Nucleic Acids

- Form the genetic material of all living organisms.

- Found in the nucleus.
- Two types: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) And ribonucleic acid
(RNA)
- Made up of nucleotides.
Monomer: nucleotide
Polymer: polynucleotide
Structure
Three components: Sugar, nitrogenous base and phosphoric
acid (phosphate)
Sugar
- Five carbon sugar (pentose) either ribose in RNA or
deoxyribose in DNA.
Base
- Purines have two ring, made of
adenine and guanine.
- Pyrimides have one ring, made of
Thymine (for dna) and Cytosine.
- Joined by hydrogen bonds.
JOINING SEQUENCE
DNA. RNA
A=T A=U
G≠*C G≠C
*triple bond

Phosphoric Acid
 Structure of a
nucleotide

Structure of dinucleotide

Structure of DNA
Bases - A, T, G, C
Sugar- dioxyribose
Phosphate
- Two polynucleotide chains
- Chains joined by hydrogen bonds between bases.
- Complementary base pairing facilities the
replication of DNA by ensuring that its code can
be copied.
- Antiparallel Orientation: The two strands run in
opposite directions, with one strand oriented 5
prime (fifth carbon ok the end) to 3 prime (third
carbon on the end)and the other 3' to 5'.
- Genes: Specific sequences of nucleotides that encode
information for building and maintaining organisms.
- Helical Twist: The helix twists around a central axis, providing
stability and protection for genetic information.
- Replication: DNA can replicate, producing identical copies for
cell division and inheritance of genetic information.

Functions of DNA
Protein differencistion- they code the protein we need to live .
Inheritance - traits are passed from organisms to their offspring
through DNA carried in their genes.

Ribonucleic Acid
There are three types of RNA:
- mRNA (messenger ribonucleic acid)
- rRNA (ribosomal ribonucleic acid)
- tRNA (transfer ribonucleic acid)
Functions
Messenger RNA. - Formed in the nucleus and has a
single chain twisted into a helix
 - Carries information from nucleus through the
nuclear pore to ribosomes to code DNA .
- Short lifespan

Ribosomal RNA - Made in the nucleolus, made up of

two sub units (one large one small)
- Complex molecule made of single
and double helixes
- Links or houses the amino acids
to make protein

Transfer RNA - Single chain- folded I to a clover

leaf shape☘️
- Many different types of tRNA
- Structure is similar except for the
three bases of the anticodon which
determine what aminno acids
attach.
Nitrogenous Bases
A=U and G≠C

Genetic Code
The genetic code is a set of rules that governs the translation of
genetic information from DNA or RNA into proteins. It specifies
how the sequence of nucleotides in DNA or RNA is converted into
the sequence of amino acids in a protein.

- Codons: The genetic code is read in three-letter units called

codons. Each codon corresponds to a specific amino acid or
serves as a signal to start or stop protein synthesis.

- Amino Acids: There are 20 different amino acids that can be

incorporated into proteins. The genetic code assigns each
amino acid one or more codons. For example, the codons GAA
and GAG both code for the amino acid glutamic acid.

- Redundancy: The genetic code exhibits redundancy, meaning

that multiple codons can code for the same amino acid. This
redundancy provides a degree of error tolerance, as mutations
in the DNA sequence may not necessarily result in a different
amino acid being incorporated into a protein.

- Start and Stop Codons:

-Start Codon (AUG): AUG codes for the amino acid methionine
and serves as the initiation signal for protein synthesis.
- Stop Codons (UAA, UAG, UGA): These codons signal the
termination of protein synthesis.
 - Universal Nature; The genetic code is nearly universal,
meaning that the same codons code for the same amino acids
in almost all living organisms. This universality underscores
the common ancestry of all life on Earth.

- Flexibility and Adaptability: While the basic principles of the

genetic code are conserved, some variations exist. In certain
organisms or organelles, variations in the genetic code allow
them to adapt to specific environments or optimize protein
synthesis.

Understanding the genetic code is fundamental to deciphering the

information stored in DNA and RNA, enabling scientists to
comprehend the mechanisms of inheritance, gene expression, and
protein synthesis.

DNA Replication
INITIATION
- DNA ggrase makes a nick in the double helix and each side
seperates.
- Unwinding of the DNA double helix controlled by the enzyme,
helicase.
- Helicase moves along the DNA and break the hydrogen bonds
between the complementary bases.

ELONGATION
- DNA polymerase (enzyme) binds to single stranded DNA and
moves along the strand.
- As it meets the next base on the DNA, free nucleotides
approach the DNA strand and the correct complementary base
attaches and a hydrogen bond is formed.
 - The free nucleotide is then held in place by the enzyme until it
binds to the preceding nucleotide, extending the strand of
DNA.
- The 5’-3’ direction is continuous.
- The 3’-5’ direction is discontinuous.
- This occurs as the DNA had to keep starting as the DNA has to
move away from the unwinding enzyme.
- These are celled Okazaki Fragments resulting in small gaps.

TERMINATION
- The enzyme DNA ligasee is required to close the gaps.
- A a subunit of DNA polymerase proofreads the DNA strands.

Semi-conservative DNA Replication

- Old strand and a new strand.
- All nucleotide bases are isotope 15N (heavy)
- Centruge- Caesium Chloride Solution

Protein Synthesis
Transcription
- Makes mRNA
- RNA-polymerase
- Bases:A,U,G,C
- RNA-polymerase unzips strand and RNA polymerase binds to
single strand and codes mRNA.
- mRNA is carried to the cytoplasm.

Translation
- Occurs in cytoplasm.
- Synthesis of polypeptide chains