SEM IV (Mechanical) - Propeller

Unit 1

Fill in the blanks

1. The propeller, the unit which must absorb the power output of the __________.
2. ________________ force at high r.p.m. tends to pull the blades out of the hub.
3. Excessive blade tip speed may result not only in poor blade ___________.
4. A low-pitch, high r.p.m. setting, for example, can be utilized for ___________.
5. _______________ controls the pitch angle of the blades so that the engine speed remains
constant.
6. A propeller is a means of converting engine power into ________________ force.
7. An airplane moving through the air creates a drag force opposing its __________ motion.
8. If the power is measured in horsepower units, the power expended by the thrust is termed
__________________.
9. The engine applies brake horse power through a ________________.
10. Propeller efficiency varies from _______________.
11. The angle of the blade near the hub is ________________ than the angle at the tip.
12. The angle of attack of a fixed-pitch propeller blade varies with ___________ speed of the
aircraft.
13. When the propeller is feathered the blade angle is close to ______________.
14. Seaplanes and amphibious aircraft have used a greater percentage of _____________.
15. When propeller torque and engine torque are equal the propeller will rotate at
_____________ speed

Unit 2
Fill in the blanks
1. Blade angle is controlled by a _______________ constant-speed propeller system.
2. The propeller governor is driven from the _________________.
3. In a turbo-propeller installation the power control lever is often connected to
____________.
4. In the 'on speed' condition, centrifugal force on the flyweights balances the force of the
_________________.
5. What is the position of flyweights during undersexed condition of propeller system?
6. In the 'over speed' condition, the motion of control spring & centrifugal force on the
flyweights, tends to increase _________________.
7. The speed control and pitch change electric motor is operated using _______________
current.
8. In multi engine propeller system, _____________ engine is designated as the master engine.
9. The angular difference between the blades of different propellers, known as ____________,
can be adjusted by the pilot to achieve minimum noise and vibration levels.
10. The spinner of propeller is main attached with ___________ of engine.

Unit 3
Fill in the blanks
1. Ice formation on propeller blades, in effect, produces altered blade airfoil sections that cause
a loss in propeller efficiency
2. The two basic ice protection approaches are: anti-icing systems and de-icing systems.
3. anti-icing systems are activated before the formation of ice on the propeller
4. To determine proper system operation, the technician should follow maintenance and testing
procedures published in the appropriate maintenance manual.
5. The propeller anti-icing system has disadvantages in that it requires several components that
add weight to the aircraft, especially the anti-ice fluid contained in the tank.
 6. The heating elements are mounted internally or externally on the propeller spinner and
blades
7. A de-ice system consists of one or more on-off switches.
8. A de-ice wiring harness is used to electrically connect the de-ice boot to the slip ring
assembly.
9. During inspections examine the brush block for cleanliness.
10. Aside from the brushes, another component of the de-icing system that experiences wear is
the overshoe.

Q. 2 Answer in one or two lines each: - (05 M)

Unit 1
1. What is propeller shank?
2. What is slip in propeller system?
3. What is propeller acute angle?
4. What are tractor propellers?
5. How the propeller vibration can be minimized?
6. Which type of wood is used to make propellers?
Unit 2

1. What are inclusive components of propeller governor unit?

2. Who will regulate the position of governor valve in constant speed propeller system?
3. How the noise is produced in propeller system.
4. What are difference in synchronising and synchrophasing?
5. What is blade station in propeller?
6. IN which condition, the reverse pitching is used?
Unit 3
1. Name basic ice protection used in propeller
2. What is anti icing?
3. What is de icing?

Q. Answer in Brief

1. Explain pitch of propeller system.

 Since the angle of a propeller blade varies along its length, a particular blade station
must be chosen to specify the pitch of a blade.
 Rather than using blade angles at a reference station, some propellermanufacturers
express pitch in inches at 75% of the radius.
 This is the geometric pitch, or the distance this particular element would move
forward in one revolution along a helix, or spiral, determined by its blade angle.
 The effective pitch is the actual distance a propeller advances through the air in one
revolution. This cannot be determined by the pitch angle alone because it is
affected by the forward velocity of the aeroplane and air density.
 The difference between geometric and effective pitch is called propeller slip.
 If a propeller has a pitch of 50 inches, in theory it should move forward 50 inches
in one revolution. But if the aircraft actually moves forward only 35 inches in one
revolution the effective pitch is 35 inches and the propeller efficiency is 70%.
2. Explain forces applied on propeller.
 When a propeller rotates, many forces interact and cause tension, twisting, and
bending stresses within the propeller.
 These forces are:
 Centrifugal force puts the greatest stress on a propeller as it tries to pull the blades
out of the hub. It is not uncommon for the centrifugal force to be several thousand
times the weight of the blade.
 Thrust bending force attempts to bend the propeller blades forward at the tips,
because the lift toward the tip of the blade flexes the thin blade sections forward.
Thrust bending force opposes centrifugal force to some degree.
 Torque bending forces try to bend the propeller blade back in the direction
opposite the direction of rotation.
 Aerodynamic twisting (or turning) moment tries to twist a blade to a higher
angle. This force is produced because the axis of rotation of the blade is at the
midpoint of the chord line, while the centre of the lift of the blade is forward of this
axis. This force tries to increase the blade angle. Aerodynamic twisting moment is
used in some designs to help feather the propeller.
 Centrifugal twisting (or turning) moment tries to decrease the blade angle, and
opposes aerodynamic twisting moment. This tendency to decrease the blade angle
is produced since all the parts of a rotating propeller try to move in the same plane
of rotation as the blade centerline. This force is greater than the aerodynamic
twisting moment at operational RPM and is used in some designs to decrease the
blade angle.

3. What is reverse pitching?Explain

 Some propellers are able to produce reverse thrust. This is accomplished by reducing
the pitch angle to achieve a negative angle of attack.
 This produces reverse thrust that serves as a means of aerodynamic braking to
reduce aircraft speed following landing.
 The ability to reverse the thrust of the propeller is useful for slowing the aircraft
after touching down, thereby shortening the length of roll out and allowing the
 aircraft to operate from a shorter runway than it could otherwise use without reverse
thrust while saving a measure of wear on the brake system.
 Some aircraft are able to back-up on the ground using reverse thrust.
 Reverse thrust may prove useful when manoeuvring a seaplane, especially during
docking.


4. Describe the propeller system based on configuration.
 There are four main propeller configurations: Pusher, Tractor,Contra Rotating,
counter Rotating
 All the above types can be between two and five bladed propellers, but usually small
two blade propellers are used on small piston engines and three, four or five bladed
propellers are used for high powered piston or gas turbine engines.
 Pusher propellers are those mounted on the downstream end of a drive shaft behind
the supporting structure. Pusher propellers are constructed as fixed- or variable-pitch
propellers. Seaplanes and amphibious aircraft have used a greater percentage of
pusher propellers than other kinds of aircraft.
 Tractor propellers are those mounted on the upstream end of a drive shaft in front
of the supporting structure. Most aircraft are equipped with this type of propeller. A
major advantage of the tractorpropeller is that lower stresses are induced in the
propeller as it rotates in relatively undisturbed air.
 Contra Rotating -This configuration is where there are two propeller units on one
shaft, driven by the same engine, but rotating in opposite directions. This gives the
advantage of reducing the disc area, but maintaining the thrust to enable lower
undercarriage configurations to be used or higher RPM’s from the engine due to
reduced tip speed. When a propeller has more than six blades, it becomes inefficient;
a contra-rotating propeller is also a method of overcoming this problem.
 Counter Rotating -With a large rotating mass such as a propeller, it will produce a
significant turning moment or torque on the airframe. To overcome this problem on
multi-engined aircraft, counter rotating propellers are often used. In this system you
would have, for example, the port engine propeller rotating clockwise and the
starboard engine propeller rotating anti-clockwise, thus balancing the torque effects.
5. Describe steel propellers in brief with fig.
 Steel propellers are found primarily on transport aircraft.
 They are normally of hollow construction, which helps to reduce weight.
 Solid steel propellers are forged and machined to the desired contours and the proper
twist is achieved by twisting the blades.
 Hollow steel blades are constructed by assembling a rib structure, attaching steel
sheets to the structure, and filling the outer section of the blade with a foam material
to absorb vibration and maintain a rigid structure.
6. Name atleast 5 parts of propeller component & explain one of them.
 Blade Stations-Propeller blades are rotating airfoils that have a relatively complex
shape when compared to wings. To accommodate the difference in airspeed, a
typical propeller blade will have a high blade angle near the hub and a shallow
blade angle at the tip. The length of the chord of the propeller blade may also
change moving from the hub to the tip. The structural need of the propeller blade
near the hub may require a shape that lacks aerodynamic qualities but provides
ample strength to combat the various forces placed on the propeller assembly.
Propeller stations are often provided in six inch increments (15 cm).
 Hub-The propeller hub is designed to withstand all the forces experienced by the
propeller during operation. On fixed-pitched units, the opposing blades connect at
the hub, which is a thick, heavily built member. On controllable-pitch propellers,
the hub accommodates the pitch change mechanisms, bearings, passageways, and
necessary lubricant(s). In addition to retaining the blades and internal members of
the pitch control mechanism, the propeller hub is attached to the crankshaft or
propeller shaft. The thrust generated by the propeller is transmitted to the engine
and ultimately to the airframe through the propeller hub.
 Shank: The portion of the blade inserted into the hub of a controllable pitch
propeller is known as the blade butt or blade root. The propeller blade shank
connects the blade root or butt to the airfoil section of the propeller blade. The
shape of the shank ranges from circular or oval to a highly cambered form. The
shank must be capable of absorbing the loads placed upon the propeller and
transmitting the thrust to the hub
 Back :The surface of the propeller blade known as the back is the side of the blade
containing the camber or curvature. The propeller back is similar to the upper
surface of a wing in that it generates a lower pneumatic pressure as the blade
rotates. Where a wing produces lift, the propeller generates thrust.
 Face: The face of the propeller blade is the surface that is relatively flat. As the
propeller rotates, the face strikes the air. Pilots who fly single engine airplanes
equipped with tractor propellers look at, or face, the face of the propeller as they
operate the aircraft.

7. Explain about ground adjustable pitch propellers.

 The ground-adjustable propeller operates as a fixed-pitch propeller.
 The pitch, or blade angle, can be changed only when the propeller is not turning.
 This is done by loosening the clamping mechanism that holds the blades in place,
and setting the desired pitch.
 After the clamping mechanism has been tightened, the pitch of the blades cannot be
changed in flight to meet variable flight requirements.
 The ground-adjustable propeller is not often used on present day airplanes.
8. Describe the construction of wooden propeller.
9. Explain about Al-alloy propellers.
10. What is blade sections? Why the angle of attack is changed along blade section?
11. Define- Effective pitch, geometric Pitch, slip
 The geometric pitch, or the distance this particular element would move forward in
one revolution along a helix, or spiral, determined by its blade angle.
  The effective pitch is the actual distance a propeller advances through the air in one
revolution. This cannot be determined by the pitch angle alone because it is affected
by the forward velocity of the aeroplane and air density.
 The difference between geometric and effective pitch is called propeller slip.

12. Forces acting on propeller explain

13. Centrifugal twisting moment (ctm) with figure.
 Centrifugal twisting (or turning) moment tries to decrease the blade angle, and
opposes aerodynamic twisting moment.
 This tendency to decrease the blade angle is produced since all the parts of a rotating
propeller try to move in the same plane of rotation as the blade centerline.
 This force is greater than the aerodynamic twisting moment at operational RPM and
is used in some designs to decrease the blade angle.
 As with the other forces acting on the propeller blades, the higher the rpm, the
greater the CTM.

14. Aerodynamic twisting moment (atm) with figure.

 Aerodynamic twisting (or turning) moment tries to twist a blade to a higher angle.
 This force is produced because the axis of rotation of the blade is at the midpoint of
the chord line, while the centre of the lift of the blade is forward of this axis.
  This force tries to increase the blade angle. Aerodynamic twisting moment is used
in some designs to help feather the propeller.
 If the pitch change mechanism is behind the centre of pressure (the normal
situation) the Total Reaction will tend to try to turn the blade towards a coarse pitch.
It should be noted that in the normal forward thrust situation the CTM and ATM
oppose each other, but be aware that CTM is a much greater force than ATM and
hence CTM will always prevail and try to turn the propeller towards the windmill
condition.
 ATM acts with CTM to fine off the blades only when the propeller is wind milling.(
Both act in same direction during wind milling ) In reverse pitch the ATM will turn
the blade to a coarser negative blade angle.


15. Write disadvantages of a fixed pitch propeller.

16. Write installation procedure of the propeller.

1. Remove all protective covers and plugs, and clean parts which have been treated with a
protective coating. Lubricate specified parts with the recommended grease or oil before
installation.
2. Fit the electrical brush gear housing to the engine reduction gear casing, and check that it
is square with the engine shaft, using a dial test indicator clamped to the shaft.
3. Fit the sling to the propeller, lightly smear the front and rear cone seating’s with
engineers' blue, and temporarily fit the propeller to check the contact area of the cones.
Tighten the hub retaining nut by hand, rotate the propeller at least one revolution, then
remove the propeller and check the extent of blueing of the cones. If the contact area is less
 than 80%, high spots may be removed by light stoning, or, where permitted, by lapping on a
suitable mandrel. Clean the cones and cone seating’s.
4. With hydraulically-operated propellers; fit and lock the oil tubes in the engine shaft.
5. Refit the propeller, lightly lubricating the splines, cone bore and threads with the
specified lubricants. Cone faces should not normally be lubricated, as this may result in
looseness of the propeller when the oil film is lost. Lubricating the propeller bore, rather
than the shaft, will prevent any lubricant from being displaced on to the cone face when the
propeller is installed.
6. Turn the blades to the feathered angle, and fit the pitch-change mechanism.
7. Install the brush gear, and check for correct contact between the brushes and the slip
rings.
8. Fit the spinner, and turn the blades through their full pitch range, to check for fouling.

Q.Answer in Brief
1. Explain synchrophasing of propeller system.
 Where synchronization contributes much in terms of eliminating the annoying
throbbing beat encountered when propellers are not running at the same rpm, having
the ability to control the phase relationship between the propeller blades of the
engines provides an additional means to deal with noise and vibration during flight.
 These systems are found on both piston powered aircraft and those with turboprops.
They are known as propeller synchrophasing systems. Although much of the audible
beat frequency is eliminated by synchronising the propellers, the noise and vibration
may still be quite high.
 The noise is produced by the interaction between the air and the blade tips as the
blade tips of adjacent propellers pass close to each other.
 The position of the propeller relative to each other, (the phase difference between
adjacent propellers) can be adjusted to an optimum combination which will reduce
the interference to a minimum. So first propellers synchronization and then
synchrophasing is done.
 The angular difference between the blades of different propellers, known as phase
angle, can be adjusted by the pilot to achieve minimum noise and vibration levels.
 Both synchronization and synchrophasing are automatically done, when the engines
are operating in a constant speed mode, in case of FADEC engines .
 The basic system uses sensors to determine and monitor the position of a target blade
for each propeller (e.g., number one blade). Using electronic circuitry, the controller
determines the relationship of the propeller position between the master engine and
slave engine(s).
 By activating the system and rotating the control knob, the phase angle of the slave
engine(s) is altered. Once the pilot attains the smoothest and quietest phase angle, the
task is complete until the power setting is disturbed
2. Explain synchronising equipment system.
 Vibration has always been a problem with aircraft because the lightweight structure
does not have sufficient mass to absorb it.
 Some annoying and harmful vibration in multiengine airplanes is caused by the
propellers being slightly out of synchronization that is not turning at exactly the
same speed.
 This type of vibration has low fundamental frequency that is the approximate
difference between the RPM of thee engines.
  To prevent this vibration the propellers can be synchronized with an electronic
synchronizer system shown in figure 1.

 One engine is designated as the master engine. When the RPM of this engine is
adjusted by the pilot and the synchronizer system in ON, the RPM of the salve
engine will automatically adjust to the same RPM.
 Each propeller governor contains a rotating magnet and a magnetic pickup which
produces alternating current as the governor rotates. The frequency of this AC is
proportional to the speed of the governor. The outputs from the two governors are
compared in the synchronized control box, and an output signal is send to the DC
stepping motor actuator. A flexible steel shaft connects the actuator to the propeller
governor bell crank on the fuel control of the slave engine. If the salve engine is
slower than the master engine, the control box will drive the actuator motor in a
direction that will move the bell crank and connection arm on the slave motor fuel
control and the propeller governor, in the correct direction to increase its RPM.
 The operation of the synchronizer system is simple. It is left OFF during take-off
and landing. When the aircraft is trimmed for cruise flight, the condition levers of
the engines are manually adjusted to bring their RPM close enough to the same
speed that the engines will be within the synchronizing range.
 Generally it has a limited range of operation and the slave engines must be within
about 100% rpm of the master engine rpm for synchronization to occur. Then the
synchronizer is turned ON. Any difference in RPM is sensed, and the salve engine
fuel control and propeller governor are adjusted so the slave engine RPM matches
that of the master engine.
 When making power changes in flight, adjust both condition levers together to keep
the RPM within synchronizing range. If the engines get out of synchronization
beyond the limit system, the actuator will be driven to the limit of its travel. Turn
the system OFF and the actuator will return to its centre position. Manually
synchronize the engines and turn the system ON. It will fine tune the
synchronization and hold the engines together.
 The synchronization system is kept OFF in the take and landing condition because if
it is kept on during these critical phase of flight and if there is a failure of master
engine, it would result in all the engines trying to follow the master engine and
would cause a total system loss of power.
3. Explain the procedure for feathering of propeller system.
4. What is fixed pitch propeller? Give its salient features.
 As the name implies, a fixed-pitch propeller has the blade pitch, or blade angle, built
into the propeller.
 The blade angle cannot be changed after the propeller is built.
  Generally, this type of propeller is one piece and is constructed of wood or
aluminium alloy. Fixed-pitch propellers are designed for best efficiency at one
rotational and forward speed. They are designed to fit a set of conditions of both
airplane and engine speeds. Any change in these conditions reduces the efficiency of
both the propeller and the engine.
 The fixed-pitch propeller is used on airplanes of low power, speed, range, or altitude.
 Many single engine aircraft use fixed-pitch propellers and the advantages to these
are less expense and their simple operation. This type of propeller does not require
any control inputs from the pilot in flight.
 The pitch selected for any particular engine/airframe combination will always be a
compromise, since the angle of attack will vary with changes in engine speed and
aircraft attitude. Too coarse a pitch would prevent maximum engine power from
being used during take-off and climb, and too fine a pitch would prevent economical
cruising, and would lead to over speeding of the engine in a dive.
5. Make a figure of on-condition in pitch control system.
 In the 'on speed' condition, centrifugal force on the flyweights balances the force of
the control spring, and the governor valve traps oil in both sides of the pitch change
cylinder.


6. What is reverse pitching of propeller?
7. Which method is mostly used to control the pitch of propeller explain?
 Blade angle is controlled by a constant-speed unit (Figure 2), which comprises a
centrifugal governor, a governor valve, and an oil pump to boost engine oil
pressure sufficiently for operation of the propeller control mechanism.
 The governor is driven from the engine shaft, and movement of the governor
weights under centrifugal force is opposed by a control spring, the loading of
which is set by means of the pilot's control lever.
 The position of the governor valve is determined, therefore, by engine speed and
the force exerted by the spring; when these forces balance the oil line to the
propeller is blanked off, and oil is trapped in the cylinder of the pitch change
mechanism.
 1. When the pilot's control lever is set to the maximum rev/min position, and the
throttle is at a low power setting, the governor valve will be fully down, and oil
from the pump will be directed through the hollow piston rod to turn the propeller
blades to fully fine pitch.
  As the throttle is opened and rev/min are increased, centrifugal force on the
governor weights will raise the valve, until a position is reached where maximum
rev/min are obtained & the oil line to the propeller is blanked off.
 Any further increase in power will tend to increase rev/min and result in the
governor valve being lifted; oil will drain from the propeller and produce a
coarser blade pitch to maintain the specified maximum rev/min.
 During flight, rearward movement of the pilot's control lever will reduce control
spring loading, and allow the governor weights to lift the valve; this will result in
a coarser blade angle, and the increased load on the engine will reduce engine
speed until the spring force is balanced by centrifugal force on the governor
weights.
 Forward movement of the pilot’s control lever will increase spring loading, and
result in a finer propeller pitch and higher engine speed.
 If propeller load decreases in flight, or power is increased, the engine will begin
to speed up, the governor weights will raise the valve, and propeller pitch will
coarsen to maintain the. Set engine speed; conversely an increase in propeller
load, or a decrease in

8. Explain feathering of propeller

2. Multiengine aircraft are normally equipped with propellers that may be feathered.
3. This feature is useful for when the aircraft experiences a dead engine or an engine
incapable of producing proper thrust during flight.
4. Without the ability to feather the propeller, the dead or weak engine would windmill or
attempt to windmill. Such action generates detrimental drag, making it more difficult for
the aircraft to sustain altitude.
5. When the propeller is feathered the blade angle is close to 90°.
6. The net result of the aerodynamic action acting on the entire blade is that the propeller
does not rotate the engine.
7. The drag produced by the propeller is relatively low as the blades slice through the air
during flight.

1. Explain On speed condition of governor

 1. In the 'on speed' condition, centrifugal force on the flyweights balances the force
of the control spring, and the governor valve traps oil in both sides of the pitch
change cylinder.
 The "on-speed" condition of a governor refers to the state when the rotational
speed of the prime mover (such as an engine or turbine) reaches its desired or set
speed.
 Governors are control devices primarily used in engines or turbines to regulate
their speed, maintaining it within a specified range despite changes in load or other
external factors.
 A governor typically consists of mechanical or electronic components that sense
the speed of the prime mover and adjust the supply of fuel, air, or other inputs to
maintain the desired speed.
 The "on-speed" condition is achieved when the rotational speed of the prime
mover matches the set or desired speed. This set speed is often predetermined
based on the requirements of the system the prime mover is powering.
 Once the governor detects that the speed is deviating from the set point, it takes
corrective action to bring it back to the desired speed.
 Maintaining the prime mover at the desired speed is crucial for the stability and
efficiency of the system it powers. Being in the "on-speed" condition ensures that
the prime mover operates optimally, avoiding potential issues like overheating,
excessive wear, or inefficient energy consumption.
  In real-world applications, loads on the prime mover can vary, causing fluctuations
in speed. The governor continuously adjusts the inputs to compensate for these
load changes, keeping the prime mover in the "on-speed" condition as closely as
possible.
2. Explain governor mechanism
3. Explain fixed pitch propeller
 As the name implies, a fixed-pitch propeller has the blade pitch, or blade angle,
built into the propeller.
 The blade angle cannot be changed after the propeller is built. Generally, this
type of propeller is one piece and is constructed of wood or aluminum alloy.
 Fixed-pitch propellers are designed for best efficiency at one rotational and
forward speed. They are designed to fit a set of conditions of both airplane and
engine speeds. Any change in these conditions reduces the efficiency of both the
propeller and the engine.
 The fixed-pitch propeller is used on airplanes of low power, speed, range, or
altitude. Many single engine aircraft use fixed-pitch propellers and the
advantages to these are less expense and their simple operation. This type of
propeller does not require any control inputs from the pilot in flight.
 The pitch selected for any particular engine/airframe combination will always be
a compromise, since the angle of attack will vary with changes in engine speed
and aircraft attitude. Too coarse a pitch would prevent maximum engine power
from being used during take-off and climb, and too fine a pitch would prevent
economical cruising, and would lead to over speeding of the engine in a dive.
4. Explain wooden propeller construction
 Wooden propellers are made up from a number of planks glued together. The
wood used is usually either birch or mahogany, and is specially selected and
seasoned for the purpose.
 After gluing and a further short seasoning period to equalize moisture content in
the planks, the block is cut to shape and finished.
 An abrasion resistant coating of either canvas or cellulose is applied to the blades,
and a metal sheath is normally screwed on to the leading edges and blade tips to
protect the wood from being damaged by stones.
 The propeller is then given several coats of varnish or cellulose paint to protect it
from atmospheric conditions.
 A metal or composite tipping is fastened to the leading edge and tip of each blade
to protect the propeller from damage caused by flying particles in the air during
landing, taxiing, or take-off.
 The tipping also serves as an erosion strip to protect the leading edge of the
propeller. Metal tipping may be of terneplate, monel metal, or brass. Stainless
steel has been used to some extent.
 The metal tipping is secured to the leading edge of the blade by countersunk
wood screws and rivets.
 The heads of the screws are soldered to the tipping to prevent loosening, and the
solder is filed to make a smooth surface.
 Since moisture condenses on the tipping between the metal and the wood, the
tipping is provided with small holes near the blade tip to allow this moisture to
drain away or be thrown out by centrifugal force.
 It is important that these drain holes be kept open at all times. When the aircraft
is inactive for an extended period, the engine is positioned so that the wooden
propeller remains in a horizontal position to maintain even water content between
the blades.
 If the blades are left in a vertical position for a protracted period, water in the
wood will tend to migrate to the lower blade.
  Since wood is subject to swelling, shrinking, and warping because of changes of
moisture content, a protective coating is applied to the finished propeller to
prevent a rapid change of moisture content. The finish most commonly used is a
number of coats of water repellent, clear varnish. After these processes are
completed, the propeller is mounted on a spindle and very carefully balanced
5. What is propeller control, explain in brief?
Q.Answer in Brief
1. Explain anti icing in short
 This is a term used to describe the continuous heating or protection of a component
to prevent the formation of ice occurring on it.
 Anti-icing equipment is turned on before entering icing conditions and is designed
to prevent ice from forming.
 By using heating systems to maintain the surface temperature above freezing.
 This helps to maintain safety and operational efficiency by reducing the risk of ice-
related accidents and delays.
2. Explain de icing in short
 This is used where components are cleared of ice formation after the ice has been
allowed to build up.
 The method of de-icing is usually cyclic and this intermittent heating and cooling
permits ice to form during the heat off period.
 A thin layer of ice is allowed to build up and acts as an insulator so that the
temperature rise is more rapid during the time the heat is on, and thus the ice that
has adhered to the surface is more easily melted.
3. Inspection of anti icing system explain
 Inspecting an anti-icing system is crucial to ensure its effectiveness in preventing
the formation of ice on critical components of an aircraft, such as wings, engine
inlets, and sensors.
Visual Inspection:
 Examine the external surfaces of the aircraft for any signs of ice accumulation,
especially in areas where the anti-icing system is intended to operate.
 Check for any visible damage to anti-icing components such as de-icing boots,
leading-edge heating elements, or fluid spray nozzles.
 Inspect for any leaks or drips from fluid lines or reservoirs, which could indicate a
malfunction in the anti-icing system.
Functional Checks:
 Activate the anti-icing system through the cockpit controls and observe the
operation of de-icing boots, heating elements, or fluid spray systems.
 Verify that the anti-icing system responds appropriately to control inputs and
activates/deactivates as expected.
 Check for proper distribution of de-icing fluid or heating across the surfaces being
protected.
System Integrity:
 Ensure that all electrical connections related to the anti-icing system are secure and
free from corrosion or damage.
 Check for any signs of wear or degradation on de-icing boots, heating elements, or
other anti-icing components.
 Inspect fluid reservoirs for proper fluid levels and contamination.
 Documentation Review:
 o Review maintenance records to ensure that required inspections, tests, and
maintenance procedures for the anti-icing system have been performed
according to schedule.
o Verify that any discrepancies or corrective actions related to the anti-icing
system have been properly documented and addressed.
 Testing:
o Conduct functional tests of the anti-icing system under simulated operating
conditions, such as cold temperatures or high-altitude environments, to
verify its performance.
o Use appropriate test equipment to measure the effectiveness of the anti-
icing system in preventing ice formation on critical surfaces.
 Training and Compliance:
o Ensure that personnel responsible for inspecting and maintaining the anti-
icing system are adequately trained and qualified.
o Verify compliance with regulatory requirements and manufacturer's
recommendations for the inspection and maintenance of anti-icing systems.

4. Maintenance of anti icing system explain

 Maintaining an anti-icing system is essential to ensure its continued effectiveness in
preventing the formation of ice on critical components of an aircraft.
 Regular Inspections:
 Conduct routine visual inspections of the anti-icing system components, including
de-icing boots, heating elements, fluid spray nozzles, and associated hardware.
 Look for signs of wear, damage, or corrosion that could compromise the integrity or
performance of the anti-icing system.
 Inspect fluid reservoirs and lines for leaks, contamination, or proper fluid levels.
 Functional Testing:
 Periodically test the operation of the anti-icing system to ensure that it activates and
deactivates properly in response to control inputs.
 Verify that heating elements generate sufficient heat or that de-icing fluid is
distributed evenly across protected surfaces.
 Use simulated operating conditions, such as cold temperatures or high-altitude
environments, to assess the performance of the anti-icing system.
 Fluid Management:
 Monitor and maintain the level and quality of de-icing fluid in reservoirs to ensure
an adequate supply for the anti-icing system.
 Replace fluid as needed, following manufacturer recommendations and regulatory
requirements.
 Inspect fluid lines and nozzles for clogs, leaks, or blockages that could impede the
distribution of de-icing fluid.
 Component Replacement:
 Replace worn or damaged components of the anti-icing system, such as de-icing
boots, heating elements, or fluid spray nozzles, as necessary.
 Follow manufacturer guidelines and approved maintenance procedures for
component replacement to ensure proper installation and functionality.
 Corrosion Prevention:
 Take measures to prevent corrosion on electrical connections, wiring, and metal
surfaces associated with the anti-icing system.
 Apply corrosion inhibitors or protective coatings to susceptible components to
extend their lifespan and maintain system reliability.
 Documentation and Record-Keeping:
  Maintain accurate records of maintenance activities performed on the anti-icing
system, including inspections, tests, repairs, and component replacements.
 Document any discrepancies or corrective actions taken to address issues identified
during maintenance inspections.
 Training and Compliance:
 Ensure that maintenance personnel responsible for the anti-icing system are
adequately trained and qualified to perform maintenance tasks safely and
effectively.
 Stay informed about regulatory requirements and manufacturer recommendations
for the maintenance of anti-icing systems, and ensure compliance with applicable
standards.

5. Testing of anti icing system explain

6. Explain electric de-icing system
7. Explain brush block assembly
8. Inspection of de icing system explain
9. Maintenance of de icing system explain
10. Testing of de icing system explain
11. Explain replacing of overshoe on propeller blade
12. Explain in short wooden propeller inspection
 The propeller inspection requirements and maintenance procedures discussed in this
section are representative of those in widespread use on most of the propellers described in
this chapter. No attempt has been made to include detailed maintenance procedures for a
particular propeller, and all pressures, figures and sizes are solely for the purpose of
illustration and do not have specific application.
 For maintenance information on a specific propeller, always refer to applicable
manufacturer's instructions. Propellers must be inspected regularly. The exact time interval
for particular propeller inspections is usually specified by the propeller manufacturer.
 The regular daily inspection of propellers varies little from one type to another.
 Typically it is a visual inspection of propeller blades, hubs, controls, and accessories for
security, safety, and general condition.
 Visual inspection of the blades does not mean a careless or casual observation.
 The inspection should be meticulous enough to detect any flaw or defect that may exist.
Inspections performed at greater intervals of time, e.g., 25, 50, or 100 hours, usually
include a visual check of: 1. Blades, spinners, and other external surfaces for excessive oil
or grease deposits. 2. Weld and braze sections of blades and hubs for evidence of
failure.3.Blade, spinner, and hubs for nicks, scratches or other flaws. Use a magnifying
glass if necessary. 4. Spinner or dome shell attaching screws for tightness. 5. The
lubricating oil levels when applicable.

13. What is effects of propeller icing?

 Ice formation on a propeller blade, in effect, produces a distorted blade aerofoil
section which causes a loss in propeller efficiency.
 Generally, ice collects un-symmetrically on a propeller blade and produces
propeller unbalance and destructive vibration.
  Propellers and spinners are exposed to an environment that under certain climatic
conditions can lead to ice on the surface rapidly decreases its efficiency, leading to
a loss of lift or thrust, and increasing its weight.
 Another problem with ice formation on a rotating mass such as a propeller is that if
unevenly distributed, it can lead to imbalance which will cause excessive vibration.
 Ice build-up on a propeller can also be the cause of another problem called ice
throw, where the chunks of ice are thrown off the propeller at high speed due to the
centrifugal force.
 These lumps of ice can cause considerable damage to any structure that is in their
path.
14. Explain fluid de-icing system with figure.
 The system provides a film of de-icing fluid to the propeller blade surfaces during
flight which mixes with the water or ice and reduces the freezing point of the mixture.
Where ice has already formed on the blades, the fluid penetrates under the ice and
loosens it sufficiently for it to be thrown off by centrifugal action.
 Isopropyl alcohol is used in some anti-icing systems because of its availability and
low cost. Fluid is distributed to each propeller blade from a slinger ring which is
mounted on the back of the propeller hub.
 The fluid is pumped into this ring through a delivery pipe from a supply tank.
 Some propellers have rubber overshoes fitted to the blades to assist the distribution
of the fluid.
 On this type of installation fluid is fed from the slinger ring to a small trough, which
is part of the overshoe, and is then forced by centrifugal action along longitudinal
grooves in the overshoes.
 On propellers which are not fitted with overshoes, fluid is fed from the slinger ring
through a pipe to the root of the blade and is then distributed by centrifugal action.
 The airflow around the blade root however is fairly disturbed and does not always
disperse the fluid where it is more required, that is where ice build-up is greatest.
 Propellers with this type of ice protection system usually have boots or feed shoes
installed along their leading edges.
 An overshoe consists of a strip of rubber or plastic material set into the leading edge
of the blade, from the delivery nozzle at the root end along the blade's length. The
shoe extends about 2/3rds of the length of the blade, and has several open parallel
channels in which the fluid can flow under the influence of centrifugal force.
 The overflow of the channels along the length of the overshoe will evenly disperse
the fluid over the blade.
 
16. Explain electrical deicing systems with figure.
 An electrical propeller icing control system consists basically of an electrical
energy source, a resistance heating element (Figure 2), system controls, and
necessary wiring. The heating elements are mounted internally or externally on
the propeller spinner and blades leading edges.
 Electrical power from the aircraft system is transferred to the propeller hub
through electrical leads, which terminate in slip rings and brushes. Flexible
connectors are used to transfer power from the hub to the blade elements.
 Icing control is accomplished by converting electrical energy to heat energy in
the heating element. Balanced ice removal from all blades must be obtained as
nearly as possible if excessive vibration is to be avoided. To obtain balanced ice
removal, variation of heating current is controlled so that similar heating effects
are obtained in opposite blades.
 Electrical deicing systems are usually designed for intermittent application of
power to the heating elements to remove ice after formation but before excessive
accumulation. Proper control of heating intervals aids in preventing runback,
 since heat is applied just long enough to melt the ice face in contact with the

blade.
17. Explain propeller vibration and its excessive effect on propeller.
 When power plant vibration is encountered, it is sometimes difficult to determine whether
it is the result of engine vibration or propeller vibration.
 In most cases the cause of the vibration can be determined by observing the propeller hub,
dome, or spinner while the engine is running within a1,200- to 1500 RPM .range, and
determining whether or not the propeller hub rotates on an absolutely horizontal plane.
 If the propeller hub appears to swing in a slight orbit, the vibration will normally be caused
by the propeller.
 If the propeller hub does not appear to rotate in an orbit, the difficulty will probably be
caused by engine vibration.
 When propeller vibration is the reason for excessive power plant vibration, the difficulty
will usually be caused by propeller blade unbalance, propeller blades not tracking, or
variation in propeller blade angle settings.
 Check the propeller blade tracking and then the low-pitch blade-angle setting to determine
if they are the cause of the vibration.
 If both propeller tracking and low blade-angle settings are correct, the propeller is
statically or dynamically unbalanced and should he replace. Or rebalanced if permitted by
the manufacturer. If a propeller vibrates, whether due to balance, angle, or track problems,
it typically vibrates throughout the entire rpm range, although the intensity of the vibration
may vary with the rpm.

Q.6Answer in Short (Any 3 Out of 5) (15M)

Unit I
1. Define- thrust, work, power, thrust horsepower, brake horsepower
 Thrust-An airplane moving through the air creates a drag force opposing its forward
motion. If an airplane is to fly on a level path, there must be a force applied to it that is
equal to the drag, but acting forward. This force is called thrust.
 Thrust = Mass (V0 – V1)
 Thus thrust produced will depend on both the propeller pitch and itsRPM.
 Work-The work done by the thrust is equal to the thrust times the distance it moves
the airplane
  Work = Thrust × Distance.
 Power -The power expended by the thrust is equal to the thrust times the velocity at
which it moves the airplane
 (Power = Thrust × Velocity).
 Thrust horsepower- If the power is measured in horsepower units, the power expended
by the thrust is termed thrust horsepower.
 Brake horsepower - Brake Horsepower means the power delivered at the propeller
shaft (main drive or main output) of an aircraft engine. Sample 1. Brake Horsepower
means the actual unit of torque developed per unit of time at the output shaft of an
engine, as measured by a dynamometer.
2. Explain any three forces acting on propeller
1. When a propeller rotates, many forces interact and cause tension, twisting, and bending
stresses within the propeller.
2. These forces are:
 Centrifugal force Tension

 Thrust bending force Bending

 Torque bending force Bending
 Aerodynamic Twisting Moment (ATM) Twisting
 Centrifugal Twisting Moment (CTM) Twisting

3. Explain controllable pitch propeller

 The controllable-pitch propeller permits a change of blade pitch, or angle, while the
propeller is rotating.
 This allows the propeller to assume a blade angle that gives the best performance for
particular flight conditions.
 The number of pitch positions may be limited, as with a two position controllable
propeller, or the pitch may be adjusted to any angle between the minimum and
maximum pitch settings of a given propeller.
 The use of controllable-pitch propellers also makes it possible to attain the desired
engine rpm for a particular flight condition.
4. Explain tractor propeller and pusher propeller
5. Define- propeller blade angle, angle of attack, hub, face, back
 BLADE ANGLE :Is the angle between the propeller’s plane of rotation, and the chord
line of the propeller aerofoil.
 BLADE FACE :It is the flat side of propeller blade
 BLADE BACK :It is the cambered or curved side of the blade similar to the upper
surface of a wing.
 Angle of Attack- The Angle at which this air (relative wind) strikes the propeller blade
is called angle of attack.
 Hub: The propeller hub is designed to withstand all the forces experienced by the
propeller during operation. On fixed-pitched units, the opposing blades connect at the
hub, which is a thick, heavily built member. On controllable-pitch propellers, the hub
accommodates the pitch change mechanisms, bearings, passageways, and necessary
lubricant(s). In addition to retaining the blades and internal members of the pitch
control mechanism, the propeller hub is attached to the crankshaft or propeller shaft.
The thrust generated by the propeller is transmitted to the engine and ultimately to the
airframe through the propeller hub

6. Explain any three types of propeller in short

7. Feathering
 Multiengine aircraft are normally equipped with propellers that may be feathered.
 This feature is useful for when the aircraft experiences a dead engine or an engine
incapable of producing proper thrust during flight.
 Without the ability to feather the propeller, the dead or weak engine would windmill or
attempt to windmill.
 Such action generates detrimental drag, making it more difficult for the aircraft to
sustain altitude. When the propeller is feathered the blade angle is close to 90°.
 The net result of the aerodynamic action acting on the entire blade is that the propeller
does not rotate the engine. The drag produced by the propeller is relatively low as the
blades slice through the air during flight.
8. Blade stations
 BLADE STATION :It is a reference position on a blade that is a specified distance
from the centre of the hub.
 Propeller blades are rotating airfoils that have a relatively complex shape when
compared to wings.
 To accommodate the difference in airspeed, a typical propeller blade will have a high
blade angle near the hub and a shallow blade angle at the tip.
 The length of the chord of the propeller blade may also change moving from the hub
to the tip. The structural need of the propeller blade near the hub may require a shape
that lacks aerodynamic qualities but provides ample strength to combat the various
forces placed on the propeller assembly.
  Propeller stations are often provided in six inch increments (15 cm).

Unit II

9. Variable pitch propeller

 With this type of propeller the blade angle may be varied in flight, so that engine
power may be fully utilized.

 Variable-pitch propellers were originally produced with two blade-angle settings; a

fine pitch to enable full engine speed to be used during take-off and climb, and a
coarse pitch to enable an economical engine speed to be used for cruising.
 The introduction of an engine-driven centrifugal governor enabled the blade angle to
be altered automatically (within a pre-determined range), in order to maintain any
engine speed selected by the pilot, regardless of aircraft speed or attitude.

10. Explain under speed condition of propeller

 In the 'under speed' condition, control spring force is greater than the centrifugal force
on the flyweights, and the governor valve is lowered, supplying oil to the rear of the
pitch change cylinder, and providing a drain for oil from the front of the cylinder.
Blade angle decreases, and the engine speeds up until centrifugal force on the
flyweights balances the force of the control spring, and the governor valve is returned
to the 'on speed' condition.


11. Explain over speed condition of propeller
 In the 'over speed' condition, control spring force is less than the centrifugal force on
the flyweights, and the governor valve is raised, directing oil to the front of the pitch
change cylinder, and providing a drain for oil in the rear of the cylinder. Blade angle
increases, and the engine speed decreases because of the added load, until the
flyweights and control spring are once more in balance.

12. Fine pitch stops

 During starting and ground running, a very fine propeller pitch may be required, to
minimize propeller load, and to prevent engine overheating; however, during flight,
this very fine pitch would lead to engine over speeding, and Excessive drag if the
PCU were to fail.
 To cater for both these requirements, the pitch change piston on the type of
propeller is provided with two fine pitch stops, the flight fine pitch stop being
withdrawn for starting and ground operations.
 The flight fine pitch stop is in the form of a spring collet, the prongs of which are
designed to spring inwards. When the collet is operating as a stop, the pitch-lock
piston is held in the forward position by a spring, forcing the spring collet open, and
preventing the pitch change piston from moving forward further than the flight fine
pitch position.
 When ground fine pitch is required, a solenoid in the PCU is energized (normally by
operation of both a stop withdrawal lever and a throttle operated switch) and oil
pressure is ducted through the third oil line to the front of the pitch lock piston; as
the piston moves rearwards, support for the collet is withdrawn and the prongs
spring inwards, allowing the pitch change piston to move fully forward to the
ground fine pitch position.
 The pitch lock solenoid is disarmed when the throttles are moved forward for take-
off, and, when the propeller has coarsened into the constant speed range, the pitch
 lock piston moves forward under spring pressure and opens the spring collet to form
the flight fine pitch stop.

13. Unfeathering
 On turbo-propeller engines, when the high pressure fuel cock is open and the power
levers closed, the governor valve is in a suitable position to direct oil from the
feathering pump to the rear of the pitch change piston.
 Selection of the feathering pump switch (which is often incorporated in the fire
control handle), supplies oil to the PCU and thence to the propeller; and activates
the engine ignition system.
 When the propeller blades have turned from the feathered position, the airstream
commences to windmill the propeller and rotate the engine, and normal oil pressure
builds up to complete the unfeathering operation.
14. Reversing
 In a reversing propeller, the propeller mechanism includes a removable ground
fine pitch stop, which enables the propeller to fine-off to a negative pitch when
certain actions have been taken and certain conditions are fulfilled.
 Various safe guards are incorporated to prevent selection during flight. The means
of achieving negative pitch vary considerably, but operation of a typical
hydraulically operated propeller is described in the following paragraphs.
 Electrical control is exercised by throttle-mounted switches, weight contact
switches on the landing gear, and a master switch or lever to arm the circuit. With
the throttle levers closed beyond normal idling to a datum position, 'reverse'
selected, and the weight of the aircraft on its wheels, electrical power is supplied
to a pitch-stop withdrawal solenoid, and oil pressure is directed to withdraw the
fine-pitch stop and move the pitch-change piston forward to the reverse stop,
where it is held by hydraulic pressure. Operation of the ‘reverse’ lever also
changes the sense of operation of the throttle levers, which are pulled further back
to increase power in reverse pitch.
 Indication of stop withdrawal, and movement of the blades to negative pitch, is
provided by hub-mounted switches, which illuminate appropriate warning lamps
on the flight deck.
 Re-selection of positive blade angle is achieved by moving the throttle into the
normal idling range, and by moving the master lever out of the reverse position.
Oil is ducted to the front of the pitch change-piston, and the blades move to a
positive angle; the stop returns to normal operation once the blades have moved
past the ground fine pitch angle.
15. 'Beta' control
 On some gas turbine engines, a form of control known as 'beta', or blade angle
control, is used for ground operations, and may be applied to either single-acting or
double-acting propellers.
 With this system, the throttles (usually known as power levers) operate in a gated
quadrant.
 During flight these levers cannot be closed below the 'flight idle' gate, and the CSU
operates normally to maintain any pre-selected propeller speed.
  In the ground idling and reversing range, the power levers control propeller pitch to
vary power at both positive and negative blade angles, at constant propeller speed,
and the governor mechanism is overridden.
 An over speed sensor, and mechanical pitch stop, prevents operation in the ground
(fine pitch) range during flight.
 In the beta range, the pitch stop is withdrawn, and movement of a power lever
rotates a setting cam in the associated CSU which raises or lowers the governor
valve according to whether a coarser or finer pitch is required.
 A mechanical feed-back mechanism, operated by linkage from the propeller blades,
resets the governor valve via a follow-up cam, and pitch change ceases when the
angle scheduled by the power lever is achieved
16. Propeller over speed governors
 These devices protect against over speed, they are separate governors to the PCU and
direct oil during an over speed situation to coarsen the blade.
 Built into the device is an air bled which at max. Rpm will back off the fuel flow
from the fuel control unit.
 The governor is equipped with a solenoid valve to enable its operation to be tested.
When energized, the valve opens, allowing pressure oil to alter the position of the
speed reset adjuster.
 Speeder spring compression is reduced by the upward movement of the adjuster and
integral spring seat, which acts against the speed reset spring.
 Reduced spring force allows the flyweights to move out at a lower speed to simulate
an over speed condition.
 When the solenoid is de-energized, the oil supply to the adjuster bore is cut off,
allowing the governor to function normally.
17. Single-Acting Propeller
 A single-acting propeller is illustrated in Figure 1; it is a constant speed,
feathering type, and is typical of the propellers fitted to light and medium sized
twin-engine aircraft.
 A cylinder is bolted to the front of the hub, and contains a piston and piston rod
which move axially to alter blade angle.
 On some propellers, oil under pressure, fed through the hollow piston rod to the
front of the piston, moves the piston to the rear to turn the blades to a finer
pitch; on other propellers the reverse applies.
 When oil pressure is relieved, the counterweights and feathering spring move
the piston forward to turn the blades to a coarser pitch. Counterweights produce
a centrifugal twisting moment but, because they are located at 90° to the chord
line, they tend to move the blades to a coarser pitch.
 Counterweights must be located far enough from the blade axis, and must be
heavy enough to overcome the natural twisting moment of the blade, but since
Weight and space are limiting factors, they are generally only used with blades
of narrow chord
 

18. Double-Acting Propeller

Unit III
19. Explain operation of constant speed propeller
20. Explain cleaning of propeller
 The inspection process of an aircraft propeller begins with the initial visual
inspections.
 Pilots and technicians should note any evidence of oil or grease leaks in addition to
the general condition of the propeller. Because of centrifugal force, oil and grease
leaks may sling away from the origin of the leak. On variable pitch propellers,
common leaks take place at the blade root seals and where the propeller attaches to
the flange of the crankshaft or propeller shaft.
 Cracks in the propeller hub may also develop leaks.
 Once the propeller is clean, an inspection to locate the source(s) of any leak(s) should
be conducted.
 Following the preliminary inspection the propeller should be cleaned in order to
perform a more thorough inspection. Adhere to the cleaning instructions provided by
the manufacturer.
  Generally, oil and grease accumulations are removed with solvent on a wiping rag
and the blades are further cleaned with soap and water on a rag.
 Technicians need to be aware that aggressive scrubbing of the propeller with harsh
brushes, steel wool, abrasive pads, scouring agents, and harsh chemicals may damage
the protective finish applied to propellers.
 Do not use high pressure washers on variable pitch propellers as water, and soap, may
enter the hub and generate corrosion.
21. What is hunting and surging of propeller
 Hunting:
 Hunting refers to the cyclic variation in propeller speed or engine output, often around a
mean value. It's typically characterized by a back-and-forth movement where the propeller
alternates between slightly increasing and decreasing speeds.
 Hunting can occur due to various factors, including changes in load, wind conditions, or
adjustments made by control systems such as governors or throttle settings.
 In marine applications, hunting can lead to instability in ship propulsion systems, affecting
speed control and fuel efficiency. In aircraft, hunting may cause fluctuations in engine
RPM, leading to discomfort for passengers and potential control issues for pilots.
 Surging is a more severe form of oscillation characterized by sudden and significant
changes in propeller speed or thrust output. Unlike hunting, which involves relatively small
variations around a mean value, surging involves abrupt and often unpredictable changes.
 Surging can occur due to factors such as abrupt changes in load, propeller stall conditions,
or disturbances in airflow (in aircraft applications).
 In marine applications, surging can lead to excessive vibrations, structural stress on
propulsion systems, and even loss of control if severe enough. In aircraft, surging can cause
engine damage, loss of thrust, and potentially dangerous flight conditions.

22. Explain inspection and maintenance of propeller governor
23. Explain storage of propeller governor
24. Explain storage of propeller
 Propeller storage and conservation may vary in a great way considering the many
different kinds of propellers available foraeroplanes. Depending on the material
used for manufacturing or if the propeller remains installed on airplane or not, the
preservation will be different. Propeller preservation and de-preservation is usually
described in applicable component maintenance manual (CMM).
 As the propeller is one of the most highly stressed component of the airplane,
aircraft owners, operators, and technicians need to take necessary measures to
protect the propeller during periods of inactivity.
 Often mechanical devices will experience advanced levels of decay from protracted
periods of inactivity, especially when exposed to harsh environmental conditions.
Not complying with storage and preservation measures may prove harmful to the
propeller and require costly repairs or overhauls to return the propeller to flyable
status.
 A propeller being put into storage will be done so in a serviceable condition. it
follows therefore that any defects shall be repaired before storage occurs.
 In general, the storage status of an aircraft is listed in three categories, flyable,
temporary, and indefinite.
 In terms of the propeller, when the aircraft is in flyable storage, the owner/operator
should fly the aircraft at least once a month for a minimum of 30 minutes. If the
propeller requires periodic greasing, the propeller should be greased every six
 months. Where normally the propeller is greased once a year or every 100 hours of
operation, the additional greasing helps to protect the propeller from corrosion.

25. Explain propeller lubrication

 Propeller lubrication is a crucial aspect of maintaining the efficient and reliable
operation of marine or aircraft propellers.
 The primary purpose of propeller lubrication is to reduce friction between moving
parts within the propeller system. Friction can cause excessive heat generation,
wear, and damage to components, leading to decreased performance and potential
failure.
 Propeller lubrication typically involves lubricating various components within the
propeller system, including bearings, shafts, seals, and gears (if applicable). These
components experience rotational motion and may be subjected to high loads,
making lubrication essential for their proper functioning.
 Various types of lubricants can be used for propeller lubrication, including oils,
greases, and specialized lubricants designed for marine or aviation applications. The
choice of lubricant depends on factors such as operating conditions, temperature
range, load, and compatibility with materials used in the propeller system.
 Propeller lubricants are applied to critical components through lubrication points or
systems integrated into the propeller assembly.
 Proper maintenance is essential to ensure effective propeller lubrication. This
includes regular inspection of lubrication systems, monitoring lubricant levels and
quality, and replenishing or replacing lubricants as needed.
26. Anti-Icing
 This is a term used to describe the continuous heating or protection of a component
to prevent the formation of ice occurring on it.
 Anti-icing equipment is turned on before entering icing conditions and is designed to
prevent ice from forming.
 By using heating systems to maintain the surface temperature above freezing. This
helps to maintain safety and operational efficiency by reducing the risk of ice-related
accidents and delays.

27. De-Icing
28. Blade tracking
 Blade tracking is the process of determining the positions of the tips of the propeller
blades relative to each other.
 Tracking shows only the relative position of the blades, not their actual path.
 The blades should all track one another as closely as possible.
 The difference in track at like points must not exceed the tolerance specified by the
propeller manufacturer.
 The design and manufacture of propellers is such that the tips of the blades will give a
good indication of tracking.
 The following method for checking tracking is normally used.
 Install a heavy wire or small rod on the leading edge of the aircraft wing or other
suitable area of the aircraft until it lightly touches the propeller blade face near the tip.
 
29. Static balance
 Static balance is checked and corrected at a propeller repair shop.
 The propeller is mounted on a mandrel and placed across perfectly levelled knife
edges.
 For a two bladed propeller, the balance is checked in two planes, one with the blades
horizontal and one with them vertical.
 When the weight distribution about the propeller axis is equal, with the propeller in
any position, it is said to have static balance.
 On fixed pitch propellers an unbalanced condition can be rectified by the removal of
material from heavy blades or by the addition of extra coats of paint on the lighter
blades.
 Some propellers have weights attached to the propeller boss.
 On variable pitch propellers, balance is corrected by the addition of weights at the
hub, or by the installation of lead wool or washers in the hollow blade roots.
 Static: Balanced when the centre of gravity acts through the Axis or Centre of
Rotation. A propeller with three or more blades is only checked for horizontal
balance.
 Horizontal balance is attained when one or two blades will rest horizontally with no
tendency for the propeller to rotate.
 Vertical balance is the balance between the two sections of the propeller when it is
divided along a straight line running longitudinally through each blade and the hub.
A two bladed propeller is in vertical balance when it rests with the blades vertical on
the balance stand and there is no tendency for it to rotate.
30. Dynamic balance
 Dynamic balance is the most effective type of balancing as it takes the entire factor
into consideration.
 It is done with the propeller installed on the engine in the airplane.
 There are several aircraft balancers/analysers in the market that are essential for
helicopter maintenance and extremely valuable for propeller balancing.
 The actual equipment and the procedure to be referred as per manufactures’
instruction.
 When all the blades of a propeller are producing equal thrust, it is said to possess
aerodynamic balance.
 To achieve this it is necessary to adjust the blade angles relative to one another, by a
few minutes of a degree when setting the initial blade angles on assembly.
 Note: Balancing can only be carried out by approved propeller repair organizations
using approved balancing test apparatus. Aerodynamic: Balanced when the
aerodynamic forces on all the blades are equal.
31. Blade indexing
32. Nicks and gouges
33. Delamination
34. Wood Propellers
 The wooden, fixed-pitch propeller is well suited for small aircraft because of its
lightweight, rigidity, economy of production, simplicity of construction, and ease of
replacement.
 Wooden propellers are made up from a number of planks glued together.
 The wood used is usually either birch or mahogany, and is specially selected and
seasoned for the purpose.
 After gluing and a further short seasoning period to equalize moisture content in the
planks, the block is cut to shape and finished.
 An abrasion resistant coating of either canvas or cellulose is applied to the blades, and
a metal sheath is normally screwed on to the leading edges and blade tips to protect
the wood from being damaged by stones.
 The propeller is then given several coats of varnish or cellulose paint to protect it
from atmospheric conditions.

Wooden Propeller