PHYSICAL SCIENCE 4th QUARTER EXAMINATION REVIEWER

Chemical Change
- a process in which one or more substances are converted into one more
substances.

For a chemical reaction to produce chemical changes in the following must occur:
1. Substance must actually collide.
2. Activation energy - a measure of the amount of energy
- uses an energy diagram
- greater or equal
3. Substances must be in its proper position or orientation.

Factors affecting the rate of chemical reaction:

1. Temparature
2. Activation energy
3. Concentration
4. Surface area and particle size

Limiting Reactant

First Step
Balanced the chemical equation.

Second Step
Calculate the molar mass (m.m) of the reactants.
Third Step
Divide the calculated molar mass of the given element or
compound from the given mass. Then afterward, the number of moles are divided by
the coefficient indicated in the balanced chemical equation.

ORGANIC MOLECULES

Organic molecules are the molecules which exist in all living things. They are life’s
building blocks. All things are formed from these organic molecules. There are four
categories of organic molecules: Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.

Organic molecules have four common characteristics. First, they are all carbon
based, meaning they all contain carbon. They are formed from just a few elements
which join together to form small molecules which join together, or bond, to form
large molecules. The third characteristic of all organic molecules is that each is kind
of organic molecule is built from a single type of building block. For example, the
building block of carbohydrates is sugar, the building block of lipids is fatty acids, the
building block of protein is amino acids and the building block of nucleic acids is the
nucleotide. When these building blocks are joined together, they form a large
molecule (polymer), just as bricks joined together form a wall. For example, sugars
join together form a carbohydrate.

The last common characteristic of all organic molecules is that their form
determines their function. That means that their shape determines how they will
behave and how they will react with other molecules. For example, the order of
amino acids in a protein will determine the shape and function of the protein just as
the order of words in a sentence shapes the meaning of the sentence.

CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates are the most common organic molecule because they make up most
plant matter. They are made from carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Their building
blocks a single sugar called a monosaccharide. Sugars (monosaccharides) consist of
carbon rings. When two monosaccharides, or sugars, combine, they form a
disaccharide (di = two). When more than two monosaccharides join together, a
polysaccharide (poly = many) is formed.

There are three classes of carbohydrate polysaccharides. The first is starch. Starch is
a carbohydrate used in food storage in plants. Potatoes, pasta and rice are rich in
starch. Starches are very valuable because they provide a quick form of energy for
the body. The second is glycogen. Glycogen is used for food storage in animals. The
third is cellulose. Cellulose is used for structural support in plants (stems, leaves).

Sugars can be detected in foods through a simple lab test. To find out if a food
contains starch, iodine (a reagent) is placed on the food. A food containing starch
will turn black when in contact with iodine. A test for simple sugars involves mixing
the food with a liquid blue reagent called Benedict’s solution and then heating the
mixture. If the food is positive for simple sugars, the heating process will cause the
benedict’s solution to turn red, orange, or green.

Macromolecules

Biological macromolecules are important cellular components and perform a wide

array of functions necessary for the survival and growth of living organisms. Nutrients
are the molecules that living organisms require for survival and growth but animals
and plants cannot synthesize themselves. Animals obtain nutrients by consuming
food, while plants pull nutrients from soil. Foods such as bread, fruit, and cheese are
rich sources of biological macromolecules. The four major classes of biological
macromolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Many critical nutrients are biological macromolecules. The term “macromolecules”

was first coined in the 1920’s by Nobel Laurete Herman Staudinger. He was the first
to propose that many large molecules are built by covalently linking smaller
biological molecules together.
 Living organisms are made up of chemical building blocks. All organisms are
composed of a variety of these biological macromolecules. Each of these types of
macromolecules performs a wide array of important functions within the cell; a cell
cannot perform its roles within the body without many different types of these
crucial molecules.

A. Carbohydrates
o Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature. They are present
in human, animal tissue, plant and in micro-organisms. Carbohydrates are also
present in tissue fluids, blood, milk, secretion and excretions of animals.
o Sugars can be categorized into three namely: monosaccharide, disaccharide, and
polysaccharide.

Monosaccharide The simplest sugars such as glucose, which is known as a blood sugar.

Disaccharide This is composed of two simple sugars like sucrose, which is a table
sugar and made of glucose and fructose bonded together.

Polysaccharide It is made of series of bonded glucose molecules like starch. Starchy

foods are eaten such as potatoes and pasta, enzymes in the body breaks
them down and this makes glucose available as a nutrient for your cells.
General Functions of Carbohydrates
o ➢ STORAGE form of energy (starch and glycogen)
o ➢ Main SOURCE of energy in the body (glycogen)
o ➢ Excess carbohydrate is converted to fat.
 Structural basis of many organisms
1. Cellulose of plants
2. Exoskeleton of insects
3. Cell wall of microorganisms
 Components of several animal structure and plant structures (cartilage, tendons)
 Carbohydrates are components of blood group substances.
 Ascorbic acid, a derivative of carbohydrate is a water-soluble vitamin.

B. Proteins
o The term protein is from the Greek proteios, or “primary”. These molecules appear
in very diverse structures. Proteins are composed of hydrogen (H), carbon (C),
oxygen (O), nitrogen (N) and sometimes sulfur (S).
o Proteins function for bodily growth, repair, and replacement of cells and enzymes
catalyze cellular chemical reactions.
o The basic unit of protein is the amino acid. Amino acids are the building blocks that
form polypeptides and ultimately proteins. Consequently, they are fundamental
components of our bodies and vital for physiological functions such as protein
synthesis, tissue repair and nutrient absorption.
o There are about 20 common amino acids although thousands of amino acids exist in
nature. Amino acids join together in a covalent bond (sharing of electrons) known as
peptide bond. If two amino acids join together, they form peptide.
o Proteins are made up of long chain of amino acids, hence also called as
“polypeptides”.

List of essential and non-essential amino acids.

Not all amino acids can be synthesized by our body. They must be obtained from food in
order for us to make proteins and to survive. These amino acids are called essential amino
acids that are readily available in our body and considered non-essential amino acids.

Two most important functions of proteins:

1. Structural Proteins- Proteins are the major structural components of most living
tissues. They function for growth, repair and replacement of tissues.
2. Catalytic Proteins- These are the enzymes ( catalyst) which increase the rate of
biological reactions inside the living organisms.

Figure 4: Amino Acid Structure

Figure 5: Polypeptide
Structure

General Functions of Proteins

1. Transport substances in the body, such as hemoglobin transports oxygen.
2. Enzymes which catalyze chemical reactions in the body.
3. Defense function such as immunoglobulin
(antibodies).
4. Hormones are proteins. That control many biochemical events. Example is
insulin (a hormone made by pancreas that allows the body to use sugar
(glucose) from carbohydrates in the food that is eaten for energy or to store
glucose for future use. Insulin helps keep the blood sugar level from getting too
high (hyperglycemia) or too low (hypoglycemia).
5. Contraction of muscles. E.g. Muscle proteins (actin and myosin)
6. Gene expression. They control gene expression and translation e.g. histones.
7. Nutrient and storage e.g. albumen of egg, casein of milk, Ferritin that stores
iron.
8. Proteins acts as buffers e.g. Plasma proteins 9. Proteins function as anti-
vitamins e.g. Avidin of egg.
10. Proteins are infective agents.
C. Lipids
o Lipids are hydrophobic molecules like fats, oils, phospholipids, and steroids.
o They function as energy storage, water proofing, membrane structure, and some
hormones.
o Fats and oils are triglycerides composed of fatty acid tails and glycerol head.
o Lipids are biological compounds that consist of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen. These
non-polar molecules are insoluble in water but soluble in ether, alcohol, chloroform
or other organic solvents.
o These molecules are considered as the highest form of energy reserve and long-term
energy storage. They are twice the energy as carbohydrates.

Some examples of Lipids:

a. Triglycerides which include fats and oils
Saturated Fats- These molecules contain fatty acids which all of the carbon-
carbon bonds are single bonded. Most animal fats are solid at room temperature.
Reminder: We should limit these in our diet because they contribute to heart
disease due to plaque depositions in arteries-a cardiovascular disease called
atherosclerosis.
Examples: Bacon, meat, oils, sour cream and butter

Unsaturated Fats- These molecules have fatty acids with at least one carbon-
carbon bond is double bond. These are liquid at room temperature which the fat
molecules don’t stack tightly together. They are from the plant, vegetable and
fish fats. Plant and fish fats are liquid at room temperature and are known as oils.
b. Waxes- These are long-chain of fatty acids combined with alcohols rather than
glycerol. These molecules form protective coatings on the leaves of plants and the
skins of animals.
c. Phospholipids- These are main component of the cell membrane. They have a
phosphate group bonded to one of the fatty acid chains, making the molecules
hydrophilic.
d. Hormones and Steroids which include Cholesterol- these are lipids with carbon rings.
Steroids are formed by different functional groups attached to the rings. One of the
important steroids is the cholesterol, which is an important component of cell
membrane. Many of these steroids are hormones such as sex hormones including
testosterone and estrogen.

D. Nucleic Acid
➢ These are large molecules containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
phosphorus. Nucleic acids are polymers made of nucleotide monomers.
Nucleotides build nucleic acids which are made up of three parts: phosphate,
sugar group (deoxyribose and ribose) and nitrogen-containing base. The nitrogen
bases are rings of carbon and nitrogen that come in two types: purines (a type of
nitrogenous base made of 2 rings, and can only pair with a pyrimidine) and
 pyrimidines (a type of nitrogenous base made of one ring and can only pair with
purine).

Table 2: Types of Nitrogen Bases

There are two types of Nucleic Acids:

1. Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA) –These molecules have two strands that twisted
around an imaginary axis to form a double helix. They provide the template for
all the information necessary to every new life. DNA codes determine the
sequence of the amino acids.
2. Ribonucleic acid (RNA)- RNA molecule is a single polynucleotide chain.
Nitrogenous base Uracil links to adenine instead of thymine. This store and
transfers genetic information for making proteins.

Table 3: Comparison between DNA and RNA

Figure 6: Structure of DNA and R NA

 Figure 7: Structure of DNA and RNA

What is DNA made of?

o DNA is made up of molecules called nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains
phosphate group, a sugar group and a nitrogen base (adenine (A), thymine (T),
guanine (G), and cytosine (C)
o Nitrogenous bases adenine (A)-thymine (T) and guanine (G)-cytosine (C) form the
base pairs A-T and G-C.

A base pair is a one of the pairs A-T or G-C. Notice that each base pair consists of a
purine and a pyrimidine.
The nucleotides in a base pair are complementary which means their shape allows
them to bond together with hydrogen bonds. The A-T pair forms two hydrogen bonds.