3.
harmonic motion - cam profile is generated by following
cams
cam - driving member
follower - driven member
frame - supporting member
cam - a common mechanism element that drives a mating
component known as follower through direct contact
- imparts a very distinct or irregular motion that
would be difficult to obtain from other elements
1. disk or plate cam - cam profile curve is worked in a
flat plate
2. cylindrical or drum cam - formed on a cylinder. A
groove is cut into the cylinder with a varying location
along the axis of rotation.
3. linear or translating cam - formed on a translated
block. A groove is cut to the block with a distance that
varies from the plane of translation.
A. according to shape
i.knife-edged follower - formed to a point and drags
on the edge of the cam.
- sharp edge produces high contact stressed
and wears rapidly.
ii. roller follower - maintains contact with the can
and rolls on the cam surface.
- friction and contact stresses are lower,can
possibly jam during steep displacements.
iii. flat faced follower - formed with a large, flat
surface
- used when quick motions are required and
does not jam.
B. according to position
i.in line follower - line of translation extends
through the center of rotation.
ii. offset follower - offset from center line.
 displacement diagram - the displacement of the
follower is plotted along the y axis and angular
displacement of the cam is plotted along the x axis.
 follower motion - the cam is assumed to rotate at
constant speed and the follower rises, dwells, and
falls to its original position and dwells again.
1. constant velocity
2. constant acceleration
3. simple harmonic motion
4. cycloidal motion
1. simple motion - the cam profile is generated in
reference with the predefined motion of the follower.
2. parabolic motion - analytically, the cam profile is
generated by following the motion curve of an equation of
a Parabola.
the motion curve of a harmonic motion.
4. cycloidal motion - cam profile is generated by following
the motion curve of a cycloid.
1. base circle - the smallest circle tangent to the cam
surface about the center of cam rotation.
2. cam profile - The actual contacting surface of a disk
type cam. Its curvature is generated using either one of
the following considerations:
(1) Assumption of the required motion for the
follower then design the cam profile to give this motion
and,
(2) Assumption of the shape of the cam then
determine what characteristics of displacement, velocity
and acceleration this contour will give.
3. stroke - the distance measured between two extreme
position of the follower.
4. trace point - is a point on the follower that corresponds
to the contact point of fictitious knife edge follower.
5. pitch curve - is the path of trace point relative to the cam
profile.
6. pressure angle - the angle between the direction of
motion of the trace point and the common normal (line of
action) to the contacting surfaces. It is also a measure of
the instantaneous force transmission properties of the
mechanism. The larger is the pressure angle, more power
is required to operate the cam mechanism.
gears
gears - one of a set of toothed wheels that work together
to alter the relation between the speed of a driving
mechanism
rolling cylinders - simplest means of transferring rotary
motion from one shaft to another
1. angular velocity ratio - referred to in this law is equal to
the ratio of the radius of the input gear to that of the output
gear.
2. torque ratio - reciprocal of the angular velocity ratio
3. pitch point - contact point between the cylinders lies on
the line of centers
involute - is a curve that can be generated by unwrapping
a taut string from a cylinder (called the evolute)
notes on involute curves:
 the string is always tangent to the cylinder.
 the center of curvature of the involute is always at the
point of tangency of the string with the cylinder.
 a tangent to the involute is then always normal to the
string, the length of which is the instantaneous radius
of curvature of the involute curve.
‫ﮭ‬ addendum - amount of tooth that sticks out above the
pitch circle
‫ﮭ‬ common tangent - both curves at the contact point
‫ﮭ‬ common normal - perpendicular to the common
tangent.
‫ﮭ‬ axis of transmission - always passes through the pitch tooth thickness. the difference between these two
point regardless of where in the mesh the two teeth dimensions is the backlash.
are contacting.
 the face width of the tooth is measured along the axis
‫ﮭ‬ pitch point - a fixed point on the line of centers of the gear.

‫ﮭ‬ length of action - distance along the line of action  the circular pitch is the arc length along the pitch
between these points within the mesh circle circumference measured from a point on one
tooth to the same point on the next. the circular pitch
‫ﮭ‬ arc of action - distance along the pitch circle within defines the tooth size.
the mesh

‫ﮭ‬ angle of approach and angle of recess - angles

subtended by these points and the line of centers �
 pitch diameter, D =
�
‫ﮭ‬ pressure angle - defined as the angle between the N - number of teeth
axis of transmission or line of action ( common normal) P - diametral pitch
and the direction of velocity at the pitch point
�
‫ﮭ‬ backlash - defined as the clearance between mating  pitch radius, R =
2
teeth measured at the pitch circle. D - pitch diameter

‫ﮭ‬ American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA) -  base circle diameter, DB = D cos Pa
defines standards for gear design and manufacture.
they define a spectrum of quality numbers and Pa - pressure angle
tolerances ranging from the lowest (3) to the highest ��
precision (16).  base circle radius, RB =
2
DB - base circle diameter

1
 addendum, a=
�
1.25
 dedendum, d=
�
 outside diameter, DO = D + 2a
��
 outside radius, RO =
2
 root diameter, DR = D - (2d)
��
 root radius, RR =
2
 circumference of base circle, CB = �DB
1 1
 of the base circle radius, FCB = RB
20�ℎ 20
 number of times that CB can be divided by FCB,
��
NCB =
���
360°
 360° divided by NCB, ACB =
���
▪ circular pitch (Pc) - the distance measured along the 360°
pitch circle from a point on one tooth to the  gear tooth spacing, GT =
corresponding point on an adjacent tooth �

▪ root circle (Dr) - the line connecting the roots of the

teeth of the gear
standard, full-depth gear teeth have equal addenda on
▪ addendum (a) - distance from the pitch circle to the pinion and gear, with the dedendum being slightly larger
outside or tip for clearance.

▪ dedendum (d) - distance from the pitch circle to the the standard tooth dimensions are defined in terms of the
root circle diametral pitch.

▪ tooth thickness - the arc length between opposite

faces of a tooth, measured around the pitch circle
the involute tooth form is only defined outside of the base
notes: circle.

 the tooth height is defined by the addendum (added
on) and the dedendum (subtracted from) that are
referenced to the nominal pitch circle.
 the dedendum is slightly larger than the addendum to
provide a small amount of clearance between the tip
of one mating tooth (addendum circle) and the bottom
of the tooth space of the other (dedendum circle).
 the tooth thickness is measured at the pitch circle,
and the tooth space width is slightly larger than the
if the gear is cut with a standard gear shaper or a "hob,"
the cutting tool will also interfere with the portion of tooth
below the base circle and will cut away the interfering
material.
interference (and undercutting caused by manufacturing
tools) can be prevented simply by avoiding gears with too
few teeth. if a gear has a large number of teeth, they will
be small compared to its diameter. as the number of teeth
is reduced for a fixed diameter gear, the teeth must
become larger. at some point, the dedendum will exceed
the radial distance between the base circle and the pitch
circle, and interference will occur.
in order to avoid interference and undercutting on small
pinions, the tooth form can be changed from the standard
secondary benefits to this technique:
 the pinion tooth becomes thicker at its base and thus
stronger.
 the gear tooth is correspondingly weakened, but
since a full-depth gear tooth is stronger than a full-
depth pinion tooth, this shift brings them closer to
equal strength.
disadvantage:
‫ﭏ‬ increase in sliding velocity at the tooth tip
‫ﭏ‬ the percent sliding between the teeth is greater than
with equal addendum teeth which increases tooth-
surface stresses.
‫ﭏ‬ friction losses in the gear mesh are also increased by
higher sliding velocities.
defines the average number of teeth in contact at any one
time
1. spur gears: are ones in which the teeth are parallel to
the axis of the gear. the simplest and least expensive form
of gear to make. spur gears can only be meshed if their
axes are parallel.
2. helical gears: are ones in which the teeth are at a helix
angle, Ψ, with respect to the axis of the gear. can be
designed to accommodate any skew angle between the
nonintersecting shafts. more expensive than spur gears
but offer some advantages. they run quieter than spur
gears because of the smoother and more gradual contact
between their angled surfaces as the teeth come into
mesh.
3. herringbone gears: are formed by joining two helical
gears of identical pitch and diameter but of opposite hand
on the same shaft. the advantage compared to a helical
gear is the internal cancellation of its axial thrust loads
since each "hand" half of the herringbone gear has an
oppositely directed thrust load. this type of gear is much
more expensive than a helical gear and tends to be used
in large, high-power applications
4. worms & worm gears: made and replaced as matched
sets. these worm gearsets have the advantage of very
high gear ratios in a small package and can carry very
high loads especially in their single or double enveloping
forms
single enveloping: the worm gear teeth are
wrapped around the worm.
double enveloping: wrap the worm around the
gear, resulting in an hourglass-shaped worm.
5. rack & pinion: If the diameter of the base circle of a gear
is increased without limit, the base circle will become a
straight line. If the "string" wrapped around this base circle
to generate the involute were still in place after the base
circle's enlargement to an infinite radius, the string would
be pivoted at infinity and would generate an involute that is
a straight line. This linear gear is called a rack. The most
common application of this device is in rotary to linear
motion conversion or vice versa. It can be backdriven, so it
requires a brake if used to hold a load.
6. bevel gears: it is used to transmit motion between
intersecting shafts, usually at 90°, but not limited to this
angle
7. spiral bevel gears: teeth are angled with respect to the
axis, analogous to a helical gear.
disadvantages & advantages: similar to those of the spur
gear and helical gear, respectively, regarding strength,
quietness, and cost.
8. hypoid gears: are based on rolling hyperboloids of
revolution. used in the final drive of front-engine, rear
wheel drive automobiles, in order to lower the axis of the
driveshaft below the center of the rear axle to reduce the
"driveshaft hump" in the back seat.
9. noncircular gears: based on the rolling centrodes of a
Grashof double-crank fourbar linkage.
gear train: any collection of two or more meshing gears.
simple gear train: is one in which each shaft carries only
one gear
train ratio: the train ratio of a simple train is always just the
ratio of the first gear over the last.
compound train: is one in which at least one shaft carries
more than one gear. this will be a parallel or series-parallel
arrangement, rather than the pure series connections of
the simple gear train.
flexible transmitting elements
1. belts
2. ropes
3. chains
band: may be used as a general term to denote all
kinds of flexible connectors
belts: made of leather, rubber, or woven fabrics are flat
and thin,and require pulleys nearly cylindrical with smooth
surfaces.
flat belts: used to connect shafts as much as 30 ft
apart.
v-belts: usually used for connecting shafts which
are less than 15 ft apart.
open belt: belt moves with it and rotates one or
more driven pulleys
crossed belt: the belt proceeds from the top of
one pulley to the bottom of another pulley and
thus crosses itself
Kinds of belts:
single belt: single thicknesses of the leather are
fastened end to end, usually about 3/16 in. thick.
double belt: two thicknesses of leather are glued
together, flesh side to flesh side, from 5/16 in. to
3/8 in. thick.
the amount of power which a given belt can transmit
depends upon its speed, its strength, and its ability to
adhere to the surf ace of the pulleys.
speed is usually assumed to be the same as the
surface speed of the pulleys.
strength, of course, depends upon the width and
thickness and upon the nature of the material of which
the belt is made.
ability to cling to the pulley in order to run with little or
no slipping depends upon the condition of the pulley
surfaces and of the surface of the belt which is in
contact with the pulleys, and upon the tightness with
which the belt is stretched over the pulleys.
initial tension: when a belt is first fitted to a pair of
pulleys, an initial tension To is given to the belt when
the system is stationary
effective pull: difference in tensions ; difference
between tight side tension and slack side tension
stepped pulleys: pair of pulleys each of which has several
diameters
in designing such a pair of pulleys two things must be
taken into account.
first, the ratio of the diameters of the successive
pairs of steps must be such as to give the desired
speed ratios.
second, the sum of the diameters of any pair of
steps must be such as to maintain the proper
tightness of the belt for all positions. this second
consideration makes the problem of design
considerably more complicated.
speed cones: one of a pair of conical pulleys connected
by a short belt that can be adjusted to permit fine
variations of speed
the working diameters of the pulleys, as Dx and dx
for any belt position, are measured at the middle of
the belt.
designing:
may be calculated in the same way as steps and plotted at
equal distances (a) apart, then a smooth line drawn
through their ends, as shown. The length (a) does not
affect the problem except as it makes the cone longer or
shorter.
shipper: guides each part of the belt near the point where
it runs on to the pulley otherwise the belt will tend to climb
toward the large end of each pulley.
v-belting: type of belting which has become popular in
recent years; probably the most familiar example is the fan
belt on an automobile.
sheave: a cross section of a v-belt and a portion of
a single-grooved pulley
‫ﮭ‬ high efficiency
‫ﮭ‬ silent operation
‫ﮭ‬ use on short center drives
‫ﮭ‬ high speed ratios
‫ﮭ‬ ability to absorb shock
‫ﮭ‬ and the fact that it is not affected by changes in
direction of rotation or angular inclination of center
line.
v-belts should not be used where temperatures are very
high, where there is likely to be an excess of oil, or in
places where it is difficult to put on an endless belt.
ropes: made of manila, hemp, cotton, or wire are nearly
circular in section and require either grooved pulleys or
drums with flanges ; may be used for connecting shafts up
to 100 ft apart and should operate at a speed of less than
600 fpm.
Power is often transmitted by means of ropes
running over pulleys, called sheaves, having
grooved surfaces.
systems of hemp rope driving:
multiple rope or english system: the simpler of the two and
consists of independent ropes running side by side in
grooves on the pulleys.
continuous or american system: one rope is wound around
the driving and driven pulleys several times, and
conducted back from the last groove of one pulley to the
first groove of the other pulley by means of one or more
intermediate pulleys which also serve the purpose of
maintaining a uniform tension throughout the entire rope.
wire ropes: is very suitable for the transmission of large
powers to great distances, as for instance in cable and
inclined railways. its rigidness, great weight, and rapid
destruction due to bending, however, unfit it for use in mill
service, where the average speed of rope is about 4000
fpm.
chains: composed of links or bars, usually metallic, jointed
together, and require wheels, sprockets, or drums either
grooved, notched, or toothed, to fit the links of the chain;
usually used for connecting shafts which are less than 15
ft apart.
chains are frequently used as connectors
between parallel axes and also for conveying and
hoisting machinery and for similar purposes.
sprockets: wheels over which chains run; they have their
surfaces shaped to conform to the type of chain used.
1. hoisting chains:
coil
stud-link
2. conveyor chains:
detachable or hook joint
closed-end pintle
3. power-transmission chains:
block
roller
inverted-tooth
coil chain: The most common form of hoisting chain
consists of oval links
stud-link chain: will not kink or tangle so easily as the coil
chain.

the design of the sprocket teeth is largely empirical, care

being taken to have the teeth so shaped and spaced that
the chain will run onto and off the sprockets smoothly and
without interference even after it has stretched or worn
somewhat.

chains of this general class are often used for transmitting

power at low speeds, as in agricultural machinery.

they are usually made of malleable cast links and lack the
smooth running qualities of the more carefully made
chains.

the chains are made of steel, accurately machined, with

wearing parts hardened, and run on carefully designed
sprockets.

block chains: used for the transmission of power at

comparatively low speeds. they are also used to some
extent as conveyor chains and for other purposes in place
of the malleable conveyor chains.

roller chains: chain for transmitting power in which each

link consists of two free-moving rollers held in position by
pins connected to sideplates.

inverted tooth chains: commonly known in the united

states as the silent chain, is widely used when maximum
quietness is desired and where it is necessary to transmit
heavier loads than can be carried by roller chains of the
same pitch.

these chains have no rollers, but the links

themselves are so shaped that they engage
directly with the sprocket teeth. like the roller
chains, they adapt themselves to the sprocket
after the pitch of the chain has increased because
of wear.

two examples of inverted tooth chains:

renold inverted tooth chain: shows a chain developed by

hans renold. it consists of links c of a peculiar form with
straight bearing edges a, b, which run over cut sprocket
wheels with straight-sided teeth whose angles vary with
the diameter of the wheel ; the chain may be made any
convenient width, the pins binding the whole together ; the
chain thus adjusts itself to the sprocket at a diameter
corresponding to its pitch, and as any tooth comes into or
out of gear there is neither slipping nor noise.

morse rocker-joint chain: this chain eliminates the sliding

friction of the rivets as the chain bends around the
sprocket.