physical and a human geography element based on the specification. The
Independent Investigation must be based on a physical or human geography theme, or both, taken
from the AS or A level specification. In many cases it may be that the fieldwork for the individual
investigation will be collected during the summer between the AS and A parts of the two year
course (i.e. June to September).
It is essential that you learn a lot during the fieldwork organised for you during the AS year of study
so that you are prepared to complete an independent investigation yourself; there are limitations
imposed by the specification regulations about how much assistance teachers may provide on the
independent investigation.
Exam tip
To help students with A S fieldwork and the A level independent investigation, this text
book provides four detailed exemplars of fieldwork investigations completed at A S level,
but these could also act as starters for the A level investigation. There is one at the end
of each of the chapters on the topics for which fieldwork could be chosen for the A S
specification. These exemplars are not meant to be complete answers but are designed to
show the parts of an investigation, both in terms of organisation and main stages. They
also show the writing style, level of detail, and the quality of data presentation required.
Further detailed advice is also provided in this section of the text book, which includes
possible A S exam questions and advice on how to answer them.
Assessment of fieldwork
AS level: Two examination questions, divided into several parts, one in Paper 1 and one in Paper 2
will assess fieldwork skills linked to Glaciation or Coasts, and Regenerating Places or Diverse Places.
These questions will test (i) knowledge and understanding of methodologies, (ii) interpretation,
analysis and evaluation of fieldwork information, and (iii) the ability to synthesise conclusions from
the your own fieldwork experience. (See example questions and the end of this section.) A total
of 18 marks are available in each examination paper for fieldwork questions (20% of the total AS
A CTIVITY
marks).
After you have completed
A level: An Independent Investigation will be completed for 20% of the total A level. This will be a
your first AS fieldwork day
3,000 to 4,000 word structured report based on fieldwork and secondary information. Marks are and follow up work, answer
divided as follows: Purpose (introduction) - 12 marks; Planning and data collection - 10 marks; the fieldwork questions
Data presentation, methodology, and analysis - 24 marks; Conclusions and evaluation - 24 marks. posed at the end of this
(See the specification mark scheme for the detail.) section.

Stages in a fieldwork independent investigation

1. Study the specification requirements carefully
Follow the guidance given in this section, and study mark schemes provided by Edexcel to know
what you will be judged on. Read and understand the relevant geographical topic and synoptic
links to other topics.
2. Decide on an enquiry question for study
The specification states three enquiry themes for each AS topic; the ones in italics in Table 1 are
featured at the end of the relevant chapter in this book. An enquiry question is a broad question
based on the enquiry theme (see exemplars at end of each chapter).
Table 1: AS enquiry themes
Dynamic Landscapes (physical geography) Dynamic Places (human geography)
Glaciated Landscapes and Change: Regenerating Places:
• Changing glacial and/or fluvioglacial • Evidence of regeneration strategies
sediments • Public opinion on local regeneration
• Glacial and/or fluvioglacial landform strategies
morphology and orientation • Historical change in an area.
• The impact of human activity on fragile
glaciated landscapes
Coastal Landscapes and Change: Diverse Places:
• Changing coastal sediments • Evaluation of areas that have potential for
• Changing coastal profiles improvement
• Success of coastal management approaches • Attitudes towards geo-demographic change
• Extent of deprivation in an area

A level students may choose to investigate one of the same enquiry themes as AS, or one of
those featured in this book, or can investigate another covering any topic within the specification.
However, students must ensure that meaningful fieldwork and primary data collection (qualitative
and quantitative) can take place in a local (small scale) place.

3. Choose a hypothesis
You should consider several hypotheses that link to an enquiry question, and then select the one
that you think you can answer the best. A hypothesis consists of a specific statement that can be
proved true or false, this provides the whole focus of a fieldwork investigation and allows a concise
but well balanced report to be produced. This is sometimes called the 'working hypothesis'. It will
be based on geographical understanding and consist of a simple statement that is located and/
or time specific, and provable through fieldwork measurement and wider investigation. Paired null
and alternative hypotheses may be used (see statistical exercises pages 98-99): A null hypothesis
(H0) is the one which, using geographical understanding, is expected to be false, while the
alternative hypothesis (Ht) is the one expected to be true.

9
 A CTIVITY
Study the four suggested
hypotheses. (a) Which one
would you choose and why?
(b) For each what would the
null hypothesis be?
ACTIVITY
Where would you go to
study the following (a) a
coast, (b) a glacial area, (c)
an urban area, (d) a rural
area. Remember to specify a
small area.
ACTIVITY
Study Table 2. (a) In a
methodology, what is
the difference between
explaining how and why?
(b) Compare the following
two methodologies. Assess
why one is much better
than the other.
10
FO U R P O SSIB LE H Y P O T H E SE S (H1)
• Centuries of farming activity has significantly altered the original shape of drumlins in
Ribblesdale, North Yorkshire.
• Hard engineering defences at Overstrand, North Norfolk, have effectively prevented coastal
recession since they were built.
• There have been a greater number of regeneration strategies in the inner city of Liverpool
than in the suburbs since 2000.
• Local people in the age group 40 to 50 years of age are more concerned about change in the
population characteristics of Stratford, London than the local 20 to 30 age group.
4. Decide on a location that is suitable for the chosen enquiry question and hypothesis
Clearly the geographical location selected must be able to provide accurate and relevant
information so that the hypothesis and enquiry question can be answered. The small local area
must also be accessible. For the Independent Investigation the location should be accessible for
at least 2 days, and sometimes revisits are desirable to check or expand on the first set of results.
For example, it is no good setting out to measure drumlins in an area where they do not exist,
or measure population change where there has been none. A small local area should be studied
so that it is manageable, for example, it will not be possible to study the whole of London or the
whole of the Lake District. However, sometimes it may be valid to compare two small areas.
5. Plan the methodology, including collection of primary and secondary data, and the time
allocation
Primary data consists of original measurements and information which are collected by you
independently or in a group through your fieldwork. Individual tasks may need to be allocated time
slots, or combined if a point analysis is being completed. Secondary data consists of measurements
or information that has already been collected, such as analysed census and index of multiple
deprivation data. Searching for secondary data can take longer than you think. Both will be
required in the AS fieldwork exercises and the Independent Investigation. Two important aspects
of planning are developing methodologies that will reduce errors and increase the reliability of
the data, such as interviewing 50 people instead of just 5, or taking 30 point readings rather than
just 3. It is also important to think about natural and human patterns, for example, measuring
wave action in different seasons or on days with different wind and wave directions, or measuring
patterns in urban areas at different times of day or different days of the week. Consider how much
time is needed and when.
Table 2: Extracts from two pupil methodologies
Primary or secondary Why was this data How was this data collected? Why was the data collected in this way?
data required required?
Quality of urban The main focus/aim A 16 km transect from east The stratified transect bisected all the
environment (QUE) of the study was to to west across Norwich was urban zones (predicted by the Burgess
(primary) investigate the pattern selected (stratified sample). model) so revealing the QUE levels in
deprivation through 26 systematic points were each urban area. The systematic points
the quality of urban then pre-selected along the ensured that bias was reduced by
environment and this transect. At each point a pre­ having evenly spaced points. There were
primary data is central to prepared QUE table covering sufficient points to provide a large data
the study as it will show a range of externality sources base. The recording table ensured that
changes across the city. (e.g. buildings) and effects everyone evaluated the points in the
(e.g. visual) was completed (+3 same way, and gave observers a structure
to -3 scoring). (Noise and NOx to use that enabled a judgement to be
readings were also completed made on many factors. The additional
along with qualitative notes information provided evidence to support
and sketches). and correlate with the QUE scores.
Quality of urban This gave an idea of what At every transect point a An average score can be taken of each
environment (QUE) we thought each transect table was filled in with -3 - +3 transect point, and it covered most
(primary) point was like, and an scoring for many aspects that aspects of the transect points.
outer visual idea of what may affect the quality of the
the area came across to transect.
be like.

Primary or Weaknesses with the How problems were (or What risks were How were the risks
secondary data data collection method could have been) reduced present with this reduced
required method
Quality of urban Only two directions were More transects could have The major risks of Students took care
environment (QUE) covered, so the whole been completed from working in an urban when by roads and
(primary) of north and south of different directions. Could area include the risk used designated
city were not covered. have recorded at each of students being crossing places and
All 26 points were point at the same time hit by a moving paid full attention to
covered at different but subjectivity would vehicle. The work was traffic movements.
times of the day and increase as 26 individual completed outside Students wore clothing
urban processes change judgements would have in February so it was appropriate to the
(e.g. traffic flows). The existed. The qualitative cold and there was a weather conditions
original data was scored data was made quantitative risk of hypothermia. and had hot drinks
individually (subjective (objective) by calculating Some urban areas occasionally. Students
or qualitative). Data was an arithmetic mean from may be less safe stayed together in
collected on a weekday all scores. Surveys could than others and so a small group at all
which may have have been completed on students had to be times and behaved in
different patterns to a different days of the week aware of approaches a manner that did not
weekend. in the same places or in from strangers. draw attention to the
different places. group.
Quality of urban They were based on They were not solved, Cars may hit people We watched for cars
environment (QUE) opinion and may be but an average was taken and it was very cold especially when crossing
(primary) biased. across the group to give a and wet. the road and we went
more general idea. into shops as much as
we could to get warm.

11

A CTIVITY
Before visiting a coastal
location to examine glacial
deposits in a cliff or beach
sediment distribution, what
risks do you need to be
aware of?
12
6. Collect primary and secondary data
It will need to be decided if the data is going to be collected individually or through group work,
and, if the latter, responsibility for each task needs to be allocated, along with the production of
record sheets. A risk assessment for the primary data collection must be devised and considered;
you need to be fully aware of health and safety and how to reduce risks effectively.
7. Present the data in a wide variety of ways
You should use a wide range of presentation techniques for your AS fieldwork or Independent
Investigation data. These should include cartographic, graphical, statistical and visual techniques.
In geography it may still be desirable to produce data presentation by hand as it is often more
effective, for example choropleth maps or flow line maps. It can also often be quicker by hand
and be difficult to construct more complex graphs using ICT, unless more sophisticated software
is available. Students must ensure that they are fully aware of the best ways of presenting data
before starting an Independent Investigation.
8. Interim deadlines and final deadline
The school geography department will set deadlines by which to complete certain fieldwork tasks
during the AS course. Deadlines will also be set for the Independent Investigation; you must use
these to plan your work. The Independent Investigation is internally assessed so teachers will have
a fixed deadline from Edexcel to work to and they will have to mark the reports and complete
internal moderation, so your deadline will be well before the Edexcel deadline. You must stick to
interim deadlines to ensure that tasks are completed in good time, in this way you avoid rushing
and producing inferior work.
9. Writing analysis, conclusions, evaluation
The specification makes it very clear that it is the quality of the thinking (reasons for links,
reasoned arguments) that is important in any fieldwork report or Independent Investigation, and
these must concentrate on quality and not quantity. A mature academic writing style is needed and
you should look at the examples at the end of Chapters 2,3,5 and 6 for help.
10. Evaluation and reflection
In several places within a fieldwork enquiry or investigation it will be necessary to consider
strengths and weaknesses, and show an understanding of how the results fit into wider geography.
The reliability, accuracy and validity of results must be considered, especially in the methodology
and the evaluation sections.
Table 3: Fieldwork and Investigation skills
Skill Detail
Collecting Primary data - original data collected by fieldwork
information Secondary data - information already published and available for use
Printed material - factual, descriptive or creative
Digital data - Geographical information systems, data bases, satellite or
photographic images, blogs
Diagrammatic data - Graphical, cartographic, diagrams (including 2D and 3D).
Quantitative Using statistics for establishing central tendency, dispersion or correlation.
techniques May include Student t-test, Spearman's rank correlation analysis, Chi-squared,
Gini co-efficient, and Lorenz curve. Including significance testing.
Qualitative Using judgements through coding and sampling techniques (random,
techniques stratified, systematic and sampling error), questionnaires and interviews,
oral accounts, newspaper reports, social media sites, photographic
representations, and field sketches (with annotations).
 Skill Detail
Cartographic Construct or interpret geospatial technologies (e.g. GIS), dot maps, flow maps,
OS maps.
Graphical Linear and logarithmic graphs, kite graphs, scattergraphs and lines of best fit.
Analysing Application of suitable analytical techniques (see above), use of relevant
information theory, accurate interpretation of data.
Evaluating Informed and critical questioning of data sources, identification of sources of
information error in data or the misuse of data.

Extended Project Qualification

You may have the opportunity to complete the Extended Project (EP) qualification within
your school. The EP can support geographical fieldwork investigations and the Independent
Investigation through developing organisation and research skills, encouraging independent wider
reading, developing planning and management skills, helping in the devising of a hypothesis,
developing data collection and interpretation skills, and developing the powers of evaluation and
critical thinking.

AS examination fieldwork questions: Diverse Places

(a) Table A below shows a summary of Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) scores (secondary
data) collected to support a field trip to a UK city. The higher the score the more deprived
the urban zone. The scores are the means for census wards in each urban zone.
Table A: IMD data for a UK city
Inner urban Inner Suburbs Outer Suburbs
CBD (1 ward)
(4 wards) (5 wards) (5 wards)
32.51 27.26 30.46

(i) Complete Table A by using the following data for five wards to calculate the mean IMD
score for the Outer Suburbs. (1 mark)

35.07 22.84 9.60 9.08 11.37

(ii) State one strength and one weakness of using the mean to analyse this data. (2 marks)
Strength
Weakness
(iii) Give two possible reasons for the different IMD scores for the inner urban area and the
outer suburbs. (2 marks)
1
2
(b) Explain one strength and one weaknesses of using Geographical Information Systems (GIS)
to represent the IMD data from this fieldwork. (4 marks)
Strength
Weakness
(c) You have collected and analysed data during fieldwork linked to Diverse Places.
Assess the validity of the conclusions made from your fieldwork investigation. (9 marks)
Research question or hypothesis...............................................................................................
AS examination fieldwork questions: Coasts

(a) Table B below shows a summary of pebble size analysis (primary data) for three coastal
locations along a 40 km length of UK coastline. The longshore drift is from site A towards
sites B and C.The figures are mean pebble lengths for parts of the beach profile and by site.
Table B: Mean pebble sizes (mm) for three coastal UK sites
Mean pebble Upper beach Middle beach Lower beach Mean for site
lengths (mm)
Site A: 0 km 19.7 26.4 23.8 23.30
Site B: 20 km 27.1 21.2 19.5 22.60
Site C: 40 km 22.3 15.5 14.7 17.50
Mean for beach 21.03 19.33
section

(i) Complete Table B by calculating the mean pebble size for the upper beach. (1 mark)
(ii) Suggest why calculating the median for the pebble lengths at these fieldwork sites may
have been better than calculating the mean. (2 marks)
(iii) Suggest one reason for the change in mean pebble length between the three fieldwork
sites and suggest one reason for the change in mean pebble length on different parts
of the beach. (2 marks)
Fieldwork sites
Parts of the beach
(b) Explain two reasons why risk assessments are important to the planning of geography
fieldwork. (4 marks)
(c) You have collected and analysed data during fieldwork in a coastal environment.
Assess how important prior knowledge and understanding of coastal processes was to
developing an understanding of the results of your fieldwork investigation. (9 marks)
Research question or hypothesis................................................................................................
Synopticity
What is synopticity?
Synopticity means bringing everything together and recognising that there are many links between
features, processes and influences. This is an important part of your geographical studies. Topics
may be separated for the purposes of detailed study but a geographer must always recognise the
links between these topics and the processes within them when developing an understanding of
the real world, which is a complicated place. There are many players, or stakeholders, within all
aspects of geography; these people have opinions and attitudes which determine their actions
in a wide variety of situations. Their actions have an important influence on the future, and
geographers are most interested in how physical and human patterns and processes may change
over time and spatially. (Highlighting like this in the text will help you to pick these out.) Making
geographical decisions involves synopticity; in a real world situation all geographical topics are
linked together and a full range of geographical understanding is required.

Synopticity in this book

The Edexcel specification has an emphasis on synopticity and the examinations have synoptic
questions. To help you prepare for this aspect of assessment this book offers several synoptic
features. First, there are margin boxes that explore synoptic aspects that are linked to points made
in each chapter; second, there are occasional Activities which have synoptic aspects to them, such
as decision-making; and third, there are two-page spreads called Thinking Synoptically, where
extracts from journal or magazine articles are presented with a series of questions designed to
help you think synoptically.

Synopticity in the examinations

AS Paper 1 AS Paper 2
Answer one 16-mark synoptic question based Answer one 16-mark synoptic question based
on Glaciation and Tectonics or Coasts and on Regenerating places and Globalisation or
Tectonics Diverse places and Globalisation
Mark scheme: Level 4: Argument comprehensively and meaningfully synthesises geographical
ideas from across the course of study throughout the response.'

A Paper 1 and Paper 2 A Paper 3

Answer two 20-mark questions in each
examination which require a wide range of
knowledge and understanding of a topic.
Mark scheme: Level 4: 'Applies knowledge
and understanding, provides coherent
conclusion, interprets and substantiates
ideas and evidence.' '...fully supported
by a balanced argument that is drawn
together coherently.'
Answer all questions based on a resource booklet
of information from a real world location. Two
long answers require specifically synoptic answers.
Mark scheme: Level 3: 'Applies knowledge and
understanding of geographical information/ideas
to find fully logical and relevant connections/
relationships.' Level 4: 'Critically investigates
the questions/issue to produce a coherent
interpretation of quantitative and qualitative
data/evidence, comprehensively making
meaningful connections to relevant geographical
ideas from across the course of study throughout
the response.'
 Example AS synoptic questions
Glaciated landscapes and change (linked to Tectonic processes and hazards)

Study Figure 2: Evaluate the role o f tectonic processes in the creation o f past and present glacial
environments. (16 marks)

Figure 2: Mount Pinatubo (1991) and Himalayan mountains

Coastal landscapes and change (linked to Tectonic processes and hazards)___________________

Study Figure 3: Evaluate the role o f tectonic processes in the creation o f emerging and submerging
coastal features. (16 marks)

Figure 3: Erupting undersea volcano (Tonga) and fiord of Milford Sound, New Zealand

Regenerating places (linked to Globalisation topic)

Study Figure 5: Evaluate the extent to which foreign direct investment (FDI) may contribute to the
regeneration o f an area that has experienced deindustrialisation. (16 marks)

Figure 5: UK FDI resources 2014-15 and Nissan factory, Sunderland.

Diverse places (linked to Globalisation topic)

Study Figure 6: Evaluate the extent to which globalisation processes cause increased diversity o f
ACTIVITY places within a country. (16 marks)

Produce a plan for each of

these AS synoptic questions.
Make sure that each plan
identifies synoptic links.
Compare your plan with
that of other students and
then make improvements.
Figure 6: Shops in Romford Road, Newham and Canary Wharf financial centre
17
Dynamic landscapes
Tectonic processes
and hazards
Introduction
Geological evidence shows that the Earth's crust has been
moving for at least 225 million years, since the supercontinent
of Pangaea split apart. This movement has created numerous
tectonic events such as earthquakes and volcanoes, and
secondary events such as tsunamis and landslides. Continental
drift was first suggested by the geophysicist Alfred Wegener
in 1912, who pointed out pieces of evidence (such as identical
rock and fossil types in continents thousands of miles apart),
but he could not finalise a theory because he could not identify
a mechanism for moving the crust. It was not until the 1960s
that the plate tectonic theory was accepted following the work
of numerous scientists, including Dan McKenzie and Harry
Hess. These scientists had shown that the crust was split into
plates, that heat from the Earth's core must cause the mantle
material to move through the process of convection, and that
it is these convection cells that drag the crust in different
directions a few centimetres each year. The crust is still being
modified today, with some geologically recent boundaries, major
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions and mountain building.
Research continues and even though this adds regularly to
the understanding of the processes, not everything is fully
understood.
Tectonic events only become hazards when they affect people,
their property or their way of life. The world's population has
been growing exponentially and is predicted by the UN to be
9.7 billion in 2050. Inevitably more and more people are living
in risky areas and in higher population densities, such as cities,
so the potential for a mega-disaster is increasing. For example,
the earthquake epicentres in Nepal (2015) missed the capital
Kathmandu by just 80 km. If it had been affected there could
have been a million deaths instead of 10,000. The numbers
of poor people in the world are also increasing. Over 2 billion
live on less than $2 a day, and often these people are the most
vulnerable in tectonic hazard zones.

In this topic
After studying this chapter, you will be able to discuss and
explain the ideas and concepts contained within the following
enquiry questions, and provide information on relevant
located examples:

• Why are some locations more at risk from tectonic hazards

than others?
• Why do some tectonic hazards develop into disasters?
• How successful is the management of tectonic hazards
Figure 1.1: The geothermal world is a fascinating place, as
and disasters? demonstrated by this bubbling volcanic mud in Waiotapu, New Zealand.
What do you think is happening under the ground here to create these
patterns and bubble shapes?
 Synoptic links
Tectonic hazards are linked to population and urbanisation patterns and trends, the development of a country,
hydro-meteorological factors (weather and flowing water), as well as other landscape processes. Players include governments,
non-governmental organisations, scientists, insurance companies, building engineers and the general population living in
hazardous zones. The attitudes and actions of these groups have a bearing on the severity of the impacts of tectonic hazards
and contrasting decisions, as well as natural trends, create uncertainty in many areas of the world.

Useful knowledge and understanding Skills covered within this topic

During your previous studies of Geography you may
have learnt about some of the ideas and concepts
expanded in this chapter, such as:
• The structure of the Earth (crust, mantle, core).
• Rock types (sedimentary, igneous and
metamorphic).
• Physical features created by tectonic activity (fold
mountains, volcanoes).
• Major tectonic plates (African, Pacific).
• Major plate boundaries (destructive, constructive).
• Convection as the mechanism for moving the
tectonic plates.
• Major volcanoes and earthquakes, and their hazards
(shockwaves, lavas).
• Ways of making buildings earthquake proof (flexible
buildings).
• Managements of tectonic hazards (before, during
and after).
This chapter will reinforce, but also modify and extend
your knowledge and understanding of tectonics.
Remember that the material in this chapter features in
both the AS and A level examinations.
• Use and interpretation of hazard distributions on
world and regional scale maps.
• Interpretation of GIS information to identify hazard
areas and extent of risk.
• Understanding and use of large data sets to identify
hazard trends and reliability of data.
• Understanding and use of correlation analyses
(Spearman's Rank), including significance testing.
• Interpretation and use of 2D and 3D diagrams
showing plate boundaries and related features.
• Calculation of tsunami velocities.
• Drawing and interpretation of a variety of
graphs (including scattergraphs), and comparing
effectiveness of graphs.
• Interpretation of photographic evidence.
• Investigation and research through use of websites.

19
Tectonic processes and hazards
CHAPTER

Why are some locations

more at risk from tectonic
hazards?
Learning objectives
1.1 To understand that the global distribution of tectonic hazards can be explained by the
processes operating at plate boundaries and intra-plate locations.

1.2 To understand that the plate tectonic theory was developed to explain plate movements and
the magnitude of tectonic hazards.

1.3 To understand that the physical processes, linked to earthquakes, volcanoes and tsunamis,
explain the causes of tectonic hazards.

Distribution and causes of tectonic hazards

There are several major tectonic plates (for example Africa), minor plates (for example Cocos),
and micro-plates (for example Sunda) (Figure 1.2). These plates often move in different directions
and at different speeds, creating different types of plate boundary and therefore variations in
earthquake and volcanic activity. Most earthquake and volcanic activity is found in zones along
the plate boundaries. The boundary which creates earthquakes with a magnitude of 9 Mwor
higher (Moment Magnitude Scale) is associated with convergence between an oceanic plate and a
continental plate (a destructive plate boundary with subduction).

Extension A C T IV IT Y

Investigate the ancient
crustal plate called
Zealandia. GNS Science
(Te Pu Ao) may be a useful
source.
1. Study Figure 1.2 and consider the plate boundaries and movements.
a. Identify three locations with convergence of an oceanic and a continental plate.
b. Describe what is happening in the Indian Ocean between Australia and India. Why is this
significant for the people living around the coasts of this ocean?
c. Describe what is happening in and around New Zealand.
d. Describe what is happening in the Middle East.
 0 750 1500

EURASIAN

NORTH AMERICAN

^103
r ^ x ^7 pacific

PACIFIC INDIAN 1 3 # p p |nV MA

AFRICAN
COCOS

SOMALIAN l A 3dUiL
102
AUSTRALIAN
NAZCA SOUTH
AMERICAN

SCOTIA ANTARCTIC

Destructive Constructive Collision ■■»»■■Transform - Complex or uncertain

34 — ►direction of movement & mm per year
AP: Altiplano, AS: Aegean, AT: Anatolia, BS: Banda, BU: Burma, CL: Caroline, EA: Easter, GP: Galapagos, JF: Juan de Fuca,
JZ: Juan Fernandez, KE: Kermadec, MA: Mariana, NA: North Andes, NH: New Hebrides, ON: Okinawa, PA: Panama,
Rl: Rivera, SL: Shetland, SW: Sandwich, TO: Tonga,
African and Pacific mantle plume positions

Figure 1.2: Map of tectonic plates, plate boundaries and mantle plumes

Intra-plate processes ACTIVITY

There are also earthquakes near the middle of plates (intra-plate) associated with ancient faults,
CARTOGRAPHIC SKILLS
such as the Rhine Rift Valley, which resulted from the solid crust cracking during its long journey
over millions of years. Newer large faults can also be found, such as the East African Rift valley, 1. On a copy of Figure 1.2
which may turn into new plate boundaries. These situations are associated with smaller magnitude plot the location of the
earthquakes. Collisions of tectonic plates may also fracture the crust well away from the plate recent 9.0+ Mwmagnitude
boundary, such as in the large zone of the Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau (Figure 1.8), and these earthquakes, and the largest
recent volcanic eruptions.
may yield large magnitude earthquakes over a long period of time as the collision slowly takes
2. Make notes on what you
place and movement is caused along faults.
notice about these locations.
There is also volcanic activity near the centre of some plates (hot spots). This is either the result
of the upwelling of hot molten material from the core/mantle boundary, such as the Hawaiian
(Figure 1.18) and Tristan da Cunha hot spots (Figure 1.4), or from the top of a large mantle plume
just under the crust, such as Nyiragongo and Cape Verde Islands (African Plate). It is also possible
that large meteorite impacts create symmetrical hot spots on opposite sides of the planet when
they collide with the Earth.
21
 Tectonic processes and hazards
Literacy tip
When researching internet
sites such as the USGS
or IRIS, be aware of USA
spellings and terminology.
For example, epicentre not
epicenter and focus not
hypocenter. Stick to British
English.
Extension
Investigate a selection of
the following scientists to
discover their contribution
to the evidence proving
the plate tectonic theory:
Arthur Holmes, Kiyoo
Wadati, Harry Hess, Fred
Vine and Drummond
Matthews, Dan McKenzie,
Wouter Schellart or Karin
Sigloch and Mitchell
Mihalynuk.
Ocean ridge
Figure 1.3: Convection cell possibilities in the Earth's mantle
22
Yellow = Players, Orange = Attitudes and actions, |urple = Futures and uncertainties
Processes moving the tectonic plates
Convection is created in the mantle by heat radiating outwards from the inner core. The mantle
material, mostly peridotite, is under pressure due to depth and when heated behaves like a
viscous liquid. This process has been proven by scientific formulae, such as the Rayleigh-Benard
theory, rather than by observation and measurement. The mantle is complicated, consisting of
multiple layers with density and mineral differences, so it has been suggested that there could be
convection in the whole mantle or several layers of convection (Figure 1.3). The internal structure
of the Earth is known from calculations based on how the different earthquake (seismic) waves
travel through the solid and liquid layers of the Earth (Figure 1.4 and Table 1.1). The mineral
composition, which includes olivine and Helium-3, is known from the study of lavas and other
scientific calculations. Where mantle convection cells make contact with the base of the crust they
move the plates by frictional drag.
Recent analysis of earthquake (seismic) waves travelling through the mantle have revealed that
there are complicated patterns of hot and cold areas (Figure 1.4) and this has led to mathematical
modelling of the mantle. Other forces also cause movement. There may be a push at the mid-
ocean ridge, but a significant force is slab pull where denser oceanic plates are subducted at cold
downwellings (there is also some suction force). This subduction may cause the location of cooler
mantle areas and the downward movement within the large scale convection pattern. The Pacific
Plate has a lot of subduction around its edge (Figure 1.2) and this may account for it moving faster
than most other plates. Two huge mantle plumes (Figure 1.4) also buoy (push) the crust up on a
large scale. The one currently under West Africa may have caused the Atlantic Ocean and Iceland to
form with the creation of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and split Scotland from North America and Africa
from South America. A similar process seems to have already started in East Africa (Figure 1.2),
where the African Plate is splitting into the Nubian and Somalian plates (with associated intra-plate
minor earthquakes and volcanic activity).
Ocean ridge Ocean trench
 CHAPTER 1

Synoptic link
Arctic

Hawaii
Convection in the iron
hot rich outer core creates the
Earth’s magnetic field which
is not only responsible
for the palaeomagnetism
of the oceanic crust,
Pacific providing proof of sea-floor
mantle plume spreading, but also for
Society Islands
hot spot
protecting the Earth from
solar radiation which has
enabled the biodiversity of
Canary Islands
hot spot ecosystems to develop on
the planet. (See pages 124,
147 and 153.)
Cape Verde Islands
hot spot

mantle plume
St Helena
Louisville hot spot
hot spot

da Cunha
hot spot

Ocean

Figure 1.4: Structure of the Earth with mantle plumes and hot spots

Table 1.1: Characteristics of the Earth's structural layers

Structure part Temperature Density Composition Physical state Earthquake (seismic) waves
Crust Surface Less dense Granite Solid Surface and body waves able
(oceanic temperature (oceanic = (continental) and to pass through
7 km thick, to about 2.7 g/cm3 basalt (oceanic)
continental up 400°C continental =
to 70 km thick) 3.3 g/cm3)
Mantle 870°C Less dense to Peridotite Phases of liquid Body waves pass through at
(700 km to medium density Upper = olivine and solid in variable rates due to density
2890 km deep) (3.3 to 5.4 g/cm3) Lower = layers changes
magnesium
silicate
Outer core 4400 to Dense (9.9 to 12% sulphur Liquid (+ Only P waves able to pass
(2890 km to 6100°C 12.3 g/cm3) 88% iron generates through, an S wave 'shadow
5150 km deep) magnetic field) zone' is created from about
105° from the focal point
Inner core 7000°C Very dense 20% nickel Solid (+ radiates Only P waves reach the inner
(5150 km deep (radioactive (13.5 g/cm3) 80% iron heat), maybe two core and pass through, but
to centre) decay) parts with huge their refraction at the core­
crystals aligned mantle boundary creates a ring
in opposite 'shadow zone' between 105°
directions and 140° from the focal point

23
 Tectonic processes and hazards

Plate boundaries
Four major types of plate boundary are created by the direction of plate movements - destructive
(fold mountains or island arcs), constructive (mid-ocean ridges), collision (fold mountains and
plateaus) and transform (conservative or major fault). Figures 1.5 to 1.9 are annotated cross-
sections of these plate margins.

ACTIVITY Volcanoes (about 100 km from plate Fold mountains

boundary) explosive with andesitic lavas (Andes) uplift/orogeny
1. Study Figures 1.5 to 1.9
(on page 26).
a. For each type of plate Peru-Chile
Accretion j rench Slope
boundary, use the labels wedge \ sediments
and annotations to write
Ocean
an explanation of the
7 km thick, Subductio
Nazca Plate
features and processes basaltic, rate of 50mm/yr
found. Oceanic Plate higher with tearing a
density deformation
b. Add to your Convection Flydration melting (water
explanations by finding nvolved lowers melting
Benioff zone, crustal rocks melt temperature)
additional points from and chemical reactions. Friction
Unstable mantle material
Table 1.2 on page 26. also creates earthquakes in this
forces its way to the surface
zone up to a depth of 700 km.

Figure 1.5: Destructive (convergent) plate boundary

Fore-arc basin
Volcanic islands, with sediments Outer arc Tonga Trench
often in a chain i m deep)

Marginal Possible accretion wedge

basin and (slices of trench sediments
and oceanic crust)
Ocean
Australian Plate
Pacific Plate
oceanic crust
Mostly continental plate
with remnant oceanic Oceanic Plate
Convection in mantf

Unstable molten magma rising to Wadati-Benioff zone, melting and chemical reactions.
the surface (change of rock type, Friction also creates earthquakes at varying depths
plus seawater) crust pushed up (up to 700 km).

Figure 1.6: Destructive (convergent) plate boundary (island arc)

24
 CHAPTER 1

Transform vaults at right
angles to plate boundary
arise from the different
spreading rates of ridge blocks
(stripes) in oceanic crustal rocks
(e.g. Magnetite)
Rifting to create Gap filled by lava flowing Sea floor spreading
undersea valley from fissures on the (cl5 cm/yr) in discrete
or graben seafloor parallel to plate segments km long
boundary to create new crust separated by
transform faults
UnderseaV / Submarine volcanoes
ridges \ / / (m a y become islands)

Ocean Ocean
Hot molten— Basaltic
magma
pacific Pfate Nazca Plate
(Oceanic Plate)

Decompression in asthenosphere
due to gap between plates
enables magma to rise

Figure 1.7: Constructive (divergent) plate boundary

Upward thrust (1 cm/yr) of sedimentary rocks from

former ocean floor of the Tethys Sea (orogeny)
Himalayan Mountains

Tibetan Plateau China

India
Small section of oceanic crust
Indian Faulting, leading to very wide scraped off during collision
Continental Plate earthquake zone, mostly shallow (ophiolite) (process of
3.3 cm/yr north obduction)
Eurasian
Continental Plate
A cm/yr south
Combined continental crust
is over 70 km thick in places

Remnant of old Extension

y io n aldrg oceanic crust
(Tethys Sea) broken
°nvecti0n off and descending Investigate the Tethys
into asthenosphere Sea. What evidence is left
Slab pull
today to show that this sea
existed?

Figure 1.8: Collision (convergent) plate boundary

25
 Tectonic processes and hazards

Literacy tip
Always use correct
geographical terms in
your written answers when
there is one to use. For
example, asthenosphere
for upper mantle; Moho for
the boundary between the
crust and upper mantle.
Main fault line (strike slip boundary), San Andreas
Other faults— fault system, may be visible on surface, along
intersect with which movement (0.6 cm/yr) takes place
main fault (e.g. creating about 10,000 earthquakes a year
San Gabriel,
Hayward,
Santa Monica)
Epicentre
Ocean
North American Plate
Friction leads to tension (strain) (continental)
between the two plates;
tension is released suddenly
at the focus, creating an
earthquake (seismic waves) Fault is 16 km deep,
1300 km long

Figure 1.9: Transform (conservative) plate boundary

Table 1.2: Plate boundary tectonic characteristics.

Plate boundary type Seismic activity Volcanic activity Topography or Other

Constructive Shallow focus; usually low
(divergent) magnitude (5-6)
Destructive Range of focal depths from
(convergent): ocean shallow to 700 km along
and continent Wadati-Benioff zone; often
high magnitude (8-9)
Destructive Range of focal depths
(convergent): ocean from shallow to 700 km
and ocean along Wadati-Benioff
zone; moderate to high
magnitude (7-9)
Collision (convergent): Shallow to intermediate
continent and focal depth; moderate
continent magnitude (6-8)
Transform Shallow focus; usually
(conservative) moderate magnitude (6-8)
bathymetry
Effusive eruptions Ocean ridge with central
(low VEI scale 1-3) rift valley; faulting at right
angles; volcanic islands
Explosive Ocean trench; fold
(moderate to high mountains with volcanic
VEI scale 5-6) peaks
Explosive Island arc; oceanic trench;
(moderate to high back arc and fore arc
VEI scale 5-6) zones
Usually none Fold mountains and
plateaus
Usually none; Ridges and scars on
occasional fissure surface
eruptions
High heat flow; young
basaltic rock
Trench gas low heat flow
and negative gravity
anomaly; range of rock
age
Trench gas low heat flow
and negative gravity
anomaly; range of rock
age
Average heat flow; rock
age very variable
Average heat flow; rock
age depends on oceanic
(young) or continental
(old) location

26
 CHAPTER 1

Plate tectonic theory

All pieces of evidence are important for the theory. There are some relatively small pieces - such
as the continental shelf shapes fitting together (for example Africa with South America), matching
rock types (in ancient cratons 2.6 billion years old), matching fossils (such as the Cynognathus
reptile in South America and Africa; Glossopteris fern in all southern continents), coal that forms
under tropical conditions found in temperate areas, evidence of glaciation in tropical Africa,
and of course the fact that the majority of earthquakes and volcanoes occur in zones near
plate boundaries. More significant pieces of evidence include studying the way that earthquake
(seismic) waves travel through the Earth, and the location of earthquake focal points. Along the
Wadati-Benioff zone foci depths can reach 700 km, which shows subduction of the denser basaltic
oceanic plates into the asthenosphere (upper mantle). It was not until the 1950s that the ocean
floor was surveyed; this showed the presence of mid-ocean ridges where new oceanic crust was
being created, and symmetrical 'magnetic stripes' (palaeomagnetism) in the new iron rich rocks J Synoptic link
either side of the constructive plate boundaries. The magnetic direction is locked in when rocks
cool below about 250°C and shows the reversal of the Earth's magnetic field and age of the oceanic Ice Ages of the past may
have been influenced by
crust. Put together, these two points demonstrate the 'conveyor belt' movement of sea floor the arrangement of the
spreading, with youngest rocks at the ridges (Figure 1.7). Studies of palaeomagnetism also show oceans and continents
continental rotation (polar wandering), which, when reversed, demonstrate that the continents did as the plates moved, for
once fit together as Pangaea (for example Greenland and UK joined). The study of lavas reveals the example today Antarctica is
helping to keep the planet
nature of the Earth's interior, and hot spot volcanoes show plate movement, for example the Pacific
cooler. (See page 71.)
Plate is moving over the Hawaiian fixed hot spot at 7 cm per year.

Physical tectonic processes

Earthquakes and earthquake waves ACTIVITY
At any plate boundary stress and strain can build up along the join, due to friction created by
masses of rock trying to move past each other. This is greatest along the Wadati-Benioff zone TECHNOLOGY AND ICT
SKILLS
within destructive plate boundaries (Figures 1.5 and 1.6), with the 9.5 Mwearthquake in Chile (1960)
being the largest. Stress is also great along transform (conservative) boundaries (Figure 1.9), with Research websites for
the 7.6 Mv, earthquake of 1992 on the San Andreas Fault being the largest. There is less friction at animations of earthquake
constructive plate boundaries (Figure 1.7) and so magnitudes are lower, for example the largest (seismic) waves and shadow
zones. Useful websites
recent earthquake in Iceland was 6.5 Mwin 2000, but they are usually smaller. The focus of an
include Incorporated
earthquake is the point at which the strain is released. This sends earthquake (seismic) waves in
Research Institutions
all directions, being strongest at the point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus, known for Seismology (IRIS),
as the epicentre. There are several types of earthquake (seismic) wave, and all move the ground United States Geological
in a different way. The P waves (primary) arrive first, have a short wavelength and travel quickly Survey (USGS) and Purdue
through the crust. 5 waves (secondary) arrive a few seconds later and have a longer wavelength University. Study these to
and a velocity of 4 km/s, causing more destruction. In the November 2011 Tohoku earthquake in add to your understanding.
Japan the S waves reached Tokyo 90 seconds after the release of stress at the focal point.

27
ACTIVITY
NUMERICAL AND
STATISTICAL SKILLS

1. Study Figure 1.10 and

locate Sendai.
a. Sendai is located 130 km
west of the November
2011 Tohoku earthquake
epicentre. How many
seconds should it have
taken for the S waves to
reach Sendai?
b. The earthquake took
place at 2:46:45 local
time, and a warning was
automatically issued at
2:46:48. Did local people
have enough time to
prepare for the event?

Figure 1.10: Areas of Japan affected by the Tohoku tsunami in November 2011

There are additional earthquake (seismic) waves (Figure 1.11). When all shockwaves are combined
over a short period of time, maybe 30 seconds, it is no surprise that buildings without an aseismic
design get severely damaged and collapse. This is because the ground moves in many different
ways (see page 40 for information on earthquake and tsunami scales).

28
 A CTIVITY

Compression 1. What is an S wave shadow

Undisturbed zone? (See Table 1.1 on
Expansion j Expansion | Expansion j material
page 23)
■■■ ■■ ■■ 2. How has the S wave
■■■ ■■ ■■
■■■ ■■ ■■ shadow zone helped prove
■■■ ■■
■■■ ■■ ■■
■■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ the plate tectonic theory?
Direction of wave movement

Primary wave: Arrives first, fast, moves through solid rock and AS level exam-style
fluids, pushes and pulls (compresses) in the direction of travel. question

With reference to earthquake

(seismic) waves, explain two
reasons why it is difficult for
buildings to remain intact
during an earthquake event.
(4 marks)

Guidance
Secondary wave: Slower than P wave, only moves through Each type of earthquake
solid rock, up and down movement. (seismic) wave moves
through the ground
differently, and all the
waves arrive within
seconds of each other.
Anything attached to the
ground would also move.

Rayleigh wave: Only travels through the surface of the crust, in A level exam-style
a rolling motion, the ground is moved up and down and side question
to side. Responsible for most of the shaking felt by people.
Explain the link between
plate boundary type and the
strength o f earthquake
(seismic) waves. (4 marks)

Guidance
Think about which types of
plate boundary create the
most strain and release
Love wave: Only travels through the surface of the crust, the greatest amount of
fastest of the surface waves and moves from side to side
(horizontal) as it moves forward. seismic energy and why,
and which release very
Figure 1.11: Types of earthquake (seismic) wave. little and why. Make
reference to body and
surface waves.

29
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The brooklet came from the mountain,
As sang the bard of old,
Running with feet of silver
Over the sands of gold!

Far away in the briny ocean

There rolled a turbulent wave,
Now singing along the sea-beach,
Now howling along the cave.

And the brooklet has found the billow,

Though they flowed so far apart,
And has filled with its freshness and sweetness
That turbulent, bitter heart.

—Longfellow.

A horse! A horse! My kingdom for a horse!

Marcellus. Peace, break thee off; look, where it comes again!

Bernardo. In the same figure, like the king that’s dead.

Marcellus. Thou art a scholar; speak to it, Horatio.

Bernardo. Looks it not like the king? mark it, Horatio.

Horatio. Most like: it harrows me with fear and wonder.

Bernardo. It would be spoke to.

Marcellus. Question it, Horatio.

Horatio. What art thou that usurp’st this time of night,

Together with that fair and warlike form
In which the majesty of buried Denmark
Did sometimes march? by heaven I charge thee, speak!
Marcellus. It is offended.

Bernardo. See, it stalks away!

Horatio. Stay! speak, speak! I charge thee, speak! [Exit Ghost.]

Marcellus. ’Tis gone, and will not answer.

Bernardo. How now, Horatio! you tremble and look pale:

Is not this something more than phantasy?
What think you on’t?

—Shakespeare.

Gloucester. Stay, you that bear the corse, and set it down.

Anne. What black magician conjures up this fiend

To stop devoted charitable deeds?

Gloucester. Villains, set down the corse; or, by Saint Paul,

I’ll make a corse of him that disobeys ...
Unmannered dog! stand thou, when I command:
Advance thy halberd higher than my breast,
Or, by Saint Paul, I’ll strike thee to my foot,
And spurn upon thee, beggar, for thy boldness.

—Shakespeare.

Brutus. What, Lucius! ho!—

I cannot, by the progress of the stars,
Give guess how near the day.—Lucius, I say!—
I would it were my fault to sleep so soundly.—
When, Lucius, when? Awake, I say! What, Lucius!

Lucius. Call’d you, my lord?

Brutus. Get me a taper in my study, Lucius:

When it is lighted, come and call me here.

Lucius. I will, my lord.

—Shakespeare.

Note: The following is good for the direct question and direct
answer:

Question. Hold you the watch to-night?

Answer. We do, my lord.

Question. Arm’d, say you?

Answer. Arm’d, my lord.

Question. From top to toe?

Answer. My lord, from head to foot.

Question. Then saw you not his face?

Answer. O, yes, my lord; he wore his beaver up.

Question. What, look’d he frowningly?

Answer. A countenance more in sorrow than in anger.

Question. Pale, or red?

Answer. Nay, very pale.

Question. And fix’d his eyes upon you?

Answer. Most constantly ...

Question. Stay’d it long?

Answer. While one with moderate haste might tell a hundred....

Question. His beard was grizzled? no?

Answer. It was, as I have seen it in his life,

A sable silver’d.

—Shakespeare (dialogue between Hamlet, Marcellus and

Bernardo).

“Yo ho, my boys!” said Fezziwig. “No more work to-night.

Christmas Eve, Dick. Christmas, Ebenezer! Let’s have the shutters
up, before a man can say Jack Robinson!”
You wouldn’t believe how those two fellows went at it! They
charged into the street with the shutters—one, two, three—had ’em
up in their places—four, five, six—barred ’em and pinned ’em—
seven, eight, nine—and came back before you could have got to
twelve, panting like race-horses.
“Hilli-ho!” cried old Fezziwig, skipping down from the high desk,
with wonderful agility. “Clear away, my lads, and let’s have lots of
room here! Hilli-ho! Dick! Chirrup, Ebenezer!”
—Dickens.

What, what, what? ill luck, ill luck?

I thank thee, good Tubal!—good news, good news! ha, ha!—

Where? In Genoa?

Exercises Developing Force and Rate of Speech

The Problem
 Here is a classification of people who speak peculiarly, or
incorrectly, as far as voice is concerned, with exercises for
correction.
1. There are those who speak too fast.
2. There are those who speak too slow.
3. There are those who speak too low.
4. There are those who speak too loud.
5. There are those who speak too short with no melody of tone.
Yet all of these may enunciate and pronounce their words well.
Besides developing distinctness, we must gain control and
adaptability of speech. It is strange, yet true, that many speakers
never increase the force or volume of their voices when addressing a
large assembly. They use the same quiet, even tone appropriate in
addressing a single person. What is the result? They generally bore
the audience, even though their thoughts may be brilliant. There is
no excuse for this, as a few hours’ study and practice will change it.
Above all things one who attempts public speaking must speak so
that he can be heard. It is essential, therefore, to give ourselves
actual practice exercises which demand force of utterance. Each
student should demand of himself daily oral drill upon certain
exercises until he has mastered his own particular difficulty.
The best means of accomplishing this is to use material from good
literature. In the following pages, under several heads, is a variety of
splendid exercises for practice. Commit all, or at least a part, to
memory. Thus, while developing your speaking power, you will be
cultivating a taste for the best that our literature affords.

To Develop Rapid Speech

Note: In developing rapid speech be careful to retain clearness
and precision of utterance.

Now clear, pure, hard, bright, and one by one, like hail-stones,
Short words fall from his lips fast as the first of a shower,
Now in two-fold column Spondee, Iamb, and Trochee,
Unbroke, firm-set, advance, retreat, trampling along,—
Now with a sprightlier springingness, bounding in triplicate syllables,
Dance the elastic Dactylics in musical cadences on;
Now their voluminous coil intertangling like huge anacondas,
Roll overwhelmingly onward the sesquipedalian words.

—Browning.
(The above should be rendered in not less than eighteen
seconds.)

You couldn’t pack a Broadwood half a mile—

You mustn’t leave a fiddle in the damp—
You couldn’t raft an organ up the Nile,
And play it in an Equatorial swamp.
I travel with the cooking-pots and pails—
I’m sandwiched ’tween the coffee and the pork—
And when the dusty column checks and tails,
You should hear me spur the rearguard to a walk!
With my “Pilly-willy-winky-winky popp!”
(Oh, it’s any tune that comes into my head!)
So I keep ’em moving forward till they drop;
So I play ’em up to water and to bed.

—Kipling.

Under his spurning feet, the road,

Like an arrowy Alpine river flow’d
And the landscape sped away behind
Like an ocean flying before the wind;
And the steed, like a bark fed with furnace fire,
Swept on, with his wild eye full of ire.
But, lo! he is nearing his heart’s desire;
He is snuffing the smoke of the roaring fray,
With Sheridan only five miles away.
 —Read.

Boot, saddle, to horse, and away!

Rescue my castle before the hot day
Brightens to blue from its silvery gray.
Boot, saddle, to horse, and away!

—Browning.

A hurry of hoofs in the village street,

A shape in the moonlight, a bulk in the dark,
And beneath, from the pebbles, in passing, a spark
Struck out by a steed flying fearless and fleet:
That was all! And yet, through the gloom and the light,
The fate of a nation was riding that night;
And the spark struck out by that steed, in his flight,
Kindled the land into flame with its heat.

—Longfellow.

So light to the croupe the fair lady he swung,

So light to the saddle before her he sprung!—
“She is won! we are gone, over bank, bush, and scaur;
They’ll have fleet steeds that follow,” quoth young Lochinvar.

There was mounting ’mong Graemes of the Netherby clan;

Forsters, Fenwicks, and Musgraves, they rode and they ran:
There was racing and chasing, on Cannobie Lee,
But the lost bride of Netherby ne’er did they see.
So daring in love, and so dauntless in war,
Have ye e’er heard of gallant like young Lochinvar?

—Scott.
And out of the houses the rats came tumbling.
Great rats, small rats, lean rats, brawny rats,
Brown rats, black rats, gray rats, tawny rats,
Grave old plodders, gay young friskers,
Fathers, mothers, uncles, cousins,
Cocking tails and pricking whiskers,
Families by tens and dozens,
Brothers, sisters, husbands, wives—
Followed the Piper for their lives.
From street to street he piped advancing,
And step for step they followed dancing,
Until they came to the river Weser,
Wherein all plunged and perished!

—Browning.

To Develop Slow Speech

Far-called, our navies melt away;

On dune and headland sinks the fire:
Lo, all the pomp of yesterday
Is one with Nineveh and Tyre!
Judge of the Nations, spare us yet,
Lest we forget—lest we forget!

—Kipling.

Do you know the pile-built village where the sago-dealers trade—

Do you know the reek of fish and wet bamboo?
Do you know the steaming stillness of the orchid-scented glade
When the blazoned, bird-winged butterflies flap through?
It is there that I am going with my camphor, net, and boxes,
To a gentle, yellow pirate that I know—
To my little wailing lemurs, to my palms and flying-foxes,
For the Red Gods call me out and I must go!
He must go—go—go away from here!
On the other side the world he’s overdue!
‘Send the road is clear before you when the Springfret comes o’er
you,
And the Red Gods call for you!

—Kipling.

Who hath desired the Sea?—the sight of salt water unbounded—

The heave and the halt and the hurl and the crash of the comber
wind-hounded?
The sleek-barreled swell before storm, gray, foamless, enormous,
and growing—
Stark calm on the lap of the Line or the crazy-eyed hurricane blowing
—
His Sea in no showing the same—his Sea and the same ’neath each
showing—
His Sea as she slackens or thrills?
So and no otherwise—so and no otherwise—hillmen desire their
Hills!

—Kipling.

Slowly the mist o’er the meadow was creeping,

Bright on the dewy buds glistened the sun,
When from his couch, while his children were sleeping,
Rose the bold rebel and shouldered his gun.

—Oliver Wendell Holmes.

Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this
continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the
proposition that all men are created equal.
—Abraham Lincoln.
 On a quiet autumn morning, in the land which he loved so well,
and, as he held, served so faithfully, the spirit of Robert Edward Lee
left the clay which it had so much ennobled, and traveled out of this
world into the great and mysterious land.

It was roses, roses, all the way,

With myrtle mixed in my path like mad:
The house-roofs seemed to heave and sway,
The church-spires flamed, such flags they had,
A year ago on this very day.

—Browning.

Toll for the brave!

The brave that are no more!
All sunk beneath the wave,
Fast by their native shore!

—William Cowper.

Break, break, break,

On thy cold gray stones, O sea!
And I would that my tongue could utter
The thoughts that arise in me.

Break, break, break,

At the foot of thy crags, O sea!
But the tender grace of a day that is dead
Will never come back to me.

—Tennyson.

Toll! Toll!
 Toll! Toll!
All rivers seaward wend.
Toll! Toll!
Toll! Toll!
Weep for the nation’s friend.

Every home and hall was shrouded,

Every thoroughfare was still;
Every brow was darkly clouded,
Every heart was faint and chill.

...

Oh! the inky drop of poison

In our bitter draught of grief!
Oh! the sorrow of a nation
Mourning for its murdered chief!

Toll! Toll!
Toll! Toll!
Bound is the reaper’s sheaf—
Toll! Toll!
Toll! Toll!
All mortal life is brief.
Toll! Toll!
Toll! Toll!
Weep for the nation’s chief!

—Carmichael.

Beautiful was the night. Behind the black wall of the forest,
Tipping its summit with silver, arose the moon. On the river
Fell here and there through the branches a tremulous gleam of the
moonlight,
Like the sweet thoughts of love on a darkened and devious spirit.

—Longfellow.
 To Develop Loud Speech

The great bell swung as ne’er before:

It seemed as it would never cease;
And every word its ardor flung
From off its jubilant iron tongue
Was “War! War! WAR!”

—T. B. Read.

Katherine, Queen of England, come into the court.

Where is that infernal boy?
As for me and my house, we will serve the Lord.
A horse! a horse! my kingdom for a horse.
Jove with us, Jove with us!
Forward, the Light Brigade.
A light! A light! A light! A light!

The words leapt like a leaping sword:

“Sail on! sail on! sail on! and on!”

Is the torrent in spate? He must ford or swim.

Has the rain wrecked the road? He must climb by the cliff.
Does the tempest cry “halt”? What are tempests to him?
The Service admits not a “but” or an “if.”
While the breath’s in his mouth, he must bear without fail,
In the name of the Empress, the Overland Mail.

—Kipling.

Ye crags and peaks, I’m with you once again!

I hold to you the hands you first beheld,
To show they still are free. Methinks I hear
A spirit in your echoes answer me,
And bid your tenant welcome home again!
Hail! Hail! Oh, sacred forms, how proud you look!
How high you lift your heads into the sky!
How huge you are! how mighty, and how free!
...
Ye are the things that tower, that shine,—whose smile
Makes glad, whose frown is terrible, whose forms,
Robed or unrobed, do all the impress wear
Of awe divine, whose subject never kneels
In mockery, because it is your boast
To keep him free! Ye guards of liberty,
I’m with you once again! I call to you
With all my voice! I hold my hands to you
To show they still are free!

—Knowles (“William Tell”).

Cannon to right of them,

Cannon to left of them,
Cannon in front of them
Volleyed and thundered.

—Tennyson.

Hurrah! the land is safe, is safe; it rallies from the shock!

Ring round, ring round, ye merry bells, till every steeple rock!
Let trumpets blow and mad drums beat! let maidens scatter flowers!
The sun bursts through the battle smoke! Hurrah! the day is ours!

Fight, gentlemen of England! fight, bold yeomen!

Draw, archers, draw your arrows to the head:
Spur your proud horses hard, and ride in blood;
Amaze the welkin with your broken staves.
A thousand hearts are great within my bosom:
Advance our standards, set upon our foes!
Our ancient word of courage, fair Saint George,
Inspire us with the spleen of fiery dragons!
Upon them! Victory sits on our helms.

To Develop Melody of Speech

Now, my co-mates and brothers in exile,

Hath not old custom made this life more sweet
Than that of painted pomp? Are not these woods
More free from peril than the envious court?
Here feel we not the penalty of Adam,
The seasons’ difference,—as the icy fang
And churlish chiding of the winter’s wind,
Which, when it bites and blows upon my body,
Even till I shrink with cold, I smile and say,
“This is no flattery: these are counselors
That feelingly persuade me what I am.”
Sweet are the uses of adversity,
Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous,
Wears yet a precious jewel in his head;
And this our life, exempt from public haunt,
Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks,
Sermons in stones, and good in everything.

—Shakespeare.

I dip and I surge and I swing

In the rip of the racing tide,
By the gates of doom I sing,
On the horns of death I ride.
A ship-length overside,
Between the course and the sand,
Fretted and bound I bide
Peril whereof I cry.
Would I change with my brother a league inland?
(Shoal! ’Ware shoal!) Not I!
 —Kipling (“The Bell Buoy”).

Sometimes on lonely mountain-meres

I find a magic bark;
I leap on board: no helmsman steers:
I float till all is dark.

Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary,

Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore,
While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping,
As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door.
“’Tis some visitor,” I muttered, “tapping at my chamber door—
Only this, and nothing more.”

—Poe.

Heigh, ho! heigh, ho! unto the green holly: most friendship is
feigning, most loving mere folly: then, heigh, ho! the holly! this life is
most jolly.
—Shakespeare.

Waken, lord and ladies gay,

On the mountains dawns the day;
All the jolly chase is here
With hawk and horse and hunting-spear;
Hounds are in their couples yelling,
Hawks are whistling, horns are knelling,
Merrily, merrily mingle they,
Waken, lords and ladies gay.

—Scott.
 And the humming-bird, that hung
Like a jewel up among
The tilted honey-suckle-horns,
They mesmerized, and swung
In the palpitating air,
Drowsed with odors strange and rare,
And, with whispered laughter, slipped away,
And left him hanging there.

...

By the brook with mossy brink

Where the cattle came to drink,
They thrilled and piped and whistled
With the thrush and bobolink,
Till the kine, in listless pause,
Switched their tails in mute applause,
With lifted heads, and dreamy eyes,
And bubble-dripping jaws.

—Riley.

It was a lover and his lass

With a hey and a ho, and a hey nonino!
That o’er the green cornfield did pass
In the spring-time, the only pretty ring-time,
When birds do sing hey ding a ding:
Sweet lovers love the Spring.

—Shakespeare.

The little bird sits at his door in the sun,

Atilt like a blossom among the leaves,
And lets his illumined being o’er-run
With the deluge of summer it receives.
 —Lowell.

O wonderful! How liquid clear

The molten gold of that ethereal tone,
Floating and falling through the wood alone,
A hermit-hymn poured out for God to hear!

—Van Dyke.

Across the narrow beach we flit,

One little sandpiper and I;
And fast I gather, bit by bit,
The scattered driftwood, bleached and dry.

The wild waves reach their hands for it,

The wild wind raves, the tide runs high,
As up and down the beach we flit,
One little sandpiper and I.

—Celia Thaxter.

If all the skies were sunshine,

Our faces would be fain
To feel once more upon them
The cooling plash of rain.

If all the world were music,

Our hearts would often long
For one sweet strain of silence,
To break the endless song.

If life were always merry,

Our souls would seek relief,
And rest from weary laughter
In the quiet arms of grief.
 —Van Dyke.

When May bedecks the naked trees

With tassels and embroideries,
And many blue-eyed violets beam
Along the edges of the stream,
I hear a voice that seems to say,
Now near at hand, now far away,
“Witchery—witchery—witchery.”

—Van Dyke.

Oh, the throb of the screw and the beat of the screw
And the swinging of the ship as she finds the sea.
Oh, the haze of the land as it sinks from view,
The land that is dear since it harbors you.

Up the airy mountain,

Down the rushy glen,
We daren’t go a-hunting
For fear of little men.

Wee folks, good folks,

Trooping all together,
Green jacket, red cap,
And white owl’s feather!

Who would be
A mermaid fair,
Singing alone,
Combing her hair
Under the sea,
In a golden curl
With a comb of pearl,
 On a throne?

I would be a mermaid fair;

I would sing to myself the whole of the day;
With a comb of pearl I would comb my hair;
And still as I comb’d I would sing and say,
“Who is it loves me? who loves not me?”
I would comb my hair till my ringlets would fall
Low adown, low adown,
From under my starry sea-bud crown
Low adown and around,
And I should look like a fountain of gold
Springing alone
With a shrill inner sound,
Over the throne
In the midst of the hall;
Till that great sea-snake under the sea
From his coiled sleep in the central deeps
Would slowly trail himself sevenfold
Round the hall where I sate, and look in at the gate
With his large calm eyes for the love of me.
And all the mermen under the sea
Would feel their immortality
Die in their hearts for the love of me.

Who would be
A merman bold,
Sitting alone,
Singing alone
Under the sea,
With a crown of gold,
On a throne?

I would be a merman bold,

I would sit and sing the whole of the day;
I would fill the sea-halls with a voice of power;
But at night I would roam abroad and play
With the mermaids in and out of the rocks,
Dressing their hair with the white sea-flower;
And holding them back by their flowing locks.
I would kiss them often under the sea,
And kiss them again till they kissed me
Laughingly, laughingly;
And then we would away, away
To the pale-green sea-groves straight and high,
Chasing each other merrily.

—Tennyson.