Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Massfile24 1095
Massfile24 1095
Byong H. Lee
SportBiomics, CA, USA and Heilenex Pharma Inc., Toronto, Canada
Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea
Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
McGill University and AAFC, Quebec, Canada
Advanced Fermentation
and Cell Technology
Volume 2
Byong H. Lee
SportBiomics, CA, USA and Heilenex Pharma Inc., Toronto, Canada
Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea
Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
McGill University and AAFC, Quebec, Canada
This edition first published 2022
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Lee, Byong H., author.
Title: Advanced fermentation and cell technology / Byong H. Lee,
SportBiomics, CA, USA and Heilenex Pharma Inc., Toronto, Canada, Kangwon National
University, Chuncheon, South Korea, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China, McGill University and
AAFC, Quebec, Canada.
Description: Hoboken, NJ, USA : Wiley-Blackwell, 2022. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020026477 (print) | LCCN 2020026478 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119042761 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119042785 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119042778 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Fermentation. | Industrial microbiology.
Classification: LCC TP505 .L44 2021 (print) | LCC TP505 (ebook) | DDC
660/.28449–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020026477
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020026478
Cover Design: Wiley
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Set in 9/11pt and TimesTenLTStd by Straive, Chennai, India
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Volume 1
Preface ix
Part I 1
Part II 173
Volume 2
Preface vii
Part IV 687
Part V 801
5 Safety Issues of New Biotechnologies on Microbial, Animal, and Plant Cells 801
5.1 Introduction 801
5.2 Safety evaluation of novel foods and cell culture products 802
5.2.1 Genetically modified microorganisms and their products 804
5.2.2 Genetically modified animal cell cultures, animals, fishes and their products 807
5.2.3 Genetically modified plants and their products 820
Summary 830
Bibliography 831
Index 835
Preface
The term fermentation derived from the Latin verb fevere (boil) used by humans for the
production of food and beverages since the Neolithic age is the oldest of all biotechno-
logical processes. The fermentation process used in the production of antibiotics, alco-
hol, bread, vinegar and other food or industrial products differs from respiration in that
organic substances rather than molecular oxygen are used as electron acceptors. After suc-
cessful microbial fermentation processes on microbial cells (biomass), microbial enzymes,
microbial metabolites including antibiotics, and other fermented foods, currently more
than 3500 different fermented foods are consumed by humans worldwide. The potential
of fermentation techniques was dramatically increased in the late 1960s and 1970s through
achievements in molecular genetics, cell fusion, and enzyme technology. However, addi-
tional completely novel, powerful techniques such as genetic engineering via recombinant
DNA technology in 1973 and hybridoma technology (monoclonal antibody) in 1975 were
responsible for the current biotechnology boom.
In genetic engineering, a known gene is inserted into a microbial, animal, or plant cell in
order to achieve a desired trait for the overproduction of target compounds, but microor-
ganisms have played a major role in the development of biotechnology. This is due to the
rapid growth of microbes, cheap growth media, massive diversity in the metabolite types
and easy of genetic manipulation. However, mass culture of animal cell lines is also impor-
tant to manufacture viral vaccines and other therapeutic recombinant products such as
enzymes, hormones, immunologicals (monoclonal antibodies, interleukins, lymphokines,
etc), and anticancer agents. Mammalian cells cultivated in bioreactors have surpassed
microbial systems for producing therapeutic recombinant proteins because of their
capacity for proper protein folding, assembly and post-translational modification. Major
therapeutic recombinant proteins are successfully commercialized, but expensive animal
free media, cost of production in large scale with low yield (the tens-of-milligrams/liter),
microbial contamination, and gene regulation are the important issues to be resolved.
Other cell culture research is also underway to produce such complex therapeutic proteins
in insect cell (baculovirus) or in higher plants. Molecular biopharming using transgenic
animals such as goat and pig for rDNA proteins have also successfully commercialized.
Fermentation technology for the production of compounds that find application in food,
biochemical, biomaterial, bioenergy, pharmaceutical sectors encompasses a broad field, not
only including (1) conventional microbial and enzyme systems, (2) genetic and metabolic
engineering, along with systems biology/synthetic biology, and genome editing, but also
including (3) mammalian cell and plant cell systems. Despite a long history of fermentation
processes for generations, the requirement for sustainable production of bioenergy and bio-
materials is also demanding innovation and development of novel fermentation concepts.
Continued introduction of new technology in cell culture systems demands innovation in
new bioreactor process development and scale up processes for cell factory potential.
x PREFACE
This book reflects this transition from traditional fermentation technology to new cell
fermentation technology, that provides equal emphasis on microbial, mammalian as well as
plant cell technologies for new and improved processes and products in today’s biochemical
process industry.
Currently two fermentation textbooks available on the market (1999) are outdated and
do not deal with current progress in fermentation and cell culture technologies and com-
mercial recombinant bioproducts. Most other edited volumes are the work of multiple
contributors and normal didactic criteria for explanation of evolving new techniques and
applications are lacking. Experience in teaching this subject has made clear that the basic
concepts and essential features have not been covered in a typical science curriculum. The
primary objective of writing this book is to relate the food fermentation and cell culture
biopharmaceutical actives using different expression hosts. Product diversity makes fer-
mentation technology a multi -disciplinary expertise associated with microbiology, organic
chemistry, biochemistry, and molecular biology. Remarkable advances in these areas will
help to lift people out of wretched and empower them with new knowledge. The subject
matter is divided into Part V, including microbiology, biotechnology, molecular biology,
biochemical engineering, and global market size of bioproducts, and their applications.
Part I covers microbial cell technology and culture tools (including classical strain
improvements and tools) and modern strain improvement and tools (genome shuffling,
recombinant DNA technology, RNA interference (RNAi) and CRISPR)/Cas technol-
ogy for genome editing; also includes molecular thermodynamics for biotechnology,
protein engineering, genomics, proteomics and bioinformatics, systems/synthetic biol-
ogy and metabolic engineering, quorum sensing and quenching. Other bioengineering
and scale-up processes and new bioprocesses of fermentation such as growth-arrested
bioprocess, integrated bioprocess, and consolidated bioprocessing (CBP) are included.
Part II deals applications of microbial fermentation to food products (dairy, meat/fishes,
vegetable/cereals), organic acids, food ingredients, chemicals, and pharmaceuticals. Food
products/ingredients included flavors and amino acids, sweeteners, vitamins and pig-
ments, microbial polysaccharides/biopolymers, bacteriocins and bacteriophages, enzymes,
biomass (SCP)/mushrooms, functional foods and nutraceuticals such as probiotics and
prebiotics, and microbiome. Others included alcoholic beverages and other fermentation
chemicals (bioethanol, biobutanol/biobutandiol, biodiesel, biomethane, biohydrogen). In
final section, pharmaceuticals such as antibiotics, antibiotic growth promoters, antitumor
drugs, steroids/statins, and biopesticides included.
Part III covers (i) animal cell technology including animal cell culture, bioprocessing,
strain development, applications (monoclonal antibodies, different vaccines (DNA vac-
cines, edible vaccines, zika vaccines, hepatitis vaccines, HIV vaccines, COVID 19 vaccines),
and (ii) transgenic animal bioreactors, and applications in animals and fishes, etc. Part IV on
plant cell technology covered plant tissue and cell culture and applications, bioreactor types
(seed-based bioreactor, plant cell suspension bioreactor, hairy root bioreactor, chloroplast
bioreactors) and modern plant breeding or biotech/GM crops and their applications.
Finally, Part V deals with safety issues of new biotechnologies on microbial, animal, and
plant cells.
This book aims to give readers, general science students, researchers, and industrial
practitioners as well as instructors, an overview of the essential features of advanced fer-
mentation and cell culture technology. I would like to thank my students, post-docs, and
former colleagues at McGill University (Canada), Jiangnan University (China) and Kang-
won National University (Korea), who, for the past 37 years, have helped and suggested
me in teaching this subject course.
PREFACE xi
Among the over hundres of my former graduate students and post-docs, I would like to
dedicate this book specifically to my beloved former students, Dr. Young J. Choi and Dr.
Marcio Belem in Montreal, whom both passed away suddenly.
Last but not least, I must thank my wife Young for her love and encouragement, together
with the patience of my sons, Edward and his family (wife Maria, son Maxim) in Toronto
and David and his family (wife Ronit, daughter Romy) in Santa Monica, California during
the preparation of this volume.
Date Milestone
Old biotechnology
Before 6000 Bread leavening, alcoholic drinks, and fruit vinegars
B.C.
Before 14th Beer and wine, vinegar by the Orleans process
century
1650 Cultivation of French mushrooms
1680 Anton van Leeuwenhoek first observation of yeast cells
1857–1876 Louis Pasteur first discovery of microorganisms causing fermentation
1881 Lactic acid production by microbe
1885 Artificial growing of mushrooms in the USA)
19th century Production of ethanol, acetate, butanol, acetone, and citrate, glycerol, baker’s yeast, and
sewage treatment
1940s Mass cultivation of microbes for antibiotics (penicillin, streptomycin, chlorotetracycline),
bioingredients (amino acids, enzymes, vitamins, polysaccharides), steroids, and vaccines
1953 Discovery of DNA by Watson and Crick
1957 L -Glutamate production by Kinoshita et al.
1955–60 Citric acid production by submerged fermentation
New Biotechnology
1970–1972 Transformation of E. coli by plasmid DNA
1973 First discovery of restriction enzymes and DNA ligases by Cohen and Chang
1974 First expression of heterologous gene in E. coli
1975 Invention of hybridoma technique for monoclonal antibodies by César Milstein and
Georges J. F. Köhler
1978 First discovery of recombinant protein, somatostatin
1980 Cohen/Boyer patent on recombinant DNA technology; Genentech established
1982 Recombinant human insulin (Humulin®) by E. coli
1983 Heterologous plant gene expression; Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) by Kary Mullis/Cetus
(Nobel prize)
1985 Recombinant human growth hormone (Protropin®) by E. coli
1986 Recombinant vaccine, Recombivax HB (hepatitis B vaccine by S. cerevisiae
Recombinant gamma−interferon, Roferon A® by E. coli
1987 Recombinant tryptophan, recombinant tissue plasminogen activator, Activase®) by CHO*
1989 Recombinant interleukin-2, Proleukin® by E. coli, Recombinant γ-interferon, Immuneron®
by E. coli
1989–1991 Recombinant chymosin (Gist-Brocades, Genencor, and Pfizer) by E. coli and Aspergillus
oryzae
Recombinant production of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) by Genencor International, lactic acid
bacteria resistant to bacteriophage
1990 Maltase-enhanced baker’s yeast (Gist-Brocades)
1992 Recombinant blood clotting factor VIII (Recombinate® by Genetic Institute/Baxter;
Kogenate® by Bayer, Defacto® (Wyeth) using animal cell lines; Lipase (Unilever),
Amylase (Novomil®)
1993 Site-directed mutagenesis by Michael Smith at UBC (Nobel prize)
1994 Genetically modified Flavr Savr tomato (Calgene, discontinued in 1997), recombinant
bovine somatotropin, BST (Eli Lilly; Monsanto), engineered brewing yeast (Carlsberg
Research Centre), and acetolactate decarboxylase (Maturex)
2003–2013 Epogen (erythropoietin, EPO) by mammalian cells (Amgen), Neupogen (granulocyte
colony-stimulating factor, G-CSF) by E. coli (Amgen), Fabrazyme (human
alpha-galactosidase, Genzyme) by CHO 1996–2015
Over 47 herbicide-resistant (HT) and insect-resistant (BT) crops on market 2018
Golden Rice (a provitamin) approved by US FDA; GM Atlantic salmon developed by
AquaBounty Technologies on market in Canada and USA (FDA approved)
∗ CHO:Chinese Hamster ovaries.
Source: Lee, 2015.
OVERVIEW ON MARKET SIZE xv
Figure 1 Concept of cell culture technology derived from microbes, animals, and plants. Source: Nader
Khouri/Getty Images; Toni Barros / https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolly_(sheep)#/media/File:Dolly_face_
closeup.jpg / CC BY-SA 2.0; Dreamstime; Shutterstock.com; Flickr, Inc.; Thomas Northcut/Getty Images;
maksym yemelyanov/123RF. (See insert for color representation of this figure.)
Fermentation’s application areas are broad from food stuffs like wine, cheese, bread,
and beer, into high-value chemicals, pharmaceutical products, and food-related chemicals.
Among many more than 100 recombinant proteins (Sandez-Garcia et al., 2016), only few
are listed in this table. Further, rising hydrocarbon costs and depleting fuel reserves have
also created a strong case for affordable and easy fermentation processes for manufacturing
biofuel chemicals. Microbial cell factories for the production of bio-based chemicals have
been useful for diverse industrial applications and for achieving a sustainable future, but the
overexpression of heterologous enzymes in recombinant strains often leads to metabolic
imbalance, resulting in growth retardation and suboptimal production of the target com-
pounds (Lu et al., 2018). Thus, it is essential to address metabolic imbalances caused by
engineered pathways in microbial hosts. For establishing a vibrant bio-based economy,
multivariate modular metabolic engineering, modular co-culture engineering, systems biol-
ogy, and integrative genome-scale metabolic modeling can be exploited to expedite strain
optimization and improve the production yield of many high-value bio-based chemicals.
Genetically modified bacteria such as the Gram-negative Escherichia coli (E. coli) are used
to produce large amounts of proteins for industrial use, but because of the high cost of
extraction and purification, only high value products have been produced at an industrial
scale. Although the recently developed secretary expression system of E. coli using sig-
nal peptide optimization, periplasmic leakage, and chaperones co-expression are reported
(Zhou et al., 2017), the E. coli species exhibits some limitations as the heterologous pro-
teins are typically expressed intracellularly, which results in problems with formation of
inclusion bodies and incorrect protein folding. Thus, Bacillus subtilis has become an indus-
trial workhorse for recombinant protein production due to an easy cultivation, the products
of generally recognized as safe (GRAS), ease of genetic manipulation, well-characterized
expression systems, absence of significant codon bias, and exceptional ability to secrete
heterologous proteins allowing cost-effective downstream processing (Eivind et al., 2018).
However, many recombinant proteins require protein modifications, such as glycosylation
that are available only in eukaryotic cells in that this sometimes leads to the use of yeast,
insect cells, and mammalian cell culture systems. Some medicinal use of recombinant bacte-
ria (E. coli) or yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisae, Pichia pastoris) was to produce the protein
insulin to treat diabetes, clotting factors to treat hemophilia, human growth hormone to
treat various forms of dwarfism, interferon to treat some cancers, erythropoietin for anemic
patients, and tissue plasminogen activator which dissolves blood clots.
Outside of medicine they have been used to produce recombinant chymosin (cheese
coagulating enzyme), lipase, biofuels, and bioremediation, etc. Besides, with greater under-
standing of the role that the microbiome plays in human health, there is the potential to
treat diseases by genetically altering the bacteria to themselves be therapeutic agents in our
review (Daliri et al., 2018). The main ideas include altering gut bacteria to destroy harm-
ful bacteria or using bacteria to replace or increase deficient enzymes or proteins. One
research focus is to modify Lactobacillus bacteria that naturally provide some protection
against HIV, with genes that will further enhance this protection. However, the microbiome
could also raise safety concerns as interactions between bacteria and the human body are
less well understood than with traditional drugs. There are concerns that horizontal gene
transfer to other bacteria could have unknown effects. As of 2018 there are many clinical
trials underway testing the efficacy and safety of these treatments (Reardon, 2018).
Besides microbial fermented foods, for over a century, bacteria have also been used in
agricultural crops in which Rhizobia (and more recently Azospirillum) have been inoc-
ulated to increase their production or to allow them to be grown outside their original
habitat. It is well known that application of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and other bacteria
can help protect crops from insect infestation and plant diseases. With advances in genetic
OVERVIEW ON MARKET SIZE xvii
engineering, these bacteria have been manipulated for increased efficiency and expanded
host range as well as tracing the spread of the bacteria by markers. Pseudomonas strains
of bacteria causing frost damage by nucleating water into ice crystals around themselves
led to the development of ice-minus bacteria, that have the ice-forming genes removed.
When applied to crops they can compete with the ice-plus bacteria and confer some frost
resistance (Yetisen et al., 2015). Other applications of genetically modified bacteria include
bioremediation, where the bacteria are used to convert pollutants into a less toxic form such
as removal of petroleum hydrocarbon pollutants by increasing the levels of the enzymes
used to degrade a toxin or to make the bacteria more stable under environmental condi-
tions (Fuentes et al., 2014; Yuniati, 2018).
However, mass culture of animal cell lines is fundamental to the manufacture of viral
vaccines and many biological products produced by recombinant DNA technology in ani-
mal cell cultures include enzymes, synthetic hormones, immunobiologicals such as mono-
clonal antibodies, interleukins, lymphokines, and anticancer agents.
Many simpler proteins can be produced by engineered bacterial cell cultures, but protein
glycosylation (post-translational modification, PTM) is only made in animal cells. As the
production cost of mammalian cell cultures is high, however, other insect cells or higher
plants using single embryonic cell and somatic embryos are using as a source for direct gene
transfer through particle bombardment, and transit gene expression. Mammalian cell-line
products produced from CHO, BHK, NSO, meyloma cells, C127, HEK293) account for
over 70% of currently approved biotherapeutic products including monoclonal antibodies.
Biopharmaceuticals may thus be produced from engineered microbial cells such E. coli
or yeast, mammalian cell culture, plant cell/tissue culture, and moss plants in various biore-
actors or photo-bioreactors. The main issues of mammalian cell culture are cost of produc-
tion and microbial contamination by bacteria, viruses, mycoplasma, or viruses. Potential
safety and ethical issues include in engineered whole plants and animals, which represent
a significant investor risk and risks over consumer acceptance.
Major kinds of recombinant therapeutic proteins (biopharmaceuticals) include: blood
factors (Factor VIII and Factor IX), thrombolytic agents (tissue plasminogen activator),
hormones (insulin, glucagon, growth hormone, gonadotrophins, hematopoietic growth
factors (erythropoietin, colony stimulating factors), interferons (interferons-α, -β, -γ),
interleukin-based products (interleukin-2), vaccines (hepatitis B surface antigen), mon-
oclonal antibodies (various), and additional products (tumor necrosis factor, therapeutic
enzymes).
The important animal cell culture products as monoclonal antibodies are pro-
duced by fusing normal cells with an immortalized tumor cell line. Recent advances
in therapeutic protein drug development are available from: www.researchgate.net/
publication/313463806_Recent_advances_in_therapeutic_protein_
drug_development.
Many other transgenic animals have also been used to secrete human proteins
secreted in the milk of transgenic livestock. Since 1985, several animals, including cow,
goat, pig, horse, cat, rabbits, chickens, and most recently dog as well as fishes, have
been cloned, but the most research has been on cattle. Many applications of animal
biotechnologies are controversial for environmental, health, animal welfare, and social
reasons. For example, only a small percentage of cloning attempts produce live off-spring
and many animal clones are unhealthy. Human-animal chimeras raise safety concerns
about whether new diseases could be transmitted to humans, legal issues about whether
such creatures can be patented and owned, and the troubling possibility that they
could display human-like behavioral characteristics (www.geneticsandsociety.org/topics/
animal-biotechnologies).
xviii OVERVIEW ON MARKET SIZE
Molecular pharming is based on three perceived advantages: the low costs of grow-
ing animals or plants, the immense scalability of agricultural production, and the inherent
safety of animals or plants as hosts for producing pharmaceuticals. This can produce a range
of proteins produced from cloned animals. The main potential benefits of cloned animals
include the production of food, pharmaceuticals (“pharming”), the provision of organs for
xenotransplantation into humans, and the development of models of human diseases. The
benefits to agriculture include resistance to disease, altering the carcass composition such
that it is healthier to consume, improving the pig’s resistance to heat stress, and protecting
the environment. Additional types of genetic modifications will likely provide animals with
characteristics that will benefit humans in currently unimagined ways.
Although the majority of genetically engineered animals are still in the research phase,
some GM animals and fishes already on sale include cloned pet cats, GM ornamental
fish, GM salmon, cloned horses, and at least one rodeo bull. The GM cows by biotech
company SAB Biotherapeutics produced human antibodies, that fight pathogens, that
may one day treat infectious diseases like Ebola, influenza, and Zika and their potential
to address global outbreaks. The US Food and Drug Administration also approved a
GM chicken that makes a drug in its eggs to treat “lysosomal acid lipase deficiency” –
a rare genetic condition that prevents the body from breaking down fatty molecules inside
cells. In 2014, the FDA approved a drug collected from the milk of lab-made rabbits
to treat hereditary angioedema, a genetic disease that causes body swelling and can
be fatal. In 2009, the FDA approved a GM goat that can make a drug in its milk that
prevents fatal blood clots (www.theverge.com/2016/12/3/13819482/genetically-engineered-
animals-drugs-sab-cows-pharming-future).
Despite the ban on cloned animals adopted by the EU, the cloned livestocks would be
used as parents of slaughter pigs, beef cattle, and possibly also milk-producing dairy cows
in China, Canada, USA, and elsewhere. By 2020, the US FDA ruled that food products
derived from cloned animals (cattle, swine, goats, and the offspring of clones of any species
traditionally consumed as food) are safe enough and that labeling is not required because
food products from cloned animals are not materially different (www.fda.gov/animal-
veterinary/animal-cloning/primer-cloning-and-its-use-livestock-
operations).
Human antithrombin, ATryn (brand name) by rEVO Biologics (former GTC Biother-
apeutics) in 2006 was first medicine produced from the milk of genetically modified goats
by microinjection of human antithrombin genes into the cell nucleus of their embryos.
A goat that produces spider’s web protein, stronger (7–10 times) and more flexible than
steel (BioSteel) was successfully produced by a Quebec based Canadian company, Nixia
Biotechnologies, and later by the Randy Lewis lab of the University of Wyoming and Utah
State University (Service, 2002). This company also had created lines of goats to produce
recombinant versions of either the MaSpI (Major ampullate spidroin I) or dragline I (for its
superior elasticity, flexibility and strength) from Nephila clavipes, the golden orb weaver)
or MaSpII (Major ampullate spidroin 2 or dragline 2 from Nephila clavipes) dragline pro-
teins in their milk. When the female goat lactates, the milk containing the recombinant
DNA silk was to be harvested and subjected to chromatographic techniques to purify the
recombinant silk proteins. The purified silk proteins can be dried, dissolved using solvents
(DOPE formation) and transformed into microfibers using wet-spinning fiber production
methods. The spun fibers tend to have tenacities in the range of 2–3 grams/denier and elon-
gation range of 25–45%. The “Biosteel biopolymer” had been transformed into nanofibers
and nanomeshes using the electrospinning technique.
Nexia is the only company which has successfully produced fibers from spider silk
expressed in goat’s milk. The Lewis lab has produced fibers from recombinant spider
OVERVIEW ON MARKET SIZE xix
silk protein and synthetic spider silk proteins and genetic chimeras produced in both
recombinant E. coli and the milk of recombinant goats, however, no one has been able
to produce the silk in commercial quantities thus far. The company was founded in
1993 by Dr. Jeffrey Turner and Paul Ballard that was sold in 2005 to Pharmathene. In
2018, two transgenic goats were sold to the Canada Agriculture Museum after Nexia
Biotechnologies went bankrupt (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BioSteel). Research has
since continued by Randy Lewis, a professor formerly at the University of Wyoming and
now at Utah State University, where he was also able to successfully breed spider goats
to create artificial silk. There are now about 30 spider goats at a university-run farm.
Applications of artificial spider silk biopolymers include using it for the coating of all
kinds of implants and medical products as well as for artificial ligaments and tendons due
to its elastic tendencies, and also since it is a natural product which will synthesize well
with the body. Furthermore, artificial silk biopolymers can be applicated in personal care
products as well as in textile products.
AquaBounty Technologies originally developed in Canada and later based in Mas-
sachusetts (US) have sold about 4.5 tons of GM salmon fillets in Canada. The engineered
Atlantic salmons developed by AquaBounty are produced by cloning a growth hormone
gene from chinook salmon and a second added gene from the ocean pout accelerates
growth by keeping the hormone gene on permanently. AquaBounty says the salmon grow
twice as fast as typical salmon and consume 20–25% less food per gram of new flesh
(http://aquabounty.com/about). However, the first GM fish to go on sale in the world has
faced fierce opposition from environmental groups, which fear that if they escape from the
tanks where they are reared on Prince Edward Island in eastern Canada, they will upset
natural ecosystems by breeding with native salmon. In the US, the salmon was cleared for
sale in late 2015, but its market debut has been stalled by arguments over how it should be
labelled. Now the salmon is being sold in Canada, other species may eventually follow it
onto the market.
The genetically modified pig (Enviropig™) developed by University of Guelph in
Canada is to excrete less phosphorus in its feces. It will produce the enzyme phytase in
its salivary glands to enable more effective digestion of phytate, the form of phosphorus
found in pig feed ingredients like corn and soybeans.
An ornamental fish that glows in the dark was created by cloning jellyfish DNA into a
zebrafish and is on the market. However, GM fish may escape and cause genetic damage
by hybridizing with native species. Some tropical exotic fish such as piranhas may cause
major problems. The details will be covered in the section of Animal Cell Technology.
Recently, advances have also been made in the production of foreign proteins in trans-
genic plants as alternative to microbial fermentation or mammalian cell culture. Many
therapeutic proteins, including antibodies, blood products, vaccines, hormones, cytokines,
other therapeutic agents, and enzymes are being produced in transgenic plants. The proper
selection of host plant and gene expression system in a food crop or a non-food crop
can act as bioreactors to produce recombinant proteins in larger quantities than those
of mammalian cell systems. Plant systems have the advantages in large-scale production
of recombinant proteins without contaminating human pathogens. Although in the last
two decades, approximately 95 biopharmaceutical products including cytokines, enzymes,
hormones, monoclonal antibodies, and vaccines have been approved for the treatment of
various human diseases, none of the commercial products are currently produced in plants,
mainly due to the low yield and expensive purification costs. However, plant-based DNA
vaccines have potential even for COVID-19 (Rosales-Mendoza et al., 2020).
Genetic modification of plants involves adding a specific stretch of DNA into the plant’s
genome, giving it new or different characteristics. This could include changing the way the
xx OVERVIEW ON MARKET SIZE
plant grows or making it resistant to a particular disease. The new DNA becomes part of
the GM plant’s genome which the seeds produced by these plants will contain. The details
of transgenic plants will be covered in Part IV.
Most biopharmaceutical products are currently manufactured commercially through
various fermentation processes by genetically engineered microorganisms (e.g., E. coli,
yeast, fungi). Some highly successful drugs obtained through fermentation routes are:
human insulin, streptokinase, erythropoietin, hepatitis B vaccine, human growth hormones,
interleukin, granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (GC-SF), granulocyte-macrophage
colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF), interferons (α, β, γ), and many recombinant proteins.
The three domains of microbes, animals, and plants are not only involved in production of
biopharmaceuticals, but also have their applications in foods (Figure 1). Although public
support for new biotechnology is high for new drugs (e.g., insulin, interferon, hormone,
etc.), diagnostics (cancer detection kits), food enzymes (e.g., recombinant rennet and other
enzymes), and vaccines, public perceptions are against GM foods on the whole, because
of their safety issue and because foods are an issue that affect everyone, as everyone eats,
as will be covered in Part V.
Besides the concept of whole cell culture technology derived from microbes, animals,
and plants in Figure 1, a novel cellular agriculture (CA) terminology was first used in
2015. Providing food and healthy diets for growing population, tackling deforestation and
climate change, and reducing negative environmental impacts of conventional agriculture
constitute the grand challenges of current times. By 2050, the global population will
reach to 9.8 billion, demand of our food supplies will be 60% higher than it is today.
At the same time, climate change, urbanization, and soil erosion will decrease of the
availability of arable land and crops account for only about 2% of all plant biomass
including non-food crop (dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature25138). Deforestation is also a direct
consequence of animal agriculture as more and more farmland is required to grow
crops for animal feed. CA will reduce deforestation as the production practices are
decoupled from land use. Although the world currently produces more than enough food
to feed everyone, 815 million people (roughly 11% of the global population) were in a
state of hunger in 2016 (www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/wsfs/docs/expert_paper/How_
to_Feed_the_World_in_2050.pdf). Not only is providing sufficient food important, but
the low-quality diets causing micronutrient deficiencies and obesity are also currently
problems (dx.doi.org/10.1016/SO140-6736(18)31788-4).
This CA field is not new, as microbial cell production of food protein (single-cell protein),
bioplastics (e.g., biofilm, headset, etc.), leather-like mycelium biomaterials, recombinant
rennet, spider silk protein, bacterial cellulose, and so on, are already commercialized (see
Part II). In vitro animal cell cultures are well established and over 32 therapeutic proteins
including human insulin are commercialized (see Part III). Also, in vitro plant cell culture
has already been used to produce various secondary metabolites and ingredients of phar-
maceutical (e.g. paclitaxel, vinbrastine for anticancer drugs, etc.), cosmetics (pigments),
and foods, etc. (see Part IV). However, recent CA terminology include more for develop-
ing agricultural products, such as cell-based animal products, by cell cultures than living
farm animals (Stephens and Ellis, 2020).
This includes in vitro or cultured meat, and animal products like milk, leather, eggs,
gelatin and silk through tissue engineering and recombinant DNA fermentation-based
industrial biotechnology process for food and materials (Rischer et al., 2020).
In recent years, a number of cellular animal agriculture companies and non-profit orga-
nizations have emerged due to this technological advances and increasing concern over the
animal welfare and rights, environmental, and public health problems associated with con-
ventional animal agriculture. Some examples are: (i) in the US, lab-grown Memphis Meats,
OVERVIEW ON MARKET SIZE xxi
Bluefin tuna-based Finless Foods, fermentation-based Geltor (gelatin), Clara Foods (egg
white), Perfect Day and New Culture (animal-free dairy products), Modern Meadow (fer-
menting collagen for leather), (ii) in UK, lab-grown hamburger which was cooked and
tasted, (iii) in Netherlands, Mosa Meat and Meatable, (iv) in Israel, Future Meat Technol
and Aleph Farms, (v) in Canada, Appleton Meats, Biosteel (spider web silk), (vi) in Japan,
Integriculture and spider silk, and (vii), in Singapore, Shiok Meats. Although cell-based
meat may be identical to conventional meat, CA technology is hard to develop because
of structural complexity. Moreover, the texture that tastes meat will be hard to mimic.
Biotech-derived ingredients such as tofu and more recently fungal protein Quorn are well
known, but cell-based meat which will taste like animal meat, with the same nutritional
value, requires expensive serum to grow cells and scale up, and safety issue are formidable
challenges to overcome
Despite the many difficult challenges ahead, CA will be a major part of the solution
for three of humanity’s greatest challenges: feeding 10 billion people by 2050, mitigat-
ing climate change, and mitigating the threat of antibiotic-resistant and zoonotic diseases
(www.futurefields.io/post/cellular-agriculture-in-canada).
Figure 2 shows a scheme of microbial bioproducts and global sales (%) of micro-
bial products except for fermented foods and alcohol beverages. Global sales (%)
of bioproducts excluding fermented food/beverages and biorefinery products can be
shown, among which antibiotics (42%) and biopharmaceuticals (25%+ 17%) are the
major bioproducts. The global market for bioproducts is expected to grow to US$700.7
billion by 2018, with a five-year compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.5%. The
non-energetic market, which includes chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and materials, is the
fastest-growing segment overall at a tremendous 14.9% CAGR, reaching US$472.8
billion by 2018, up from US$236.3 billion in 2013 (www.bccresearch.com). The global
market for biorefinery products alone is expected to clinch US$714.6 billion by 2021 from
US$466.6 billion in 2016 at a whopping CAGR of 8.9% (https://tradeessential.com/events/
biorefinery-bio-based-chemical-2).
In the global fermented ingredients market, amino acid has had a significant market
share due to the growing demand for amino acids by food and beverage and animal feed
additive industries from the last few years. The growing preference for fermented ingre-
dients by several personal care product manufactures in their products led to the growth
in demand of fermented ingredients in personal care industry (www.marketwatch.com/
press-release/the-global-fermented-ingredients-market-to-2023-driven-by-the-growing-
demand-of-fermented-ingredients-to-prompt-the-process-of-fermentation---
researchandmarketscom-2018-09-26). Vitamins are also expected to witness substan-
tial growth as key fermented ingredients in the food & beverage sector, especially
due to their increasing application in probiotic drinks such as kefir. Global markets
of biorefinery products are also high with data, from 2010 to 2013, and projections of
CAGRs through 2018. Biorefinery products broken down by product demand include
energetic (ethanol, biodiesel, electricity/heat), non-energetic (chemicals, materials,
herbal/botanicals), and by other segments, such as fuel (transport, mechanical, etc.),
energy (heat, electricity), material (plastics, resins), chemical (alcohols, solvents, acids,
surfactants, etc.), and herbal/botanical (drugs, body care, aroma, etc.). Forecasts for
biomass conversion processes and equipment to produce fuels, power, and chemicals
from biomass are included in the prospects for biorefineries built on different plat-
forms, such as the “sugar platform,” based on fermentation of sugars extracted from
biomass feedstocks, versus the “syngas platform,” based on thermochemical conversion
processes. The non-energetic bioproducts market will reach US$477.0 billion by 2021
from US$281.7 billion in 2016 at a CAGR of 11.1%, from 2016 to 2021. The energetic
xxii OVERVIEW ON MARKET SIZE
Grain
Stach
(a)
Antibiotics 42%
Biopharmaceuticals 25%
Enzymes 3%
(b)
Figure 2 (a) Scheme of microbial bioproducts except for fermented foods and alcohol beverages and
(b) Global sales (%) of microbial products except for fermented foods and alcohol beverages by 2023
(www.marketresearchfuture.com/sample_request/765).
market in 2014 alone was worth US$55.01 billion, with North America, Europe, and Asia
accounting for 77% of the market. This is largely due to the reported health benefits
of their probiotic properties (so-called functional foods), and their weight management
factor as well as the minimal preparation needed for fermented foods. The health benefits
of fermented foods are predicated on the presence of bacteria in the foods, which served
as probiotics in the human body to positively contribute to naturally occurring intestinal
flora and therefore support gut health. Fermented foods also contain necessary enzymes,
omega-3 fatty acids, and B vitamins among their health repertoire, illustrating vast poten-
tial to boost health of those choosing to eat fermented products. Consumers are also wary
of food additives, rather choosing fermented products because there are inherently less
preservatives in these choices. Since the bioprocess technology depends on the cultivation
and secretion by the live microbial cells, the risk of contamination by the non-desirable
microbes with the consequent toxicity might restraint the objective and success of fermen-
tation technology. Alcoholic drinks gained a significant market share and are expected to
continue and the global alcoholic beverages market was valued at around US$650 billion
in 2017. Asia Pacific was the largest region in the alcoholic beverages market in 2017,
accounting for nearly 45% market share, among which China was the largest country in
the market in 2017, accounting for nearly 25% market share (www.google.com/search?biw
=1280&bih=913&ei=8JpSXPerL4va8QXgjKfwBQ&q=fermented+alcoholic+beverage+
products%3B+global+market+%28%25%29%3B+2019).
In terms of annual world-wide sales, biotechnology-derived products can be divided
into the three categories. First, fine chemicals as low-volume products and as bulk chemical
products usually fall within the 100 kg per year to 100 tons per year range. This category
broadly includes bioproduction of high-value molecules such as vaccines, rDNA products,
5′ -nucleotides, some of the amino acids, enzymes (for medical applications), monoclonal
antibodies, and bioconversion of high-value starting materials such as antibiotics, and
steroids, and so on. A significant fraction of the production costs of these products are
involved in purification and testing of the product to meet the demand of quality and
safety specifications. Intermediate volume chemicals are usually chemicals or ingredients
that are produced microbiologically in the range of 100 to 20,000 tons per year. Such
products have less vigorous quality and safety specifications than do fine chemicals. Some
examples are glutamic acid (monosodium glutamate, MSG), which is used as a flavor
enhancer, antibiotics used for protecting agricultural crops, food and industrial enzymes,
organic acids (citric, lactic, gluconic acids), solvents (acetone, butanol), many fermented
beverages, and food products. Finally, the bulk product sector consists of products that are
usually produced in continuous reactors, exceeding 20,000 tons per year. These products
are marketed on the basis of commodities and overall product performance criteria
rather than on the basis of rigid quality specifications. The microbial products that fall
within this category are single-cell protein (SCP), gasohol (ethanol), biogas (methane), and
biopolymers for enhanced oil recovery.
The use of biopharmaceuticals has grown worldwide in the last few years. In 2016, the
total number of products approved by the Foods and Drugs Administration (FDA) and
European Medicines Agency (EMA) for use in humans reached 1357, of which >130 have
different formulations (reference products), 737 are biosimilars, and the remaining 482 are
classified as biobetters (www.biopharma.com). From 2013 to 2016, 73 biopharmaceuticals
were approved for use in humans. Among them, high prominence was given to mono-
clonal antibodies (23 approvals) widely used in several diagnostic procedures, treatment of
inflammatory diseases, and neoplastic tumors.
The European Medicines Agency (EMA) also licensed two new products based on
gene therapy (insertion of a corrective gene able to produce a normal protein in the
xxiv OVERVIEW ON MARKET SIZE
patient’s genome to cure a genetic disease) for use in human therapeutic protocols. These
products were Glybera, developed by the German company UniQure for the treatment
of lipoprotein lipase deficiency, and Strimvelis, developed by GlaxoSmithKline (GSK)
for the treatment of adenosine deaminase deficiency. Although biopharmaceuticals
can be very effective for disease control or cure, treatment costs can reach up to US$1
million per patient. Jozala et at. (2016) reviewed the biopharmaceuticals from microor-
ganisms: from production to purification. Table 2 lists some recombinant biopharma
products.
13. Il Gianni era fuggito da Roma dopo l’assassinio di Bassville col Salfi, che
su questo fatto compose un poemetto. A Firenze il Gianni improvvisava
colla Fantastici; e l’Alfieri ammirandolo diceva però che quello non era
improvvisare, ma un comporre in fretta, alludendo al suo lento
declamare.
17. Il pittore Gros ricusò le offerte de’ Perugini, pur promettendo levare sol
due o tre quadri.
18. Era console allora Antonio Onofrio, sul cui mausoleo nella pieve fu poi
scritto Patri patriæ.
19. Raccolta cronologica dei documenti veneti, tom. ii. part. ii.
Vascelli da 70 cannoni Nº 10
Vascelli da 66 » 11
Vascelli da 55 » 1
Fregate da 42 a 44 » 13
Fregate da 32 » 2
Galere » 23
Bombarde » 1
Cutter » 2
Barche cannoniere, armate di un cannone da 4, e »
quattro da 6 16
Brich da 16 a 18 cannoni » 3
Golette da 16 » 1
Galeotte da 30 a 40 remi » 7
Sciabecchi » 7
Feluche » 5
Barche obusiere armate con due obici da 40 o da »
50, e quattro cannoni da 6 31
Galleggianti sulle botti, armati con due cannoni da »
30 10
Passi, armati d’un cannone da 20 o quattro da 6 » 40
Batteria galleggiante di sette cannoni da 50 sul »
perno, detta Idra 1
22. Mutinelli ebbe la pazienza di notare che, negli otto giorni che i quaranta
elettori stettero in conclave per eleggere l’ultimo doge, si spese in pane,
vino, olio, aceto lire 129,421; in pesce 24,410; in carni, polli, selvaggina
23,360; in salami, salciciotti, prosciutti 3980; in confetti e candele di cera
47,660; in vini, caffè, zuccaro 63,845; in frutti, fiori, condimenti 6314; in
masserizie da cucina, legna, carbone 31,851; per guasto di mobili
noleggiati 41,624; per spese minute 108,910; stuzzicadenti 25: tabacco
4931; carte da giuoco 200; altri giuochi 606; berrette di notte 506; calze
e borse di seta nera per la coda 64; tabacchiere 3067; pettini 2150;
essenze 182.
25. Il maresciallo Marmont nel vol. i, p. 36 delle sue Memorie (Parigi 1857),
racconta che i Veneziani mandarono Dandolo ed altri al Direttorio per
lamentarsi del turpe mercato di Buonaparte, e che questo, prevedendo
come un tal passo sarebbe stato la sua ruina, spedì Duroc dietro alla
deputazione, e se la fece condurre a Milano. J’étais (soggiunse) dans le
cabinet du général en chef quand celui-ci les y reçut: on peut deviner la
violence de sa harangue. Ils l’ecoutèrent avec calme et dignité, et quand
il eut fini, Dandolo répondit. Dandolo, ordinairement dénué de courage,
en trouva ce jour-là dans la grandeur de sa cause. Il parlait facilement:
en ce moment il eut de l’éloquence. Il s’étendit sur le bien de
l’indépendance et de la liberté, sur les intérêts de son pays et le sort
misérable qui lui était réservé; sur les devoirs d’un bon citoyen envers
sa patrie. La force de ses raisonnements, sa conviction, sa profonde
émotion agirent sur l’esprit et sur le cœur de Buonaparte au point de
faire couler les larmes de ses yeux. Il ne répliqua pas un mot, renvoya
les députés avec douceur et bonté, et, depuis, a conservé pour Dandolo
une bienveillance, une prédilection qui jamais ne s’est démentie: il a
toujours cherché l’occasion de le grandir et de lui faire du bien: et
cependant Dandolo était un homme médiocre: mais cet homme avait fait
vibrer les cordes de son âme par l’élévation des sentiments, et
l’impression ressentie ne s’effaça jamais. Celui qui pouvait éprouver de
pareilles émotions, et garder de semblables souvenirs, n’était pas
assurément tel que tant de gens ont voulu le représenter.
Questo Dandolo non appartiene all’antica nobiltà: era un chimico, che
salì poi ad alti posti ed ebbe il titolo di conte come senatore del regno.
32. Di que’ Governi esponemmo i disordini nella Storia della città e diocesi
di Como, lib. ix.
33. Quelle pazzie venivano così riferite dal cittadino Poggi alla Società di
pubblica istruzione di Milano: — Il popolo tutto ondeggiava nelle
dolcezze, ai puri repubblicani serbate, se il truce oligarca si tragga, che
in segreto angolo appiattato mordeva forse la polvere, vedova rimasta
del mal seminato oro fatale; quando improvvisa fama annunzia
clamorosa, che nel quartiere di Prè, creduto per influsso molesto il men
democratico, si è innalzato il primo albero di libertà per mano del popolo
esultante. Fu questa una voce creatrice: in un istante comparvero alberi
su d’ogni piazza, entro poche ore parve Genova un bosco, e, meraviglia
ai presenti ed ai lontani popoli, più di cento ne sursero lo stesso giorno! I
sermoni dettati dall’eloquenza repubblicana si udivano per le vie tutte e
appiè degli alberi, e varj d’abito e di colore i ministri del culto peroravano
collo zelo maggiore la causa del popolo; ben diversi da quegli impostori,
che non bramando esser utili, anzi cercando di nuocere alla pubblica
cosa, protestano di non volersi immischiare in oggetti politici.
«I pranzi repubblicani, tanto opportuni per nodrire il piacere
dell’eguaglianza, e per stringere i nodi della fraternità, erano pubblici, e
senza numero moltiplicati: i suoni di numerose bande, gl’inni ed i balli
patriotici e marziali, che allumarono in Francia il fuoco della libertà, e
scossero i debellatori dei re, condivano le mense di non mai gustate
dolcezze: i saporosi brindisi alla morte de’ tiranni, alla salute della patria,
alla libertà dell’Italia, alla memoria del liberatore de’ popoli Buonaparte,
si rispondevano all’unissono da mille canti.
«L’ora s’accostava intanto, in cui il popolo ligure dovea dar prova
dell’odio profondo che nodrir denno i figli di Bruto contro ogni ombra di
tirannia: quindi abbattutosi egli nelle due statue colossali dei tiranni
Doria, animato dal genio siracusano, a cui l’immortale Timoleone fu
padre, le diroccò, le stritolò, le teste e le braccia ne appese all’albero
della salute, e alcuni pezzi del busto ne destinò a formar patere e vasi
per la Dea Cloacina.
«Sul declinare del giorno il popolo sovrano richiese l’esecrabile libro
d’oro: si tentò d’ingannarne l’ordine assoluto colla esibizione di altri libri:
era già pronta la pubblica vendetta, se i veri originali in cinque volumi
non venivano immediatamente consegnati. Un decreto del nuovo
Governo consolò il popolo, e que’ libri, che come in Roma i sibillini, si
tenevano in venerazione, furono con universale esecrazione lacerati ed
arsi solennemente all’Acquaverde in presenza di venti e più mila
cittadini. Ma chi descriverà colle tinte della natura la brillante energia, i
vivi trasporti e la nobile fierezza, onde fu accompagnata la gloriosa
impresa? Le ceneri furono consegnate ai venti, che le recarono sul mar
Tirreno, onde confonderle con quelle del libro d’oro pochi dì prima
abbrugiato sulle adriatiche Lagune, che sull’ale di altri venti si
trasportavano alla cumea voragine d’Acheronte.
«Popolo lombardo che belle lezioni repubblicane!
«Nuovi canti, nuovi balli, nuove grida di tripudio chiusero quest’illustre
giornata, che viverà eterna nella memoria de’ liberi nipoti».
34. Moniteur, anno vi, nº 167.
37. Lettera del Milizia, 2 marzo 1798, in De Potter, Vie de Ricci. A Tavoleto
nell’Urbinate altre sollevazioni, dove accorso il generale Sahuguet, pose
il fuoco al paese, bruciandovi vecchi, donne, fanciulli; e innocenti ben
più che malfattori.
38. I tribuni fatti da Berthier erano i poeti Monti, Gagliuffi, Solari genovese e
il medico Corona. L’editto 5 ottobre del senato di Bologna dice «d’ordine
del comandante di piazza a cui siamo in dovere di obbedire».
43. Pettegolezzi chiariti nei Mémoires tirés des papiers d’un homme d’Êtat,
tom. vii.
* La nota del Moniteur conchiudeva: On regarde cette innovation comme
une victoire de la grande nation: ma a Ginguené fu scritto che il Governo
francese era rappresentato da ambasciadori, non da ambasciatrici.
Fra le altre insistenze con cui Ginguené molestava incessantemente il
Governo piemontese, era che fosse punito di morte chiunque si trovasse
con uno stilo o coltello, per qualsivoglia uso. Gli si domandava se un
codice, dove fosse scritta tal legge, s’addirebbe alla filantropia tanto
predicata dall’ambasciadore.
Barante, nell’Histoire du Directoire, stampata al tempo stesso di questa
nostra, e che noi conoscemmo solo adesso, parla a lungo delle vicende
d’Italia nel triennio; ma non ci parve una novità, nè in modo da cambiare
i giudizj da noi portati. Sulla lettera del Pignatelli al Priocca (pag. 86) non
mette alcun dubbio. Si estende su questo incidente del Ginguené;
honnête homme, mais la philosophie et la révolution lui avaient inspiré
des opinions absolues et orgueilleuses. Les chimères systématiques et
l’emphase sentimentale étaient devenues dans son esprit une croyance
sincère et intolérante,... il attribuait (aux princes d’Italie) des complots, et
révait les poignards et les poisons, tandis qu’il parlait avec admiration de
la loyauté du Directoire, qui l’avait chargé d’exciter contre le roi les
révoltes de ses sujets.
Segue a dire che aveva preparato un discorso accademico e panegirico;
ma vista la semplicità della Corte, ne proferì uno meno enfatico, ma
sconveniente, lodando la lealtà del Direttorio, a fronte della perfidia degli
altri Governi, ecc. Carlo Emanuele, invece di rispondergli, gli domandò
se avea fatto buon viaggio, se stava bene di salute; gli parlò della
propria infermità, dei dispiaceri, delle consolazioni che gli dava la santa
sua moglie Clotilde, ecc. ecc.
44. Il Bossi finì prefetto in Francia nel 1823; compose l’Oromasia, poema
italiano sui fatti della rivoluzione, ma freddo. Il dottore Botta divenne poi
storico famoso.
46. Di questo Mammone, così orribilmente dipinto dal Coco, non fa il minimo
cenno Lomonaco, la cui relazione a Carnot è vera opera d’un frenetico,
eppure è la fonte a cui principalmente attinsero i narratori di quelle
tragedie, e principalmente Carlo Didier nella Caroline en Sicile. Molte
falsità emendò il barone Leon d’Hervey Saint-Denys nella Histoire de la
révolution dans les Deux Siciles depuis 1793: ma resta ancora il dovere
a qualche storico onesto di vagliare la verità dalla sistematica menzogna
delle gazzette e dei settarj. Il tempo nostro v’è meno adatto che nessun
altro.
48. La vita del Coco, inserita nella Biographie Universelle, racconta che egli
viveva in intimità colla San Felice: un Bacher per rivalità minacciò di
denunziarlo: ma la San Felice denunziò più prontamente il Bacher come
reazionario, e fu mandato al patibolo. Cambiato vento, essa pure fu
condannata. Il Coco divenne giornalista nella repubblica Cisalpina, poi
nel regno d’Italia; fu impiegato sotto Murat, ma aspirava a esser capo
dell’istruzione o ministro, e non ottenendolo, trescò contro i Napoleonidi.
Di ciò gli fece merito Ferdinando IV, che lo conservò direttore del tesoro.
Trovavasi così a una Corte che egli avea violentemente denigrata: e una
volta il principe reale avendogli espresso il desiderio di leggere la sua
Storia della rivoluzione di Napoli, egli ne prese tale sgomento, che
divenne pazzo, e sopravvisse in tale infelicità fino al 1823.
50. Fra i detenuti era il famoso naturalista Dolomieu, che, partitosi dalla
spedizione d’Egitto, fu spinto sulle coste napoletane il giugno 1799, e
toltogli il portafoglio, fu gettato in un fondo di torre senza libri e penne;
dove, fattosi inchiostro col fumo della lampada, sui margini di qualche
volume sottratto alla vigilanza scrisse la Filosofia mineralogica. Fu
liberato il 15 marzo 1801.