Engineering Physics-PHY 1071

Some Physical Constants:

Planck’s constant, h = 6.625 x 10-34 J.s Stefan’s constant = 5.67 x 10-8 W m-1 K-1
Speed of light in vacuum, c = 3 x 108 ms-1 Wien’s constant = 2.898 x 10-3 mK
mass of proton = 1.67 x 10-27 kg Absolute Permittivity, 0 = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m
mass of electron: 9.1 x 10-31 kg Absolute Permeability, 0 = 4 x 10-7 H/m
Boltzmann Constant, k = 1.38 x 10-23 JK-1
1. Wave optics
Maxwell’s equations

E - magnitude of electric field

B - magnitude of magnetic field
dA - magnitude of area element
ds - magnitude of line element
q - electric charge
ε0 - absolute permittivity
E - electric flux
1
Poynting vector, 𝑆⃗ = 𝜇 𝐸⃗⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ B - magnetic flux
0
1 I – electric current
Instantaneous energy densities 𝑢𝐸 = 𝜀 𝐸2
2 0 0 – absolute permeability
𝐵2
𝑢𝐵 =
2𝜇0

Young’s double slit expt.:

Condition for constructive and destructive interference
𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃bright = 𝑚𝜆 ; (𝑚 = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . )
1
𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃dark = (𝑚 + 2) 𝜆 (𝑚 = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . )
Linear positions of bright and dark fringes d : distance between the two slits
𝑚𝜆  : wavelength of light used
𝑦bright = 𝐿 (small angle approximation)  : angular position on the screen
𝑑
1 m : order number
(𝑚 + 2) 𝜆 𝜑 : phase difference
𝑦𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘 = 𝐿 (𝑚 = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . )
𝑑 𝛿 : path difference
Average light intensity at a point on the screen 𝑦 : linear position on the screen
𝜑 L : distance between the slit and the
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( )
2 screen
2 𝜋𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜋𝑑
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝜆 ) 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( 𝜆𝐿 𝑦) 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 : maximum intensity on the
screen
Condition for interference in thin films in air
n : refractive index
(reflective system)
t : thickness of the film
Constructive interference:
1 R : radius of curvature of lens
2𝑛𝑡 = (𝑚 + ) 𝜆 (𝑚 = 0, 1, 2, . . . )
2
Destructive interference:
2𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚𝜆 (𝑚 = 0, 1, 2, . . . )
Radius of mth order Newton’s ring
𝑟𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘 ≈ √𝑚𝑅𝜆 (𝑚 = 0, 1, 2, . . . )
1
(𝑚 + 2) 𝑅𝜆
𝑟𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ≈ √ (𝑚 = 0, 1, 2, . . . )
𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚

Anti-reflection coatings

r – reflection coefficient
n1 – refractive index of the film
ns – refractive index of the substrate
n0 – refractive index of the air
Two-Layer Anti-reflecting Films  - phase difference
t – thickness of the film
R- reflectance

Multi-Layer Anti-reflecting Films

Single slit diffraction: condition for minima

𝜆
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃dark = 𝑚 𝑚 = ±1, ±2, ±3, . ..
𝑎
Intensity due to single slit diffraction
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜋𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃/𝜆)
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 [ ]
(𝜋𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)/𝜆 a : width of single slit
Intensity of two slit diffraction pattern [combined effect] 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 : maximum intensity [Central
2
2
𝜋𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜋𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃/𝜆) maxima]
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )[ ] d : distance between the two slits
𝜆 (𝜋𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)/𝜆
D : diameter of the aperture
Rayleigh’s criterion: limiting angle of resolution

𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.22 𝐷
[for circular aperture]

𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑎
[for rectangular aperture]
Grating equation for maxima
𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃bright = 𝑚𝜆 ; 𝑚 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, . ..
X-ray diffraction: Bragg’s law
d : Inter-planar spacing in the crystal
2𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 𝑚 = 1, 2, 3, . ..
Chapter 2. LASERS AND FIBRE OPTICS
𝑵𝟐 k : Boltzmann constant,
= 𝒆−(𝑬𝟐−𝑬𝟏)/𝒌𝑻
𝑵𝟏 N1 : density of atoms with energy E1
N2 : density of atoms with energy E2
𝟖𝝅𝒉𝒇 𝟑
𝟏 If : energy density of frequency 𝑓.
𝑰𝒇 = [ ] k : Boltzmann constant
𝒄𝟑 𝒉𝒇
𝒆𝒌𝑻 − 𝟏 c : Speed of light
At thermal equilibrium the equation for energy h : Planck’s constant.
𝐀
density 𝑰𝒇 = 𝒉𝒇
𝑩[𝒆𝒌𝑻 − 𝟏]

1 0 : acceptance angle
sin  0 = n12 − n22 n0, n1 and n2 : Refractive indices
n0
Ls : Skip distance
n12 d: diameter of the fibre
Ls = d −1
n02 sin 2 
 d d : diameter of the core
V= n0 n12 − n22  : wavelength of the light

Chapter 3. Quantum Physics
Wien’s Displacement Law λm : wavelength corresponding to peak intensity.
λm T = 2.898 × 10−3 m.K T : equilibrium temperature of the blackbody.
Stefan’s Law P : power radiated from the surface area A of the
object.
P =  A e T4
T : equilibrium surface temperature.
 : Stefan-Boltzmann constant.
e : emissivity of the surface
Planck’s law I ( , T ) : intensity or power per unit area emitted in the
wavelength interval d from a blackbody at the
2 h c2 1 equilibrium temperature T
I ( , T ) =
 5 hc
 k BT
h : Planck’s constant.
e −1 kB : Boltzmann's constant
c : speed of light in vacuum
Einstein’s photoelectric equation f : frequency of incident photon.
Kmax = hf −  Kmax : kinetic energy of the most energetic photoelectron.
 : work function of the photocathode material.
Relativistic momentum of a particle
1
p =  mv γ = 2 p : momentum of the particle
√1 − v2 m : mass of the particle
c
Relativistic kinetic energy of a particle v : speed of the particle
K = ( -1) m c2 c : speed of light in vacuum
Total energy (relativistic) of the particle
E =  m c2
E 2 = p2 c 2 + m2 c 4
Compton shift equation o : wavelength of the incident photon.
ℎ ’ : wavelength of the scattered photon,
𝜆′ − 𝜆𝑜 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
𝑚𝑐  :angle of scattering
de Broglie wavelength, 𝜆 h : Planck’s constant
p : momentum of the quantum particle.
m : mass of the particle
ℎ ℎ
𝜆 = = 𝑝 = 𝑚 𝑣 = √2 𝑚 𝑞 ∆𝑉 v : speed of the particle
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
q : charge of the particle
V : accelerating voltage
Relation between group speed and 𝑣𝑔 : group speed
phase speed 𝑣𝑃 : phase speed
𝑑𝑣𝑃
𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑃 − 𝜆 ( )
𝑑𝜆
Heisenberg uncertainty relations. x : uncertainty in the measurement of position x of the
(x) (px) ≥ h / 4 particle.
px : uncertainty in the measurement of momentum px
(E) (t ) ≥ h / 4 of the particle.
E : uncertainty in the measurement of energy E
t : time interval in the measurement of E.

Chapter 4. Quantum Mechanics

One dimensional time independent ℏ : Reduced Planck’s constant
Schrödinger equation m : mass of the particle
ℏ2 𝑑2 𝜓  : wave function
− +𝑈𝜓 = 𝐸𝜓
2 𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2 U(x) : potential energy function
Expectation value of x E : total energy of the system
 +∞
h : Planck’s constant
〈𝑥〉 ≡ ∫ 𝜓 ∗ 𝑥 𝜓 𝑑𝑥 L : length of the “box”.
−∞
n : integers
Particle in a “box” T : tunneling probability
En - quantized energy values of the
particle.
ℎ2
𝐸𝑛 = ( ) 𝑛2
8 𝑚 𝐿2

Transmission coefficient
√ 2 𝑚 (𝑈−𝐸)
T ≈ e−2CL 𝐶 = ℏ

Chapter 5. Molecules and Solids

Total potential energy of the crystal
𝑒2 𝐵
𝑈total = −𝛼𝑘𝑒 + 𝑚 𝛼 : Madelung constant
𝑟 𝑟 r : separation distance between
ions
Probability of a particular energy state E being occupied by m : small integer
an electron: Fermi-Dirac distribution function EF : Fermi energy
1
𝑓(𝐸) = 𝑘B : Boltzmann constant
𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹
𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) + 1
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
Density-of-states function
3 m : mass of the particle
8√2 𝜋 𝑚2 1 h : Planck’s constant
𝑔(𝐸) 𝑑𝐸 = 𝐸 2 𝑑𝐸
ℎ3
Fermi energy at 0K
2 𝑛𝑒 : electron density
ℎ 2 3 𝑛𝑒 3 m : mass of the electron
𝐸𝐹 (0) = ( )
2𝑚 8𝜋
Lennard–Jones potential equation
𝐴 𝐵
𝑈(𝑟) = − 𝑛 + 𝑚
𝑟 𝑟
Molecule’s angular momentum
𝐿 = √𝐽(𝐽 + 1) ℏ 𝐽 = 0, 1, 2, . .. r : inter nuclear separation
distance between the two atoms
Energies of the absorbed photons in rotational transitions
A : is associated with the attractive
ℏ2 ℎ2
𝐸photon = 𝐽 = 2 𝐽 𝐽 = 1, 2, 3, . .. force
𝐼 4𝜋 𝐼 B : with the repulsive force
Vibrational energies 𝐽 : rotational quantum number
1 ℎ 𝑘 I : Moment of inertia of the
𝐸vib = (𝑣 + ) √ 𝑣 = 0, 1, 2, . .. molecule
2 2𝜋 𝜇
𝑘 : effective spring constant
Combined [rotational + vibrational] spectra  : reduced mass
ℏ2 f : frequency of spectra
𝐸photon = 𝛥𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 + (𝐽 + 1) n0 : number of molecules in the J=0
𝐼
𝐽 = 0, 1, 2, .. state
Number of molecules in an excited rotational state 𝑘B : Boltzmann constant
−ℏ2 𝐽(𝐽+1) n, m : small integers
𝑛 = 𝑛0 𝑒 2𝐼𝑘𝐵 𝑇

Intensity of spectral lines

−ℏ2 𝐽(𝐽+1)
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∝ (2𝐽 + 1)𝑒 2𝐼𝑘𝐵 𝑇