BSS GC 2019-Syllabus Handout Master V1!14!01!20!1

Page 1 of 301
British Safety Services, 305 (a) Radio House, Aston Road North, Aston, Birmingham. B6 4DA.
Tel: +44 (0) 121 314 1828 Email: admin@bssukhse.com
Introduction to health and safety ................................................................. 9
The General Hierarchy of Control Measures (ERIC PD) ............................................. 16
Element 1: Why we should manage workplace health and safety ........... 18
1.1 Morals and money.................................................................................................... 18
Moral expectations of good standards of health and safety ...................................... 18
Moral ............................................................................................................................ 18
The financial cost of incidents (insured and uninsured costs).................................. 18
Economic...................................................................................................................... 18
Cost of accidents .......................................................................................................... 18
Legal................................................................................................................................ 19
The need for insurances................................................................................................ 20
1.2 Regulating health and safety .................................................................................. 21
The purposes of law produced by national governments .......................................... 21
Types of Law .................................................................................................................. 21
Civil Law ....................................................................................................................... 21
Criminal Law ................................................................................................................. 21
Contract Law ................................................................................................................ 21
What enforcement agencies do and what happens if you don’t comply .................. 22
Role of national governments and international bodies in health and safety .......... 22
The part played by international standards (like ISO 45001)...................................... 23
International Labour Organisation (ILO) ...................................................................... 24
Employers’ responsibilities (C155 Article 16 and R164 Recommendation 10)......... 25
Those with responsibility for HSE in the work place .................................................. 25
Employers’ duties for their workers and others (ILO R164 Recommendation 10) ........ 25
Employers general responsibility for their workers ....................................................... 26
Employers specific responsibilities for their workers..................................................... 26
Factors which may determine the level of supervision for workers. .............................. 26
Competence: What is competence and how do we ensure people are competent for
their work? 26
Employers’ responsibilities to non-employees (R164 Recommendation 10) ................ 27
Why visitors and other vulnerable people may be at risk .............................................. 27
What extra precautions might we put in place for the for safety of visitors ................... 27
Designers, Manufacturers, Suppliers and Importers of equipment and substances ..... 27
Workers’ responsibilities and rights (C155 Article 19 and R164 Recommendation 16) 28
Where can you find information on national standards ................................................. 28
Page 2 of 301
1.3 Who does what in organisations? .......................................................................... 30
Role of directors/managers/ supervisors ...................................................................... 30
Health and Safety Responsibilities of Directors and Senior Managers ......................... 30
Health and Safety Responsibilities of Supervisors ....................................................... 30
Other typical general organisational responsibilities might include; .............................. 30
How can top management demonstrate commitment? ................................................ 31
Responsibilities of organisations who share a workplace to work together on health and
safety issues (C155 Article 17, R164 Recommendation 11)......................................... 31
How clients and contractors should work together ....................................................... 32
Effective planning and co-ordination of contracted work .............................................. 32
Pre-selection and management of contractors ............................................................. 33
Procedure for selection of contractors .......................................................................... 33
Assess contractors for suitability .................................................................................. 34
Control of contractors ................................................................................................... 35
Monitor the contractors’ performance ........................................................................... 35
Contractor Evaluation ................................................................................................... 36
Element 2: How health and safety management systems work and what
they look like ............................................................................................... 37
2.1 What they are and the benefits they bring ............................................................. 37
HSG65 Successful Health and Safety Management .................................................... 37
Key Elements of a Safety Management System .......................................................... 38
The benefits of having a formal/certified health and safety management system ......... 38
Integrated Management Systems ................................................................................. 39
Why use a safety management system ........................................................................ 39
The benefits of having a safety management system .................................................. 40
2.2 What good health and safety management systems look like ................................ 40
Summary of typical general organisational responsibilities might include; ................... 42
Organisational learning is a key aspect of health and safety management. ................. 44
Demonstration of Senior Management Commitment .................................................... 44
Target Setting ............................................................................................................... 44
The safety management system should be reviewed ................................................... 45
Page 3 of 301
Element 3: Managing risk – understanding people & processes ............ 46
3.1 Health and safety culture......................................................................................... 46
Meaning of the term ‘health and safety culture’ .......................................................... 46
Factors that can cause the culture to decline ............................................................... 46
Relationship between health and safety culture and health and safety performance ... 47
Indicators of an organisation’s health and safety culture .............................................. 48
The benefits of a positive culture are (moral, economic and legal MEL) ...................... 48
3.2 Improving health and safety culture ....................................................................... 49
Gaining commitment of management ........................................................................... 49
Good communication within the organisation: ........................................................... 52
What is communication? .............................................................................................. 52
Benefits & limitations of different methods of communication (verbal, written,
graphic) ........................................................................................................................ 54
Co-operation and consultation with the workforce and contractors .............................. 57
The role of health & safety committees ........................................................................ 59
When training is needed? ............................................................................................. 61
3.3 How human factors influence behaviour positively or negatively ....................... 62
Link between individual, job and organisational factors ................................................ 62
3.4 Assessing risk .......................................................................................................... 68
Meaning of hazard, risk, risk profiling and risk assessment.......................................... 68
Risk profiling: What is involved? Who should be involved? The risk profiling process . 68
Purpose of risk assessment and the ‘suitable and sufficient’ standard it needs to reach
(see HSG65: ‘Managing for Health and Safety’) ........................................................... 70
A general approach to risk assessment (5 steps): ........................................................ 71
3.5 Management of change (MOC)................................................................................ 79
What is management of change (MOC)? ..................................................................... 80
Managing the impact of change: .................................................................................. 81
3.6 Safe systems of work for general work activities ................................................. 83
Why workers should be involved when developing safe systems of work .................... 83
Why procedures should be recorded/written down ....................................................... 83
The differences between technical, procedural and behavioural controls .................... 83
Steps in developing a safe system of work:.................................................................. 84
Instruction and training in how to use the system ......................................................... 84
Monitoring the system .................................................................................................. 85
Page 4 of 301
3.7 Permit-to-work systems .......................................................................................... 86
Meaning of a permit-to-work system ............................................................................ 86
Why permit-to-work systems are used ......................................................................... 86
How permit-to-work systems work and are used .......................................................... 86
Key Elements of a PTW ............................................................................................... 87
The general details included in a permit-to-work .......................................................... 87
When to use a permit-to-work system .......................................................................... 88
3.8 Emergency procedures ........................................................................................... 89
Why emergency procedures need to be developed ..................................................... 89
Typical Workplace emergencies ................................................................................... 89
Why people need training and emergency procedures need to be tested .................... 90
What to include in an emergency procedure (see HSG268: ‘The health and safety
toolbox’) ........................................................................................................................ 90
Why people need training and emergency procedures need to be tested .................... 90
First aid ........................................................................................................................... 92
What to consider when deciding on first aid needs in a workplace: .............................. 92
Element 4: Health and safety monitoring and measuring ........................ 95
4.1 Active and reactive monitoring ............................................................................... 95
The differences between active and reactive monitoring .............................................. 95
Reactive monitoring ...................................................................................................... 99
4.2 Investigating incidents .......................................................................................... 101
Moral reasons for investigating incidents.................................................................... 101
Economic reasons for investigating incidents ............................................................. 101
Legal reasons for investigating incidents .................................................................... 101
Incident Types ............................................................................................................ 102
Levels of investigations: ............................................................................................. 102
Reporting of incidents to external agencies ................................................................ 107
4.3 Health and safety auditing - .................................................................................. 110
Definition of the term ‘audit’ (Clause 3.32, ISO 45001:2018) ...................................... 110
Why health and safety management systems should be audited ............................... 110
Difference between audits and inspections ................................................................ 110
4.4 Review of health and safety performance............................................................ 114
Why health and safety performance should be reviewed ........................................... 114
What the review should consider: ............................................................................... 114
Reporting of incidents/accidents to external agencies ................................................ 115
Page 5 of 301
Element 5: Physical and psychological health ....................................... 117
Noise ............................................................................................................................. 117
The meaning of commonly used terms....................................................................... 120
Vibration ....................................................................................................................... 125
The effects on the body of exposure to hand–arm vibration and whole-body
vibration ...................................................................................................................... 125
When exposure should be assessed .......................................................................... 127
Basic vibration control measures, including ................................................................ 128
Radiation....................................................................................................................... 129
The types of, and differences between, non-ionising and ionising radiation
(including radon) and their health effects .................................................................. 129
Mental ill-health ............................................................................................................ 133
The frequency and extent of mental ill-health at work ................................................ 133
What should an employer do? .................................................................................... 133
What is in a Stress Policy? ......................................................................................... 133
Common symptoms of workers with mental ill-health ................................................. 134
The causes of, and controls for, work-related mental ill-health................................... 137
Stress and the home – work interface ........................................................................ 140
Violence at work ........................................................................................................... 141
Types of violence at work including ............................................................................ 141
Who is at risk? ............................................................................................................ 141
Control measures to reduce risks from violence at work ............................................ 141
Hierarchy for work related violence ............................................................................ 142
Worker on worker violence ......................................................................................... 142
Control measures to reduce risk of violence between workers; .................................. 142
Substance abuse at work ............................................................................................ 143
Look at safety-critical work ......................................................................................... 143
Risks to health and safety from substance abuse at work .......................................... 143
Control measures to reduce risks from substance abuse at work .............................. 144
Element 6: Musculoskeletal health .......................................................... 146
Work-related upper limb disorders (WRULDS).......................................................... 146
Meaning of musculoskeletal disease and work-related upper limb disorders ............. 146
Ergonomics ................................................................................................................ 146
Sources of published information regarding ergonomic issues include: ..................... 147
Possible ill-health conditions from poorly designed tasks and workstations ............... 147
Avoiding/minimising risks from poorly designed tasks and workstations .................... 148
Page 6 of 301
Manual handling ........................................................................................................... 151
Common types of manual handling injury................................................................... 151
Avoiding/minimising manual handling risks ................................................................. 151
Good handling technique for manually lifting loads .................................................... 153
Load-handling equipment ........................................................................................... 155
Powered hoists ........................................................................................................... 161
Requirements for lifting operations ............................................................................. 164
Safety in lifting operations/use of lifting equipment ..................................................... 164
Lifting Operations – a summary of the requirements (PEME) .................................... 165
Element 7: Chemical and biological agents ............................................ 169
Size of occupational health problem .......................................................................... 169
Chemical hazards include: .......................................................................................... 169
Biological hazards examples include: ....................................................................... 170
Physical hazards examples include: .......................................................................... 170
Psychological hazards examples include: ................................................................ 170
Physical state or form of chemical agents .................................................................. 170
Forms of biological agents: fungi, bacteria and viruses .............................................. 172
Difference between acute and chronic health effects ................................................. 175
Main classification of hazardous chemical properties (SMIRTCCHA) ........................ 176
Assessment of health risks ......................................................................................... 181
Role and limitations of hazardous substance monitoring............................................ 183
Airborne Monitoring .................................................................................................... 185
Engineering controls ................................................................................................... 187
Ventilation systems..................................................................................................... 187
Specific agents ........................................................................................................... 190
Workplace exposure limits (WEL)............................................................................... 195
Chemical and biological hierarchy of control measures – ERIC PD ....................... 197
Extra controls for specific agents ................................................................................ 201
Element 8: General workplace issues...................................................... 203
Health, welfare and work environment........................................................................ 203
The effects of exposure to extremes of temperature; control measures. .................... 206
Working at height........................................................................................................ 208
Safe place of work – existing structure ....................................................................... 210
Safe place of work – mobile elevated work platform – MEWP ................................... 210
Safe place of work – scaffolding ................................................................................. 210
Page 7 of 301
Safe working in confined spaces................................................................................ 221
Types of confined spaces and why they are dangerous ............................................. 221
When a permit-to-work for confined spaces may not be required............................... 223
Lone working ................................................................................................................ 224
What is a lone worker? ............................................................................................... 224
Slips and trips ............................................................................................................. 227
Safe movement of people and vehicles in the workplace ........................................... 228
Hazards of workplace transport operation ................................................................ 231
Control measures to manage workplace transport: .................................................... 232
Managing work-related driving ................................................................................... 234
Hazards associated with the use of electric and hybrid vehicles ................................ 237
Element 9: Work equipment ..................................................................... 238
General requirements .................................................................................................. 238
Safe Use of Work Equipment ..................................................................................... 238
Providing suitable equipment ..................................................................................... 238
Emerging technologies ............................................................................................... 249
How dependent on computer systems are we now for our health and safety? ........... 249
Drones ........................................................................................................................ 249
Self-propelled vehicles – robotic and self-driving vehicles.......................................... 249
Digital technologies – Cyber-attacks and cyber vulnerabilities. .................................. 250
Control measures for machinery................................................................................. 253
Element 10: Fire......................................................................................... 258
Effects of fire on humans ............................................................................................ 258
Fire triangle .................................................................................................................. 258
Flammable vs Combustible ........................................................................................ 260
Principles of fire prevention CHESS .......................................................................... 264
Measures available to minimise the risk of fire from electrical equipment ............ 264
Highly Flammable Liquids and liquefied petroleum gasses ........................................ 264
Structural fire protection – segregation by walls, floors and fire doors........................ 267
Compartmentation ...................................................................................................... 267
Fire refuges .................................................................................................................. 268
Behaviour of common building materials when in a fire .......................................... 268
Access for fire, rescue and other emergency services and vehicles. ..................... 271
Emergency Evacuation Plan (Fire Plan)..................................................................... 271
Provisions for people with disabilities ......................................................................... 272
Page 8 of 301
Means of escape .......................................................................................................... 273
Emergency escape routes to be recorded in building plans ....................................... 274
First Aid Fire Fighting Equipment (FAFFE) ............................................................... 276
Fire Risk Assessment .................................................................................................. 279
Element 11: Electricity .............................................................................. 282
Electrical Theory .......................................................................................................... 282
Hazard and risks of electricity: Introduction ............................................................. 282
The main causes of electric shock.............................................................................. 284
The effects of electricity on the body .......................................................................... 286
Work near underground services and overhead power cables ............................... 287
Work near overhead cables ........................................................................................ 289
Passing underneath overhead lines ........................................................................... 291
Electrical safety – general preventative and protective control measures ............. 292
Frequency of inspection and tests of electrical equipment ......................................... 295
Types of Electrical Inspection .................................................................................... 298
Page 9 of 301
Introduction to health and safety
The multi-disciplinary nature of health and safety
Health and safety covers a very broad area as it applies to all types of industry from Offices
to Nuclear plants, Steelworks, Chemical plants, Oil production platforms, Construction etc.
all with their own particular hazards. Additionally, health and safety problems can involve
engineering and chemical hazards as well as the involvement of the Law.
When dealing with health and safety problems on many occasions the solution may be simple
and straightforward and easy to implement at very little or no cost.
However on some occasions a problem can be complex and will involve requirement of
technical knowledge of the process to come up with a solution and this may involve a large
cost to implement which the organisation may not be prepared to pay. This may require the
use of competent people from many different disciplines – engineering team, safety
specialists, occupational health specialists, ergonomists, behavioural psychologists etc..
When dealing with a health and safety issue the person dealing with it may need to have
technical knowledge of the process, what relevant standards apply e.g. legislation. They will
also need to have the ability to consider the implications of the suggested solution e.g. will it
introduce and new hazards.
The barriers to good standards of health and safety

There are barriers to good standards of health and safety including:
 the complexity of the organisation
 behavioural issues where people’s beliefs are at odds with their behaviour and
 competing or conflicting demands such as the pressure of production or performance
targets versus health and safety
Definitions
It must be reported to the national
Accident: - an unplanned, uncontrolled enforcing authority even though there is no
event which has led to injury to persons, reportable injury this time, as it could have
damage to plant or some other loss. done so in slightly different circumstances.
An incident will include These typically include events like:

 near miss: an event that, while not  unintentional collapse of structures
causing harm, has the potential to cause  explosions and
injury or ill health. (the term near miss  Failure of lifting equipment.
will also include dangerous
occurrences) Health: - is a state of wellbeing. It
 undesired circumstance: a set of concerns an absence of disease,
conditions or circumstances that have physiological and psychological harm. It
the potential to cause injury or ill health includes; fatigue, stress, noise induced
hearing loss or illness resulting from
Dangerous occurrence: - an unplanned, exposure to hazardous substances and
uncontrolled event which has the potential materials.
to cause death or serious injury but did not
this time.
Page 9 of 301
Safety: - is the absence of physical danger Fatal: a work-related death
to persons in the workplace from such
things as equipment, materials and Major injury/ill health: including fractures
working at height. (other than fingers or toes), amputations,
loss of sight, a burn or penetrating injury to
Welfare: - concerns the provision of the eye, any injury or acute illness resulting
facilities for workplace comfort and in unconsciousness, requiring
includes eating, washing, changing, toilets, resuscitation or requiring admittance to
and living/sleeping accommodation and hospital for more than 24 hours;
first aid facilities. It is the facilities
employers provide to ensure the on-going Serious injury/ill health: where the
health of workers. person affected is unfit to carry out his or
her normal work for more than three
Work related ill-health: - concerns harm consecutive days;
to a worker’s health caused by their work.
This would include both physical and Minor injury: all other injuries, where the
psychological harm. injured person is unfit for his or her normal
work for less than three days
Environmental Protection: - is any
measure designed to prevent harm to the Damage only: damage to property,
environment. This harm might be to the air, equipment, the environment or production
water or land leading to problems for plant losses
life, animals, water and air quality.
Differences between Safety and Health

SAFETY HEALTH
Slips, trips and falls Exposure to hazardous chemicals e.g.H2S
Falls from height Exposure to asbestos
Struck by vehicle Exposure to pathogens
Contact with electricity Repetitive strain injuries (WRULDs)
Contact with moving parts of machinery Stress
Violence Noise induced hearing loss
Birds Accident Triangle
1 Major injury
10 Minor injury
30 Property damage
600 Near miss
(F Brird 1969)
Page 10 of 301
Accident prevention
Accident prevention is the technique of anticipating and controlling events so that accidents
are avoided and the consequent damaging results do not occur. This technique covers a
very wide field, dealing, as it does, with the attitudes and the unsafe conditions in the
workplace, thus ensuring the correct control systems are in operation.
Detailed research carried out by Frank Bird, extended the original Heinrich theory by bringing
in property damage and likened the situation to an iceberg, with most of the accidents, (near
misses), being hidden.
Use and Limitations of Accident Ratios in Accident Prevention

In reality we are rarely able to measure the number of accidents that actually occur. We
measure the number of accidents that are reported. In general, the less severe the resultant
injury, the less likely it will be reported. Alongside Bird’s Accident Triangle there therefore
exists an inverted "reporting triangle". For every near miss that is reported, there are possibly
hundreds to thousands of lost time injuries that are reported.
If a change occurs in the number of reported injuries this may be due to:
 A genuine change in number of accidents which are occurring;
 A random change in the number of accidents which resulted in injury;
 A random change in the severity of the injuries, resulting in a change in reporting;
 A change in employee attitudes towards reporting.
So we must treat these comparisons with some scepticism and use other measures to
confirm or deny their general accuracy within a particular business.
Bird and Loftus Accident Causation Theory (Bird and Loftus Domino Theory)
MANAGEMENT BASIC CAUSES IMMEDIATE INCIDENT LOSS

CAUSES
POLICY JOB & PERSONAL UNSAFE ACTS UNEXPECTED INJURY

PROCEDURES FACTORS & CONDITIONS EVENT DAMAGE
(ROOT CAUSES) (UNDERLYING
Page 11 of 301
Every accident consists of five stages 2. Monitoring controls
(dominos)
A. Lack of management control Effective monitoring of these safe
B. Basic causes (Job and Individual systems to check on their
Factors) implementation. (Audits, Surveys,
C. Immediate causes (Unsafe Act and Tours, Inspections, Safety Contact,
Conditions) Safety Sampling and Hazop Studies).
D. Accident that caused the loss
E. The loss Adequate and effective supervision
with the power to remedy deficiencies
when necessary.
DOMINO No. 1: Organisation – lack
of management control 3. Emergency preparedness
Wherever people seek to make a living or A strategy aimed at reducing/minimising

achieve specified goals, organisations the effects of an accident. Areas
arise. The one characteristic that they all covered will include First Aid, Fire, and
have in common is structure. They cannot Explosion and Environmental pollution
function by allowing their members to do control.
whatever they think needs to be done; they
have to be organised. 4. Accident investigation
The formal structure takes place as duties Accident investigations and effective
are assigned, procedures adopted. So use of the lessons learned.
rules, and regulations are circulated and
the production processes are begun. In
health and safety terms this is expressed in DOMINO No 2: Basic causes:
the setting of goals of commitment to safety
and the demonstration to individuals that Job factors
deviations are not acceptable.
Successful management of human factors
All the above is achieved by: involves the development of systems which
have taken into account human capabilities
1. Controls and fallibilities. So careful design of the job
is essential, and should ensure that no
Producing a Safety Policy. Providing mismatch (either physical or mental)
objectives and standards for safety occurs between the job requirements and
which are communicated to all. the employee’s capabilities. Otherwise,
Communication of these standards is there will be the potential for human error.
achieved via Information, Instruction
and Training
Carrying out Risk Assessments. To

identify possible routes to human failure.
Producing rules and procedures to
remove or minimise the risks identified
by the risk assessments, together with
the mechanisms for reviewing them.
(Safe systems of work).
Page 12 of 301
Factors to be considered are: For example, when traffic flows over the
 Likely human errors highlighted by risk bridge it gives rise to internal and external
assessments stress.
 Operator decision making - deciding on
the optimum balance between Overloading structural members leads to
human and automatic contributions overstress which can result in bending
to safety actions. In other words, the and/or fatigue, without necessarily getting
level of automation required within the anywhere near the breaking strength.
task. These well-known conditions of stress and
 Ergonomics - this concerns the strain in engineering apply equally as well
man/machine interface, and concerns to people who live and work in stressful
how we make the job or machine fit the conditions. Different personality types are
man. Thus we consider layout of control better able to cope with high stress levels,
panels, information displays, control and this is important when considering
devices etc. appointing persons to high stress jobs e.g.
 Design and presentation of fighter pilot, air traffic controller etc.
procedures and operating
instructions. Do we use operating Stress due to organisational and job factors
manuals only, or do we use training will be revealed in several ways, one of
sessions and leaflets as well? Do we which is increased accident frequency.
use words only, or words and pictures?
 Organisational control of
environmental factors: workspace, Skills
access for maintenance, and the effects Skill concerns the performance of a task in
of noise, lighting and the thermal a successful and rapid way. Many tasks
environment etc. fulfil this definition from typists to skilled
 Provision of the correct/safe tools and craftsmen. It is recognised that there are
equipment individual differences in skill acquisition,
 Scheduling of work patterns to control and consequently, this must be a
fatigue and stress - shift organisation, consideration in job design, especially
rest breaks, work variety, and when complicated skills are involved.
arrangements for emergency
situations.
Personality
 Effective communications
Personality is the word used to describe
the individual’s perception of his total
Personal factors
environment, including himself. So
The organisation and Job factors will lead
personality is directly linked to a person’s
to a potential accident situation, and it will
behaviour as perceived by others e.g.
be the personal factors which now dictate
honest, intelligent, loyal, serious etc..
how the person(s) will behave in that
situation.
So where a supervisor has a personality
These factors are as follows:
that is considered by other workers to be
weak, unintelligent, and disloyal this is
Stress
important from a health and safety
Stress is perhaps best understood in
viewpoint because they will not be
engineering terms. In a structure the
respected, and consequently any
various members are subject to loading, as
instructions that they give are unlikely to be
in a bridge which is subject to different
followed when they are not present.
loadings at different times.
Page 13 of 301
Physique Considerations should include:
This concerns a physical rather than
mental mismatch. Certain jobs require 1. Task analysis for critical jobs will
strong physiques e.g. scaffolder, labourer produce a job description and a
or soldier, whereas other jobs require less specification for the person to match the
physical ability e.g. electrician, manager, job. This may include age, physique,
receptionist. Again if this is not considered skill qualifications, experience, aptitude,
by the organisation then this could result in knowledge, intelligence, personality and
a person that is not strong enough having will form the basis for recruitment and/or
an accident e.g. dropping a scaffolding selection.
tube from height.
2. Training should aim to, provide the skills
for trainees to understand the workings
Aptitude/Attitude/Age/Ability of the plant and process so that they can
Attitudes are sub-conscious filters that work correctly under both routine and
colour all information we receive. Attitudes emergency conditions.
arise out of our beliefs, and are shaped by
our education and experiences. This sub- 3. Monitoring of personal performance.
conscious filter is important because it will
colour all information, and so decide 4. Fitness for work
whether we perceive to like or dislike this Medical standards, health surveillance,
information. counselling/advice during stressful
periods.
Motivation
Motivation is important because it is a DOMINO No 3: Immediate causes
requirement within an unsafe individual in
order to achieve a lasting alteration in his 88% of all accidents are caused by people
behaviour from unsafe to safe behaviour. - the unsafe act. This error could be on the
This behaviour change is achieved by part of anyone within the chain. Therefore
altering the persons underlying attitude(s), before we examine the unsafe act, we must
and this will only be possible with a suitably examine the unsafe condition. Unsafe
motivated individual. conditions accounts for 10% and 2% are
neither so are called Acts of God.
Experience
Our experiences as we grow older will
shape and change our attitudes and thus,
perceptions of ourselves and the world
around us. The prime influences are:
 Economic background we grow up in

 Parents initially/friends as we get older
 School and educational experiences
Page 14 of 301
UNSAFE ACTS UNSAFE CONDITIONS
ACTIONS BY PERSONNEL WHO PHYSICAL CONDITIONS THAT, IF LEFT, MAY
INADVERTENTLY OR WILFULLY DISREGARD BECOME THE CAUSE(S) OF AN INCIDENT
CORRECT PROCEDURES OR PRACTICES AND
THUS REDUCE THE DEGREE OF SAFETY
1 Using equipment without authority or 1 Inadequate guarding of machinery.

incorrectly
2 Making Safety devices inoperative e.g. 2 Faulty design, construction
removing or disconnecting
3 Using unsafe or damaged equipment 3 Defects in equipment, tools, or machinery
4 Taking unsafe posture or position, e.g. lifting e.g. frayed lifting ropes, chipped hammer
with back bent, exposing body to hazards heads, incorrectly adjusted breaks
5 Unsafe loading or stacking of materials 4 Incorrect dress for the job e.g. loose clothing
6 Failing to use protective clothing on drilling machines
7 Horseplay, e.g. distracting, teasing, practical 5 Lack of knowledge, e.g. skill or training
jokes 6 Poor housekeeping, e.g. material in
8 Hazardous movements, e.g. running jumping, walkways, untidy stacking
stepping on or climbing over 7 Unsafe systems of work
9 Unsafe acts not mentioned above 8 Unsafe physical or mechanical conditions
not mentioned above
Domino No 4: Incident
This is the point in the accident sequence

where there is a contact with an energy (e.g.
electricity) or a substance (a corrosive
chemical).
Domino No 5: Loss
This domino is the end result of the accident

injuries to person(s), damage to property
(e.g. a damaged forklift truck), or some other
loss (bad reputation, environmental pollution
etc.).
Page 15 of 301
The General Hierarchy of Control Measures (ERIC PD)
The hierarchy of controls is a list of measures designed to control workplace risks which are
ranked by order of effectiveness. The hierarchy begins with safe place or work strategies and
finishes with safe person strategies, always with PPE as a last resort.
Provision of a safe place of work
Eliminate
This is the best and most effective way of avoiding a serious hazard and its associated risks.
Elimination occurs when a process or activity is avoided because the associated risk is too high.
An example of this would be window cleaners who used to use a ladder for access, but now use
a telescopic pole to clean first floor and higher windows from the ground floor.
Reduce or substitute
(i) Reduce
There are many ways to reduce a hazard and its associated risks. This might involve reducing
the number of people in a vehicle off-loading area to the minimum number of authorised
personnel or alternatively reducing the voltage of electricity below a voltage at which it may
cause harm to humans.
(ii) Substitute
Alternatively we can reduce the degree of harm by substitution with a less hazardous form,
or even type of substance. There are many examples of substitution, such as the use of water
based rather than oil-based paints, the use of asbestos substitutes and the use of
compressed air as a power source rather than electricity.
Additionally, it might involve reducing the time that the employee is exposed to the hazard, either
by giving the employee other work or regular breaks. Reduced time exposure is a suitable for
the control of health hazards associated with chemicals, noise, ionising radiation, display
screens, ergonomic issues and vibration.
Isolation
Isolation requires us isolate the hazard to a point where it cannot hurt a human, for example high
voltage cables are placed high up on towers or buried deep underground or putting a nuclear
reactor inside a safe zone to prevent human contact.
Isolation could also include, isolation of a particularly noisy machine inside an acoustic booth
away from humans, so as to ensure that humans are safe from the dangerous effects of the
Provision of a safe person in an unsafe workplace
Controls
There are two basic types of controls –
 engineering controls and
 procedural controls;
Page 16 of 301
(i) Engineering controls include:
a) Control the risks at the source (e.g. the use of more efficient dust filters or
maintaining noisy equipment to make it quieter)
b) Ventilate away any hazardous fumes or gases, either naturally by the use of
general dilution ventilation or by the use of local exhaust ventilation such as
extractor fans and hoods
c) Using an RCD to reduce the time that a worker receives an electric shock from a
faulty mains powered tool.
d) The use of fixed machinery guards
(ii) Procedural controls:

a) Describes the safe method of performing the work activity. If the risks involved are
high or medium, the details of the system should be in writing and should be
communicated to the employee formally in a training session, for example use of a
permit to work, (PTW). This might involve the use of lock out tag out on machinery
to prevent accidental re-activation during maintenance works. It would also include
isolating the hazard
b) additionally, in a workplace to separate pedestrians from vehicles we could use a
barrier, (engineering control), or we could use a white line, stating that humans go
one side and vehicles the other
NOTE: Safe systems of work for low risk activities may be conveyed verbally. There should
be records that the employee (or contractor) has been trained or instructed in the safe system of
work and that he or she understands it and will abide by it.
Personal protective equipment (PPE)

Personal protective equipment should only be used as a last resort. There are many reasons for
this but the most important limitations are:
 At best it only protects the person wearing the equipment not anyone else nearby
 It relies on people wearing the equipment at all times
 It must be used properly
 It must be replaced when it no longer offers the correct level of protection. This last point is
particularly relevant when respiratory protection is used.
Discipline
In order to provide and understand and motivation to follow the work procedures the employee
must receive all necessary information, instruction, training and supervision
Management and supervisors at all levels must display safety leadership by being disciplined
themselves and setting a good example. It is crucial that the operator should be monitored to
ascertain that they are behaving in a disciplined fashion and following all relevant procedures.
The operator may also be able to suggest improvements to the equipment or system of work.
The supervisor is an important source of information during the monitoring process. We will
reinforce thus discipline by the use of relevant safety signs. Provision of information, instruction
and training are important motivators to ensure workers remain disciplined and follow the safe
systems of work and site rules. If an employee fails to behave in the correct manner then the
company disciplinary procedure will need to be used.
Page 17 of 301
Element 1: Why we should manage workplace health and safety
1.1 Morals and money
The reasons for accident prevention

The reasons, or sometimes referred to the benefits of providing and maintaining good standards
of health and safety can be summarised as (MEL):
 Moral
 Economic
 Legal
Moral expectations of good standards The business case for health and safety
of health and safety
Apart from the obvious physical effects of
Moral workers and others suffering injuries, il
The employer needs to provide a health and worse, we need to consider the
reasonable standard of care to reduce pain financial effects of incidents on countries,
and suffering to the individual, their family society at large, companies, workers and
and friends. their families.
Indicators of an organisation’s health Cost of accidents

and safety culture:  Payments to the injured persons
 number of incidents  Repair or replacement of damaged plant
 absenteeism, sickness rates, staff and equipment
turnover  Cleaning up after accident
 level of compliance with health and  Medical costs
safety rules and procedures  Compensation costs
 complaints about working conditions  Fines and legal costs
 Increases in insurance costs
 Payments for non-productive time by
The financial cost of incidents (insured other workers including management
and uninsured costs)  Cost of accident investigation
 Replacement labour and training them
Economic to cover injured employee
Accidents cost a great deal of money in  Loss of production and its effects
direct and indirect costs. A study by the
 Loss of reputation
HSE in the UK concluded that health and
safety failures cost 8.5% of contract value.
Page 18 of 301
Cost of Accidents: In addition to the above, we need to also
Costs of poor standards of health and consider the possible costs of incidents,
safety performance both mentally and financially, to workers
and their families:
Below are a series of case studies
researched and published by the Health  Mental strain from worrying about the
and Safety Executive (HSE) UK Enforcing future
Authority.  Pain and suffering for short and long
term
Study 1: Construction of a supermarket  Possibility of permanent disability
12 month project  Possible loss of life if it is a serious
Total losses of £700,000 (8.5% of tender accident
price)  Loss of leisure activities because of
Insured to Uninsured Costs = £1:£11 injuries e.g. playing golf.
 Stress on family and friends
Study 2: Creamery which make dairy  Loss of earnings whilst off work
products
 Extra expenses such as medical
340 staff
treatment costs, legal fees
Total annual costs £975,336
 Inability to do some work, so leading to
Equates to 1.4% of total operating costs
the loss of their job
Insurance to Uninsured = £1:£36
 Possible criminal prosecution if they
Study 3: Transport Company have intentionally breached criminal law
Fleet of tankers
80 employees So providing and maintain good standards
65 vehicles of health and safety should be seen as an
Total annual loss £48,928 investment since it prevents harm and
Equates to 37% of annual profits saves money.
Insurance to Uninsured = £1:£8
Study 4: Oil Platform in North Sea Legal

100 staff on platform Society’s expectations of businesses to
Total annual loss £3,763,684 have good standards of health and safety
Equivalent of shutting down the platform have evolved and increased. The advent of
one day a week globalization has also had an impact on
Insurance to Uninsured = £1:£11 this.
In economies with a high level of economic

development the expectancy is generally
far higher than in societies which are
usually less economically developed
because people are looking for work and
will accept very poor working conditions.
However as the society develops then the
expectations grow.
Page 19 of 301
Society is also concerned with risks or  Clean-up costs
threats from hazards which impact on it.  Fines and legal costs
This type of concern is often associated  Emergency supplies
with hazards that give rise to risks which,  Increased insurance premiums etc.
were they to materialise, could provoke a
large public response due to the event The need for insurances
causing widespread damage or the
occurrence of multiple fatalities in a single Employers Liability Insurance
event. Typical examples relate to nuclear
power generation or railway accidents. So The reasons for Employers’ Liability
they expect higher standards of safety in insurance (Normally a mandatory
these industries. (absolute), duty)
It may be a mandatory legal requirement

Also society gets much of its information on Provides employees with knowledge that
health and safety from the media which should they be injured at work and it is
normally only reports serious incidents. the fault of their employer, then if
they successfully bring a compensation
Furthermore in most countries there are claim and the employer might not have
specific legal requirements on the sufficient money to pay the compensation
employer (both civil and criminal) to directly, then the insurer will pay.
provide and maintain a safe place of work, This insurance covers and compensation
safe plant and equipment, safe systems of and legal costs
work, competent workers and high In some countries it is called ‘worker
standards of training and supervision compensation schemes’:
Generally employers will be insured

against the following (insured costs) Where it is a legal requirement, the
 Compensation payments to injured employer is required to post a copy of the
workers insurance certificate in a public prominent
 Medical costs location such as the health and safety
 Damage to plant, equipment and notice board.
buildings
 Third party costs
 Fire damage Other possible insurances an employer
might have
The employer will probably not be insured Product liability
against the following (uninsured costs) Public liability
 Production delays leading to loss of Professional indemnity
production Contractors all-risk
 Damage to materials and products Design liability
 The time involved in the accident Buildings and contents
investigation
 Loss of expertise and experience NOTE:
 Hiring and training replacement costs It is not possible to take out insurance
 Loss of goodwill and reputation against fines.
 Poor morale
Page 20 of 301
1.2 Regulating health and safety
The Law and the Role of National Governments & International Bodies in Health &
Safety
The purposes of law produced by national governments

 The control of anti-social behaviour
 Regulation of relationships among individuals or between individuals and the State
 The resolution of conflicts
 The setting of clear standards for behaviour with penalties for non-compliance.
Types of Law
There are two main types or categories of law related to health and safety, Criminal and Civil
and these are supported by three main sources of law, (common, statutory and contract),
which guide our behaviour;
Civil Law
Duty to take Supported mainly by Common Law/Sharia– Judge
reasonable care: made law/case law
Function: To enable any person who has suffered harm to
gain some money for their loss
Purpose: To provide compensation
Sanctions: Payment of compensation
Criminal Law
Law of the country: Supported by legislation/Decrees/Acts
Regulations, Orders, Codes
Function: Enforces a rules for society and allows for

punishment against those who have not complied with
legislation
Purpose: To motivate people to follow the government
legislation
Sanctions: Fines and/or imprisonment
Contract Law
Voluntary Supported by verbal or written agreement
agreement between
2 or more parties:
Function: To allow agreement for provision of products or services
Purpose: To regulate agreements in a formal or informal manner
Sanction: Made to provide service/products in a timely and
efficient manner or compensate the other party for failing to
do so
Page 21 of 301
What enforcement agencies do and  Take possession of an article or
what happens if you don’t comply substance to prevent tampering, for
further examination or as evidence in
Role of national governments and accident investigation.
international bodies in health and safety  Require a person to answer any
 Creation of legal framework and laws questions and sign a statement to the
 Provision of support and guidance truth of their answers
documents  Inspect and copy books and documents
 Promotion of H&S via meetings and such as risk assessments, PTW,
publicity maintenance, inspection and training
 Providing Enforcement Officers records.
 Require facilities and assistance such
As we have seen above, under ILO C155, as escorting the inspector, answering
Governments are required to create a questions or providing information.
Competent Authority to support their efforts  Issue enforcement notices
to ensure the health, safety and wellbeing (improvement or prohibition)
of all who may be affected by work  Start criminal prosecutions
activities.  Any other power necessary
Such a Competent Authority usually does As we can see above, the regulators have
this through appointment of Government and require, a very wide range of powers in
regulators to visit, guide and, if required, order to carry out their work. So, how might
prosecute those who break National Health they use such powers?
and Safety Laws.
Enforcement notices – Improvement
In order to do their job professionally, and and Prohibition/Stop Work Orders/
with the authority required, such regulators Notices
require clear powers and authorities. A
sample of such powers are listed below: Improvement Notices/Orders
 Issued for a relatively low risk, breach of
Powers of government enforcement legislation.
inspectors under ILO C155  May state the specific laws believed to
 Enter any premises at any reasonable have been contravened and why
time or whenever they have reason to  Time limit for compliance is whatever is
believe there to be a high risk reasonably practicable
 Take with them authorised persons,  May have the right of appeal
such as a police officer or expert.  Appeal may suspend the notice until the
 Conduct routine examinations appeal is heard
(inspections/accident investigations)  May contain a schedule of compliance
 Direct items be left undisturbed in case
of a serious accident
 Take measurements, photographs
 Take samples for further examination
when they identify something
suspicious during an inspection
 Seize and destroy articles or
substances considered to be posing
serious or imminent danger
Page 22 of 301
Prohibition/Stop Work Notices/Orders Possible legal sanctions
 Issued for imminent or serious danger As we have seen above, there are many
(high risk situations) possible sanctions for breaching health
 Does not always have to be a breach of and safety requirements, with the final, and
legislation. most serious one, being taken to court.
 May state reason why the inspector
believes there to be imminent or serious Most countries have at least a two tier court
danger system for prosecuting those who have
 May have the right of appeal broken national laws, with the lower tier
 Appeal does not suspend the notice being involved in less serious breaches
until the appeal is heard and as such handing out lesser forms of
punishment, (fines or imprisonment), and
Possible enforcement options when a the higher tier used for more serious
Safe System of Work (SSW) is missing breaches, obviously handing out higher
Depending upon the seriousness of the forms of punishment, (bigger fines and/or
circumstances this could include: prison sentences).
 Provision of a verbal warning
(assuming workplace health and safety The part played by international
is generally well managed and employer standards (like ISO 45001)
has a good attitude, so can be trusted) In support of national Government efforts
 Provision of a verbal warning followed- to legislate for good health and safety in the
up by a written confirmation of warning workplace, there are many sources of
international standards and other
 Improvement Notice/Order - for a
documents which can be used.
relatively low risk situation (used where
the employer has a poor attitude toward
Such sources will include:
the inspector and cannot be trusted)
 ILO Conventions, Codes of Practice and
 Prohibition Notice/Order - for a
Guidance documents, for example, ILO
relatively high risk situation (used where
C155
the employer has a poor attitude toward
the inspector and cannot be trusted)  ISO Standards, for example ISO45001,
(Safety Management Systems) or ISO
 A Formal Caution – this is a final
12100, (Safe Guarding of Machinery)
warning to the employer. Any repeat
offence will mean automatic
Use of such standards, ensures that there
prosecution. Used where prosecution is
is standardised guidance, for both
not in the public interest.
Government Regulators and Employers
 Prosecution by government inspectors
and ensuring best practices is
in Criminal Courts where there is a
implemented across all workplaces
serious breach of any health & safety
law
Page 23 of 301
International Labour Organisation (ILO) ILO Codes of Practice
The main aim of ILO is to advance Codes of Practice set out practical
opportunities for men and women to obtain guidance. They are not legally binding and
decent and productive work in conditions of are not intended to replace the provisions
freedom, equity, security and human of national laws or regulations, but do
dignity. The International Labour provide an interpretation of the reasonably
Organisation (ILO) sets out conventions practicable standard to be achieved.
and member states agree to be bound by
these conventions that they have ratified Examples of ILO Health and Safety
(signed). Conventions
 C155: Occupational Safety and Health
ILO Conventions  C161: Occupational Health Services
ILO conventions are important because  C162: Asbestos
they set out what should be contained in  C167: Construction Safety
written government laws regarding the  C170: Chemicals
rights and responsibilities of;  C174: Prevention of Major Industrial
Governments of member countries and Accidents
Employers and Workers - their rights and  C176: Safety and Health in Mines
responsibilities
International Standards of compliance
Conventions define the approach to the Absolute – this is the highest level of duty
management of health and safety issues in and is used where risk of injury is inevitable
newly developing countries. ILO have if safety precautions are not taken.
health and safety conventions covering; Examples of absolute duties include the
Management of health and safety need for health and safety policies, risk
Recording and Notification of Occupational assessment, and consultation.
Accidents and Diseases (RNOAD)
Health and safety for the workplace and Practicable – the effect of this standard is
work equipment similar to absolute insofar as whatever it
requires must be done. Practicable is an
ILO Occupational Safety and Health ever improving standard and is used where
Convention C155 sets out the broad technology and best practice is fast moving
requirements for member countries health e.g. in machinery guarding. So the
and safety requirements which should then employer is expected to use the best
become national laws. These legal protection that is technically possible or
requirements are supported by ILO R164 available regardless of any difficulty or
Recommendations and various detailed costs involved.
Codes of Practice.
Reasonably Practicable – this is the most
ILO Recommendations common statutory standard and means
A recommendation provides detailed that the employer must strike a balance
interpretation of the basic principles of a between risk and cost in the form of time,
convention. The recommendations are inconvenience, money and effort.
non-binding however they provide the
information required by governments to
incorporate the principles into national
legal standards.
Page 24 of 301
Reasonable Care – this is the lowest level Employers’ duties for their workers
of duty and mainly requires employers to and others (ILO R164 Recommendation
take reasonable care for themselves and 10)
others in relation to any foreseeable harm.
The obligations placed upon employers
Interpretation of standards of with a view to achieving the objective set
compliance forth in Article 16 of the Convention might
Decrees/Acts/Orders include, as appropriate for different
Government Regulations branches of economic activity and different
types of work, the following:
Government
Approved codes of practice (a) to provide and maintain workplaces,
Government Guidance notes machinery and equipment, and use work
methods, which are as safe and without
Government risk to health as is reasonably practicable;
Guidance documents
(b) to give necessary instructions and
Non-government training, taking account of the functions
Codes of practice and capacities of different categories of
Learned body/ISO/ILO e.g. workers;
ILO Recommendation 164
(c) to provide adequate supervision of
work, of work practices and of application
Employers’ responsibilities (C155 and use of occupational safety and health
Article 16 and R164 Recommendation measures;
10)
(d) to institute organisational arrangements
This Occupational Safety and Health regarding occupational safety and health
Convention C155 sets out broad and the working environment adapted to
requirements for member countries to the size of the undertaking and the nature
follow to ensure health and safety of its activities;
requirements which must be set into
national laws. These are as follows; (e) to provide, without any cost to the
worker, adequate personal protective
Those with responsibility for HSE in the clothing and equipment which are
work place reasonably necessary when hazards
 Employer to employees cannot be otherwise prevented or
controlled;
 Employer to non-employees
 Designers, manufacturers, suppliers &

importers
 Employees for themselves and others
 No charges for anything required to be

provided by law
Page 25 of 301
For ease, let us split Employers duties Supervision
into; general and specific Above, we mentioned provision of
responsibilities for their workers: supervision, as is necessary/required. So
how do we decide, on the level of
supervision?
Employers general responsibility for
their workers Factors which may determine the level
Every employer is to ensure, so far as is of supervision for workers.
reasonably practicable, the health, safety  Age of the employee
and welfare at work of their workers  Any physical or learning disability
 Employees attitude/aptitude
Employers specific responsibilities for  Employees skills and qualifications
their workers  Employees experience
 Employees communication skills
The employers shall so far as is  Complexity of the task and its level of
reasonably practicable (PEME); risk
 Requirements of the safe system of
People provide (IITS), information,
work
instruction, training, and supervision as is
 Any specific dangerous equipment
necessary.
 Specific substances or materials e.g.
(There is also an absolute duty to prepare radioactive materials
and bring to the attention of the workers an  Specific dangers in the workplace
appropriate health and safety policy, and
consult with the workers on specific health
and safety matters) Competence: What is competence
and how do we ensure people are
Equipment provide and maintain, plant competent for their work?
and systems of work which are safe and
without risks to health Many of the issues mentioned in deciding
the level of supervision also concern
Materials to ensure the safe use, competence, so what is a competent
handling storage, transport of articles and person? A competent person is a person
substances possessing adequate qualifications, such
as suitable training and sufficient
Environment provide and maintain safe knowledge, experience and skill for the
access and egress, a safe place of work, safe performance of the specific work.
safe working environment, and adequate
welfare, (to include washing, eating and This can be remembered as SKATE;
first aid facilities)
Skills and qualifications
Knowledge
Attitude/Aptitude/Ability/Age
Training
Education and experience
Page 26 of 301
Employers’ responsibilities to non- What extra precautions might we put in
employees (R164 Recommendation 10) place for the for safety of visitors
(a) To provide and maintain workplaces,  Signing in
machinery and equipment, and use work  Providing identification badges
methods, which are as safe and without  Providing PPE
risk to health as is reasonably practicable;  Escorting visitor to area of work
 Site induction e.g. relevant risks, fire
(b) To give necessary instructions and plan
training, taking account of the functions  Remain with visitor or regular monitoring
and capacities of different categories of  Escorting visitor back to reception area
workers;
 Signing out visitor and removing badge
and PPE
(c) To provide adequate supervision of
work, of work practices and of application
and use of occupational safety and health
Designers, Manufacturers, Suppliers
measures;
and Importers of equipment and
substances
(d) To institute organisational
In accordance with ILO C155 Article 12,
arrangements regarding occupational
measures shall be taken, in accordance
safety and health and the working
with national law and practice, with a view
environment adapted to the size of the
to ensuring that those who design,
undertaking and the nature of its activities;
manufacture, import, provide or transfer
machinery, equipment or substances for
(e) To provide, without any cost to the
occupational use-
worker, adequate personal protective
clothing and equipment which are
(a) Satisfy themselves that, so far as is
reasonably necessary when hazards
reasonably practicable, the machinery,
cannot be otherwise prevented or
equipment or substance does not entail
controlled;
dangers for the safety and health of those
using it correctly;
Vulnerable people: A vulnerable group in
any workplace are visitors and others not
(b) Make available information
familiar with the workplace, the process
concerning the correct installation and use
equipment or substances used.
of machinery and equipment and the
correct use of substances, and information
Why visitors and other vulnerable
on hazards of machinery and equipment
people may be at risk
and dangerous properties of chemical
 Any physical or mental disability substances and physical and biological
 Lack of competence agents or products, as well as instructions
 Unfamiliar with the hazards and on how known hazards are to be avoided;
associated risks
 Not provided with necessary PPE (c) Undertake studies and research or
 Unfamiliarity with emergency procedure otherwise keep abreast of the scientific and
 Unaware of dangerous substances technical knowledge necessary to comply
 Lack of knowledge of site layout with subparagraphs (a) and (b) of this
 Inadequate/unsigned pedestrian routes Article.
 Unfamiliarity with processes being
undertaken
Page 27 of 301
Workers’ responsibilities and rights Where can you find information on
(C155 Article 19 and R164 national standards
Recommendation 16)
Sources of information for development
Employees’ roles and responsibilities of a safe system of work
According to ILO R164, “The arrangements There are many sources, both internal and
provided for in Article 19 of the Convention external, which may be used to locate
should aim at ensuring that workers” reliable information to assist in
development of safe systems of work,
(a) Take reasonable care for their own (SSW), training plans and other items and
safety and that of other persons who may will include:
be affected by their acts or omissions at
work; Sources of information – Internal
(b) Comply with instructions given for People: Internal

their own safety and health and those of  Employees concerned
others and with safety and health  Safety representatives
procedures;  Supervisors
 Safety advisors
(c) Use safety devices and protective
equipment correctly and do not render Paperwork: Internal
them inoperative;  Risk assessment
 Job safety analysis
(d) Report forthwith to their immediate  Job descriptions
supervisor any situation which they have
 Ill health reports
reason to believe could present a hazard
 Absenteeism records
and which they cannot themselves correct;
 Accident statistics
(e) Report any incident, accident or  Health surveillance & medical records
injury to health which arises in the course  Maintenance & training records
of or in connection with work.  Inspection & audit reports
 Company procedures
Sources of information – External
People: Government
 Government Enforcing Authority
 Inspectors – Health and Safety
 Fire
 Environmental
Page 28 of 301
Paperwork: Government
 Occupational Safety and Health
Administration - OSHA (USA)
 Local laws and Government guidance
 Workplace Hazardous Materials
Information Service - WHMIS (Canada)
 Health and Safety Executive – HSE
(UK)
 Work Safe (Western Australia)
 Documents/Law Reports/National
statistical data
 European Agency for Safety and Health
at Work (European Union)
People: Non-government
 Manufacturers
 Professional associations such as
IOSH, ASSE
 Consultants such as noise or ergonomic
specialists
Paperwork: Non-government
 Universities
 Royal Society for the Prevention of
Accidents (RoSPA)
 American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)
 Trade Unions
 Professional organisations
(International Association of Oil and Gas
Producers - OGP)
 Operating Manuals and Safety Data
Sheets from manufacturer/supplier
 British Standards Institution (BSI)
 Trade Associations (International
Association of Drilling Contractors -
IADC)
 Insurance companies
 ILO/ISO/European, American
Standards including ANSI and API
 Association of Worker Compensation
Boards of Canada
Page 29 of 301
1.3 Who does what in organisations? Other typical general organisational
responsibilities might include;
Role of directors/managers/  Directors and senior managers are
supervisors responsible for setting general policy,
objectives and targets.
Health and Safety Responsibilities of  Supervisors are responsible for
Directors and Senior Managers checking day-to-day compliance with
 Prepare and sign the health and safety the policy
policy and to set goals and objectives for  Safety advisers are responsible for
the organisation. advising the organisation on accident
 Lead by example and to demonstrate and compliance issues.
commitment.  Safety representatives are responsible
 Allocate responsibilities for health and for representing employees in
safety throughout the organisation and consultation on health and safety
to set aside sufficient resources such as matters with the employers and the
for example for training those who have enforcing authority.
been allocated special roles.  Employees are responsible for their own
 Secure competent health and safety health and safety that of others through
advice such as by appointing a Health their acts or omissions.
and Safety Advisor/Officer.  Fire marshals are responsible to ensure
 Receive monitoring reports and ensure the safe evacuation of the building in the
action to rectify any deficiencies that event of an emergency.
have been found.  First-aid personnel are responsible for
the provision of appropriate first-aid to
Health and Safety Responsibilities of injured persons.
Supervisors
 Control work in their area of
responsibility and set a good example.
 Take part in carrying out risk
assessments, developing the Safe
System of Work (SSW)
 Ensure that members of their teams are
fully briefed on the systems once they
have been introduced.
 Carry out inspections of their working
areas and deal with any unsafe
conditions or actions, reporting to
managers if in any situation is beyond
their ability to rectify
 Provide training, coaching and
mentoring to members of their team.
Page 30 of 301
How can top management demonstrate Responsibilities of organisations who
commitment? share a workplace to work together on
health and safety issues (C155 Article
Senior management can demonstrate their 17, R164 Recommendation 11)
commitment in many ways, including:
 Ensuring availability of resources so the Joint Occupation
occupational health and safety Whenever two or more employers work in
management system is established, activities simultaneously at one workplace,
implemented and maintained. This will they should work together in applying best
include provision of people, time, practice as regards occupational safety
facilities and other resources to manage and health and the working environment, in
the business successfully and safely. addition to the responsibility of each
 Clearly defining roles and employer has for the health and safety of
responsibilities for all people concerned its employees.
and ensuring that any duties and/or
function identified in the Safety Policy The measures taken to facilitate the co-
Statement or any part of the Safety operation should include, where
Management System are clearly appropriate & necessary, the appointment,
identified in all documents including, but (in accordance with national practice), of
not limited to, the job holders’ workers safety delegates, of workers safety
job/position description and training and health committees, and/or of joint
plans. safety & health committees; in joint safety
 Appointing a member of top & health committees’ workers should have
management with specific responsibility at least equal representation with
for health and safety to act as the health employers representatives.
and safety “champion” within the
business/organisation and “argue” the This could be achieved by;
point for H&S matters.  Regular meetings, share information
 Appointing one or more competent and risk assessments in order to avoid
persons, and adequate resources, to carrying out incompatible processes,
provide assistance in meeting the activities or incompatible substances
organisation’s health and safety  Prepare and agree joint site rules for the
obligations. This may include an internal workplace for example assembly points
or external safety department/consultant and smoking areas
who, on occasions may even be shared  Set joint procedures for the
with another employer as required. management of visitors and contractors
 Preparing and signing the Safety Policy  Get health and safety advice from
Statement, setting meaningful targets shared consultant
 Be involved in reviewing performance,  The planning and organisation of any
for example by undertaking site visits training required
and accident investigations  Preparing joint procedures for traffic
 Ensuring that the Safety Committee has and movement of vehicles
power and is chaired by a senior  Carry out joint inspections and
manager, who can make decisions and monitoring of the workplace
authorise actions  Draw up joint emergency procedures
and introduce fire drills for the site as a
whole
 Joint policy for waste management
Page 31 of 301
How clients and contractors should 2.4.3. In so far as is compatible with
work together: national laws and regulations, where the
principal contractor, or other person or
body with actual control over or primary
Both parties owe each other, and their responsibility for overall construction site
respective staff, equal duties as employers, activities, is not present at the site, they
as above under “Employers’ should nominate a competent person or
responsibilities to non-employees (R164 body at the site with the authority and
Article 10)” above. means necessary to ensure on their behalf
co-ordination and compliance with safety
Also, we often think of contractors as those and health measures.
providing building/construction and/or
engineering services, we must not forget 2.4.4. Employers should remain
that many companies use contractors for responsible for the application of the safety
soft services like cleaning, security, and health measures in respect of the
catering and many more. workers placed under their authority.
2.4.5. Employers and self-employed

Additionally, under ILO Code of Practice persons undertaking activities
‘Safety and health in construction’ (chapter simultaneously at a construction site
2.4), each party, (client and contractor), should co-operate fully in the application of
owe the following duties to each other and safety and health measures.
others who may be affected by their
individual or joint activities; 2.4.6. Employers and designers should
liaise effectively on factors affecting safety
2.4.1. Whenever two or more employers and health.
undertake activities at one construction
site, they should co-operate with one
another as well as with the client or client's Effective planning and co-ordination of
representative and with other persons contracted work
participating in the construction work being
undertaken in the application of the Cooperate and coordinate with the
prescribed safety and health measures. contractor
The client and the contractor must work
2.4.2. Whenever two or more employers together and coordinate activities, to make
undertake activities simultaneously or sure the work can be done safely and
successively at one construction site, the without risks to health. One way of doing
principal contractor, or other person or this is to have regular meetings throughout.
body with actual control over or primary
responsibility for overall construction site The level of cooperation and
activities, should be responsible for coordination required will depend on:
planning and co-ordinating safety and  The job to be done;
health measures and, in so far as is  The number of contractors (or
compatible with national laws and subcontractors) involved;
regulations, for ensuring compliance with  The risks involved
such measures.
Page 32 of 301
Assess the risks of the work Pre-selection and management of
Both the client and the contractor need to contractors
think about the planned work:
 What can harm people? Selection and Control of contractors
 Who might be harmed and how? The selection of the right contractor for a
 How will you control the risks? particular job is probably the most
important element in ensuring that the risks
The client will already have risk to the health and safety of everybody
assessments for the work activities of their involved in the work activity and other
own activities. Therefore, they you need to people in the area are reduced so far as is
ensure that their assessments cover risks reasonably practicable. Ideally, selection
to contractors from their business (e.g. should be made from a list of approved
asbestos containing materials, on-site contractors who have demonstrated that
vehicle movements, machinery and any they are able to meet the client’s HSE
other process hazards). Equally, the requirements.
contractor must assess the risks for their
work under the contract, work and then The selection of a contractor has to be a
both the client and contractor must balanced judgement with a number of
consider any risks from each other’s work factors taken into account.
that could affect the health and safety of
the joint workforce or anyone else. Fortunately, a contractor who works well
and meets the client’s requirements in
Clients need to think about any risks to terms of the quality and timeliness of the
their workers and members of the public, work is likely also to have a better than
because they have contractors on site. average health and safety performance.
Also, they need to ensure that they agree Cost, of course, will have to be part of the
the measures needed to control risks, (both judgement but may not provide any
client and contractor), with the contractor indication of which contractor is likely to
before work starts. give the best performance in health and
safety terms.
Additionally, in estimating the periods for
completion of work stages and overall The reasons for managing contractors is
completion of the project, clients should the usual morel, economic and social/legal.
take account of safety and health
requirements during the construction Procedure for selection of contractors
process. (Risk Management – ACME)
Assess The contractor’s competence
Control Contractor whilst engaged by

the client
Monitor Contractor both proactively

and reactively.
Evaluate Contractor’s performance

periodically
Page 33 of 301
Assess contractors for suitability For example:
The client will need to satisfy themselves  How do you measure your health and
that the contractor chosen can do the job safety performance, both actively and
safely and without risks to health. This reactively? (see evidence of active
means making enquiries about the monitoring, for example procedure for
competence of the contractor – do they workplace inspections and/or audits and
have the right combination of skills, reactively accident investigation
experience and knowledge? process)
 How many accidents and cases of ill
Additionally, the degree of competence health have you had?
required will depend on the complexity of,  Has the government enforcement
and hazards associated with, the work to officers taken any action taken against
be undertaken. Similarly, the level of you?
enquiries you make to determine suitability  Do you have a written health and safety
of the contractor will be determined by the policy? (Often only legally required
level of risks and the complexity of the job. locally when a certain number, for
example, five or more people are
Examples of questions you could ask employed.)
potential contractors  Have you got existing written risk
What arrangements do you have for assessments created for similar work
managing the work? For example: undertaken recently? (Again, often only
 Who will be responsible legally required locally when a certain
 How will the work be supervised number, for example, five or more
 What checks do you make on people are employed)
equipment and materials etc.?  What methods of consultation with the
 Will you be using subcontractors and if contractor’s and any sub-contractor
so how will you check they are workforce
competent?  What qualifications, skills and
experience do you have in this type of
The level of competence for subcontractors work?
may depend on the risk of the activity and o As a company
complexity of the work. o As managers (see specific CV’s of
key people)
Client should consider the need for giving o As workers
any permission before engaging any sub-  What health and safety information and
contractor. training do you provide for your
workers?
Consider any arrangements in place by  How and when is this delivered?
client to have their own “appointed”  Do you have records?
contractors to be managed by the main  How do you maintain your equipment?
contractor.  How do you decide upon the frequency?
 Who maintains your equipment and
What is your recent health and safety what is their competency?
performance?
 Do you have records?
 If required, do you have relevant
insurances, for example Employers’
Liability Compulsory Insurance?
Page 34 of 301
Questions such as these and others, will The client should appoint a Contract Co-
help you find out whether the contractor is ordinator to ensure:
complying with their duties under health  The contractor has adequate resources
and safety law/best practice. You can then and has been allowed sufficient time to
decide how much evidence is needed to complete the work and
support what you have been told.  To liaise with the contractor on a routine
basis
Other questions you can ask which may  All works carried out by the contractor,
help you to decide which contractor to especially, (“extras” over and above the
choose could include: agreed contract), are suitably approved
prior to commencement and checked for
 Do they have any independent quality and safety as required
assessment of your competence? For
example: Hold a pre-contract meeting – where a
 Membership of a trade association or checklist is completed to:
professional body?  Clearly identify who will be responsible
 An accredited Safety Management for what whilst on-site – health, safety
System, (SMS), for example ISO and welfare issues
45001 or any quality standard, e.g.  Provide adequate information to the
ISO 9001 contractor prior to the work starting on
 Will they be producing a safety method things such as the nature of the work to
statement for the job? be carried out, the known hazards and
 A safety method statement is not usually the site safety rules
required by law, but often is seen as best
practice.
 It does however describe in a logical Monitor the contractors’ performance
sequence exactly how a job is to be The client must monitor and check the
carried out in a safe manner and without contractor against agreed performance
risks to health. It includes all the risks standards, so far as is reasonably
identified in the risk assessment and the practicable.
measures needed to control those risks.
Techniques for monitoring may
This allows the job to be properly planned include:
and resourced  Regular progress meetings, (the higher
risk, the more frequent the meetings
should be)
Control of contractors  Regular inspections of the workplace
This involves an exchange of information under the control of the contractor,
from both parties; (perhaps even consider joint inspections
to encourage better performance and
The Client will issue copy of: cooperation)
 Health and Safety Policy  Attendance at the contractor Safety
 Relevant risk assessments and Committee and, where the contract is a
 Contractor conditions, (which will very long one, for example a 5 year
include all of the items mentioned above cleaning contract, invite a member of the
under assessment and many more) contractor safety committee onto the
client safety committee, to encourage
cooperation
Page 35 of 301
 In the case of a long term contract as
above, conduct an annual audit of the
contractor?
 Monitoring of the contractor
accident/near miss reporting on site and
lessons learned from similar contracts
for other clients?
 Checking the level and competence of
their actual supervision against the level
and competence required under the
contract
Contractor Evaluation
Contract co-ordinator to review
contractor’s performance post-contract
and recommend whether to remain on
preferred supplier list.
As health and safety specialists, we are

obviously concerned with the H&S
performance, but such a review will also
require a total review of all the active and
reactive performance measurement tools
on every aspect of the contract, including;
health and safety, production, quality, price
and timely delivery of the contract.
Page 36 of 301
Element 2: How health and standards.
safety management systems To be successful the ILO recognises that
work and what they look like there must be a national policy on health
and safety and occupational health and
2.1 What they are and the benefits they safety management systems in place. Its
bring main focus is employee participation.
HSG65 Successful Health and Safety The main elements of the ILO-OSH 2001
Management are Policy, Organising, Planning and
HSG65 was developed in the UK by the Implementation, Evaluations and Action for
Health & Safety Executive (HSE) as a Continual Improvement.
guide to successful health and safety
management. The guide is more
concerned with continual improvement
than the attainment of minimum health and
safety standards.
This framework is used by HSE Inspectors

when auditing the health and safety
management arrangements of employers
in the UK. The stages are;
Plan establish performance standard

based on national legal
requirements and risk
assessment.
Do Implement plans and achieve

objectives/standards
Source: ISO 45001
Check measure progress with plans
and compliance against Safety Management Systems
standards The key features of a safety management
system (SMS) are establishing a policy
Act review against objectives and statement, linking objectives with this
standards and take appropriate policy, making arrangements for delivering
corrective action to ensure the policy/objectives, allocating
continual improvement. responsibilities for delivery and measuring
performance of delivery.
ILO-OSH 2001
ILO-OSH 2001 is a guideline offering a A formal management system or
recommended occupational health and framework can help you manage health
safety management framework. and safety; it’s your decision whether to
use one or not. Examples include:
There are many common elements with the
UK’s HS G 65 and ISO 45001; the
framework is not legally binding on ILO
member states and does not seek to
replace national laws, regulations or
Page 37 of 301
National and International standards  A planning phase (Plan)
such as: o Setting policy
 ISO 45001:2018 Occupational health o Organising
and safety management systems – o Risk identification, assessment and
 BS EN ISO 9001:2008 Quality reduction
management system o Procedures for undertaking the tasks
involved in the business
In-house standards, procedures or  A performance phase (Do)
codes sector-specific frameworks such o Communication
as the: o Employee participation
 Energy Institute’s High-level framework o Acceptance monitoring
for process safety management
 Chemical Industries Association's  A performance assessment phase
Responsible Care framework (Check)
o Active and
Although the language and methodology o Reactive monitoring
vary, the key actions can be traced back to
a “Plan – Do – Check – Act” approach.  A performance improvement phase
(Act)
ISO 45001 Health and safety o Review and continual improvement
management standard
As mentioned above, ISO 45001 is an
international health and safety at work The benefits of having a
standard, developed by national and formal/certified health and safety
standards committees’ independent of management system
governments.
Generally, you’re not required by law to
Introduced in March 2018, it’s replacing the implement ISO 45001 or other similar
current standard (BS OHSAS 18001) management standards, but they can help
which will be withdrawn over the next 2 provide a structured framework for
years. Businesses have a three-year ensuring a safe and healthy workplace.
period to move from the old standard to the
new one. They also allow a company to demonstrate
to their industry and clients alike that they
Key Elements of a Safety Management are a responsible organisation and have in
System place good management systems to
All recognized occupational health and deliver their service or product in a
safety management systems follow the responsible manner as regards; health,
same basic and common elements of safety, environment and quality.
Deming’s “Plan, Do, Check, Act” approach.
This is the basis of HSG65 the UK Safety
Management System and ISO 45001.
Page 38 of 301
Integrated Management Systems Attitudes and behaviours
There are several different management Effectively managing for health and safety
systems is not just about having a management or
e.g. Quality - ISO 9000 safety management system.
Environment - ISO 14001
Safety - ISO 45001 The success of whatever process or
system is in place still hinges on the
But all of these various management attitudes and behaviours of people in the
systems have a similar purpose to provide organisation (this is sometimes referred to
a measurable standard. The ultimate aim is as the ‘safety culture’).
to try and bring all these different
management systems together into one If you wish to check your compliance with
integrated management system (IMS). best practice, see the UK regulator’s
website http://www.hse.gov.uk/simple-
Proportionate to the needs of the health-safety/index.htm for examples
organisation against the key areas of ‘What it looks like
However, not all organisations require the when done effectively’ indicate positive
rigours of a formal, externally accredited health and safety attitudes and behaviours.
safety management system and as such, On the other hand, the examples provided
the expectation is that the effort put in of ‘What it looks like when done badly or
should be proportionate to the benefit they not at all’ could indicate underlying cultural
get out. issues.
As mentioned, above, a basic three part

if your organisation is small or low-risk, health and safety policy is sufficient to
you’ll probably be able to demonstrate organise and manage health and safety in
effective risk management without a formal a low risk, small to medium sized business,
management system. A simpler and less it is not adequate for large complex
bureaucratic approach may be more organisations such as oil and gas or
appropriate such as that outlined in the UK construction companies. Here a more
regulator, the HSE’s guidance on sophisticated version of a health and
http://www.hse.gov.uk/simple-health- approach is used and this is called a safety
safety/index.htm management system, whose aim is to
DELIVER the OHS Policy.
Documentation
It is better to keep health and safety Why use a safety management system
documents functional and concise, with the  Provides a systematic way to manage
emphasis on their effectiveness rather than occupational safety and health activities
just the quantity of pages. in the
 Organisation Occupational safety and
If we focus too much on the formal health becomes an integral part of the
documentation of a health and safety organisation’s value system (safety
management system we will be distracted culture)
from addressing the human elements of its  Reduction of hazards and risks,
implementation - the focus becomes the accidents, diseases
process of the system itself rather than  Low absenteeism, high productivity, job
actually controlling risks. satisfaction
Page 39 of 301
The benefits of having a safety f) includes a commitment to consultation
management system and participation of workers, and, where
they exist, workers’ representatives
Moral
Improved staff morale The OH&S policy
Reduced accidents  be available as documented
Reduced ill health information
Reduced staff complaints  be communicated within the
organization
Economic  be available to interested parties, as
Improved company reputation appropriate
Improved production/reduced downtime  be relevant and appropriate
Reduced damage to equipment
Reduced absenteeism Policy – Role (Plan)
Reduced staff turnover The Policy is the start point of any safety
Reduced insurance premiums culture. It is a clear single page statement
Reduced fines and compensation claims of intent from senior management, stating
the main health and safety aims and
Legal objectives (vision) of the organisation shall
Increased levels of compliance with health ensure that top management establish,
and safety rules and procedures, less implement and maintain an OH&S policy
possibility of court cases for both that;
prosecution, (punishment), or suing,  Is specific to each organisation
(paying compensation)
 Creates specific objectives or a
structure for creation of objectives for
2.2 What good health and safety
the organisation
management systems look like
 Indicates how the organisation will
eliminate hazards and prevent of injury
According to ISO 45100, (5.2) regarding
and ill-health
the occupational health and safety
policy, top management shall establish,  Provides a healthy and safe workplace
implement and maintain an OH&S policy with adequate welfare and other
that: resources
a) includes a commitment to provide safe  Demonstrates commitment to at least
and healthy working conditions for the comply with local health and safety
prevention of work related injury and ill legal requirements
health and is appropriate to the purpose,  Allows for worker involvement and
size and context of the organization and to consultation
the specific nature of its OH&S risks and  Commits to continual improvement
OH&S opportunities  Is communicated to all employees and
b) provides a framework for setting the interested parties
OH&S objectives
c) includes a commitment to fulfil legal Provides a clear direction for the
requirements and other requirements; organisation by general goals and
d) includes a commitment to eliminate objectives for health and safety, it also
hazards and reduce OH&S risks shows management commitment and
e) includes a commitment to continual provides evidence of support from senior
improvement of the OH&S management management for people to carry out their
system assigned health and safety responsibilities.
Page 40 of 301
Typical content Planning (Plan)
Typically, a safety policy will contain This concerns the allocation of
statements from senior management responsibilities/accountabilities/authority
similar to this below. Of course, the exact and procedures for the identification of
content and nature of the policy must be national legal and other health and safety
specific to the organisation itself, how it requirements plus hazard identification and
works and what its’ structure is. risk assessment. It should also contain an
occupational health and safety programme
Effectively, the policy statement is a series designed to ensure that activities are
of actions which the writer, usually the most addressed in a realistic timescale to deliver
senior person in the organisation, is the objectives contained in the policy.
effectively promising to ensure happen.
At this stage we also need to ensure
 prevent accidents and cases of work- provision of adequate supervision and
related ill health resources
 manage health and safety risks in our
workplace
 provide clear instructions and Responsibilities:
information, and adequate training, to It should be noted that all workers, at all
ensure employees are competent to do levels of an organisation, have
their work responsibility for health and safety
 provide personal protective equipment
 consult with our employees on matters This involves the local allocation of
affecting their health and safety responsibilities for health and safety and
 provide and maintain safe plant and the promotion of a health and safety
equipment culture, through a regime of control,
 ensure safe handling and use of competence, co-operation and
substances communication.
 maintain safe and healthy working
conditions Senior Management are to ensure;
 implement emergency procedures,  Control
including evacuation in case of fire or  provision of adequate resources
other significant incident and
 review and revise this policy regularly  visible demonstration of
commitment HSE
A health and safety policy sets out your general
approach to health and safety. It explains how  Competence
you, as an employer, will manage health and  Selection
safety in your business. It should clearly say  Training and
who does what, when and how.  Development of workers and others
as required
State the general policy on health and safety at
work, including senior management
commitment to managing health and safety  Consultation
and your aims. It should be signed by the  With everyone, especially
Employer/most senior person in the employees
organisation and reviewed regularly.  Non-employees, for example, the
community where our operations
might affect them
Page 41 of 301
 Communication  First-aid personnel are responsible for
 Suitable communication using all the provision of appropriate first-aid to
relevant tools injured persons.
o Verbal
o Written and
o Visual Implementation and Operation (Do)
 Relevant and easily understood This is where the employer creates
information practical arrangements for making the
policy work:
 The development of procedures and
plans to cover;
 Management of any and all major The importance of stating the
changes to organisation’s arrangements for:
o People  planning and organising
o Equipment  hazards are identified
o Materials  risks assessed
o Environment  controlling hazards
 Risk assessment and creation of  control systems put in place
Safe Systems of Work (SSW)  performance standards established
 Emergency preparedness and  consultation
response for all foreseeable  workers and non-workers are
emergencies consulted for their
 Procurement o concerns and
 Control of contractors o ideas for improvement
 communication
Summary of typical general  effective communication channels
organisational responsibilities might are opened, using all tools available
include; o verbal
 Directors and senior managers are o written
responsible for setting general policy, o visual
objectives and targets.  monitoring compliance
 Supervisors are responsible for  controls and performance standards
checking day-to-day compliance with developed above are monitored for
the policy compliance
 Safety advisers are responsible for  assessing effectiveness
advising the organisation on accident  overall effectiveness of all controls
and compliance issues. and procedures are assessed, using
 Safety representatives are responsible both active and reactive tools.
for representing employees in
consultation on health and safety An essential component of the SMS will be
matters with the employers and the the establishment of a document control
enforcing authority. system and introduction of a management
 Employees are responsible for their own of change procedure to prevent ad-hoc
health and safety that of others through changes of procedures and/or processes.
their acts or omissions.
 Fire marshals are responsible to ensure
the safe evacuation of the building in the
event of an emergency.
Page 42 of 301
Checking and Corrective Action Continual Improvement (Act)
(Check) A fundamental concept of ISO 45001 is to
This concerns creating a learning keep continually improving.
organisation by active and reactive
monitoring, and corrective action, so  Learning lessons involves acting on:
learning from experience.  Findings of accident investigations
and near-miss reports;
It ensures the organisation is monitoring  Organisational vulnerabilities
the extent to which health and safety policy identified during monitoring, audit
and objectives are being implemented and and review processes.
should be both reactive and (pro) active.
Even in well-designed and well-developed
Auditing of the entire safety management management arrangements there is still
system is undertaken and is designed to the challenge of ensuring that all
identify non-compliance with procedures requirements are complied with
and weaknesses in the current system in consistently.
order that improvements might be made.
Frequently, after an accident or case of ill
Trend analysis should be undertaken to health, many organisations find they
identify patterns in the types of non- already had systems, rules, procedures or
compliances, so allowing the most effective instructions that would have prevented the
use of resources. event but were not complied with. The
underlying causes often lie in
arrangements which are designed without
Action for improvement should be taking proper account of human factors, or
established and maintained for the where inappropriate actions are condoned
continual improvement of the relevant implicitly or explicitly by management
elements of the safety management action or neglect.
system and the system as a whole.
Common factors when things go wrong
Analysis of major incidents in high-hazard
Senior Management Review (Act) industries, with different technical causes
Senior Management Review - examination and work contexts, has identified several
of all of the data gathered (both active and common factors involved when things go
reactive, including internal and external wrong.
audits) – based on results of checking and
corrective action These factors are related to:
 Leadership;
Assessment of the extent that policy  Attitudes and behaviours;
objectives have been met (compliance  Risk management and oversight.
against local legal requirements and other
requirements) and deciding upon further When these aspects of an organisation
improvements necessary such as changes become dysfunctional, important risks can
to policy and target setting become ‘normalised’ within it, leading to
serious consequences.
Page 43 of 301
Organisational learning is a key aspect Target Setting
of health and safety management.  For continual improvement it will be
If reporting and follow-up systems are not necessary for the business to set health
fit for purpose, for example if a blame and safety targets. The setting of health
culture acts as a disincentive to reporting and safety targets are important
near misses, then valuable knowledge will because;
be lost.  Provides evidence of management
commitment
If the root causes of precursor events are  Motivates staff by giving them
not identified and communicated something to aim for
throughout the organisation, this makes a  Allows the organisation to measure and
recurrence more likely. review health and safety performance
 Allows benchmarking against similar
In many cases, barriers within an organisations
organisation – where different departments
operate in ‘silos’ – inhibit organisational
learning.
Targets in health and safety may
include
Demonstration of Senior Management
 Reduction in number of accidents
Commitment
 Improvement in the reporting of near
A major part of any safety managements
misses
system and, therefore safety culture, is the
visible demonstration of senior  Improvement in inspection and audit
management commitment to occupational scores
health and safety.  Reduction in actions by enforcing
authorities
 Reduction in number of civil claims
Top management can demonstrate  Reduced sickness and absenteeism
commitment by:  Reduction in insurance costs
 Preparing and signing the policy, setting  Increased degree of worker involvement
targets  Improvement in the reporting of minor
 Ensuring availability of resources so the accidents
occupational health and safety  Improvement of outcome of
management system is established, benchmarking against other
implemented and maintained organisations
 Ensuring clearly defined roles and  Increase numbers trained in health and
responsibilities safety
 Appointing a member of top
management with specific responsibility
for health and safety
 Appointing one or more competent
persons and adequate resources to
provide assistance in meeting the
organisation’s health and safety
obligations
 Be involved in reviewing performance
 Carrying out site visits
 Chairing safety committee meetings
Page 44 of 301
The safety management system should
be reviewed as follows
 Routinely:
 In line with the company’s quality
management system, e.g. annually
 Legal changes:
 After any changes legal or best
practice requirements
 Active monitoring:
 Following active monitoring, for
example after an inspections
highlights an issue
 Reactive monitoring:
 As a result of reactive monitoring, for
example as a results of the findings
of an accident investigation
 Major changes:
 People
o Any changes in senior
management and/or major
changes in the structure of the
workforce, (up or downsizing)
 Equipment
o On the introduction of new
equipment or major changes to
the process
 Materials
o Introduction of new and/or form
of materials
 Environment
o Major changes to the working
environment and/or layout of the
workplace
Page 45 of 301
Element 3: Managing risk – understanding people & processes
3.1 Health and safety culture
Meaning of the term ‘health and safety culture’

It is the product of individual and group values, attitudes, competencies and patterns of
behaviour that determine the commitment to, and the style and proficiency of, an
organisation’s health and safety performance.
It is how we approach health and safety in the organisation – the shared attitudes, values
and beliefs.
Factors that influence an organisations safety culture are contained within and safety
management system such as ISO 45001.
Factors that can cause the culture to Influences on health and safety can be
decline both internal and external
 Lack of visible leadership and
commitment at senior level Internal
 Changes in the management structure  Management commitment
or roles  Production demands
 Changes in work patterns and lack of  Control
effective communication prior to the  Communication
change  Competence
 Health and safety not given same  Consultation
priority as other objectives such as  Stakeholders
production or
quality External
 Lack of consultation and involvement of  Societal expectations
the workforce  Legislation
 Absence of management systems for  Enforcing authorities
health and safety
 Insurers
 Reduction in the workforce leading to
 Trade Unions
work overload
 Clients
 Perception of growing blame culture
 Economics
 Lack of monitoring
 Poor working environment
 External influences such as the
economy
Page 46 of 301
Relationship between health and safety culture and health and safety performance
A good health and safety culture usually means a happy workforce and a happy workforce is
a productive one. Additionally, a stable and happy workforce is more likely to be receptive to
guidance and advice on how to keep themselves and their colleagues safe whilst at work.
As an example of the importance of this, if we consider below some of the comments from
the inquiry into major rail incidents in the UK, Southall and Ladbroke Grove,
The Southall and Ladbroke Grove train crashes that happened in September 1997 and
October 1999 respectively, led to three separate public inquiry reports: one for each crash
and a report on Automatic Train Protection. The inquiries took a fundamental look at the
generic issues surrounding safety in the British Railway Industry. A principle conclusion
focused on the improvement of safety management, specifically safety culture:
“Achievement of an improved safety culture on the railways is at the core of the whole
programme of change initiated by Lord Cullen’s Inquiries . . . if an organisation has the
right culture in place it will find the right people and the right technology to deliver
safe and effective performance.” (HSC, 2003).
As an example of the importance of having a good safety culture, see below a summary of
some the comments from the Ladbroke Grove enquiry regarding the effects of a good safety
culture on safety performance.
Recommendations from the Ladbroke Grove

Safety Priority
Enquiry Report
“There can be no doubt that, if the rail industry is to reach
Staff motivation the level of performance required, highly motivated staff
at all levels will be required.” (HSC, 2001a, page 69)
“There is a need for the industry to develop further as a
learning organisation . . . the industry should learn the
lessons from previous accidents, near misses and the
Continuous learning analysis of information regarding the non-compliant
behaviour of people and systems; the analysis of
behaviour leading to unsafe acts; the incidents in other
related industries.” (HSC, 2001a, page 70
“I (Lord Cullen) commend to the industry the
Toleration of unsafe
development of a culture in which information is
acts and a “blame
communicated without fear of recrimination and blame is
culture”
attached only where this is justified.” (HSC, 2001a).
Page 47 of 301
Indicators of an organisation’s health Top-Down Communication
and safety culture Top-down communication from
There are many indicators of a good or bad management to frontline staff can be used
safety culture. to pass on health and safety policies and
statements, supply information relating to
Below are the good indicators, so obviously health and safety issues, and provide
the reverse of these are the bad indicators feedback.
The benefits of a positive culture are Key indicators of effective communication

(moral, economic and legal MEL) are summarised below:
 Production and visibility of a good safety
Moral policy statement. This should be
 Improved staff morale displayed in a variety of locations and
 Reduced accidents should demonstrate management’s
 Reduced ill health commitment to health and safety
 Reduced staff complaints matters.
 The use of written and other non-verbal
Economic methods of communication to
 Improved company reputation emphasise safety regulations, safety
 Improved production/reduced downtime issues and the importance of safety.
 Reduced damage to equipment Examples of communication methods
 Reduced absenteeism include, videos, interactive systems, and
 Reduced staff turnover safety newsletters.
 Reduced insurance premiums  The communication of major accident
risks. For example, the Human Factors
 Reduced fines and compensation
Guidance Note for the Control or Major
claims
Incident Hazards (COMAH) Safety
Report Assessors outlines the need for
Legal
a system dedicated to communicating
 Increased levels of compliance with
major accident risks to employees and
health and safety rules and procedures
contractors, and ensuring that they are
 Less possibility of court cases for both understood.
prosecution, (punishment), or suing,
 Provision of management feedback
(paying compensation)
following employee-involved activities.
 Conducting management tours. These
Influence of peers on health and safety are considered to be an effective way to
culture pass information throughout the
organisation: ‘walking the job, talking to
people, listening to people’.
Horizontal Communication
Horizontal communication refers to
information that flows between
individuals at a similar level within the
organisation, or between departments or
functional units.
Page 48 of 301
Examples of best practice may Promoting health and safety standards
include: by leadership and example
 The establishment of clear rules and The way you lead your team on health
responsibilities for safety (including and safety can determine how safe your
clear contractual responsibilities and site is to work on (and the number of
ownership of rules). Communication is accidents, incidents and ill-health cases
required when agreeing which that happen) because:
organisation, department or individual is  your attitudes and beliefs about health
responsible for each area of safety. and safety drive your behaviour;
 Safety team meetings (rather than  your behaviour on site sends a
briefings, which imply a single powerful message to your workers
directional flow of communication). about how seriously they should take
These should link directly to the safety health and safety; and
management leadership teams.  the real causes of accidents on site can
 Effective safety communication to the often be traced back to managers’
public, (where relevant). Larger-scale decisions.
incidents are usually well documented
but there is often a lack of open
information about the full spectrum of Top tips to become an effective health
safety issues. According to the and safety leader
Ladbroke Grove Inquiry, a regular
supply of information is better than one- Challenge the status quo
off responses.  How could current health and safety
 The presence of an effective safety practices be improved?
information system. Research indicates  Are there new ways to improve health
the importance of a safety information and safety – e.g. by learning from
system that collects, analyses, and accidents, incidents and ill-health?
disseminates information regarding  Challenge your workers, by asking them
accidents and near-misses. This will ‘What can we do to solve the problem?’
help to facilitate the creation of an
informed culture. Create a vision
 Consult your workforce to identify and
3.2 Improving health and safety culture set clear health and safety goals.
 Motivate them to create a ‘shared vision’
Gaining commitment of management through those goals.
As mentioned above, for any company to  Involve them in planning and decision
perform well as regards health and safety, making.
it is essential that senior management
 Make sure everyone knows what they
visibly demonstrate their commitment.
need to do.
Such commitment needs to be from the
very top, with the most senior person
signing the safety policy statement but
also, if at all possible, having a person at
the highest level of the company who is
seen as the “safety champion”, that is the
person who is the visible face to safety and
“fights” for safety at board level.
Page 49 of 301
Inspire workers to be healthy and safe The role of discipline
 Make sure everyone has the skills, Although we do not like to think of it or use
abilities and resources they need to do it, there is a place for disciplinary actions in
their jobs safely. creating a safe workplace, and keeping it
 Plan enough time for work to be done in safe.
a healthy and safe way.
 Share your expertise to help workers So, who does the disciplining and how is it
overcome barriers. done?
 Develop mutual trust.
 Reward workers who successfully work  Supervisors should be encouraged to be
safely. effective in how they communicate
safety methods and they should be fair
Be a good role model and be seen to be fair in how they
 Be honest with yourself. Do you set a discipline workers who break safety
good example to your workers? rules.
 Put health and safety first and behave in  Supervisors should always stop poor
a healthy and safe way on site. work when they see it and always
 Promote safe work behaviour and discipline (including verbal warnings) all
practices – encourage the attitude: ‘I do those involved in any unsafe activity.
it because I want to, not because I have  Management should ensure that
to’. supervisors rigorously apply the agreed
 Be fair – trust and respect workers when disciplinary procedures, for every
making health and safety decisions. disciplinary offence, or review the
procedure if this approach is not always
Show consideration appropriate.
 Get to know workers and respect their  Failure to do this can easily create the
opinions. impression in the workforce that the
 Treat each worker as an individual. supervisors are not serious about safety
and that favouritism exists, where
 Show personal concern for their safety
certain people are allowed 'to get away
and well-being.
with it' when others are always
 Treat others as you would expect to be
punished.
treated yourself.
 When discipline is required to enforce
 Develop a team spirit where health and
compliance, it should be consistent and
safety comes first and everyone looks
fair, otherwise it can have negative
out for one another.
effects.
 Management responsibilities for
Communicate regularly
disciplining different working groups,
 Update workers on developments and
and the different penalties for different
performance in health and safety and
offences, should be clear.
encourage feedback.
 Disciplinary actions should be agreed by
 Be approachable and receptive to your
the workforce as appropriate for each
workers’ ideas.
offence.
 Respond to concerns immediately and
discuss the actions you will take. (source HSE report on Improving
Compliance with safety Procedures
(see the UK HSE “The Leadership and reducing Industrial Violations HFRG)
Worker Involvement toolkit”)
Page 50 of 301
The role of competent workers An employer must appoint a ‘competent
As we know under ILO C155, there is a person’ to help them meet your health and
duty placed upon the employer to ensure safety duties.
that they provide Information, Instruction,
Training and Supervision, (IITS), as is A competent person is not just someone
necessary. who simply has the competence to carry
out a particular task safely. In general
The aim of this is to ensure that workers terms, the definition of a competent person
are fully informed and competent to is someone who has the necessary skills,
undertake their duties, (see Employers experience and knowledge to manage
responsibilities under ILO C155, in health and safety.
Element 1)
An employer should take account of the

competence of relevant employees when
conducting their risk assessments. This will
help them decide what level of information,
instruction, training and supervision they need
to provide.
Competence in Health and safety should

be seen as an important component of
workplace activities, not an add-on or
afterthought.
If contractors are used, employers have a

responsibility to make sure they are
competent.
Someone’s level of competence only

needs to be proportionate to their job and
place of work. Employees would not need,
for example the same health and safety
competence to work in an office as they
would on a construction site.
“The essence of competence is relevance

to the workplace. What matters is that there
is a proper focus on both the risks that
occur most often and those with serious
consequences.
Competence is the ability for every director,

manager and worker to recognise the risks
in operational activities and then apply the
right measures to control and manage
those risks.” (Judith Hackitt, HSE Chair
2019)
Page 51 of 301
Good communication within the organisation:
What is communication?
What we do to inform another of our ideas, feelings and knowledge and in turn receive their
feedback.
It is what we do to achieve UNDERSTANDING
Communication is a legal requirement under ILO C155 and is often contained in National
laws, both statute and common laws. It is normally required for the employer to provide
information, instruction and training as is necessary.
Methods of communication: So keeping a person’s interest and

 Verbal attention will be helped by stimulating as
many of the senses as possible. The
 Written relative importance of each of the senses
in learning is illustrated above in brief and
 Graphic (Visual) below in detail.
Types of communication: Sight - this is the primary sense, and the

 One way most difficult to switch off. The presenter
 Two way should make full use of this sense to
prevent the students attention wandering.
Sense and sense combinations Examples of possible visual training aids
Our senses sight, hearing, touch, smell and are flipcharts, overheads, slides, videos
taste are our windows onto the world. They and practical demonstrations.
are the routes through which information
passes to be processed by the brain. Approximately 75% of all visual information
is absorbed by the student.
Information by senses
75% by sight Hearing - this is the second most important
13% by hearing sense, especially in presentations aimed at
6% by touch increasing knowledge (such as a course on
3% by smell the law). A large proportion of the
5% by taste information heard will be forgotten within
24 hours. Approximately 25% of all verbal
What we remember – sense and sense information will be absorbed by the
combinations student.
 10% read
 20% hearing
 30% seen
 50% seen and heard
 70% what person says
 90% what person does
The average concentration span of a

person is approximately 20 minutes, but
does vary from person to person.
Page 52 of 301
Touch - this is a very important sense for
skill type presentations. People learn best
by doing. Approximately, 65% of
information is absorbed from practical
exercises. Therefore, practical hands-on
practice sessions should be built into
training courses wherever applicable.
Taste - this has a limited application,

unless training is given in substances
which are likely to be absorbed by
ingestion and are harmless to health.
Smell - this also has limited application in

general training situations. However, it
may be important in some subjects, such
as the recognition of hazardous
substances which are likely to be identified
by smell e.g. hydrogen sulphide (H2S).
Thus, training is most effective when a

mixture of training techniques and aids are
used to stimulate several of the senses
simultaneously.
Why it is important to use a variety of

methods to communicate health and
safety information
 People respond differently to different
methods of communication (verbal,
written and graphic)
 Variety prevents over familiarisation and
boredom
 There could be a need to overcome
language barriers such as by the use of
posters and safety signs
 Some employees may not be able to
read
 There is a need to motivate, stimulate
interest, gain involvement, aid memory
and allow for feedback
 Different types of information require
different methods of communication
Page 53 of 301
Benefits & limitations of different methods of communication (verbal, written,
graphic)
Methods of communication
All forms or methods of communication have advantages, disadvantages and barriers to
communication. These we will now examine in more detail.
Verbal Communication: instructions, meetings, team briefings, tool box talks, induction and
refresher training etc.
Advantages Disadvantages Barriers
Direct No record Hearing defects
Two way No reference Noise
Quick Unstructured Distance
Instant feedback Inconsistent Language(Jargon)
Easy to do Too much Lack of knowledge
Flexible Limited audience Attitude
Duration/Speed
Written Communication:
Health and safety policy, risk assessments, newsletters, memos, reports, procedures, emails,
intranet, staff booklets etc.
Permanent record May go unread Illiteracy
Reference One way Competence
Consistent message Often no feedback Level of material
Accurate detail Time consuming Presentation
Wide audience Cost Quality
Authoritative Misinterpretation Quantity
Attitude
Visual Communication: noticeboards, posters, safety signs etc.

Consistent message Boring Relevance
Large groups No feedback Volume
Emotional Impact Too much Environment
Use Humour Knowledge
Eye catching
Page 54 of 301
Techniques for overcoming barriers to Typical contents of a notice board
communication  Names of Safety Representatives
As well as the obvious solutions there is  Date of next safety committee meeting
also;  Minutes of last safety committee
 Using a variety of methods meeting
 Teaching by example  Fire Notice and First Aid Notice
 Confirmation of understanding  Poster campaigns
 Developing communication skills of staff  Monthly accident statistics
 Using standardised technical terms  Copy of Employers Liability Insurance
 Minimising likelihood of distraction Certificate
 Copy of Health and Safety Policy
Methods of providing health and safety  Evacuation procedures
information to employees (verbal,  Targets set for reduction of accidents
written and graphic!)  Safety alerts
 Induction training
 Tool box talks
 Training courses Posters
 Team briefings
 One-to-one briefings by the supervisor Advantages of posters
 Newsletters  Low cost
 Information cards and HSE leaflets  Flexibility
 Inclusion of messages in pay slips  Short and to the point
 Posters  Can reinforce verbal instructions
 Safety Signs  Constant message
 Health and safety notice boards  Graphic message
 Videos
Disadvantages of posters
 Need to be changed on regular basis
Use and effectiveness of noticeboards  May become soiled
and health and safety media  May become defaced
 May become out of date
Health and Safety Notice Boards  May appear to trivialise important
matters
Methods for improving its effectiveness  May anger the employees by indicating
 Put it in a prominent, public position e.g. they are fools.
staffroom
 Make sure your board is bright and well
set out
 Change it regularly
 Keep it neat and tidy
 Keep it up to date and current
Page 55 of 301
Safety Campaigns  Possibly some members of the
A safety campaign is a planned group of workforce may not be made aware of the
activities which are intended to achieve a campaign for
particular aim, such as increased wearing  Various reasons e.g. Shift workers and
of PPE. Organisations may want to mount people who work away from base.
various types of campaigns on health and
safety within the workplace.
To ensure Safety campaigns are

effective ensure
 The campaign has clear aims,
objectives and targets
 Sufficient funds, time and other
resources are made available
 We show that management is totally
committed to the campaign.
 That everyone within the organisation
knows the part they have to play in the
health and safety campaign and key
responsibilities for aspects of the
campaign are allocated and accepted
with full commitment to avoid mixed
messages
 Use of clear language (no jargon etc.)
To help understanding
 That the workforce are made fully aware
of the campaign by means of tool box
talks, team briefings, meetings, training
sessions and notice boards
 We provide feedback to check
employees understanding
Organisational factors that could cause

a campaign to fail
 No clear aims and objectives
 Insufficient time, funds and resources
are made available
 Lack of management commitment
 Production or other pressures take
priority over health and safety
 A general poor safety culture
 Poor working environment create lack of
interest among employees
 The employees have seen campaigns
fail before.
 Lack of confidence and trust in
management’s ability
Page 56 of 301
Co-operation and consultation with the workforce and contractors
Consulting is a two way process and involves listening to employees views and taking
account of what they say, their ides, views and opinions, before any decision is taken.
Decision (MITAC)
Consulting Informing
Two way One way
Informing is a one way process providing Employers should consult with their
employees with information risks to their employees on (MITAC)
health and safety.  Introduction of Measures that might
significantly affect their health and
Absolute duty safety such as
ILO Convention C155 Occupational Safety the introduction of new work patterns, or
and Health contains an absolute duty for increase in production by 200%
the employer to consult his own workers.  The form and content of any health and
safety Information so that it is
It is also requirement of any safety understandable by the workforce
management system – ISO 45001, ILO-  The planning and organisation of any
OSH 2001, or HSG65 health and safety Training required, so
that it is as effective as possible.
Aim is to improve co-operation, and  Arrangement for the
arrangements in the workplace. appointment/nomination of any
competent persons such as risk
Benefits of worker participation assessor, fire wardens and first aiders
(including worker feedback)  The Consequences of the introduction
Any and all types of worker involvement will of any new processes and technology
pay dividends for an employer, be they such a high pressure hydro cutting
formal, planned meetings, or informal,
workplace contacts. Types of consultation
Such consultation can be direct or indirect.
Such benefits will take the form of:  Direct: Typically for smaller employers
 Fewer incidents, damage and with few workers who can all be
downtime gathered into one pace and a face to
 Greater trust between managers and face discussion occurs w=between the
workers employer and the workers.
 Greater buy-in on the introduction of  Indirect: This method would be more
new ideas, processes or equipment suited to larger employers, perhaps on
 Less resistance to change multiple sites, where it would be
 Greater flexibility unworkable to get everyone one in one
 Greater trust pace at the same time to have a direct
consultation.
Page 57 of 301
To gain the most form any form of indirect Distribution (how spread out are the
consultation, we need to have workers) and nature of workforce (are we
representatives from both the consulting with contractors as well as own
management team and workers meeting employees?)
face-to-face and exchanging ideas and
acting as a conduit for information flow, in Numbers of employees and variety of
both direction from and to workers and occupations – the higher the number of
managers. employees and the more complex and
specialised the workers occupations, the
Such as grouping we usually refer to as a more safety representatives will be
Health and Safety Committee with the necessary for full and effective
worker participants referred to as Safety consultation.
representatives.
Nature of work (how complex and what
Safety representative level are the workplace risks? The more
A safety representative is a normal worker, complex and higher the risk level in the
not a safety specialist. So most of their time workplace then the more cost will be
is spent in a non-safety role. However they required to reduce the risk so far as is a
are required to act as a link between reasonably practicable.)
workers and management and provide
another level of monitoring within the Location(s) – the more locations we work
workplace. in, then the more safety representatives will
be required to consult with all of our
They should be familiar with the operations workers.
of the area for which they are selected
Shift patterns – less safety
How many safety representatives? representatives will be necessary when
employees only work during the day,
This is decided by the employer who compared to an organisation operating a
considers a number of factors – shift system.
(DANNIELS)
 Distribution and nature of workforce
 Numbers of employees and variety of

occupations
 Nature of work (types of hazards and

associated risks)
 Location(s)
 Shift patterns
Page 58 of 301
Functions of a Safety representative This might include;
(RIICI)  Private room to talk to workers, study
information and prepare reports
 Represent employees on health and  Filing cabinet to keep confidential
safety matters with employer and information
enforcing authority inspectors  Telephone and email access to contact
specialists such as enforcing authority
 Informed: receive (health and safety inspectors and manufacturers
related) information which employer is to  IT facilities to use sources of information
provide, on issues such as; on the internet
 accident statistics  Photocopier to take copies of any
 prosecutions, (MIST items – see relevant documentation provided by the
below), etc. employer.
 receive information from enforcing  Relevant reference material such as
authority statistics, reports etc.
 Inspections (carry out routine Time Off

inspections of the workplace or earlier A safety representative is entitled to have
after substantial changes) time off work to:
 Committee (attend meetings in  Undergo authorised training in aspects
connection with any of his functions) of these functions as may be reasonable
 Carry out their functions
 Investigate employee complaints,
potential hazards, and all reportable Pay
accidents A safety representative is entitled to be
paid when:
 When being trained
Employer shall provide sufficient  Carrying out their functions
information to enable the safety
representative to: The role of health & safety committees
 Carry out their functions, and on As mentioned above the health and safety
 Accidents that have occurred committee is the forum to allow workers
and management representatives to meet
BUT NOT information concerning: to discuss various health and safety issues
 An individual and to allow the free passage of
 If it is prejudicial to the company’s information from and too workers and
trading managers.
 Obtained by the employer in connection
with legal proceedings
 If it is against national security
Facilities and assistance

The employer shall provide such facilities
and assistance as safety representative
may reasonably require to carry out their
functions.
Page 59 of 301
The functions of a safety committee Arrangements for consultation with
are remembered as (MIST) workers may be improved by:-
 Monitor the effectiveness safety policy,  The establishment of safety committees
training and communication  Consultation with elected
 Investigate recurrent problems representatives
highlighted by audits and make  Planned direct consultation at
recommendations departmental meetings, team meetings,
 Safety arrangements (assist in the safety circles, discussion groups etc.
development)  Consultation as part of risk assessment
 Conduct Trend analysis of all data or accident investigation
provided by the active and reactive  Day to day informal consultation by
monitoring. supervisors with their team at the
workplace
Factors that may determine the  Questionnaires and suggestion
effectiveness of a Safety Committee schemes
 Clear Terms of Reference  Consultation training to managers and
 Balanced representation workers
 Actual influence in decision making  Formal meetings must be properly
 Respect of management and workforce organised i.e. correct balance of
 Commitment from committee members members, an agenda, not side-tracked,
 Good leadership and Chairmanship minutes taken and a report back
 Good communication channels
 Access to relevant information and
specialist advice
 Formalised procedures with agendas
 Relevant and non-trivial agenda items
 Agenda not led by Industrial Relations
Typical Safety Committee Agenda Items

 Apologies for absence
 Review of previous minutes
 Agenda Items
 Any problems
 Review of H & S Performance since last
meeting
 Analysis of accident statistics and
accident trends
 Development of any H & S
Arrangements
 Any other business
 Date of next meeting
Page 60 of 301
When training is needed?
Definition of training
Training is the systematic development of attitude, knowledge and skill patterns necessary
to adequately perform a given task or job.
It is a requirement of ILO Convention C155 Occupational Health and Safety because it has
a great impact upon the reliability of worker behaviour.
Definition of a Competent Person (SKATE)

The combination of training, skills, experience and knowledge that a person has and their
ability to apply them to perform a task safely
Other factors, such as attitude and physical ability, can also affect someone’s competence
This is summarised as;

 Skills and Qualifications
 Knowledge of company systems and procedures, sources of information and their own
limitations
 Attitude, Aptitude, Ability and Age plus any other qualities, including stature to enable
them to carry out the measures required of them.
 Training in the occupational safety and health aspects of their work
 Experience/Education
Possible checks of individual competence

 Evidence of appropriate qualifications
 Evidence of any non-accredited training
 Membership of appropriate professional/trade bodies
 Undertaking written or practical assessments
 CV and previous experience
 Observation of working
 References
 Recommendations
Training will be required at several Types of training

stages in a person’s career, for Such training can be delivered in several
example: ways, for example:
 Induction (key health and safety topics  On-the-job training (sitting with Nellie)
to be covered)  Off-the-job training
 Job or process change  Tool box talks
 Introduction of new legislation  Theory training
 Introduction of new technology  Practical training
 Promotion or reorganisation
 Refresher training after time elapsed
 Re-training after a long time or incident
 Following active or reactive monitoring
 Enforcement action
 Worker complacency
Page 61 of 301
3.3 How human factors influence Organisational factors would include;
behaviour positively or negatively  Culture The safety
culture of the business, (as
Link between individual, job and discussed above)
organisational factors  Leadership The
effectiveness and, importantly, the
Human Factors visibility, of management
What is human factors? Human factors  Resources Provision of
refer to environmental, organisational and adequate resources, financially,
job factors, and human and individual time, equipment and people
characteristics which influence behaviour  Work patterns Realising the
at work in a way which can affect health effects of shifts and lone working
and safety’. upon human performance and
behaviour
The HSE produce a Guidance Note HS (G)  Communications ensuring
48 ‘Reducing Error and Influencing effective communication using all
Behaviour’ which is designed to provide the techniques available including,
user friendly advice in this complicated audible, written and pictorial
area. This is a very important area because
people are key in getting safety right or The safety culture is the shared attitudes,
getting safety wrong. values and beliefs within the organisation.
It is how we do health and safety within the
business. It is contained within the safety
management system.
Remember the safety culture is ultimately

how we do health and safety within the
business and it is a major part of the
organisational factors.
Human factors
There are three principal human factors
organisation, job and individual (personal)
factors. These are important in health and
safety because a person’s behaviour is
decided by the complex interaction of these
influences.
Page 62 of 301
Job Factors (PEME) Personal/Individual Factors (SPAME)
Problems arising as a result of the absence
of or poor risk assessment, leading to Personal/Individual factors concern
issues concerning: competence and where the person is not
 People: competent that might place in greater risk
o The number and competence of the of harm whilst at work and include;
workforce  The level of relevant Skills required to
o The level of supervision undertake the task
o Suitability, accessibility and  Any Stress the individual may be
relevance of any safe systems of suffering, work or home related
work, SSW, and procedures used  The Sex/gender of the worker, for
example a pregnant lady working with
 Equipment: radiation
o Suitability and reliability of the  Personality of the person
equipment being used  Issues relating to Physical capabilities
o Frequency and adequacy of (such as lack of stature, strength and/or
maintenance of work equipment fitness)
o Suitability and effectiveness of  Poor risk Perception due to
controls and displays used to give drugs/alcohol
“feedback” to the workers using  Poor Perception of risk due to lack of
equipment and provide data requiring information, instruction and training
action by the worker  The Ability of the person
 A generally poor Attitude to work,
 Materials: authority and/or risk
o Any inherent hazards with any  Age-related behavioural factors
materials used, created or associated with immaturity
encountered
 Does the individual have the correct
Aptitude to complete the task?
 Environment:
 Low Motivation leading to poor attitude
o Ergonomic factors including:
 Mental difficulties such as poor
 Workload/shifts
reasoning skills
 Recovery time/breaks
 Monotony/job rotation  Medical conditions affecting physical or
 Work stations and seating mental capacity - poor hearing or
 Work station displays and controls eyesight
 The levels of training and Experience of
o Physical environmental issues, the individual
including:  The level of Educational attainment
 Space
 Light
 Noise Individual Factors are as important as any
 Temperature of the human factors, so it needs to be
 Housekeeping understood and harnessed if we are to
improve health and safety. In this section
we look more closely at this particular
human factor. Risk perception concerns a
work situation where one person might
view a risk as acceptable but another
unacceptable.
Page 63 of 301
Attitude filter
Perception Safe act
Data
Unsafe act
(human error)
Motivation
Individual factors model
Attitudes Motivation
Attitudes are learned, sub-conscious, pre-
dispositions to react in a particular way in a Definition
given situation. This important because if The drivers both positive and negative
the attitude of a worker is not what we which lie behind our behaviour, or
want, then we can motivate them to learn
another, desired attitude. What we do to get employees/contractors
to do what we want them to do
Perception
Perception is our conscious interpretation How to motivate employees
or understanding of data from the world
around us (our conclusion of the facts or Employers can motivate their workforce
beliefs – our understanding). by:-
 The recognition of good health & safety
So we could have two people from very performance (e.g. by giving praise
different backgrounds interpreting the and/or offering financial incentives)
same data during induction training in  Involving employees in the decision
completely different ways. making process by carrying out risk
assessments and drawing up safe
An employee’s perception of danger systems of work, conducting inspections
may be improved by:-  Improving the company’s health and
 Increasing awareness of hazards safety culture
(information (safety signs), instruction  Demonstrating a high level of
and training) management commitment
 Involving people in the risk assessment  Ensuring a good working environment
process or inspections and welfare facilities
 Increasing knowledge, e.g. training  Providing training and ensuring good
 Identifying the reasons for employees' communication
misperceptions – possibly fatigue or  Setting realistic goals (targets) and
distraction providing feedback
 Addressing environmental factors such
as ventilation, temperature, humidity,
lighting, and excessive noise
Page 64 of 301
 Clear rules of behaviour understood by Motivation – gaining commitment to
all and disciplinary action taken where change
necessary DRIFT –
 Leadership by example from all levels of Discipline Clear, enforced site rules &
management (senior management, line disciplinary procedures
management and supervisors). Reward Responsibility/Recognition
 Peer Pressure – setting high standards
and using the group to exert their Informing Instruction /Involvement/
influence upon new persons.
 Increased responsibility for workers Incentive schemes
regarding health and safety
 Consultation about health and safety Facilitating Safety leadership, positive
matters peer pressure
 Allowing individuals to fulfil their Training
potential throughEmployee Assistance
programmesMeasures managers
might take to increase worker
involvement in improving
occupational safety and health
(motivation)
 Setting good example and showing
commitment to Occupational Safety and
Health (OSH)
 Involving employees in risk
assessments, accident investigations,
and the development of safe systems
and procedures
 Encouraging hazard-spotting and the
reporting of defects
 Setting up suggestion schemes
 Providing training and ensuring good
communication
 Supporting active involvement in safety
committee meetings
 Being accompanied by employees or
their representatives on safety tours and
inspections
 Ensuring a good working
environment/welfare
Page 65 of 301
Human Error Wilfulness
Wilfully disregarding the safe system of
Definition work is normally the result of an underlying
A human error is any deviation from the motivator such as money or laziness which
safe system of work for whatever reason, is of personal benefit. Here the person is
OR it is the psychological reason for an competent. So a machine operator, who is
unsafe act. aware of the safe system of work, now
removes a machine guard in order to
It is important to identify which type of speed up production and so earn more
human error is present when there is an money.
unsafe act since each type of human error
requires different remedial action when Or a maintenance supervisor who is too
identified during inspection or accident lazy to carry a roof ladder which is already
investigation. on the rooftop where he is repairing a
section of roof despite being reminded to
The 5 types of human error (reasons) do so by a warning sign as he climbed the
1. Mistaken actions ladder onto the roof.
2. Wilfulness
3. Mistaken priorities Mistaken priorities
4. Mis-perception An organisation’s objectives, particularly
5. Lapses of attention the relative priority of conflicting demands
(quality, productivity and health and safety)
Mistaken Actions are not clearly conveyed to, or understood
by individuals. This is particularly true of
This involves a person doing the wrong small team working situations. Often there
thing believing it to be right. An example is a fine line between mistaken priorities
would be an unauthorised person and wilfulness. The real distinction is one
operating a forklift truck. They operate it of whether the human error is motivated by
meaning to move the load, but because individual (wilfulness) or group gain
they do not fully understand the operation (mistaken priorities).
of the vehicle, possibly the fact that a FLT
is rear wheel steer, they now commit an Lapses of attention
unsafe act and there is an accident. The individual’s intentions and objective
are correct, but they fail to pay sufficient
A similar phenomena can occur when a attention to the task in hand and so commit
fitter works on a piece of equipment he is a human error. This is normally associated
not familiar with. So whilst the individual with the operator being either;
knows what has to be done, he  Distracted (especially with skilled based
inadvertently commits a mistaken action tasks)
e.g. using a normal grease where special  Fatigued (due to insufficient rest breaks,
high temperature grease is required and so or poor shift rotation)
the equipment breaks down. So in cases of  Bored (the task is not retaining the
mistaken actions the underlying cause of operators attention)
the accident is a lack of competence.
Mis-perception
Whereas with lapses of attention the data
never arrives at the brain, in mis-perception
the data arrives at the brain but is then mis-
understood.
Page 66 of 301
This might be due to an individual‘s limited Why may hazards be underestimated?
capability to cope with too much  Over familiarity/complacency
information, which creates stress and so  Lack of instruction, information and
‘tunnel vision’. It can also occur where the training
individual has a pre-conceived diagnosis to  Lack of experience
a problem, which then blocks out sources  Sensory impairment
of inconsistent information. Likewise  Hazards invisible
excessive noise, poor lighting can also be  Routine, repetitive tasks
implicated.  Inadequate design
In both lapses of attention and mis- Reducing Human Error
perception drugs and alcohol can be By making sure;
another significant factor.
 There are skilled, competent, and
trained employees
 That the employees are well motivated
Error vs Violation
 Monotonous (Boring) work is avoided by
Error (Unintended) job rotation
 Mis-perception  There are breaks to counter fatigue
 Lapses of Attention  There are clear roles and lines of
responsibility
Violations (Intentional)  There are good lines of communication
 Mistaken Actions  All instructions are clear and in plain
 Wilfulness language
 Mistaken Priorities  There is a good working environment –
lighting, temperature, housekeeping
Reasons a person may fail to comply  Competent supervision is provided
with safety rules even if competent  There is a drugs and alcohol policy
 Lack of motivation which is enforced
 Unrealistic working procedures which
are ignored
A summary of how to improve human
 Lack of management commitment
behaviour
 Over-familiarisation with the tasks to be
 Securing commitment of management
performed
at all levels
 Repetitive work leading to boredom and
 Promoting health and safety standards
lack of concentration
by leadership and example
 Peer group pressure
 Competent personnel with relevant
 Inadequate or ineffective supervision
knowledge, skills and work experience
 Fatigue (tiredness) and stress
 Effective communication within the
 Lack of information, training and organisation: (verbal, written and visual)
consultation
 Co-operation and consultation with the
 Job insecurity workforce (employee participation,
safety committees and employee
feedback)
 Training
 Clear and enforced site rule
Page 67 of 301
3.4 Assessing risk The risk profile of an organisation informs
all aspects of the approach to leading and
Meaning of hazard, risk, risk profiling managing its health and safety risks.
and risk assessment
Every organisation will have its own risk
Definitions profile. This is the starting point for
determining the greatest health and safety
What is a Hazard? issues for the organisation. In some
A hazard can be defined as something with businesses the risks will be tangible and
the potential to cause harm and covers immediate safety hazards, whereas in
health, injury, loss of production and other organisations the risks may be
damage to plant and property. health-related and it may be a long time
before the illness becomes apparent.
Typical examples could be something such
as electricity, moving machinery and
trailing cables Risk profiling: What is involved? Who
should be involved? The risk profiling
What is Risk? process
Risk is the likelihood that a hazard will
cause particular harm in the actual Risk profiling
circumstances of use and the severity of The concept of risk profiling is not a new
the harm. one and has been used in many business
situations including business risk
Examples include contact with electricity management, e.g. financial risk to
resulting in electrical burns and tripping medicine and new treatments. Risk
over cables. profiling has even been used to try and
profile airline passengers in an attempt to
What is risk profiling? use risk based approaches to improve
Risk profiling is a systematic and structured airport security.
approach to risk management which, if
done correctly, should provide According to the International Standards
organisations with a detailed description of Organisation (ISO) Guide 73:2009 Risk
all the risk elements of its activities, the Management. Vocabulary: “A risk profile is
effectiveness of the controls in place to a description of a set of risks… The set of
mitigate the risks, and the inbuilt structure risks can contain those that relate to the
to ensure and monitor its higher risk whole organisation, part of the
priorities. organisation, or as otherwise defined.”
Organisations’ “appetite” for risk will differ Therefore, a risk profile can include the
considerably and this may be partly a result risks that the entire organisation must
of the size and complexity of the manage, (exchange rate, contract, health
organisation, driven by the operations and and safety, environmental release etc.), or
processes it conducts and, very only those that a particular function or part
importantly, the business and safety of the organisation must address, (e.g. a
culture of the organisation. Some specific contract or client requirement).
organisations may be willing to accept or
retain risk, others may seek to implement
risk management strategies to reduce or
control, transfer or avoid risk.
Page 68 of 301
Since the publication of the revised  Paperwork and bureaucracy will be kept
guidance document HGS65 Managing for to the minimum necessary
Health and Safety by the Health and Safety  Performance will be reviewed and
Executive (HSE) in 2013 the concept of risk lessons learned.
profiling in health and safety management
was established. The revised guidance As a result of risk profiling a company
explains the Plan, Do, Check, Act model may decide to:
(Deming Cycle) for a health and safety
management system (H&SMS). According  Accept the risk Take the
to the guidance, this approach achieves a “gamble” that they have everything
balance between a systems and under control
management approach, treating health
and safety as an integral part of good  Reduce the risk Take all
management, rather than a stand-alone reasonably practicable steps to reduce
safety management system. This is the risk to their business
important because it acknowledges that
health and safety risks are part of the  Avoid the risk Cease the
overall risk profile of an organisation, and activity/process
there is general agreement that all such
risks are entwined and connected.  Transfer the risk Contract out
the activity or insure against the possible
outcomes if they keep the activity as part
A risk profile examines: of their business
 the nature and level of the threats faced
by an organisation
 the likelihood of adverse effects What types of risks need to be
occurring considered?
 the level of disruption and costs In some organisations the health and
associated with each type of risk safety risks will be tangible and immediate
 the effectiveness of controls in place to safety issues, e.g. machine guarding,
manage those risks whereas in others the risks may be health-
related and it could be a long time before
The outcome of risk profiling will be that the the illness becomes apparent. Degrading
right risks have been identified and plant integrity could also lead to later
prioritised for action, and minor risks will emerging risks in some businesses.
not have been given too much priority. It
also informs decisions about what risk
controls measures are needed.
According to the UK enforcement officers,

the HSE, risk profiling exercise may result
in:
 The right risks have been identified and

prioritised for action
 Minor risks will not be given too much
priority
 The level of risk will be reduced to that
which is acceptable
Page 69 of 301
Health and safety risks also range from Also consider your supply chain - if that is
things that happen: not properly managed, the actions of
others in those networks can impact on
Very infrequently but with catastrophic your health and safety risks.
effects
 (high-hazard, low-frequency events,
such as an oil refinery explosion) Purpose of risk assessment and the
‘suitable and sufficient’ standard it
More frequently but with lesser needs to reach (see HSG65: ‘Managing
consequences for Health and Safety’)
 (low-hazard, high-frequency events),
such as slips, trips and falls Risk Assessment
Risk assessment is a component of risk
Obviously, the high-hazard, low-frequency profiling and concerns identifying hazards
example could destroy the business and and reasonably practicable preventative
would be high-priority in a risk profile. and protective, control measures by
evaluating the risks arising from the
hazards, taking into account the adequacy
Who should do the assessment? of any existing controls and deciding
A risk assessment should be completed by whether or not the risk is acceptable.
someone with a knowledge of the activity,
process or material that is being assessed. ILO C 155 requires every employer is to
Workers and their safety representatives ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable,
are a valuable source of information. the health, safety and welfare at work of
their workers. This implies the need for risk
If an adviser or consultant assists with the assessment in order to achieve this
risk assessment, managers and workers balance. So the employer shall carry out
should still be involved. “suitable and sufficient” risk assessments
and must consider;
Who could be affected?
Consider all your activities, taking account  Their employees and others who may
of possible harm to: be affected by their activities.
 employees  If a “significant” risk is identified risk
 contractors assessments must be in writing
 members of the public  Communicated to all relevant person
 those using products and services
 anyone else affected by the activity, This requires the employer to:
such as neighbours  Carry out a systematic assessment of all
work activities and personnel
Additionally, pay particular attention to  Record the findings, (best practice to
think of how a risk could affect different record in writing the significant findings
groups, such as: of the risk assessment)
 young or inexperienced workers  Allocate sufficient resources to reduce
 pregnant workers the risk, (all control measures must be
 workers with a disability reasonably practicable)
 migrant workers or
 ageing workers
Page 70 of 301
Objectives of risk assessment  Manufacturers information such as
 Determine the control measures manuals and safety data sheets
required to minimise both the likelihood  Trade Associations
and severity of harm posed by a hazard.  Reference to legislation and its
 Minimise the economic effects of any accompanying guidance
risk  ILO Conventions, recommendations
 Comply with national legal requirements and codes of practice
 ISO, BSI, ANSI standards
Suitable and Sufficient risk Step 2: Identifying who might be at risk

assessment Employees, operators, maintenance staff,
In order to meet legal minimum standards cleaners, contractors, visitors, public, etc.
all risk assessment must conform to plus special cases/vulnerable people such
minimum standards for their content, in as young persons, new or expectant
other words the criteria for a risk mothers also consideration of disabled
assessment are; workers and lone workers
 Does it identify ALL of the hazards and

associated significant risks? Step 3: Evaluating risk and adequacy
 Does it clearly identify all appropriate of current and need for additional
control measures? controls
 Does it clearly prioritise all appropriate Estimating likelihood of harm and probable
control measures? severity (qualitative/quantitative),
 Is it appropriate to the nature of the work considering the acute and/or chronic health
 Will the risk assessment remain valid for effects on workers and others
a reasonable time
Evaluating the risk by risk rating /
prioritisation and then considering the
A general approach to risk assessment adequacy of existing controls and need for
(5 steps): additional SMART controls so far as is
reasonably practicable. (ERIC PD)
Step 1: Identification of hazards
There are many ways of identifying Risk Rating
workplace hazards and these can be Risk rating is a technique which allows us
considered as verbal written and visual; to decide on the seriousness, or otherwise,
 Workplace inspections and of a situation. Thus, to enable proper,
observations systematic consideration of all relevant
 Safety audits issues that contribute to the risk and
 Talking to the workforce dependent upon the dangers involved and
 Employee complaints the level of risk assessment required, the
risk rating process may involve the opinion
 Task or job analysis
of the risk assessor, (pure qualitative risk
 Carrying out risk assessments
rating), a series of calculations and
 Accident and ill-health data reference to multiple sources of data and
 Accident investigation reports specialists, (quantitative), or somewhere
 Near miss reports between the two positions using a semi
 Formal consultation quantitative approach.
Page 71 of 301
Principles to consider when controlling Principles of prevention and control
risk (section 3.10.1 ILO- OSH 2001 – strategies as required by ISO 45001
‘Guidelines on occupational safety and (para 8.1.2)
health management systems’)
Eliminating hazards and reducing
Prevention and control measures OH&S risks
Hazards and risks to workers’ safety and The hierarchy of controls is intended to
health should be identified and assessed provide a systematic approach to enhance
on an ongoing basis. occupational health and safety, eliminate
hazards, and reduce or control OH&S
Preventive and protective measures risks.
should be implemented in the following
order of priority: Each control is considered less effective
than the one before it. It is usual to combine
(a) eliminate the hazard/risk; several controls in order to succeed in
reducing the OH&S risks to a level that is
(b) control the hazard/risk at source, as low as reasonably practicable.
through the use of engineering controls or
organizational measures; The following examples are given to
illustrate measures that can be
(c) minimise the hazard/risk by the design implemented at each level.
of safe work systems, which include
administrative control measures; and a) Elimination: removing the hazard;
stopping using hazardous chemicals;
(d) where residual hazards/risks cannot be applying ergonomics approaches when
controlled by collective measures, the planning new workplaces; eliminating
employer should provide for appropriate monotonous work or work that causes
(i) personal protective equipment, negative stress; removing fork-lift trucks
including clothing, at no cost, from an area.
and
(ii) should implement measures to b) Substitution: replacing the
ensure its use and maintenance. hazardous with less hazardous;
changing to answering customer
Provision of suitable and effective PPE complaints with online guidance;
should be for the range and extent of all combating OH&S risks at source; adapting
relevant hazards remaining to technical progress
(e.g. replacing solvent-based paint by
NOTE In many countries, legal water-based paint; changing slippery floor
requirements and other requirements material; lowering voltage requirements for
include the requirement that personal equipment).
protective equipment (PPE) is provided at
no cost to workers. c) Engineering controls, reorganization
of work, or both: isolating people from
hazard; implementing collective protective
measures (e.g. isolation, machine
guarding, ventilation systems); addressing
mechanical handling; reducing noise;
protecting against falls from height by using
guard rails;
Page 72 of 301
reorganising work to avoid people working We can summarise this:
alone, unhealthy work hours and workload, Avoid risks at source – Inherent safety
or to prevent victimisation. Build safety in at design stage
Elimination/remove a hazard, combat risks
d) Administrative controls including: at source
(i) training: conducting periodic safety
equipment inspections; Evaluate risks which cannot be avoided
(ii) conducting training to prevent
bullying and harassment; Design to latest technology and adapt
(iii) managing health and safety to suit humans, (ergonomics)
coordination with subcontractors’
activities; Substitution
(iv) conducting induction training; Replace dangerous with non-dangerous or
administrating forklift driving licences; less dangerous
(v) providing instructions on how to Lower hazard alternative
report incidents, nonconformities and
victimization without fear of Engineering controls
retribution; Segregation/spacing of process plant
(vi) changing the work patterns (e.g. /guarding
shifts) of workers;
(vii) managing a health or medical Use “hard” controls. Have prevention
surveillance programme for workers policy which promotes collective
who have been identified as at risk technological controls over human controls
(e.g. related to hearing, hand-arm
vibration, respiratory disorders, skin Administrative controls
disorders or exposure); Procedural/behavioural
(viii) giving appropriate instructions to Use “soft” controls (Procedure), e.g.
workers (e.g. entry control Permit to Work, PTW, Safety Systems of
processes). Work, SSW
e) Personal protective equipment (PPE):

providing adequate PPE, including clothing Which control we decide to use, will be
and instructions for PPE utilization and decided upon the concept of As Low As
maintenance (e.g. safety shoes, safety Reasonably Practicable, (ALARP), or So
glasses, hearing protection, gloves). Far As is Reasonably Practicable,
(SFARP).
The organization shall establish, By using the SFARP/ALARP approach,

implement and maintain a process(es) for the employer can ensure that they take
the elimination of hazards and reduction of note of the dangers posed by the working
OH&S risks using the following hierarchy of situation, any and all legal implications
controls: and requirements and , of course the
costs, (measured in Time, Inconvenience<
Money and Effort of reducing or removing
tha hazard).
Page 73 of 301
For example, when providing suitable work Typical occasions for review
equipment, for the employer to ensure that  Routinely, in accordance with your
it is safe to use and guarding is suitable, company requirements
with the risks reduced SFARP/ALARP, the  As a result of active, monitoring, e.g.
employer would have to consider the after an inspection identifies a problem
implications of and local laws, (for example  After reactive monitoring, e.g. after an
in the UK it could include the Provision and accident investigation indicates a failure
Use of Work Equipment Regulations  Any relevant changes in law and/or
1998), and/or ISO12100 – 2010 industry guidance
 After changes in the number or makeup
Once all controls are in place, whatever of the people employed
risk remains is deemed by the employer to  Any significant changes in plant or
be acceptable/tolerable. Such acceptance equipment used in the process
is the responsibility and, in most cases, the  As a results of changes in materials
employers legal responsibility. used, including type and/or form of
materials
When deciding controls, the employer mist
 Any major changes in the workplace
consider the importance of aby additional
environment, e.g. layout, extensions,
controls or actions, with such importance
premises
deciding the priority with which the control
must be treated.
Types of risk assessment
Whereas timescale is the anticipated time
within which an action will be
1. Generic (model) risk assessment,
taken/implemented.
where we do a similar task many times
in the same place with similar people, for
However, it is possible to have something
example in factory production line
which is of very high priority, which cannot
situation, where the equipment,
be implemented in a very fast timescale, for
materials and environment never
example purchasing of new equipment.
change and as long as the people are fit
and compete, (PEME), there is no
Alternatively, there could be an action
requirement to have personalised risk
which has a low priority but is a simple
assessments.
action, for example cleaning the windows
to improve the available light, which can be
2. Specific risk assessment, for example
implemented in a very quick timescale.
as point of work risk assessment, where
either the generic risk assessment is
Step 4: Recording significant findings amended to reflect any changes, (e.g. in
Must record any significant findings arising PEME), and/or where the task is a one-
from the risk assessment and decide on off or unique event.
acceptability/tolerability of remaining risk.
Step 5: Reviewing
Set a routine, scheduled review date but
continue to monitor between now and then.
Should this monitoring indicate any reason
to believe that the risk assessment is no
longer valid then review earlier than
scheduled.
Page 74 of 301
Methods of measuring ‘risk’ Special case applications of risk
assessments for vulnerable people
Qualitative
 Subjective risk assessment Vulnerable people
There are various categories of people,
Semi-quantitative who may be more at risk in a working
 Combination of subjective and situation, a vulnerable person. Amongst
quantitative other things, such vulnerability can be to do
with:
Quantitative  Age
 Quantifies the risk/risk rating or/and  Medical/health conditions
ranking by use of modelling,  Lone working
databases etc..  Experience
Risk Rating (simple example)

Young Workers
Severity Likelihood There are 2 groups of people covered by
3 High 3 High this requirement:
2 Medium 2 Medium
1 Low 1 Low 1. School Child who is someone aged
between 13 and 16 years of age.
Multiply the severity and likelihood ratings
together arrive at a risk rating of 9, 6, 4, 3, 2. Young person is someone between 16
2 or 1 and 18 years of age
Other type of risk assessment Reasons young people are at greater
As well as general risk assessments for all risk
“general” activities, employers also have a  The individuals’ physical and mental
responsibility to assess the risk for immaturity
activities such as use of Display Screen
 Over enthusiasm and tendency to take
Equipment, (DSE), handling and use of
more risks
dangerous substances, Manual Handling
 Lack of knowledge and experience to
Operations, (MHO), Vibration, confined
compare with
spaces and Noise, (NAW). Additionally,
employers consider the dangers posed on  Lack of general awareness
the workplace by things like fire and  Underdeveloped communication skills
conduct a fire risk assessment, (FRA)  Open to influence and peer group
pressure
Many of these risk assessments will be
discussed in more detail under the relevant
subject, for example FRA under fire as
specific risk assessment methods are used for
certain risks – to enable proper, systematic
consideration of all relevant issues that
contribute to the risk
Page 75 of 301
A risk assessment shall be carried out, or The control measures for young
reviewed on all young people’s health and workers
safety before they begin work which:  Programme of induction training
 Careful and close supervision and
 Controls measures for permitted work to mentoring by a named supervisor
be communicated to young person  Carrying out risk assessments on young
 Risk assessment also needs to clearly persons before they start work
identify prohibited work activities  Clear lines of communication
 It should include a named supervisor  Restricting the type of work carried out
and back-up supervisor, responsible for and number of hours worked and
the young person who will also act as a restricting type of equipment to be
mentor and ensure their safety worked on
Prohibitions New or Expectant Mothers

Young people must be protected and may
not be employed in work involving the Example: Who is a new or expectant
following UNLESS it is a necessary part of mother?
their training.
1. A lady who is pregnant or
Biological pathogens e.g.
hepatitis B and C 2. Has given birth in last 6 months
Chemical exposure to toxic or 3. Is breast-feeding

carcinogenic substances
e.g. mercury, lead, Legal situation
carbon dioxide The best practice risk assessment
requirement is supported by a specific
Physical vibration, excessive guidance note which contains a non-
noise, ionising exhaustive list of agents, processes and
radiation, compressed working conditions in respect of which an
air environments, (e.g. employer must make an assessment and
tunnels), excessive decide on what appropriate control
manual handling measures are required. In effect it is a list
of prohibitions.
Psychological beyond their mental
capacity To conduct a Risk Assessment in order to
ensure appropriate controls are in-place so
Relevant and comprehensible there is no significant risk to either party
information will be provided to the young (mother or baby). If this is not reasonably
person concerning the resultant risk practicable then the options are;
assessment.
1. Alter working conditions or hours of work
In the case of school children, prior to
employing the child, the parents or 2. Offer suitable alternative work
guardian must also be communicated the
contents of the risk assessment. 3. Suspend on full pay
Page 76 of 301
Hazards (ILO C155 Care for all Workers) Disabled workers
Many organisations will have workers with
Biological pathogens e.g. a disability. The popular perception is that
hepatitis B and C disabled persons are those in wheelchairs
but disablement may also be deafness,
Chemical exposure to toxic or blindness etc.. These factors need to be
carcinogenic substances considered especially in an emergency.
e.g. mercury, lead, carbon
dioxide Obviously disabled workers will be at risk
from the general hazards of the workplace
Physical vibration, excessive but other factors that need to be
noise, ionising radiation, considered include:
temperature extremes,  There may be reduced mobility for
compressed air generally moving about in the workplace
environments, (e.g. and particularly for evacuation in an
tunnels), excessive emergency.
manual handling, long  If in wheelchairs there is reduced ability
periods of standing, use to lift, carry or move objects as well as
and wearing of PPE, not being able to reach controls
violence, working at  Problems with access to welfare
height. facilities such as toilets etc.
 Those with sensory disabilities such as
Psychological stressful situations hearing and eyesight problems may not
be able to hear or see alarms.
 There may well be reduced
Typical activities that can present communication ability, e.g. speech
particular risks to pregnant women difficulty or reduced hearing ability.
 Manual handling of loads such as
packing goods Management should consult with disabled
 Work involving long periods of sitting or workers about how to reduce these risks to
standing such as shop workers them.
 Exposure to biological agents or
chemical substances which might affect Shift Work
the unborn child such as lead glazing
 Work involving ionising radiation such The factors when assessing the risks to
as radiography workers on the night shift
 Exposure to low frequency vibration The factors to be considered when
such as driving assessing the risks to workers on the night
 Stressful work such as tasks involving shift include:
heat and noise  Hours worked and recovery period
 Contact with the public where there between shifts
might be a risk of violence or abuse  Disruption of normal routines and
 Ergonomic issues such as assembly general wellbeing
work  Fatigue and human error
 Work at height from a ladder  Level of supervision required/contact for
lone working
 Access to specialist advice
Page 77 of 301
 Increase risk of violence travelling To achieve this the employer must;
to/from Work
 Emergency arrangements/first aid  Try to avoid lone working SFARP
facilities
 Access to welfare amenities  Assess risks to lone workers
 Work environment e.g.: lighting levels/
temperature etc.  Take steps to control risk where
necessary
Lone Workers
Employee’s responsibilities
Employers are responsible for all  Take reasonable care for their own
workers’ safety safety and that of other persons who
Lone workers are those people who work may be affected by their acts or
by themselves without close or direct omissions at work
supervision. They can be found in a wide  Comply with instructions given for
range of situations but can be considered their own safety and health and those of
under 2 areas which are: others and with safety and health
procedures
1) On Site  Use safety devices and protective
a) One Person on site: Small workshops, equipment correctly and do not render
Petrol Stations, Kiosks, Shops them inoperative
b) Home workers  Report forthwith to their immediate
c) People on site separate from others: supervisor any situation which they have
Factories, Warehouses, Training reason to believe could present a
Establishments, Leisure centres etc. hazard and which they cannot
d) People working outside normal hours: themselves correct
Cleaners, Security, Maintenance, urgent  Report any incident, accident or injury
production to health which arises in the course of or
in connection with work
2) Off Site – Employees involved in
occupations such as: Identifying the Hazards
a) Construction, Plant installation Talk to the worker involved as they are a
b) Maintenance, Cleaning good source of information and ideas. Find
c) Vehicle Recovery out exactly what is involved to carry out the
d) Agricultural and Forestry Workers task, e.g.:
e) People collecting money from homes  Does the workplace present a special
f) Postal staff, District nurses, House hazard?
sellers  Is the access to, or exit from the
g) Taxi drivers etc. workplace safe?
 Is the lighting and ventilation sufficient?
 Will other adjacent processes and
The employer is responsible for the activities present a risk?
health, safety and welfare at work of  Is any equipment to be used safe &
their employees and those affected by regularly maintained?
the work.
 What risks would the worker be exposed
to?
Page 78 of 301
Control Measures has an accident, or some other emergency,
Control measures may include:- arises, like a fire?
 Information, Instruction, Training,  Lone workers should be capable of
Supervision responding correctly to emergencies.
 Personal protective equipment  Emergency procedures should be
 Communication devices established and lone workers trained.
 Safe working procedures  Information about emergency
 Monitoring procedures and danger areas in the
workplace should be given to them.
Worker competence  They should have access to adequate
Is the person physically and first-aid facilities.
psychologically suitable for lone working  Mobile workers should carry a first-aid
and consider both routine work and kit and some may require specialist first
foreseeable emergencies which may aid training
impose additional physical and mental
burdens on the worker. Control measures for lone workers
 Properly trained and experienced
Training can help lone workers to:  Provision of appropriate equipment or
 Be sufficiently experienced and fully materials
understand the risks and controls,  Provision of PPE/First Aid kits/training/
 Know the set limits of what can and action to be taken if worker becomes ill
cannot be done whilst working alone,  Employer set limits on what can/cannot
 Avoid panic in unusual situations, be done
 Be able to deal with situations which are  Periodic visiting by supervision to
new, unusual or unexpected and to observe procedures being followed
know  Regular contact between worker and
When to stop work and seek advice from base
a supervisor.  Automatic warning devices/to raise the
 Know how to handle aggression. alarm
 Check worker has returned to
Monitoring procedures will be needed base/home
to ensure they remain safe.  Ensuring adequate arrangements for
These may include:- travel and welfare facilities
 Periodic visits & supervision of lone 3.5 Management of change (MOC)
workers In high-hazard industries, it has been
 Regular contact between the lone recognised for many years that even
worker & supervisor. seemingly small changes (e.g. to
 Automatic warning devices which equipment) can have large potential
operate is specific signals are not consequences if they are not thought
received periodically from the lone through properly beforehand.
worker.
 Other devices designed to raise the However, more and more types of
alarm in the event of an emergency & business are now looking to control any
which operate manually or changes to their activities which may have
automatically. major detrimental effects on health and
 Checks that a lone worker has returned safety of their workers and others,
to their base or home on completion of environmental impact and affect
their task. performance.
What happens if a lone worker becomes ill,
Page 79 of 301
MOC is a management control approach to make sure that the effects of and proposed
changes are properly considered and authorised prior to any change actually taking place.
Once authorised and carried out, the changes must be communicated to the affected workers
and they must, where required, be trained to operate in a different way.
Any such changes could include changes to:
People Increase/decrease in the number or make up of types of workers, (e.g.

change in experience levels if lots of new workers join the company),
changes in levels of supervision provided
Equipment Implications of changes or additions to equipment/machinery used,

introduction of new technology, (like for like changes where the new
equipment is exactly the same as the existing equipment would be
excluded from the MOC process). Changes in how and when we
operate equipment, (SSW), should also be considered under the MOC
process
Materials Any new or modified materials/substances, (content or form),

which might affect the health and safety of those who may be affected
by the organisation
Environment Changes to the physical workplace, internally or externally, which

may affect the wellbeing of all concerned, (changes to the structure,
premises and/or where it may have major effects, even changes of
seasons may need to be considered)
What is management of change (MOC)?

• Formally documented process.
• Authorises changes before they are implemented.
• Ensures relevant safety (and process) considerations have been made:
• Uses techniques like hazard assessment and risk analysis.
Page 80 of 301
The MOC process
1 Produce documents detailing changes
2 Carry out detailed risk assessment
3 Get authorisation for change from authorised person
4 Document, record and distribute changes
5 Consult and inform those affected
Managing the impact of change:
Communication and co-operation Appointment of competent people

As mentioned above, the whole purpose Obviously, all those involved in any risk
and reason for conducting a Management assessment process must be competent in
of Change, (MOC), review is to consider their own field, with sufficient theoretical
the implications of any significant changes and practical knowledge of the existing
on the health, safety and wellbeing of all process and effects of proposed changes,
who may be affected by such a change. to allow them to successfully contribute to
However, such a review is only of use if, the process.
during the whole process and once it is
completed, all those concerned are Segregation of work areas
involved and able to contribute, either Any and all work areas which may be
directly or via nominated representatives. affected by any change covered by the
Such consultation, communication and MOC process should also be considered
cooperation is essential to the success of with and “non-essential” people,
the whole process. equipment and locations excluded from the
changes and/or the considered in the MOC
Risk assessment process as required
As in step 2 in the MOC model above, risk
assessment is at the root of a successful Amendment of emergency procedures
MOC review as without out thorough and During the MOC process, we must ensure
detailed review of the possible effects of that we consider all possible changes and
the proposed change, there is no the implications of these on the continued
guarantee that something of great safe operation of the organisation. One
significance will not be missed. The such consideration must be any possible
degree of risk posed by the change will effects on the emergency procedures and
dictate the type and extent of the risk processes concerned.
assessment process used, ranging from
semi-quantitative right through to a full
detail quantitative approach.
Page 81 of 301
Welfare provision
Consideration of implications of welfare
provision and the need for additional and/or
amended facilities as a result of any
changes as a result of using the MOC
system
Review of change (during and after).

As with all management processes and
procedures, a review is always required.
Such a review should be conducted at the
end of the MOC process and subsequently
throughout the operational life-cycle of the
“changed” process.
As with all activities and procedures, we

should consider a review when there are
changes to:
 staffing level or mixture
 the process and/or substances
 associated equipment, beyond like-for-
like changes
 the workplace or environment within
which the work activity takes place
Additionally, consider a review as a result

of:
 active monitoring, for example a
workplace inspection
 reactive monitoring, for example an
incident investigation
 legal changes
Finally, reviews should be undertaken

routinely, in-line with the organisation’s
quality system requirements.
Page 82 of 301
3.6 Safe systems of work for general work activities
There is a requirement under ILO C155 for all employers, including the self-employed, to
provide and maintain a safe system of work.
A safe system of work can be defined as:-

A safe system of work is “An analysis of a task or process which considers the hazards likely
to be present and details the precautions necessary to avoid or minimise the risks to the
health and safety of individuals from the hazards posed by people, equipment, materials and
the working environment
Why workers should be involved when developing safe systems of work

In order to improve both quality and acceptance of SSW it is important to involve workers,
directly wherever possible via discussion group etc., or indirectly via the elected safety
representatives.
 Quality:
As the workers are the ones actually undertaking the tasks, we should accept and utilise the
knowledge and expertise that is within our workforce to improve not only our SSW, but also
all activities undertaken.
 Acceptance:
All humans like to feel involved, which makes us feel control and valued. When we feel
involved in decisions, we ae more likely to accept the eventual outcome of such decisions.
Why procedures should be recorded/written down

Writing procedures down allows us to ensure consistency of information given and allow
workers to refer to complex instructions after their briefing and the supervisors has left them.
Additionally, written procedures are more authoritative and more likely to be followed that a
simple verbal briefing. Finally, if the SSW is written it creates proof that there is a permanent
record for legal purposes, proof in both criminal and compensation cases.
The differences between technical,

procedural and behavioural controls
Alternative approach to the Hierarchy

of Control Measures:  TechnicalProcedural
Earlier we saw the general hierarchy of andBehaviouralTechnical controls: -
control, referred to as ERICPD, is for example; elimination of the need to
sometimes remembered using a different work at height, substitution of
approach, Technical, Procedural and substances with safer alternatives, or
Behavioural: engineering controls such as fencing or
barriers, machinery guarding.
Page 83 of 301
 Procedural controls: - concern the way  analysing proposed new or modified
in which work should be carried out in plant, material, process or structure;
order to minimise the risks associated  conducting hazard (or risk) surveys;
with the hazards. They will specify the  reviewing product information, e.g.
exact tasks involved, their sequence safety data sheets, operating manuals;
and the controls required and checks  researching publicly available data on
which have to be taken. Often hazards, e.g. newspaper articles,
procedures will relate to the correct industry or safety regulator alerts; and
operation of technical controls e.g.  looking at near-miss reports.
PTW, Standard Operating Procedures
(SOP’s) and Safe Working Procedures
(SWP’s). Introducing controls and formulating
procedures
 Behavioural controls: - would include Once we have identified the hazards, we
provision of information, instruction, need to consider the best suited controls
training and supervision, consultation, for such hazards, amongst other
safety signs, peer pressure and approaches, such controls may use the
disciplinary procedures. approach mentioned above;
 Technical
 Procedural
Steps in developing a safe system of  Behavioural
work:
Once we have identified the hazards and
Analysing tasks, identifying hazards suitable controls that, so far as is
and assessing risks reasonably practicably, remove or reduce
We can identify all tasks and hazards such hazards we need to create
within a business by using various procedures and/or safe systems of work,
techniques including: SSW which, in the case of complex and/or
 conducting pre-start discussions on the high risk activities, will usually be written.
work to be carried out;
 encouraging workers to recognise and
highlight hazards while performing work; Instruction and training in how to use
 carrying out safety inspections and the system
audits of the workplace and work A fundamental aspect of good safety
procedures; management, is provision of information,
 conducting job safety analyses (or instruction, training and supervision as is
similar task evaluation processes); required by each person. This needs to be
 monitoring, measuring and testing the addressed individually, especially to more
working environment such as noise at risk persons, for example new workers
monitoring, electrical testing and or other persons with vulnerabilities.
atmospheric testing;
Page 84 of 301
Monitoring the system  The distinction between technical,
As with all procedures, risk assessments procedural and behavioural controls
and SSW, we must ensure that not only do  Development of a safe system of work
we have everything mentioned within the  Analysing tasks, identifying hazards
documents and everyone knows what and and assessing risks
how to do things, we must monitor to  Introducing controls and formulating
ensure that things are working and people procedures
are actually following the prescribed  Instruction and training in the operation
methods of work. of the system
 Monitoring the system, both actively and
Such monitoring can take many types, for reactively
example;
 workplace inspections by supervisors
 review of incident and damage reports
 discussions at safety committee
meetings and other informal methods of
consultation which may be used
 observations by supervisors/managers
Types of safe systems available

 Permit to work High risk
 Locking off (isolation)
 Method Statements
 Rules and procedures
 Verbal instructions Low risk
The above are all examples of various

forms or types of safe system of work that
are intended to minimise the risks from
conducting a particular task. The precise
choice of format will be decided by the
initial risk assessment for the task or
activity
Factors to consider when developing a

safe system of work
 Employer’s responsibility to provide
safe systems of work
 Role of competent persons in the
development of safe systems
 Importance of worker involvement in
the development of safe systems
 Importance and relevance of written
procedures
Page 85 of 301
3.7 Permit-to-work systems
Meaning of a permit-to-work system

What is a Permit to Work, (PTW)?
A formal, written document, which can be used as part of a safe system of work, operated
where there is high degree of foreseeable risk, which identifies hazards and controls, utilising
multiple copies for effective communication.
Introduction
Permit-to-work systems and procedures are the most formal method of ensuring safe working
practices and safe systems of work. The objective is for an experienced and trained
authorised person, who will sign the permit-to-work certificate to pre-assess (with all
necessary technical assistance) the hazardous circumstances involved and then describe in
writing:
a) The work to be carried out and the hazards involved
b) All the precautions required together with emergency procedures
c) Who may carry out the work
d) The limits of the permit-to-work area or equipment.
According to circumstances, the permit-to-work certificates will require acknowledgement

either by all the personnel carrying out the hazardous work and/or by the supervisor in charge
of them.
A well designed permit-to-work system will also make provision for signed confirmation that
the work area or equipment involved has been restored to a safe condition, for possible time
extension of the permit, and for its formal cancellation and the keeping of a record.
Why permit-to-work systems are used How permit-to-work systems work and
Role and function of PTW (CAR) are used
1. Control high risk activities by ensuring PTW operation (by means of signatures)
set procedures are followed 1. Issue by authorised person after
2. Give signed authority for the activity to completion of the risk assessment
be carried out 2. Receipt by competent person after a
3. Formally record control measures double check
3. Clearance (declaration that area is now
safe) by competent person
4. Cancellation by authorised person,
after a double check, so that isolations
can be removed
Page 86 of 301
Sample Permit to Work
Key Elements of a PTW The general details included in a

 Issue by authorised person permit-to-work
 Duration of the PTW  A description and assessment of the
 Description of the task and location work to be performed including the plant
 Assessment of the associated involved, its location and possible
hazards hazards within associated with the task
 Precautions required e.g. tests,  This will indicate controls such as
isolation of services and inlets, PPE, isolation of sources of energy and
atmospheric monitoring and produce inlets and other precautions
emergency equipment, permitted such as atmospheric monitoring, PPE,
personnel etc. emergency procedures and the duration
 Receipt by competent person of the permit
 Clearance by competent person  The permit is issued by an authorised
 Cancellation by authorised person person and accepted by the person in
charge of the work
 On completion of the work the
competent person signs to confirm that
the work has been completed, the area
has been made safe, the control
measures can be removed and the
permit is cancelled
Page 87 of 301
When to use a permit-to-work system
We will use a permit-to-work, PTW, when
the risk assessment identifies high degree
of foreseeable risk.
Examples would include;

1. High Voltage (HV) electrical work (both
live work and when isolated)
2. Hot work
3. Work at height
4. Confined spaces
5. Interrupting services
6. Machinery maintenance
7. Excavations
8. By-passing safety devices
Problems with permits?

A HSE survey in the UK showed that one
third of all accidents in the chemical
industry were maintenance related, the
largest single cause being a lack of, or
deficiency in, the permit-to-work systems.
A study of small and medium sized

chemical factories showed:
 Two-thirds of companies were not
checking systems adequately
 Two-thirds of permits did not adequately
identify potential hazards.
 Nearly half dealt poorly with isolation of
plant, electrical equipment etc.
 A third of permits were unclear on what
PPE was needed.
 A quarter of permits did not deal
adequately with formal hand-back of
plant once maintenance work is
finished.
 In many cases little thought had been
given to permit form design.
Page 88 of 301
3.8 Emergency procedures
Why emergency procedures need to be developed

Emergencies of many types may affect an organisation at any time. Therefore, in order to
protect people, property, the business and wider society, it makes sense to prepare for all
foreseeable emergencies. Additionally, it is a requirement under ILO C155 to have in place
systems and procedures to ensure the safety of anyone who may be affected by our activities,
both employees and non-employees. This will include all foreseeable emergencies.
Additionally, such planning for emergencies may be a legal requirement in some countries
and also, in certain industries, a licencing requirement.
In order to benefit the most from planning for emergencies, we need to ensure that;
 Everyone is well trained and competent in the task we give them, e.g. fire
marshal/warden or first aider;
 We ensure that everyone has the opportunity to take part in regular and realistic
practices;
 We have in place clearly agreed, recorded and rehearsed plans, actions and
responsibilities
By ensuring the above, people are more likely to respond reliably in any emergency
Typical Workplace emergencies

 Fire/Explosions
 Accidental release of hazardous chemicals or gases
 Weather related emergencies
 Earthquakes
 Discovery of explosive device
 Terrorist attack
Emergency procedures and the

arrangements for contacting the  The early stages of an emergency are
emergency services often the most critical when important
 In all cases where there is potential for decisions are required to be taken under
serious harm to people at work and circumstances of extreme pressure.
affected by work, emergency  A careful consideration of the possible
preparedness by way of proper planning scenarios to be tackled through planning
and testing will reduce the can greatly assist this decision making
consequences of on-site emergencies process.
and help to mitigate the effects of the
incident. Note: Where you share your workplace
 An emergency plan should address the with another employer, you should
response required during each aspect of consider whether your emergency
the emergency from the immediate plans and procedures should be co-
requirements to the longer term ordinated.
recovery.
Page 89 of 301
Why people need training and  You must make sure there are enough
emergency procedures need to be emergency exits for everyone to
tested escape quickly, and keep emergency
Reasons to practice emergency drills doors and escape routes unobstructed
 The need to test that the planned and clearly marked.
arrangements will work e.g. the  Nominate competent people to take
evacuation can be carried out within the control (a competent person is
time limit set and the alarms and other someone with the necessary skills,
equipment are in working order knowledge and experience to manage
 To practice the roles of that have been health and safety).
given to specific persons such as fire  Decide which other key people you
wardens/marshals need, such as a nominated incident
 To ensure everyone knows what to do controller, someone who is able to
and where to go if an emergency occurs provide technical and other site-specific
 Make sure that everyone is familiar with information if necessary, or first-aiders.
the arrangements so they do not panic  Plan essential actions such as
in a real situation emergency plant shutdown, isolation or
 To liaise with the emergency services making processes safe. Clearly identify
and give an opportunity to practice their important items like shut-off valves and
rules electrical isolators etc.
 May have to comply with legal  You must train everyone in emergency
requirements procedures. Don’t forget the needs of
people with disabilities and vulnerable
workers.
What to include in an emergency  Work should not resume after an
procedure (see HSG268: ‘The health emergency if a serious danger remains.
and safety toolbox’) If you have any doubts ask for
 Consider what might happen and how assistance from the emergency services
the alarm will be raised. Don’t forget
night and shift working, weekends and Why people need training and
times when the premises are closed, emergency procedures need to be
e.g. holidays. tested
 Plan what to do, including how to call
the emergency services. Help them by As mentioned above, there is good
clearly marking your premises from the business sense, and often a legal/licencing
road. Consider drawing up a simple reason to plan for all foreseeable
plan showing the location of hazardous emergencies.
items.
 If you have 25 tonnes or more of However, all the planning in the world is of
dangerous substances, you must notify no use unless:
the fire and rescue service and put up 1 we communicate the plans with all those
warning signs. concerned
 Decide where to go to reach a place of 2 everyone gets the opportunity to
safety or to get rescue equipment. You practice their role in the emergency plan
must provide suitable forms of 3 we continually review and improve the
emergency lighting. emergency plan
Page 90 of 301
For training specifically, there is the
general requirement under ILO C155 for
provision to employees of information,
instruction training and supervision, as is
necessary, with similar requirements for
provision to non – employees.
Quick and effective action may help to

ease the situation and reduce the
consequences.
However, in emergencies people are

more likely to respond reliably if they:
 are well trained and competent;
 take part in regular and realistic
practice;
 have clearly agreed, recorded and
rehearsed plans, actions and
responsibilities.
As with all procedures and processes there

is obviously a need to review the
emergency plan, as part of the “Plan, Do,
Check, Act” approach adopted by many
employers, with the review being at an
operational level in the “Check” element,
(e.g. routine testing of evacuation alarms),
and strategic, (e.g. annual desk top
exercises to stress test the plan), in the
“Act” part of the management system.
Page 91 of 301
First aid Distribution
The correct response to an injured person The spread of workers throughout the
once an accident has occurred is of vital workplace is an important consideration.
importance as it can mean the prevention Are they spread over a large area, e.g. a
of further injury, ill-health or even death. It construction site, or are they relatively
is an example of welfare provision. tightly located, e.g. an office block.
The aim of first aid best practice is to Obviously, it would be much more difficult
ensure that all employers’ (including self- to cover the whole of a construction site,
employed) provide adequate and with all its vast area, and difficult access,
appropriate: than it would an office block with its good
communications and good access.
 Personnel
Numbers
 Equipment and The number of workers employed is
another factor.
 Facilities… for their own requirements
Nature of the Work
It is possible for organisations to agree Is the work high risk medium risk or is the
shared provision in joint locations such as work low risk? Obviously, the higher the
construction sites but this must be clearly risk the higher the level of first aid
stated in the contract documentation, provision. Some workplaces such as
otherwise it is assumed each employer will factories will be a combination, with the
be providing their own cover. actual factory being considered to be high
risk but the adjoining offices would be
What to consider when deciding on considered to be low risk.
first aid needs in a workplace:
To match an employer’s first aid provision High risk is classified as, industries such as
to their needs they must conduct a first aid construction, warehousing, engineering
risk assessment. The criteria to consider etc. Low Risk is classified as things such
are DANNIELS as libraries, offices, schools etc..
Distribution of workforce Location

The location of the premises is important. If
Numbers of employees the premises were next door to a hospital,
then the need for a First Aider would be
Nature of work activities carried out, less than if the premises were out in the
(hazards & associated countryside, in excess of 30 minutes from
risks) the nearest emergency services.
Location(s) number of locations to The risk assessment will consider all the
be cared for and the above factors, and it is then up to the
locations relative to employer to decide upon the appropriate
hospitals/emergency provision.
services
Shift patterns especially for “out of

hours” workers
Page 92 of 301
However, when making such an If your work involves driving long distances
assessment the employer must be mindful or you are continuously on the road, your
that in the event of a notifiable accident, assessment may identify the need to keep
and an investigation by the HSE, the a personal first-aid kit in your vehicle
employer will be guilty until proven
innocent.
Options for types of First Aid
As a very minimum, any organisation must Personnel
have an appointed person. However, it is The employer must decide by conducting
no longer acceptable to use an appointed an assessment which of the following types
person to fill in during foreseeable of personnel are adequate and appropriate
absences such as holidays. for their workplace;
Furthermore, if the company risk Appointed Person

assessment decides that there is a need This person is normally a manager whose
for a first aider, then consideration must be role is to look after equipment and facilities,
made of provision on all shifts should round call the emergency services as required
the clock working be the norm. and maintain the accident book. They do
not normally have any first aid training, so
Shift Work are only suitable for low risk premises.
Where there is more than one shift, clearly
there will be a requirement for extra first aid Emergency First Aider at Work (EFAW)
personnel be they qualified first aiders or An employee who has successfully
appointed person(s). There will also be completed a one day EFAW course. They
implications for people working away from would be expected to undertake all of the
the main workplace. responsibilities of an appointed person
AND administer limited emergency first aid.
Your assessment may also indicate that
you should provide a first-aid room, First Aider (FAW)
particularly where your work involves An employee who has successfully
certain hazards, including some of those completed a four day First Aid at Work
found in chemical industries and on large course (or equivalent). They would be
construction sites. expected to undertake all of the
responsibilities of an appointed person
If you are self-employed, you should have AND administer first aid.
equipment to be able to provide first aid to
yourself at work. You should make an Purposes of first aid
assessment of the hazards and risks in 1. Preserve life and minimising the
your workplace and establish an consequence of any serious injury
appropriate level of first-aid provision.
2. Treatment of minor injuries that do not
If you carry out low-risk activities (e.g. require further medical attention
clerical work) in your own home, you only
need to provide first-aid equipment
appropriate to your normal domestic
needs.
Page 93 of 301
First Aid Equipment Information for employees
The exact first aid equipment requirements Employees shall be informed of nature and
will be decided by the first aid risk location of:
assessment and include;
1. First aiders – who and how to contact
First aid room – should have them
couch/bed
easy clean surfaces and be clean 2. First aid facilities/equipment – what and
good access where to find it
hand washing facilities
Emergency showers
First Aid Boxes (standard, large &

travelling)
 Standardised core contents
 Checked regularly
 Restocked after use
 Near a hand wash basin
 Accessible
 Properly identified (safety condition
sign)
Eye wash bottles/Stretchers
Note
There should never be any medicines or
tablets in the first-aid box. The box shall be
green in colour, (Safe Condition), with a
white cross/crescent. First Aid Notice
Priorities of First Aid

 Prevent any loss of life – do not
approach an electrocution victim until
the power has been isolated
 Preserve the life and well-being of the

victim (ABC of First Aid – deal with
Airway, then Breathing and then
Circulation)
 Promote recovery – keep the victim

comfortable and reassure until
emergency help arrives
Page 94 of 301
Element 4: Health and safety monitoring and measuring
4.1 Active and reactive monitoring
In order to ensure that our controls and procedures are working correctly and reducing the
risk of harm to anyone from our activities, we need to monitor their effectiveness, identify
shortfalls and make corrective actions. This is also a requirement under various Health and
Safety Management Systems, HSMS, e.g. ISO 45001. Such monitoring can use either Active
or Reactive methods to determine the success or failure of the controls. Additionally, there is
a good business case for knowing what is “actually happening” in our company as opposed
what we think may be happening.
The differences between active and reactive monitoring

Active monitoring (Proactive)
 Involves the systematic monitoring of plant and premises checking compliance to
standards with the aim of identifying unsafe acts and conditions before they cause harm
and then taking corrective action.
 Active monitoring involves taking the initiative before things go wrong within an
organisation in respect of health and safety issues and ensuring appropriate health and
safety systems and procedures are in place.
Reactive monitoring
 This considers failures and what caused them. Also how were they reported/recorded/
investigated and taking action after the failure to correct the results and prevent the same
failure from occurring again.
Active monitoring methods would include

 Audits
 Inspections
 Surveys
 Tours
 Contact
 Sampling
 Environmental monitoring
 Health surveillance
 Number of staff trained
Safety Audits An audit can be an internal audit (first

A systematic, independent and party) or an external audit (second party
documented process for obtaining audit or third party), and it can be a combined
evidence and evaluating it objectively to audit (combining two or more disciplines).
determine the extent to which the audit
criteria are fulfilled An internal audit is conducted by the
organization itself, or by an external party
on its behalf.
We will cover more on audits later
Page 95 of 301
Safety inspections Types of Inspection
A safety inspection involves the
straightforward observation of a workplace There are many types of inspection;
and/or the activities or equipment within it.  Statutory inspections are required by
It usually carried out by a manager, a countries legal system and is carried
supervisor, safety representative and/or out by a competent person. Most
Safety Advisor and is often aided by the countries will have a requirement for
use of a checklist. It should be carried out cranes, pressure vessels, scaffolds,
routinely and has the aim of identifying excavations etc. to be inspected
hazards and assessing the use and periodically (regularly).
effectiveness of control measures
 General workplace inspections
Role of safety inspections carried by management, health and
 Identifying hazards and assessing safety representatives, safety advisers
controls enabling appropriate remedial on a regular basis
action to be taken before accidents
occur  External inspection - Insurers,
 Showing management commitment to enforcement officers
health and safety
 Improving the morale of the workforce  Introductory inspection - New
 Enabling the involvement of workers in equipment or processes
the management of health and safety
 Identifying trends and weaknesses in Factors deciding the frequency of
existing procedures inspections
 Ensuring adherence to legal  The activities undertaken and the
requirements and standards associated level of risk
 Reviewing previous findings and  The makeup of the workforce which
recommendations could include vulnerable, young or
 Providing a report to management of disabled workers
safety standards in their area  The results from previous inspections
and audits
Inspection Summary  The records of compliance with
An examination of health, safety and established standards
welfare against company standards  Recommendations following risk
which also highlights good points assessments
 Who: Manager, Supervisor, Safety  Accident history and outcome of
Advisor, Safety Representative investigations
 When: Routinely (weekly, monthly, 3  Enforcement action or advice from
monthly) enforcement authority
 How: Observation sheets  Introduction of new equipment,
 What examining: Unsafe acts and processes or safe systems of work
conditions, plus health and welfare  Manufactures recommendations and
issues insurance company requirements
 What is outcome: Inspection report  Following consultation or complaints
from workers.
 Statutory inspection requirements from
the legislation of the Country.
Page 96 of 301
Inspection checklists  Failure to identify and take corrective
In many situations the use of a pre- action may be due to inability of
prepared checklist of topics may be useful inspector to carry out proper inspection
as a memory aid and to prompt the due to their lack of knowledge or
inspector into examining all of the competence
appropriate areas.
Factors to consider for inspections;
The strengths of using a checklist  Type of inspection (what)
 Enables prior preparation and planning  Frequency of inspection (how often)
 Inspection is more structured and  The responsibilities for inspection
systematic (what)
 Reduces the chance of important issues  The competence of the inspector (who)
being overlooked  The use of checklists (how)
 Provides immediate record of findings  Action planning for problems found
 Ensures a consistent approach (who, when)
 Easy method for comparison  The effectiveness of the written report
(how)
The weaknesses of using a checklist
 May result in a blinkered approach by Inspection Reports
inspectors An effective inspection report is;
 Checklist may not be reviewed/updated  Formal
to account for changes  Objective
 Inspections become routine with no  Concise
follow-up questions being asked  Jargon free
 No scope for peripheral issues to be  Factual
considered  Persuasive (Moral, Economic, Legal
 Untrained persons might attempt to argument)
conduct inspections  SMART
 Inspection procedure may be subject to
human error or abuse Inspection report structure
For an inspection report to be effective it
Inspections may not lead to unsafe must be well structured;
conditions being corrected because:-  Title page
 It was not on the inspection checklist  Introduction
 Unsafe activity not taking place during  Executive summary
the inspection  Main body
 Hazard was not obvious and  Conclusions
consequently not be noticed  Recommendations
 Unsafe condition might have been
observed but not mentioned in report
 If unsafe condition in report the report
may not be read by a responsible person
 Action required in report not followed up
and corrective action taken
 Responsibility for taking the corrective
action may be unclear
Page 97 of 301
Safety Survey  Who: ordinary workers
A safety survey is a detailed examination  When: Routinely (weekly, monthly, 3
or focus on particular activities e.g. major monthly)
key areas revealed by such things as  How: Prepared checklist
Safety Audits and may be carried out by  What examining: unsafe acts and
specialists. Examples include noise conditions
survey, staff attitude survey, and structural  What is outcome: Improved
survey communication and buy-in from the
workers
Safety Sampling
A simple technique used to try and Safety Contacts – informal
objectively measure health and safety An unscheduled examination of the
performance. It is a sampling exercise workplace by a member of management
observing health and safety conditions and team from Directors, Works Managers to
practices e.g. to observe the use of hearing Safety Committee members. It is
protection, conducted to demonstrate safety
 Who: Supervisor leadership and active involvement in HSE
 When: Routinely (weekly, monthly, 3 and to create an opportunity for senior
monthly) manager and workers to meet in an
 How: Observation sheets, and a plan informal setting.
 What examining: unsafe acts and
conditions It can also ensure that standards of
 What is outcome: Objective measure housekeeping are at an acceptable level,
of unsafe acts and conditions obvious hazards are removed and in
general that safety standards are
Safety Tours observed. If Senior Management
A worker driven activity to give the workers undertake contacts it also has the
an opportunity to spend time reviewing advantage of giving them an accurate
safety activities, (acts and conditions), in picture of what is actually happening. For
their own workplace and their colleagues. example a random inspection of some
pieces of Lifting Tackle could indicate the
By allowing workers to walk around general standard.
reviewing safety matters, it also shows
there are no secrets and demonstrates  Who: Director or Manager
senior management commitment as well  When: Routinely (weekly, monthly, 3
as seeking input and good ideas from the monthly)
workforce.  How: Prepared checklist
 What examining: unsafe acts and
The overall effect should be to improve conditions
cooperation and communication between  What is outcome: Good
workers and managers. communication
Page 98 of 301
Safety Contact – formal Data about such health and safety failures
This is where managers and supervisors provides the opportunity to learn from
consult with the workforce on what is mistakes, and to improve both risk
happening formally. management systems and the control of
particular health and safety risks.
 Who: Manager or Supervisor
 When: Routinely (weekly, monthly, 3 It measures failure, and therefore is
monthly) negative, so often such events go
 How: Discussions, Briefings, Safety unreported.
Committee Meetings, Tool Box Talks
 What examining: Everything However, any and all incident reports
 What is outcome: Good given, must be adequately investigated to
communication find out the reasons that allowed the event
to occur. Such reasons are often a poor or
unfollowed safe system of work or risk
Environmental monitoring
assessment.
This monitors the effectiveness of
environmental workplace controls by
Data used in Reactive monitoring
monitoring hazards such as noise, dust,
gas, radiation, and temperature.  Accidents statistics
 Dangerous occurrences
Health surveillance  Near miss reports
This technique monitors the on-going  Ill health statistics
health of ‘at risk’ workers with routine  Sickness and absenteeism records
health checks that might include eyesight  Complaints by workforce
tests, hearing tests, lung functions tests, or  Enforcement action
visual inspection of the hands for the early  Incident investigations
signs of dermatitis.  Number and value of civil claims
Number of staff trained

Checking against training plan/HSE Policy The difference between leading and
and objectives. This will allow corrective lagging indicators.
action to be taken where necessary to Lagging indicators are typically “output”
make sure that the training plan and HSE oriented, easy to measure but hard to
objectives are met. improve or influence while leading
indicators are typically input oriented,
hard to measure and easy to influence.
Reactive monitoring
Reactive monitoring is concerned with Dual assurance – a leading and lagging
looking at events that have occurred in indicator for each risk control system
order to learn from mistakes and establish
what systems and procedures can and The main difference between the general
should be in place to prevent a recurrence. approach and existing guidance on
performance measurement is the
Reactive monitoring includes gathering introduction of the concept of ‘dual
data about injuries and cases of ill health assurance’ that key risk control systems
(including monitoring of sickness absence are operating as intended.
records) and incidents with the potential to
cause injury, ill health or loss.
Page 99 of 301
Leading and lagging indicators are set in a
structured and systematic way for each
critical risk control system within the whole
safety management system.
In tandem they act as system guardians
Leading indicators
Leading indicators are a form of active
monitoring focused on a few critical risk
control systems to ensure their continued
effectiveness.
Leading indicators require a routine

systematic check that key actions or
activities are undertaken as intended. They
can be considered as measures of process
or inputs essential to deliver the desired
safety outcome.
Lagging indicators
Lagging indicators are a form of reactive
monitoring requiring the reporting and
investigation of specific incidents and
events to discover weaknesses in that
system.
These incidents or events do not have to

result in major damage or injury or even a
loss of containment, providing that they
represent a failure of a significant control
system which guards against or limits the
consequences of a major incident.
Lagging indicators show when a

desired safety outcome has failed, or
has not been achieved.
Page 100 of 301

4.2 Investigating incidents
Unfortunately, even in the best run companies, unwanted events or incidents occur. Such
events may result in property damage, financial losses and injuries to people. However, even
though our systems and procedures may have failed to prevent such events, we can still
learn valuable information from them and use this to prevent similar losses occurring again.
The primary method of learning as much as possible from these unwanted event is to conduct
a thorough investigation to identify all the circumstances from the earliest we can in the “chain
of events” which led up to the incident itself.
It is worth doing a basic investigation, of even relatively minor events, as history tells us that
we usually have several minor incidents before we have the major one, therefore if we learn
from the minor ones, perhaps we can reduce the likelihood of the more serious one occurring.
Learning lessons from near misses can prevent costly accidents as investigations of several
major disasters, (The Clapham Junction rail crash and the Herald of Free Enterprise ferry
capsize), are examples of situations where management had failed to recognise, and act on,
previous failings in the system.
Therefore we need to investigate any adverse events for a number of reasons
 Moral
 Economic
 Legal
Moral reasons for investigating Economic reasons for investigating

incidents incidents
Firstly and very importantly, all employers The prevention of business losses due to
have a moral duty to protect anyone who disruption, stoppage, lost orders and the
may be injured or suffer ill health and a costs of criminal and civil legal actions.
result of the employers activities.
Legal reasons for investigating
Additionally, demonstration of senior incidents
management commitment via such  To ensure you are operating your
investigations will create an improvement organisation within the law.
in employee morale and attitude towards  To comply with ILO C155 and best
health and safety. Employees will be more practice, as it requires employers to
cooperative in implementing new safety plan, organise, control, monitor and
precautions if they were involved in the review their health and safety
decision and they can see that problems arrangements.
are dealt with.
 Incident investigations form an
essential part of this process.
Page 101 of 301

 Following best practice, we are also happening again and for improving your
expected to make full disclosure of the overall management of risk. Your findings
circumstances of an accident to the will also point to areas of your risk
injured parties considering legal action. assessments that need to be reviewed.
This link with risk assessment(s) is a legal
The fear of litigation may make you think it duty
is better not to investigate, but you can’t
make things better if you don’t know what As a result of an investigation, we can
went wrong! create well thought-out risk control
measures, (or improve existing ones),
The fact that you thoroughly investigated combined with adequate supervision,
an accident and took remedial action to monitoring and effective management (i.e.
prevent further accidents would your risk management system) will ensure
demonstrate to a court that your company that your work activities are safe. Health
has a and safety investigations are an important
positive attitude to health and safety. tool in developing and refining your risk
management system.
Any investigation findings will also provide
essential information for insurers in Incident Types
the event of a claim. It is possible to categorise incidents by
outcome;
An effective investigation requires a  Injury;
methodical, structured approach to  Ill-health;
information gathering, collation and  Near miss;
analysis. The findings of the investigation  Damage only
will form the basis of an action plan to  Dangerous occurrence;
prevent the accident or incident from
Levels of investigations:
There are 4 levels of investigation, Minimal, Low, Medium and High, (as demonstrated in the
UK HSE document, HSG245), determined by their seriousness. Such seriousness is
determined by using the “risk assessment” process and considering the likelihood of
recurrence and the potential possible worst outcome if they do happen again.
The 2 tables below demonstrate how such a calculation is made.

Likelihood of Potential worst consequences of adverse event
recurrence Minor Serious Major Fatal
Certain
Likely
Possible
Unlikely
Rare
Risk Minimal Low Medium High

Investigation Minimal Medium
Low level High level
level level level
Page 102 of 301

Who will investigate? Talk to everyone who was close by when
 In a minimal level investigation, the the adverse event happened, especially
relevant supervisor will look into the those who saw what happened or know
circumstances of the event and try to anything about the conditions that led to it.
learn any lessons which will prevent
future occurrences. The amount of time and effort spent on
 A low level investigation will involve a information gathering should be
short investigation by the relevant proportionate to the level of investigation.
supervisor or line manager into the
circumstances and immediate, Collect all available and relevant
underlying and root causes of the information. That includes opinions,
adverse event, to try to prevent a experiences, observations, sketches,
recurrence and to learn any general measurements, photographs, check
lessons. sheets, permits-to-work and details of the
 A medium level investigation will environmental conditions at the time etc.
involve a more detailed investigation by
the relevant supervisor or line manager, This information can be recorded initially in
the health and safety adviser and note form, with a formal report being
employee representatives and will look completed later. These notes should be
for the immediate, underlying and root kept at least until the investigation is
causes. complete.
 A high level investigation will involve a
team-based investigation, involving Where, when and who?
supervisors or line managers, health 1 Where and when did the adverse event
and safety advisers and employee happen?
representatives. It will be carried out 2 Who was injured/suffered ill health or
under the supervision of senior was otherwise involved with the adverse
management or directors and will look event?
for the immediate, underlying, and root 3 How did the adverse event happen?
causes. Note any equipment involved.
4 What activities were being carried out at
the time?
Basic incident investigation steps:
5 Was there anything unusual or different
There are 4 steps or stages in the incident
about the working conditions?
investigation process, with each one
6 Were there adequate safe working
leading into the next to ensure that nothing
procedures and were they followed?
gets missed.
7 What injuries or ill health effects, if any,
were caused?
Step one: gathering the information
8 If there was an injury, how did it occur
Find out what happened and what
and what caused it?
conditions and actions influenced the
9 Was the risk known? If so, why wasn’t it
adverse event. Begin straight away, or as
controlled? If not, why not?
soon as practicable.
10 Did the organisation and arrangement of
the work influence the adverse event?
It is important to capture information as
11 Was maintenance and cleaning
soon as possible. This stops it being
sufficient? If not, explain why not.
corrupted, e.g. items moved, guards
12 Were the people involved competent
replaced etc. If necessary, work must stop
and suitable?
and unauthorised access be prevented.
Page 103 of 301

13 Did the workplace layout influence the What were the immediate, underlying
adverse event? and root causes? (PEME)
14 Did the nature or shape of the materials It is only by identifying all causes, and the
influence the adverse event? root causes in particular, that you can learn
15 Did difficulties using the plant and from past failures and prevent future
equipment influence the adverse event? repetitions.
16 Was the safety equipment sufficient?
17 Did other conditions influence the The causes of adverse events often relate
adverse event? to one another in a complex way,
sometimes only influencing events and at
Step two: analysing the information other times having an overwhelming
An analysis involves examining all the impact, due to their timing or the way they
facts, determining what happened and interact. The analysis must consider all
why. All the detailed information gathered possible causes. Keep an open mind. Do
should be assembled and examined to not reject a possible cause until you have
identify what information is relevant and given it serious consideration. The
what information is missing. The emphasis is on a thorough, systematic and
information gathering and analysis are objective look at the evidence.
actually carried out side by side. As the
analysis progresses, further lines of There are many methods of analysing the
enquiry requiring additional information will information gathered in an investigation to
develop. find the immediate, underlying and root
causes and it is for you to choose
To be thorough and free from bias, the whichever method suits you best.
analysis must be carried out in a
systematic way, so all the possible causes Step three: identifying risk control
and consequences of the adverse event measures
are fully considered. A number of formal The methodical approach adopted in the
methods have been developed to aid this analysis stage will enable failings and
approach.8 possible solutions to be identified. These
One useful method for organising your solutions need to be systematically
information, identifying gaps and beginning evaluated and only the optimum solution(s)
the analysis is Events and Causal Factor should be considered for implementation. If
Analysis (ECFA), 9 which is beyond the several risk control measures are
scope of this guidance. identified, they should be carefully
prioritised as a risk control action plan,
The analysis should be conducted with which sets out what needs to be done,
employee or trade union health and safety when and by whom. Assign responsibility
representatives and other experts or for this to ensure the timetable for
specialists, as appropriate. This team implementation is monitored.
approach can often be highly productive in
enabling all the relevant causal factors to
emerge.
Page 104 of 301

What risk control measures are Do similar risks exist elsewhere? If so,
needed/recommended? what and where?
Your analysis of the adverse event will Having concluded your investigation of the
have identified a number of risk control adverse event, consider the wider
measures that either failed or that could implications: could the same thing happen
have interrupted the chain of events elsewhere in the organisation, on this site
leading to the adverse event, if they had or at another location? What steps can be
been in place. You should now draw up a taken to avoid this?
list of all the alternative measures to
prevent this, or similar, adverse events. Adverse events might not have occurred at
other locations yet, but make an evaluation
Some of these measures will be more as to whether the risks are the same and
difficult to implement than others, but this the same or similar risk control measures
must not influence their listing as possible are appropriate.
risk control measures. The time to consider
these limitations is later when choosing Have similar adverse events happened
and prioritising which measures to before? Give details.
implement. If there have been similar adverse events
in the past why have they been allowed to
Evaluate each of the possible risk control happen again? The fact that such adverse
measures on the basis of their ability to events are still occurring should be a spur
prevent recurrences and whether or not to ensure that action is taken quickly. You
they can be successfully implemented. will be particularly open to criticism if you
as an organisation ignore a series of similar
In deciding which risk control measures to accidents.
recommend and their priority, you should
choose measures in the following order, Remember that there is value in
where possible: investigating near-misses and undesired
circumstances: it is often only a matter of
 measures which eliminate the risk, e.g. luck that such incidents do not result in
use ‘inherently safe’ products, such as a serious injuries or loss of life.
water-based product rather than a
hydrocarbon-based solvent; Step four: the action plan and its
 measures which combat the risk at implementation
source, e.g. provision of guarding; At this stage in the investigation, senior
 measures which minimise the risk by management, who have the authority to
relying on human behaviour, e.g. safe make decisions and act on the
working procedures, the use of personal recommendations of the investigation
protective equipment. team, should be involved.
In general terms, measures that rely on An action plan for the implementation of
engineering risk control measures are additional risk control measures is the
more reliable than those that rely on desired outcome of a thorough
people. investigation.
The action plan should have SMART

objectives, i.e. Specific, Measurable,
Agreed, and Realistic, with Timescales.
Page 105 of 301

Deciding where to intervene requires a It is crucial that a specific person,
good knowledge of the organisation and preferably a director, partner or senior
the way it carries out its work. For the risk manager, is made responsible for ensuring
control measures proposed to be SMART, that the action plan as a whole is put into
management, safety professionals, effect. This person doesn’t necessarily
employees and their representatives have to do the work him or herself but he
should all contribute to a constructive or she should monitor the progress of the
discussion on what should be in the action risk control action plan.
plan.
Progress on the action plan should be
Not every risk control measure will be regularly reviewed. Any significant
implemented, but the ones accorded the departures from the plan should be
highest priority should be implemented explained and risk control measure
immediately. In deciding your priorities you rescheduled, if appropriate. Employees
should be guided by the magnitude of the and their representatives should be kept
risk (‘risk’ is the likelihood and severity of fully informed of the contents of the risk
harm). control action plan and progress with its
implementation.
Ask yourself
 What is essential to securing the health Which risk assessments and safe
and safety of the workforce today? working procedures need to be
 What cannot be left until another day? reviewed and updated?
How high is the risk to employees if this All relevant risk assessments and safe
risk control measure is not implemented working procedures should be reviewed
immediately? after an adverse event. The findings of your
investigation should indicate areas of your
If the risk is high, you should act risk assessments that need improving. It is
immediately. important that you take a step back and ask
what the findings of the investigation tell
You will, no doubt, be subject to financial you about your risk assessments in
constraints, but failing to put in place general. Are they really suitable and
measures to control serious and imminent sufficient?
risks is totally unacceptable. You must
either reduce the risks to an acceptable Failing to review relevant risk assessments
level, or stop the work. after an adverse event could mean that you
are contravening a local law, for example
For those risks that are not high and The UK Management of Health and Safety
immediate, the risk control measures at Work Regulations 1999 regulation 3(3).5
should be put into your action plan in order
of priority. Each risk control measure
should be assigned a timescale and a
person made responsible for its
implementation.
Page 106 of 301

Things to consider after an Reporting of incidents to external
investigation agencies
 Have the details of adverse event and The ILO requires a government to
the investigation findings been recorded nominate a competent authority or
and analysed? authorities, as appropriate, which should,
 Are there any trends or common causes in the light of national conditions and
which suggest the need for further practice and in consultation with the most
investigation? representative organisations of employers
 What did the adverse event cost? and workers, formulate, implement and
periodically review a coherent national
In addition to the prompt notification of policy and principles on:
reportable events to the regulatory
authorities you should ensure that you  The recording, notification and
keep your own records of adverse events, investigation of occupational accidents
their causes and the remedial measures and diseases
taken.  The recording, notification and
investigation of commuting accidents,
This will enable you to monitor your health dangerous occurrences and incidents
and safety performance and detect trends,  The compilation, analysis and
the common causes of adverse events and publication of statistics on such
so improve your overall understanding and accidents, diseases and occurrences.
management of risk.
ILO definitions include:-
It is also useful to estimate the cost of Competent authority: A Minister,
adverse events to fully appreciate the true Government department or other Public
cost of accidents and ill health to your authority with the power to issue
business. regulations, orders or other instructions
having the force of law.
The step by step approach that is set out in
this guide is only one of a number of Notification: Procedure specified in
possible approaches. It is for you to decide national laws and regulations, which
which approach suits your business best. establishes the way in which:
 The employer or self-employed person
submits information concerning
occupational accidents, commuting
accidents, dangerous occurrences or
incidents
 The employer, the self-employed
person, the insurance institution or
others directly concerned submit
information concerning occupational
diseases; as appropriate and prescribed
by the competent authority.
Page 107 of 301

Recording: Procedure specified in By way of example, typical occupational
national laws which establish the means by diseases will include;
which the employer ensures that  Hearing damage (noise induced hearing
information be maintained on:- loss)
 Occupational accidents  Vibration damage (hand-arm and/or
 Occupational diseases whole-body vibration)
 Commuting accidents  Asbestos related diseases (asbestosis,
 Dangerous occurrences and incidents mesothelioma)
 Musculo-skeletal disorders (WRULDS)
Occupational accidents
According to RNOAD, national laws or Listed occupational diseases
regulations should specify: There is a list of occupational diseases
(a) the respective information on within RNOAD that are reportable when
occupational accidents, occupational they are diagnosed by a medical
diseases, professional and are work related.
dangerous occurrences and commuting
accidents, as appropriate, to be notified to Commuting accidents
the competent authority, labour A commuting accident is an accident
inspectorate, insurance institution or other occurring on the direct way between the
bodies; place of work and:
(b) the timing of the notification, which  The worker’s residence;
should preferably be made by the  The place where the worker usually
employer: takes his/her meals; or
(d) by the quickest possible means  The place where the worker usually
immediately after reporting of an receives his/her remuneration, which
occupational accident causing loss of life; results in death or personal injury
involving loss of working time.
By way of example, typical  Traffic accidents in which workers are
occupational accidents will include; involved during working hours and
 Death – to any person arising out of or which occur in the course of paid work
in connection with work are considered as occupational
 Fractures accidents
 Amputations
 Effects of weather exposure, and Any of the above which results in death or
related conditions (both hot and cold) personal injury involving loss of working
 Effects of electric currents time. Traffic accidents in which workers are
 Absence from work for a specified involved during working hours and which
period of time, (RNOAD 3 days) occur in the course of paid work are
considered as occupational accidents.
Occupational diseases Dangerous occurrences and incidents

National laws or regulations should specify  Definition from RNOAD
that notification of an occupational disease Dangerous occurrence: Readily
by an employer is mandatory, at least identifiable event as defined under
whenever the employer receives a medical national laws and regulations, with
certificate to the effect that one of his or her potential to cause an injury or disease
workers is suffering from an occupational to persons at work or the public.
disease.
Page 108 of 301

Typical dangerous occurrences will
include
 Lifting machines overturning
 Train collisions
 Scaffold collapse over 5 metres high
 Unintentional structural collapse over 5
tonnes in weight
 Breathing apparatus under operational
conditions
 Failure of pipelines
 Explosion or fire resulting in cessation
of operations for more than 24 hours
 Failure or a pressure vessel
The majority of countries have their own

laws, regulations or other methods
consistent with local conditions and
practice which require the recording and
reporting of events such as occupational
accidents, occupational diseases,
commuting accidents, dangerous
occurrences and incidents. Not all
accidents are reportable to Enforcing
Authorities, but to ensure accurate
statistics all incidents and accidents should
be reported internally.
RNOAD only concerns the reporting of

the above events by the responsible
person within an organisation to the
national enforcing authority.
The national enforcing authority will

then report their findings to the ILO on
an annual basis.
Page 109 of 301

4.3 Health and safety auditing -
Definition of the term ‘audit’ (Clause 3.32, ISO 45001:2018)

A systematic, independent and documented process for obtaining audit evidence and
evaluating it objectively to determine the extent to which the audit criteria are fulfilled
An audit can be an internal audit (first party) or an external audit (second party or third
party), and it can be a combined audit (combining two or more disciplines).
An internal audit is conducted by the organization itself, or by an external party on its

behalf.
Why health and safety management Difference between audits and

systems should be audited inspections
There is a very old saying about Without detailed supporting evidence, an
management which says … “if you cannot audit can only really give us a snap-shot of
measure something – you cannot manage performance on the day of the audit.
it” and, although some things cannot be However, auditing using supporting
measured, but still require managing, data evidence allows the company to review the
certainly assists us in deciding what does adequacy of their procedures and
and does not work and what needs fixing, compliance to their own standards over a
longer period, typically one or two years.
This is equally true for the management of
production, quality, environmental and Such supporting evidence will include
safety. routine inspections undertaken by
managers and supervisors.
Therefore, in order to ensure that our
Health and Safety Management System, Whereas an audit is a systematic review,
HSMS is fit-for-purpose and fully often undertaken by external auditors,
functioning, we must carry out some form during which documents will be checked,
of routine review/measurement of observations will be made, interviews will
performance. Such measurement will use take place and a confirmatory workplace
active and reactive techniques to identify inspection is undertaken to ensure that
where we are doing well, (positive), what is written on paper is what actually
organisational learning and assurance and happens on site.
also (negative), identifying failing of a
management system, areas of weakness By contrast, an inspection is usually
in the procedures and any weaknesses in undertaken by a manager or supervisor,
our compliance with our management often involving a worker representative,
systems. and is more concerned with looking for
unsafe acts and conditions in the
workplace, with perhaps some minor
checking of local documents in use, for
example a permit to work, PTW or safe
system of work, SSW.
Page 110 of 301

Types of audit: product/services, process, system
First party audit: A self-audit, conducted by an organisation on itself with the aim of
identifying ay weaknesses in its own procedures, or compliance with them, and putting in
place corrective action. This is sometimes completed prior to an external audit.
Second party audit: Conducted by a customer/client to ensure that what we promise to

deliver in the tender documents/contract is what we actually deliver.
Third party audit: Any other form of audit, usually by an external body, for example an
external ISO 45001 audit.
All of the above types of audit can be carried out on product/services, processes and systems.
Advantages and disadvantages of external and internal audits

INTERNAL EXTERNAL
Advantages Advantages
Relatively low cost Objective – no vested interests
Knowledge of business Experience in best practice
Confidential Greater knowledge
Normally accredited: ISO 45001
Disadvantages Disadvantages
Not always objective Can be inconvenient
peer pressure/conflict of interest Relatively costly
Normally not externally reviewed to a Not aware of custom & practice
standard
The audit stages: 1) Planning the audit which will

consider the issues such as:-
Notification of the audit and timetable  Setting the objectives and scope of the
for auditing audit
 Selecting the Audit team
Auditor and site agree  Contact with the Organisation being
 Who needs to be seen audited
 What evidence needs to be seen  Developing audit questionnaires and
 Where on site needs to be visited checklists
 How the audit will be conducted  Agreeing relevant guidance and
 When, specific dates and times, for standards
interviews/visits  Allocating resources and timescales
 Deciding on methods of feedback
Page 111 of 301

Pre-audit preparations, including competent audit team, time and resources required
Setting the objectives and scope of the audit

The organisation sets out what are the aims and objectives of the audit. This may be to
examine the entire organisation or specific areas.
Selecting the audit team

The audit team may be just one person or a group of people. The numbers of auditors
involved depend upon the size of the organisation and the audit objectives. Auditors need to
be competent and this includes technical ability, knowledge and experience of auditing,
interpersonal, report writing and presentation skills. They may be external and internal.
Contact with the organisation being audited

As seen above a large amount of planning prior to the actual audit taking place is required.
Documentation is examined and a plan is drawn to conduct the audit. Having established the
plan for the Audit the Auditors will provide the Organisation with details of the audit team.
They may also give the names of members of staff to be interviewed to arrange appointments.
The Auditors may request documents relative to health and safety to be provided prior to the
audit or for examination during the audit.
Some of the documents examined during an audit

Safety policy Risk assessment procedures
Safety monitoring procedures Maintenance records
Accident and incident reports Health surveillance records
Safety committee minutes etc. Training records
Statutory inspections Previous audit reports
Much of the above may be clarified at pre-audit meetings.
Information gathering – Undertaking the Information analysis – Analysing data

audit  Results of interviews undertaken
The auditors will visit the organisation to  Documentation gathered, records,
carry out the audit and gathering accident and near miss trends
information. This will involve;  Observations made
 Examination of documents listed above
if not already requested to see whether The auditors usually go back to their own
they are being complied with workplace to analyse the information
 Interviewing members of staff to see if gathered and make their conclusions and
they are aware of Organisations begin to create their recommendations.
policies, their safety responsibilities and They may still continue to contact the
are that they are meeting their Organisation for clarification of any points.
responsibilities
 Carrying out an inspection of the
workplace.
Page 112 of 301

Completion of audit report and There is also a responsibility on the
presentation auditors to conduct the audit in an ethical
Finally a detailed written report will be and professional manner.
produced and the results presented to the
organisations senior management to Why audit needs to be presented to
summarise the findings, highlight the most senior management
significant issues, detailing the  They have the authority both to require
compliances with and the failures of the appropriate action to be taken and
safety management systems and provide the resources that might be
recommendations for improvement. necessary
 To enable them to demonstrate
It is important that the findings are management commitment and
presented to senior management leadership
because:-  To be able to give praise or reward
 They have the authority both to require where this has been earned but also to
appropriate action be taken and provide take disciplinary action where
the resources that might be necessary necessary
 To enable them to demonstrate  To enable them to consider and reset
management commitment and their goals for the future
leadership  To comply with their personal
 To be able to give praise or reward responsibilities under legislation or
where this has been earned but also to international standards and best
take disciplinary action where necessary practice
 To enable them to consider and reset
their goals for the future Audit findings can improve health and
 To comply with their personal safety performance because:-
responsibilities under legislation,  The audit will identify substandard
international standards or best practice Health and safety practices that are
occurring within the workplace
Action by the organisation  It will compare actual performance
The organisation should then take action to against targets
feed the information back into the  It will identify whether control measures
management system and to implement the are being used and also the
action required. Action plans may be effectiveness of the control measures
drawn up to ensure that the implementation  It will provide information on whether the
of measures required will be completed in workforce are aware of their
a suitable time scale and that all relevant responsibilities
members of the workforce are aware of  It will check compliance with the safety
what is required of them. management system
 It will also give indications of good health
Responsibility for auditing and safety practice within the workplace
The responsibility for having audits  The audit report will be provided to
undertaken is the Management of the management who can then make
organisation, unless it’s required by a client decisions on suitable remedial
of an accreditation, such as ISO 45001 measures and they will also be able to
then there is a requirement for auditing to set priorities and establish realistic
see if they meet the accreditation criteria timescales
and for subsequent regular auditing.
Page 113 of 301

4.4 Review of health and safety performance
The following would input into the Management review:

1. Results of internal audits and evaluations of compliance with applicable legal
requirements and with other requirements to which the organisation subscribes,
2. The results of participation and consultation relevant communication(s) from external

interested parties, including complaints,
3. The occupational health and safety performance of the organisation,
4. The extent to which objectives have been met,
5. Status of incident investigations, corrective actions and preventive actions,
6. Follow-up actions from previous management reviews,
7. Changing circumstances, including developments in legal and other requirements related

to occupational health and safety, and
8. Recommendations for improvement.
Why health and safety performance What the review should consider:
should be reviewed The review will consider all the evidence
We should review our safety performance and data gathered during the audit
to see what is working and what is not process, either by physical review or by
working within our safety management interview/observation.
systems, procedures and processes. The
benefit of such a review will be: Such information/data will include:
Moral: we will not hurt people  level of compliance with relevant legal,
Economic: we will not lose lots of money for example national laws and guidance,
and and organisational requirements, for
Legal: we will not be prosecuted and example internal policies, procedures
punished or sued for and standards
compensation  accident and incident data, and lessons
learned from these activities, corrective
There may also be certain and preventive actions and lessons
local government reasons for learned from these and their
reviewing certain parts of our effectiveness in preventing recurrence
performance for legal and or  results of all internal inspections, tours
licencing reasons and sampling
 absences and sickness rates, any
Additionally, without any form of changes and reasons for such changes
measurement and review how can we  quality assurance reports and any signs
know whether you have achieved what you or indicators of trends which may assist
set out to do and/or we will not appreciate in prevention of H&S incidents
what is and is not working and therefore we
cannot improve our performance.
Page 114 of 301

 audits, results of all audits, internal Reporting of incidents/accidents to
and/or external and any active indicators external agencies
which may indicate both conformance As previously stated, the ILO requires a
and non-conformance trends government to nominate a competent
 monitoring data/records/reports as a authority or authorities, as appropriate,
result of any and all other observations which should, in the light of national
and reports conditions and practice and in consultation
 external communications and with the most representative organisations
complaints from such organisations as of employers and workers, formulate,
company insurers, neighbours and implement and periodically review a
clients coherent national policy and principles on:
 results of participation and consultation,
for example safety representatives and  The recording, notification and
safety committees, Trades Unions, investigation of occupational accidents
informal ad-hoc workplace meetings and diseases
and employee feedback systems  The recording, notification and
 objectives met, that may have been set investigation of commuting accidents,
in previous audits and/or action plans dangerous occurrences and incidents
 actions from previous management  The compilation, analysis and
reviews, closing out of earlier non- publication of statistics on such
conformances identified by active accidents, diseases and occurrences
(audits, inspections) and reactive,
(incident investigations, damage For compliance with at least the spirit of
reports) this requirement, a company will as a
 legal/good practice developments minimum report, record and investigate,
inclusion and adaption of changes in (and ultimately report to the government),
laws, government guidance and industry events required to be recorded and notified
best practice to the ILO under Code of Practice,
 assessing opportunities for Recording and Notification of Occupational
improvement and the need for change, Accidents and Diseases, (RNOAD).
for example the inherent company
philosophy which creates and promotes However, more progressive companies will
the organisations safety culture want to know a lot more about their
organisation and how safe and heathy it is
than would be indicated by knowledge of
the events required to be reported under
RNOAD.
Such additional information will come from

various active and reactive sources.
Page 115 of 301

Active sources will include: Management Review would consider:
 Training achieved versus training 1. Results of internal audits and
planned evaluations of compliance with
 Inspection reports and numbers applicable legal requirements and with
undertaken against numbers planned other requirements to which the
 Tool box talks completed against the organisation subscribes,
number planned
 Consultation undertaken versus the 2. The results of participation and
number planned consultation relevant communication(s)
from external interested parties,
Reactive sources will include: including complaints,
 Incident reports
 Incident investigations 3. The occupational health and safety
 Worker complaints performance of the organisation,
 Damage reports
4. The extent to which objectives have
been met,
The resultant information data, can be fed
into action and development plans as part
5. Status of incident investigations,
of continuous improvement, with such
corrective actions and preventive
development plans beginning with the
actions,
management review.
6. Follow-up actions from previous
So what is continual improvement?
management reviews,
ISO 45001 defines it as the “recurring
activity to enhance performance”
7. Changing circumstances, including
developments in legal and other
The purpose is to enhance the OH&S
requirements related to occupational
management system in order to achieve
health and safety, and
improvements in overall OH&S
performance consistent with the
8. Recommendations for improvement.
organization’s OH&S policy
Role of the Board of Directors in
Continual improvement
Management Review
Continual improvement is the core of an
The Board of Directors should review
ISO 45001 management system. It is one
health and safety performance at least
of the commitments an organisation must
once a year to;
make in its OH&S policy.
 Examine the health and safety policy
It is a major reason why an organisation  Examine whether risk management
sets OHSMS objectives and measures and other health and safety systems
have been effectively reporting to the
OH&S performance. It is the process board
through which outputs from management  Identify health and safety shortcomings
review are viewed. ISO 45001 states “The  Decide actions to address weaknesses
outputs from management reviews and a system to monitor their
shall be consistent with the implementation
organisation’s commitment to continual  Consider immediate reviews in the light
improvement….” of major shortcomings or events
Page 116 of 301

Element 5: Physical and psychological health
Noise
What is noise? – Noise is subjectively defined as unwanted sound but actually noise and
sound are the same thing.
Sound travels as a pressure wave, which has two characteristics:-
 Intensity – the amount of energy in each wave, and is measured in decibels (dB)
 Frequency – the number of waves passing a given point per second, and is measured in
hertz (Hz)
Total Dose
What we are concerned with when considering excessive noise is the workers total dose =
intensity of the noise × how often they are exposed (frequency) × how long are these
exposures (duration). This is because the body is able to repair limited damage, if it is given
sufficient recovery time.
Noise transmission paths

Noise gets to our worker in three ways. It is important that we understand these three routes
since we will aim to intercept each route and so make the noise quieter for our worker;
 Direct – through the air from source to worker
 Reflected – off walls, ceilings, and other structures
 Structural – structural borne vibration
The physical and psychological effects of exposure to noise
The human ear
There are three sections of

the ear – the outer (or external) ear,
the middle ear and the inner (or
internal) ear.
The sound pressure
wave passes into and through the
outer ear and strikes the eardrum
causing it to vibrate.
Page 117 of 301

The vibration of the eardrum causes the proportional movement of three interconnected
small bones in the middle ear thus passing the sound to the cochlea situated in the inner
ear.
Within the cochlea the sound is transmitted to a fluid causing it to vibrate. The motion of the
fluid induces a membrane to vibrate which in turn causes hair cells attached to the membrane
to bend. The movement of the hair cells causes a minute electrical impulse to be transmitted
to the brain along the auditory nerve. Those hairs nearest to the middle ear respond to high
frequency whilst those at the tip of the cochlea respond to lower frequencies.
There are about 30 000 “hair cells” or nerves within the ear and noise-induced hearing loss
causes irreversible damage to these hair cells.
Human hearing range
20 Hz
20,000 Hz
Sound is transmitted through the air by sound waves which are produced by vibrating objects.
The vibrations cause a pressure wave which can be detected by a receiver, such as a
microphone or the human ear. The ear may detect vibrations which vary from 20 to 20 000
(typically 50–16 000) cycles each second (or hertz (Hz)).
Health Effects It involves sudden aural damage resulting

from short-term intense exposure or even
Acute from one single exposure.
 Acoustic trauma
 Physical stress Explosive pressure rises are often
 Excessive fatigue responsible, such as exposure to gunfire,
 Temporary Threshold Shift major explosions or even fireworks.
 Temporary Tinnitus
Physical stress is due to the fact that
Chronic noise is an environmental stressor.
 Permanent Threshold Shift (NIHL)
 Permanent Tinnitus Excessive fatigue is due to the fact that it
is hard to concentrate in noisy
Safety Effects environments, so leading to the worker
becoming overly tired. It has been known
 Increased likelihood of human error
for many years that fatigue and alertness
are influenced by sound and hearing
Detailed acute Effects
Acoustic trauma is caused by a very loud
Temporary threshold shift is caused by
noise with such energy in the pressure
short, very loud noise exposures and
waves that is bursts the ear drum.
affects the cochlea by reducing the flow of
nerve impulses to the brain. The result is a
temporary, slight deafness which is
reversible when the noise is removed.
Page 118 of 301

The effect depends to some extent on Detailed safety effects
individual susceptibility. Increased likelihood of human error due to
difficulty concentrating (lapses of
Temporary tinnitus is a ringing in the ears attention), stress, fatigue and the
caused by an intense and sustained high increased likelihood of mis-perception).
noise level. It is caused by the over-
stimulation of the hair cells. The ringing Noise induced hearing loss and tinnitus
sensation continues for up to 24 hours after explained
the noise has ceased. This is a mild form
of tinnitus for a short period of time  Noise induced hearing loss (NIHL) or
following exposure to loud sounds. Once deafness – is a chronic condition caused
the person is removed from the noise by excessive noise over a long period of
source, the tinnitus disappears until the exposure to excessive noise.
next exposure
 Tinnitus ‘ringing in the ears’ can be
Detailed chronic effects of noise temporary or permanent and caused by
a single high pressure even tor repeated
Permanent Threshold Shift or Noise lower pressure events.
Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL) – results
from permanent damage to the cochlea Psychological effects of noise exposure
hair cells. It affects the ability to hear Our emotional response to noise pollution
speech clearly but the ability to hear is not can also be significant, so much so that it
lost completely. Permanent threshold shift has a specific name of noise annoyance.
results from prolonged exposure to loud This describes the negative feelings noise
noise and is irreversible due to the can create such as disturbance, irritation,
permanent reduction in nerve impulses to dissatisfaction and nuisance, as well as a
the brain. feeling of having one’s privacy invaded.
Annoyance can vary widely between
This shift is most marked at the 4000 Hz different people, however.
frequency which can lead to difficulty in
hearing certain consonants and some As well as the type and volume of the
female voices. It begins at the higher sound, other factors include how much it
frequencies and works downwards to the interferes with our activities, the fear felt
lower frequencies. and associated with the source of the
noise, our coping mechanisms and even
Permanent Tinnitus here the temporary, our belief about whether the noise is
intermittent pattern of tinnitus continues for preventable.
months or years with periods of tinnitus
becoming longer and longer until For example, we are likely to feel more
eventually the ringing is constant. annoyance to aircraft flying overhead if we
feel the airport is taking no measures to
Continuous exposure to loud noise can regulate the noise. However, the impact of
aggravate tinnitus. Here it is a chronic, annoyance on long-term health isn’t clear
irreversible ringing in the ears of the and the evidence suggests mental ill-
worker. health may increase the risk of annoyance
rather than the other way round.
Page 119 of 301

The health effects of quieter, background For example using the linear scale of
noises and “hums” are also less clear, Pascals, the leaf rusting would be
although they can certainly cause 0.0000632 (10dB) and a jet engine form 1
discomfort and annoyance. Similarly, a metre would be 630 Pascals (150dB), an
recent review of very-high frequency increase of 1,000,000 times in Pascals yet
ultrasound (which cannot be consciously only 15 times bigger in dB.
heard) concluded that the general
population is much more exposed to
ultrasound than in the past. It
recommended that reports of symptoms
such as nausea, headaches and dizziness
that some people have linked to ultrasound
should be further investigated. Sound level scales or “weightings”
The meaning of commonly used terms Sound can be measured using 5

scales/weightings, A, B, C, D and, since
Noise Measurement around 2003, Z. These days, most of us
To measure sound/noise, we must are only really concerned with the A and C
consider, the loudness, (decibels), scales.
sometimes referred to as the intensity or
pressure level, and the frequency (hertz) of Originally the A scale was used for sound
the sound/noise pressure levels up to 55 dB, the B scale for
levels between 55 dB and 85 dB and the C
Sound Pressure Level scale for values above 85 dB.
The sound level or loudness, is usually
defined in terms of something called Sound However today, the A scale is used for
Pressure Level (SPL). SPL is a ratio of the nearly all levels except for very high sound
Sound Pressure and a reference level pressure levels when the C scale is used.
(usually the Threshold of Hearing, or the The B scale is rarely used and the D scale
lowest intensity sound that can be heard by is mainly used to monitor jet aircraft engine
most people) with the SPL being measured noise.
in decibels (dB).
As described above, the decibel scale is
Sound pressure/intensity/loudness logarithmic, this means an increase of only
These are a measured a unit referred to as 3dB doubles the sound intensity
the decibel, with the decibel using a (loudness). So 90dB is 10 times louder
logarithmic scale rather than a linear scale than 80 dB and 100 times louder than 70
due to the wide range of levels of noise dB.
humans may be exposed to, (for example
the sound of a leaf rustling in a tree, 10 We measure noise by using an Electronic
decibels, (10dB), and the loudest man- Sound Meter. An 'A-weighting' is used to
made noise of 204 decibels, (204dB), the measure average noise levels, and a 'C-
Saturn Rocket at take-off, and the relative weighting' or 'dB(C)', to measure peak,
large differences in the size of the numbers impact or explosive noises, measuring
required to express these levels if a linear individual impacts or noise that is
scale was used. produced. These are settings on the noise
level meter.
Page 120 of 301

Potential chronic harm: 2) Personal dosimeter:- This is a
dB(A) an ‘A’ weighting puts in place measuring device, which is attached to
weighting filters which listen to the noise the individual and logs their noise
like the human ear and is averaged out exposure as they move around the
over the sampling period. workplace. A calculation can then be
made of the LEPd. These are used for
Potential acute harm: personnel who are not always in the
dB(C) a ‘C’ weighting is used to measure noisy environment, e.g. supervisors.
peak sound pressure (acute, peak noise)
problems such as 135 dB(C). ILO Requirements
 Employers should provide protection for
When exposure should be assessed workers from the harmful effects of noise
and vibration from machines and work
Noise measurement processes, by measures including:
The identification of a possible noise (a) replacing hazardous machines and
problem will be done by carrying out a processes by less hazardous ones;
noise survey. The measurement of noise (b) reducing the exposure of workers;
levels should be carried out at different (c) providing personal hearing
work locations to identify those people at protection.
risk from hearing damage so that the
employer can formulate an action plan for Best Practice – Control of Noise at Work
controlling noise exposure. The noise Regulations (UK)
assessment should be carried out by a Noise control applies to all workplaces and
competent person. the Regulations place a general duty on all
employers to reduce the noise level to as
There are 2 methods of carrying out low as reasonably practicable (ALARP).
this:
If after all reasonably practicable measures
1) Integrated sound level meter have been taken the noise is still above 80
2) Personal dosimeter dB (A) then further action is mandatory;
1) An integrated sound level meter is used Action levels

to record the noise. It should be
calibrated. Lower Exposure Action Value – 80 dB
(A) Lep,d or 135 dB (C) Leq (Peak)
This sound level meter can be used to
provide: Employers duties
 Assess noise level
 A noise measurements at every  Inform staff of dangers
operator location  Provide PPE if requested
 A noise map for the whole work area.
If a work area has a number of similar

machines even if the normally are not all
working at the same time it may well be
worth running them all during the noise
survey so that the worst case scenario may
be recorded.
Page 121 of 301

Upper Exposure Action Value – 85dB Engineering control measures (AIIDS)
(A) Lep,d or 137 dB (C) Leq (Peak) As with any occupational hazard,
engineering noise control techniques
Employers’ duties should aim at reducing noise to acceptable
 Assess noise level levels by action on the work environment.
 Inform staff of dangers
 Provide and enforce wearing of ppe Such action involves the implementation of
 Mark out hearing protection zones any measure that will reduce noise being
 Health surveillance often is mandatory generated, and/or will reduce the noise
transmission through the air or through the
Exposure Limit Value – 87 dB (A) Lep,d structure of the workplace.
or 140 dB (C) Leq (Peak)
Such measures include modifications of
 This is a noise calculation at the ear the machinery, the workplace operations,
and shall never be exceeded. and the layout of the workroom. In fact, the
 It requires the employer to carefully best approach for noise hazard control in
select suitable hearing protection for a the work environment, is to eliminate or
particular noise problem. reduce the hazard at its source of
generation, either by direct action on the
Employees’ duties source or by its confinement.
 use any ear protectors provided when
noise is at the upper exposure action  Absorption
value or above  Isolation
 Insulation
 use any other protective equipment and  Damping
report any loss/defects to employer  Silencing
Absorption involves the use of screens or

Basic noise control measures absorption on the walls. This can be used
effectively in areas where the sound is
Noise control reflected from walls. The walls of the rooms
As mentioned above, noise can travel by a housing the noisy equipment are lined with
variety of routes, (directly through the air, sound absorbent material, such as foam or
reflected off hard surfaces and through the mineral wool, or sound absorbent
ground and/or structure). Also, employers (acoustic) screens are placed around the
must take all reasonably practicable equipment.
measures, (ALARP), to reduce the noise
level in the workplace. Isolation of the workers by the provision of
soundproofed workrooms or enclosures
Below are the engineering controls which isolated away from noisy equipment (a
may be applied to reduce the noise level or power station control room is an example
even remove it completely. of worker isolation). These are often
referred to as’ noise havens’.
When it is just a new machine that is being

introduced into the workplace it is more
realistic to isolate the new, noisy machine
by placing it inside an ‘acoustic booth’.
Page 122 of 301

Insulation involves lining the inside of  Additionally, an improvement in the
equipment with a good sound insulating maintenance regime by regular
material can reduce sound levels by up to lubrication of bearings, and tighten belt
30 dB(A). Care will need to be taken to drives.
ensure that the machine does not become
overheated. Reduction of noise at source controls
would include:
Damping concerns the use of insulating  Tighten loose fixings on equipment
floor mountings to remove or reduce the  Regular lubrication
transmission of noise and vibrations  Stop any oil leaks
through the structure of the building such  Properly adjust machinery
as girders, wall panels and flooring. It also  Padded containers for catching
involves lagging of pipes and other fluid components
containers to reduce sound transmission  Switching equipment off, when not
(and, incidentally, heat loss). needed - especially fans
Silencing normally fitted to engines which Also consider engineering control such as
are exhausting gases to atmosphere. insulation, damping and silencing.
Silencers consist of absorbent material and
baffles which cause the exhaust gases to Interrupt the noise on its path by
become slower, weaker and therefore, orientation or re-location of the equipment
quieter. – turn the noisy equipment away from the
workforce or locate it as far away as
Noise reduction strategy (RIP RIP) possible in separate and isolated areas.
Consider engineering controls such as
Reduce at source acoustic booths and panels, noise
absorption coverings on walls and ceilings.
Interrupt on its path
Protect workers
Protect worker(s) by:  Reduce time exposure – by rotating
workers through noisy processes, it
Reduce time exposure will allow recovery time for the body
to repair the damage done.
Inverse square law
 Inverse square law – noise is a form
PPE of energy and the farther away we
site particularly noisy processes and
Reduce at source equipment from the workers the less
 For example for new equipment, by energy the workers will receive, so
careful selection of machinery with a less harm is caused.
‘buy quiet’ policy.
 PPE – always a last resort. Provide
 For existing machinery and plant and use suitable hearing protection
consider a change to the process or (ear muffs or ear plugs).
equipment (e.g. replace solid tyres with
rubber tyres or replace diesel engines
with electric motors), change the speed
of the machine.
Page 123 of 301

Role of health surveillance
Audiometric testing (health

surveillance)
This is a painless and short test to measure
the workers hearing. It establishes a
baseline and is be used to detect changes
in hearing, so allowing corrective action to
be taken before it becomes too serious and
irreversible.
Employee’s with exposure in excess of

85dB(A) over an 8 hour period or 137dB(C)
peak (upper exposure action value) should
have regular audiometric testing because
they are at significant risk from the noise
hazard.
Page 124 of 301

Vibration Additionally, standing on a structure
attached to a large, powerful, fixed
The effects on the body of exposure to machine which is impacting or vibrating.
hand–arm vibration and whole-body It can cause back pain, often
vibration aggravating a previous problem.
Vibration is the term given to movement of  Hand arm vibration syndrome (HAVS)
a body back and forth around a fixed point. is associated with the use of hand held
The distance travelled away from the equipment. Hand/arm vibration is
central or fixed point is known as the usually associated with the use of hand
displacement. In the field of occupational held equipment where the vibration
health persons may be subject to vibration energy is transferred to the subject as a
exposure either in terms of hand result of them holding the equipment.
transmitted vibration or whole body
vibration.
Whole body vibration (WBV)
Vibration is the term given to movement of  Transmitted through seat or feet
a body back and forth around a fixed point.  Drivers of mobile machines
Since the vibrating object moves back and  Tractors
forth around a fixed point, its rate of  Fork-lift trucks
movement is not uniform, but changing  Quarrying or earth moving
constantly as it accelerates to from each machinery
extreme position to the mean position and
then decelerates to the opposite extreme.  Other work factors that contribute to
This constant acceleration and back problems
deceleration is a useful measure of the
 Posture
magnitude of vibration.
 Heavy lifting
There is an ILO Code of Practice -
Typical sources of WBV
Protection of workers against noise and
vibration in the environment.  Ride on rollers
 Trucks
Background
 Problems in 2 - 1500 Hz range Whole body vibration - ill health effects
 Especially 5 - 20 Hz  Headaches/blurred vision/dizziness
 Frequency specific  Spinal damage
 Heart/lung damage
 Varicose veins
Two main types of vibration harm
 Weight loss
 Whole body vibration (WBV) is where
a person’s whole body is supported by a
Especially at risk groups
vibrating surface. Whole body vibration
is associated with person’s whose body  Young persons
is supported by a vibrating surface, e.g.  Joint and bone damage
sitting in a vibrating seat such as a
moving vehicle along an unmade road, Expectant mothers
operating earthmoving machines.  Organ and bone damage to the baby
 Miscarriage
Page 125 of 301

Hand Arm Vibration Syndrome (HAVS) Symptoms
As an example in the UK 242,000 cases of  Tingling and numbness in the fingers;
HAVS are reported every year in the UK, it  Not being able to feel things tightly;
is caused by prolonged intense vibration  Loss of grip strength in the hands;
transmitted to the hands and arms by  The fingers going white (blanching)
vibrating tools and equipment which can  Fingers becoming red and painful on
lead to a range of conditions known as recovery (particularly in the cold and
Hand-arm Vibration Syndrome (HAVs). wet, and only in the tips at first).
 Continued exposure can mean people
These conditions concern chronic, long cannot use their fingers properly, (loss
term damage to the circulatory system, of dexterity) especially in cold
nerves, soft tissues, bones and joints. conditions.
Probably the best known of these  Joint pain due to the wearing out of the
conditions is known as vibration white ends of the bones in the joints of the
finger (VWF). fingers and wrist (osteoarthritis)
Here the fingers go white and numb (very Typical sources of HAVS
similar effect to a genetic condition called
 Pneumatic hammers and drills
Raynaud's Disease and the condition
 Grinders
known as ‘frost bite’.), leading to sharp
tingling pains in the affected area and an  Chain saws
often painful deep red flush.  Circular disc cutters
This seems to occur in response to a HAVS Contributory Risk factors

change in metabolic demand in the fingers As with all work-related ill health there are
induced, for example, by temperature a number of factors which when combined
change. It seems that the blood vessels are result in the problem occurring.
unable to dilate either at all or rapidly
enough because of the thickened tissues These include:
that then become anoxic (lacking in  Vibration frequency – frequencies
oxygen). ranging from 2 to 1,500 Hz are
potentially damaging but the most
Hand-arm vibration can be caused by serious is the 5 to 20 Hz range.
operating hand-held power tools (e.g. road
breakers), hand-guided equipment (e.g.  Duration of exposure - this is the
powered lawnmowers) or by holding length of time the individual is exposed
materials being processed by machines to the vibration.
(e.g. using pedestal grinders).
 Total dose = intensity x duration x
Regular and frequent exposure to hand- frequency of exposure (how often)
arm vibration can lead to permanent health
effects (occasional exposure is unlikely to  Direction that force is applied – directly
cause ill health). or indirectly
 Amount of force applied - this is the

amount of grip or push used to guide or
apply the tools or work piece. The tighter
the grip the greater the vibration to the
hand.
Page 126 of 301

 Environmental conditions –cold and  Review and update your risk
wet weather or hot and dry weather. assessment regularly.
 Individual susceptibility – does the The exposure action value (EAV) is a

worker naturally have poor circulation daily amount of vibration exposure
due to Raynaud’s disease and diabetes above which employers are required to
or does the worker have a pre-existing take action to control exposure.
HAVS injury or do they smoke.
 For hand-arm vibration the EAV is a daily
When exposure should be assessed exposure of 2.5 m/s2 A(8) and
International Best Practice  For whole body vibration the EAV 0.5
We could use the UK based, “Control of m/s2 A(8)
Vibration at Work Regulations” as best
practice in this area and it requires The exposure limit value (ELV) is the
employers to: maximum amount of vibration an
employee may be exposed to on any single
 Assess the vibration risk to employees; day.
 Decide if they are likely to be exposed  For hand-arm vibration the ELV is a daily
above the daily exposure action value exposure of 5 m/s2 A (8) and
(EAV), and if so introduce a programme  For whole body vibration the ELV 1.15
of controls to eliminate risk, or reduce m/s2 A (8).
exposure to as low; and provide health
surveillance These values can use average workers
exposure over 40 hours instead of 8 hours
 Decide if they are likely to be exposed – where exposure varies greatly from one
above the daily exposure limit value period to next. This might be applicable for
(ELV) and if they are take immediate people such as supervisors.
action to reduce their exposure below
the limit value; Assessment of risk (5 steps)
1. Identify the hazards
 Provide information and training to 2. Identify those at risk
employees on health risks and the 3. Evaluate the risk and consider the
actions you are taking to control those adequacy of existing controls and
risks; consider so
far as is reasonably practicable any
 Consult with workers or their safety additional controls (ERIC PD)
representative on any proposals to 4. Record
control risk and to provide health 5. Review
surveillance;
 Keep a record of risk assessment and

control actions;
 Keep health records for employees

under health surveillance;
Page 127 of 301

Basic vibration control measures, Role of health surveillance in prevention
including – (PEMEO) and reducing vibration injury
People (competency) Both pre-employment screening, for “at risk

 Health screening (medical questionnaire workers” and health surveillance have a
and/or medical), role in prevention and reducing harm to
 Information, instruction training and workers from vibration.
supervision (IITS).
 Consultation The use of pre-employment screening will
prevent using workers who may be more at
Equipment risk of harm from vibration, for example
 Design/manufacture e.g. careful those with naturally poor circulation or
selection of equipment with low vibration existing bone disease, for example
levels, e.g. disc cutters separating the arthritis, from exposure to activities which
handles from the engine and blade expose them to vibration will reduce the
using rubber mounts, and improving possibility of harm
circulation in cold climates, e.g. routing
exhaust gases through the handle Additionally, providing on-going health
 Use of information from manufacturer, surveillance to those who are exposed to
 Provision and use of suitable PPE vibration as part of their duties will ensure
(weatherproof clothing, warm gloves, that we are monitoring the effectiveness of
anti-vibration gloves) the controls we have in place and/or
 Regular maintenance and inspection of identify weaknesses in our controls early to
all equipment prevent serious harm to our workers and
improve our controls.
Materials
 ERICPD, avoid cut, pre-cut, or use
alternate methods, and hold material still
when cutting.
Environment
 Increased risk in cold and wet
environments
 Restricted working space
Organisation
 Careful job design, and use of job
rotation- reduced time exposure and/or
regular breaks, health surveillance, ill
health reporting system
 Health surveillance.
Page 128 of 301

Radiation Additionally for ionising radiation there are
the further observable effects of radiation
The types of, and differences between, sickness (nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea)
non-ionising and ionising radiation plus hair loss.
(including radon) and their health
effects Then there are the non-observable
symptoms of the powerful ionising radiation
Types of Radiation including genetic changes resulting in
sterility, cancers of skin, organs and blood,
 Ionising and deformities in children.
 Non-ionising radiation; Ionising radiation – ILO Requirements

Stringent safety regulations should be
Ionising (relatively high energy) drawn up and enforced by the competent
Ionising radiation ionises, or adds an extra authority with respect to construction
positive ion to matter it comes into contact workers engaged in the construction,
with. Ionising radiation occurs as either maintenance, renovation, demolition or
electromagnetic rays (such as X-rays and dismantling of any buildings in which there
gamma rays) or particles (such as alpha is a risk of exposure to ionising radiations.
and beta particles). It occurs naturally (e.g.
radon gas) but can also be produced Particular care must be taken in the nuclear
artificially. Everyone receives some power industry, and in work using
exposure to natural background radiation. radioactive sources or inside structures
containing natural radioactive materials.
It is used or occurs in the following work
settings Relevant provisions of the ILO code of
 Medicine (for diagnosis and treatment); practice on Radiation protection of workers
 Industry (for measurement and non- (Ionising radiations) should be followed.
destructive testing);
 Power generation (nuclear power Some types of ionising radiation
stations);
 Research and teaching. Alpha particles
These consist of two protons and two
neutrons and have a positive charge. They
Non-ionising radiation
have little power to penetrate the skin and
Non-ionising is relatively low energy
can be stopped using very flimsy material,
radiation when compared to ionising
such as paper. Their main route into the
radiation which means that it does not
body is by ingestion.
ionise matter.
Beta particles
Effects on humans!
Beta particles are high speed electrons
There are observable symptoms such as
whose power of penetration depends on
reddening (burning) and ageing of skin,
their speed, but penetration is usually
heating and damage to the skin and
restricted to 2 cm of skin and tissue. They
internal organs, corneal damage, arc eye,
can be stopped using aluminium foil. There
and cataracts.
are normally two routes of entry into the
body – inhalation and ingestion.
Page 129 of 301

Gamma rays Non ionising radiation forms, uses and
Gamma rays, which are similar to X-rays, effects on humans
are electromagnetic radiations and have
far greater penetrating power than alpha or Microwaves communications cooking
beta particles. They are produced from – heating of skin, internal organs, eyes
nuclear reactions and can pass through
material. Gamma rays are used in non- Ultra-violet sun, arc welding
destructive testing (NDT) and medicine. – burning and ageing of the skin, damage
to cornea, arc eye and skin cancer.
X Rays
Materials, including skin and bone, can Infra-red gas welding, fires
absorb ionising radiation such as x-rays. – burns to skin and eye (heat cataracts)
These x-ray images can be used to
produce, for example, photographs of Lasers communications, measuring
bones to check for fractures. X-rays mostly – burns to the eye and skin
pass through skin and soft tissue, but they
do not easily pass through bone. Radon
Radon, which is a radioactive gas that
Ionising radiation - forms and uses occurs mainly at or near granite outcrops
 Sealed sources are used for non- where there is a presence of uranium. It is
destructive testing (NDT) in engineering particularly prevalent in hard rock areas.
construction to test continuity in pipe line
welds. The gas rises through the rock strata and
 Unsealed sources are found in various enters buildings normally from the
places including smoke detectors, substructure through cracks in flooring or
thickness gauges and illuminising around service inlets.
Non ionising radiation – ILO In some countries national building codes

Requirements require remedial action, such as sumps
Workers performing operations where they and extraction fans, are required to be
are exposed to non-ionising radiations fitted to lower the radon level in the
should be provided with adequate building.
protection, and particularly in welding,
torch cutting and soldering operations, with Effects or radiation on humans!
eye and face protection.
Observable symptoms
For the purpose of detecting pre- Reddening (burning) /ageing of skin,
cancerous lesions of the skin, workers heating and damage to skin and internal
continually working under non-ionising organs leading to blisters, dermatitis and
radiation exposure, including exposure to ulceration, corneal damage, arc eye,
the sun, should be under medical cataracts; hair loss, radiation sickness
surveillance, where appropriate. (nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea)
Non observable symptoms

Sterility, cancers (skin, organs and blood),
deformities in children
Page 130 of 301

Typical occupational sources of non-  Protect workers
ionising and ionising radiation
 Reduce time exposure
Ionising radiation - forms and uses
 Sealed sources are used for:  Inverse square law – double the
 non-destructive testing (NDT) in distance ¼ the energy, that means
engineering construction to test get workers as far away as possible
continuity in pipe line welds.
 Unsealed sources are found in various  PPE – respirators, lead aprons, full
places including: body suits or clothing
 smoke detectors, thickness gauges
and illuminising As with all work activities there should be
monitoring of the adequacy of the controls
Non ionising radiation forms and uses which would involve environmental and/or
personal monitoring. Also because the
 Microwaves hazard is not always perceptible and
 communications devices and mobile chronic workers must be provided with
‘phones information, instruction, training and
 cooking supervision (IITS).
 Ultra-violet
 the sun for those working outside An alternative way of remember the
 arc welding controls is time, distance and shielding
 Infra-red (TDS);
 gas welding
Time reduced time exposure
 fires
 Lasers Distance segregation: inverse square
 communications law
 measuring and surveying
 surgery Shielding use of dense material
 cutting steel prevent penetration: or
isolate the hazard.
The basic ways of controlling Enclosures, shielding by
exposures to non-ionising and ionising barriers or screens, PPE.
radiation (respirators, lead aprons, full
body suits), isolation of non-
Radiation reduction strategy (RIP RIP) essential staff.
Environmental or personal
 Reduce at source – reducing the monitoring, IITS
source strength, if reasonably
practicable
 Interrupt on its path from source to

humans – shielding by barriers or
screens, glove box with LEV, isolation of
radioactive source
Page 131 of 301

Basic radiation protection strategies, The role of monitoring and health
including the role of the competent surveillance
person in the workplace
As with all matters of occupational health,
Ionising Radiation Best Practice with radiation we need to consider:
(i) pre-employment screening to identify
A radiation employer, (a person who in the vulnerable workers
course of their business carries out work (ii) protection of “at risk” or “vulnerable”
with ionising radiation), shall conduct a workers, for example young people or
suitable and sufficient radiation risk pregnant ladies where the hazard is
assessment. ionising radiation
(iii) monitoring the workplace and
A Radiation Protection Adviser (RPA) is a individual exposure to discover actual
person appointed by the employer to exposure and ensure that whatever the
advise as necessary, on compliance with exposure level is, that it is within the
the law regarding ionising radiation. permitted levels
(iv) health surveillance to ensure that any
A Radiation Protection Supervisor (RPS) is case of harm due to over exposure is
a person appointed by the employer to identified as soon as possible and
ensure the observance of the rules agreed corrective actions put in place to
by the employer and the RPA. This is prevent a recurrence, for example for
because controlled areas need to be those exposed to non-ionising
established where there is ionising radiation such as ultra violet, UV, as
radiation present because people may be with people who work outside in the
exposed to certain levels of ionising sun being checked for changes in the
radiation within them. Where such areas skin appearance and/or abnormalities
are necessary it is a requirement to such as lesions.
develop local rules. The
Radiation Protection Supervisors has to

ensure compliance with the regulations
and local rules. They do not need to be
present at the worksite at all times, but are
the first point of contact for help and advice
and so need to be readily available.
People who have the potential to be

exposed to certain levels of ionising
radiation need to be designated as a
.Classified Person and their dose must be
monitored and records kept. Action needs
to be taken where someone is exposed to
excessive doses of ionising radiation.
Page 132 of 301

Mental ill-health
The frequency and extent of mental ill-health at work
What is stress?
Stress is a natural reaction that people have to excessive pressure or other types of extreme
demands placed upon them which are beyond their ability to cope.
These stressors can be psychological (mental) or physical (environmental). In time these can
lead to mental – e.g. depression and physical ill health- e.g. ulcers.
Mental health is about how we think, feel and behave. Anxiety and depression are the most
common mental health problems. They are often a reaction to a difficult life event, such as
bereavement, but can also be caused by work-related issues.
Below we consider work-related stress but where such stress is prolonged it can lead to both
physical and psychological damage, including anxiety and depression.
What causes work related stress?

Work can also aggravate pre-existing conditions, and problems at work can bring on
symptoms or make their effects worse.
Whether work is causing the health issue or aggravating it, employers have a legal
responsibility to help their employees. Work-related mental health issues must to be
assessed to measure the levels of risk to staff. Where a risk is identified, steps must be taken
to remove it or reduce it as far as reasonably practicable.
Some employees will have a pre-existing physical or mental health condition when recruited
or may develop one caused by factors that are not work-related factors. Their employers
may have further legal requirements, to make reasonable adjustments under equalities
legislation, (where applicable).
Why is stress a problem? The goal is usually expressed as an

Stress is a problem for an employer objective, often via some sort of policy
because it can lead to both health and statement, (as with Health and Safety,
safety problems: Environmental, Quality etc.). Stress and
mental health is no different, we should
 Health – ill health and absenteeism of have a Stress Policy.
the employee
 Safety – increased likelihood of human What is in a Stress Policy?

error
Introduction
What should an employer do? As in all policies, this is the demonstration
As with all aspects of business we need a of understanding and commitment to
direction or a goal to achieve and some managing the subject of the policy.
way of measuring to see if we are going in
the correct direction to achieve such a goal.
Page 133 of 301

In the Stress policy, it begins with the Common symptoms of workers with
employer stating their understanding of mental ill-health
and commitment to the reduction in stress
at work for employees. Health Effects of Stress
Definition of stress When considering the effects of stress we can

Here the employer helps employees and consider them under the headings of
managers to understand stress and Behavioural and Physical. The symptoms
explains what stress is; e.g. stress is “the could be:-
adverse reaction people have to excessive
Behavioural
pressure or other types of demand placed
 Increased anxiety
on them”
 Irritability
Importantly, we also need to clarify what  Drink or smoke more
stress is not, by making an important  Difficulty sleeping
distinction between pressure, which can  Poor concentration
be a positive state if managed correctly,  Inability to deal with tasks
and stress which can be detrimental to
health. Physical
 Raised heart rate
Policy statements  Increased sweating
This is where the employer states what the  Headache
employer will do as regards identifying  Dizziness
stressors and removing/reducing such  Blurred vision
stressors and dealing with the effects of  Aches neck and shoulders
stressors, in particular resourcing the  Skin rashes
policy.  Lower resistance to infection
Responsibility
As with all policy statements, it is just fine
words and intentions on a piece of paper
unless people are charged with delivering
it. This occurs in th Responsibility section.
Here, Managers, Supervisors, HR

personnel, Health and Safety staff, Worker
Representatives and workers are each
clearly given their role in prevention,
identification and managing of stress.
Page 134 of 301

The above is a “stress spiral” indicating the possible effects of untreated stress
Typical mental illnesses encountered at  Having no motivation or interest in

work things
 Finding it difficult to make decisions
 Not getting any enjoyment out of life
Depression  Feeling anxious or worried
The symptoms of depression can be
complex and vary widely between people.
But as a general rule, if you're depressed, Physical symptoms include:
you feel sad, hopeless and lose interest in I. Moving or speaking more slowly than
things you used to enjoy. usual
II. Changes in appetite or weight (usually
The symptoms persist for weeks or months decreased, but sometimes increased)
and are bad enough to interfere with your III. Unexplained aches and pains
work, social life and family life. IV. Lack of energy
V. Disturbed sleep – for example, finding it
There are many other symptoms of difficult to fall asleep at night or waking
depression however, people are unlikely to up very early in the morning
have all of those listed below.
Psychological symptoms include: Social symptoms include:

 Continuous low mood or sadness  Not doing well at work
 Feeling hopeless and helpless  Avoiding contact with friends and taking
 Having low self-esteem part in fewer social activities
 Feeling tearful  Neglecting your hobbies and interests
 Feeling irritable and intolerant of others  Having difficulties in your home and
family life
Page 135 of 301

Anxiety/panic attacks
Generalised anxiety disorder (GAD) can  Feeling sick
affect us both physically and mentally  Headache
 pins and needles
How severe the symptoms are varies from  Difficulty falling or staying asleep
person to person. Some people have only (insomnia)
1 or 2 symptoms, while others have many
more. Anxiety triggers
If people are anxious because of a specific
People should be encouraged to see their phobia or because of panic disorder, they
doctor anxiety is affecting their daily life or usually know what the cause is.
is causing them distress.
For example, if they have claustrophobia
Psychological symptoms of GAD (fear of confined spaces), they know that
GAD can cause a change in behaviour and being confined in a small space will trigger
the way people think and feel about things, their anxiety.
resulting in symptoms such as:
 Restlessness But it may not always be clear what they
 A sense of dread are feeling anxious about. Not knowing
 Feeling constantly "on edge" what triggers anxiety can intensify it and
 Difficulty concentrating they may start to worry that there's no
 Irritability solution.
Symptoms may cause them to withdraw

from social contact (seeing family and Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
friends) to avoid feelings of worry and Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
dread. is an anxiety disorder caused by very
stressful, frightening or distressing
The may also find going to work difficult events.
and stressful, and may take time off sick.
These actions can make them worry even Symptoms of post-traumatic stress
more about themselves and increase their disorder (PTSD)
lack of self-esteem. Someone with PTSD often relives the
traumatic event through nightmares and
Physical symptoms of GAD flashbacks, and may experience feelings of
GAD can also have a number of physical isolation, irritability and guilt.
symptoms, including:
 Dizziness They may also have problems sleeping,
 Tiredness such as insomnia, and find concentrating
 A noticeably strong, fast or irregular difficult.
heartbeat (palpitations)
 Muscle aches and tension These symptoms are often severe and
 Trembling or shaking persistent enough to have a significant
 Dry mouth impact on the person's day-to-day life.
 Excessive sweating
 Shortness of breath Causes of post-traumatic stress disorder
 Stomach ache (PTSD) – Any situation that a person finds
traumatic can cause PTSD.
Page 136 of 301

These can include: The causes of, and controls for, work-
 serious road accidents related mental ill-health
 violent personal assaults, such as (see the HSE’s Management Standards):
violent robbery
 serious health problems
 childbirth experiences What are the Management Standards?
HSE's Management Standards represent a
PTSD can develop immediately after set of conditions that, if present:
someone experiences a disturbing event,
or it can occur weeks, months or even  demonstrate good practice through a
years later. step-by-step risk assessment approach
PTSD is estimated to affect about 1 in  allow assessment of the current

every 3 people who have a traumatic situation using pre-existing data,
experience, but it's not clear exactly why surveys and other techniques
some people develop the condition and
others do not.  promote active discussion and working
in partnership with employees and their
Complex post-traumatic stress disorder representatives, to help decide on
(PTSD) practical improvements that can be
People who repeatedly experience made
traumatic situations, such as severe
neglect, abuse or violence, may be  help simplify risk assessment for work-
diagnosed with complex PTSD. related stress by:
 identifying the main risk factors
Complex PTSD can cause similar  helping employers focus on the
symptoms to PTSD and may not develop underlying causes and their
until years after the event. prevention
It's often more severe if the trauma was  providing a yardstick by which
experienced early in life, as this can affect organisations can gauge their
a child's development. performance in tackling the key
causes of stress
When to seek medical advice
It's normal to experience upsetting and They cover six key areas of work design
confusing thoughts after a traumatic event, that, if not properly managed, are
but most people improve naturally over a associated with poor health, lower
few weeks. productivity and increased accident and
sickness absence rates.
You should encourage people to see their
doctor still having problems about 4 weeks
after the traumatic experience, or if the
symptoms are particularly troublesome.
Page 137 of 301

The Management Standards for
controlling work related stress are
(source UK HSE):
 Demands – this includes issues such as
workload, work patterns and the work
environment
 Control – how much say the person has

in the way they do their work
 Support – this includes the

encouragement, sponsorship and
resources provided by the organisation,
line management and colleagues
 Relationships – this includes promoting

positive working to avoid conflict and
dealing with unacceptable behaviour
 Role – whether people understand their

role within the organisation and whether
the organisation ensures that they do
not have conflicting roles
 Change – how organisational change

(large or small) is managed and
communicated in the organisation
To effectively implement the Management

Standards approach it is essential that you
ensure the resource, support and
infrastructure for the project is in place in
your organisation.
See an application of these principles in the

below sample risk assessment for a small
business.
Page 138 of 301

Sample stress risk assessment, (source HSE Management Standards)
Page 139 of 301

Stress and the home – work interface Recognition that most people with
mental ill-health can continue to work
Stress and life outside of work effectively.
Even where ‘home’ influences are Having said all of the above, some
impacting on the employee’s performance employers will do their best and achieve a
and perceptions of their work (e.g. care- low stress workplace and cause no work
giving responsibilities for elderly or frail related stress to workers.
relatives, child care issues, long commutes
to work and/or long periods of time away However, there will be occasions, where a
from home, relocation to a new workplace) worker is stressed and/or suffering from a
all of which may limiting work hours/energy form of mental ill health and is in the
levels, and this is a major contribution to workplace. In fact, some people, feel that
the complaint. the camaraderie and even the distraction of
being at work is helpful in managing their
As such it is generally in the employer’s mental health concerns.
interest to support the employee, rather
than dismiss the problem as irrelevant to However, it can also exacerbate the illness
the business. If an employee is not working if the stresses of the workplace are not
well, for whatever underlying reason, it will managed, which can be difficult if the
impact on their performance at work and employer is not aware for the illness and/or
may also affect their colleagues. our colleagues are unable to support us,
again, as they may not be aware of the
Some organisations have found it helpful to problem.
use the Management Standards to
structure discussions with individuals who All that said, most people who are suffering
are known to be vulnerable to stress or who from mental health issues are perfectly
are potentially vulnerable. effective and safe in the workplace.
Dealing with home-related stress

People do bring home-related stress into
the workplace. Although you are not legally
responsible for stress that originates in the
home, well-managed organisations will
have arrangements that allow them to
address it. This might include such things
as access to counselling services,
adaptations to the work or changes to
working hours.
Managers often say it is difficult to identify

what stress is caused by problems at home
and what is caused by work.
Using the Management Standards can

help to tease this out and therefore
effectively treat the causes.
Page 140 of 301

Violence at work
What is violence?
Any unwanted event in which a person is abused, threatened or assaulted in at work.
Types of violence at work including

This definition includes verbal as well as physical abuse and could arguably also
include psychological manipulation (mental abuse) and bullying. Incidents involving
verbal abuse are the most common and, using a similar approach to Bird’s triangle,
we can use these as possible indicators of worse things to come.
Violence at work can be considered under two areas:
Internal violence: such as harassment or bullying from members of the organisation

where repeated harassment or bullying is unreasonable behaviour, often associated
with misuse of power, or sometimes considered as a form or initiation or welcoming to
the group.
External violence: or uncivil behaviour such as physical or verbal aggression and

assault by people outside the organisation toward workers in the course of their duties.
Who is at risk? Control measures to reduce risks from

violence at work
Jobs and activities which increase the
risk of violence, include: Management of Violence
 Representatives of authority, for
example, police, fire and medical The management of this risk concerns risk
services management which is remember as
 Those in customer services, for example ACME;
in shop or public transport
 lone workers for example, ASSESS the nature & size of problem
teachers/lecturers, taxi drivers using a combination of active and re-
 Carers, for example, social workers or active monitoring techniques. Then if the
those working with people under the problem is assessed as a significant risk
influence of drugs and alcohol for
example in hospitals and places of CONTROL identify the necessary
public entertainment reasonably practicable by thinking
 Cashiers, for example, those who ERIC PD, (the general hierarchy of
handle money or valuables controls)
MONITOR the effectiveness of these

risk controls and
EVALUATE review the risk assessment

routinely, or earlier if there is reason to
believe that it is not affective such as a
serious attack on a worker
Page 141 of 301

Hierarchy for work related violence However, even such “fun” can and often is
As mentioned previously with our general seen as violence, as the victim does not
hierarchies, we need to take similar see it as fun and, mentally or physically,
approach to workplace violence. they are being out in a position that they
find unwelcome.
Eliminate – introducing a policy of zero
tolerance for workplace violence All such activities, whether seen as fun or
truly the work of a bully or violent co-
Reduce – home visits being exception worker, must be managed out of the
not the rule/Substitute – credit cards, business.
cheques or tokens for cash
Again, one of the tools for managing this is
Isolate – by wide counters and raised a “Violence at Work Policy” and a series of
floors, coded security locks, time lock procedures for managing the situation.
safes, bandit screens Additionally, where there is known or
suspected violence, we need a structured
Controls – by minimum staff numbers, approach to managing the situation, often
accompaniment of staff, buddy-buddy in the form of a hierarchy.
system, violence reporting system, staff
car parking and transport home e.g. Worker and Worker Violence
nightclub staff, and design of public (ERIC PD)
areas e.g. décor, seating, provision of
information, absence of barrier, Control measures to reduce risk of
employing security personnel together violence between workers;
with closed circuit television (CCTV),  Introducing a policy of zero tolerance for
use of appointment systems and client workplace violence;
risk assessments, providing staff at risk  Introducing a recruitment strategy
with escape routes  Briefing staff on problems that are likely
to occur
PPE – panic buttons and alarms, video  Prohibiting the carrying of weapons on
cameras, anti-stab vests, helmets site
 Policy for alcohol and substance misuse
Discipline – appropriate levels of and containing disciplinary action to be
supervision and training in de-escalation  Taken against offenders
techniques  Provision of training in dealing with
violence such as de-escalation
Worker on worker violence techniques;
Not all workplace is related to workers
 Setting up procedures for reporting any
being abused, bullied or victimised by
such event;
those who they encounter as part of their
 Providing counselling for both
work. Sometimes the violence is from
perpetrators and victims
within the organisation, so called worker on
worker violence.  Re-location to different parts of the
worksite where possible;
Unfortunately, some of such violence may  Introducing a policy for alcohol and
be seen as “a bit of fun” or an initiation substance misuse plus disciplinary
ceremony by those carrying it out. action to be taken against offenders;
 Employing security personnel together
with closed circuit television (CCTV)
Page 142 of 301

Substance abuse at work
Alcohol and drug abuse damages health and causes absenteeism and reduced productivity.
The Employer needs to address the problem and offers advice as necessary. Substance
misuse is a considerable problem when vehicle driving is part of the job especially if driving
is required on public roads. Misuse of substances can reduce productivity, increase
absenteeism, increase accidents at work and, in some cases, endanger the public.
Employers need to adopt a clear drugs and alcohol policy following employee consultation.
Types of substances misused at work

 Alcohol
 Legal Drugs
 Illegal Drugs
 Solvents
What the issues are and what to look Look at safety-critical work
out for Think about the kind of work undertaken
Misuse is not the same thing as and any safety-critical elements where
dependence. Drug and alcohol misuse is drug or alcohol misuse could have a
the use of illegal drugs and misuse of serious outcome, for example:
alcohol, medicines and substances such  using machinery
as solvents.  using electrical equipment or ladders
 driving or operating heavy lifting
Consider these warning signs, which could equipment
indicate drug or alcohol misuse:
 unexplained or frequent absences You can use this information to help with
 a change in behaviour your risk assessment.
 unexplained dips in productivity
 more accidents or near-misses Where employees in safety-critical jobs
 performance or conduct issues seek help for alcohol or drug misuse, it may
be necessary to transfer them to other
These can also be signs of other things, work, at least temporarily.
like stress or illness.
Consult your employees Risks to health and safety from

The employer must consult employees or substance abuse at work
their representatives on health and safety
matters. Consultation involves not only Issues associated with substance
giving information to employees but also misuse
listening to them and taking account of  Increase in complaints from fellow
what they say. workers, neighbours and customers
The employer could ask employees what  Damage to organisation’s reputation
they know about the effects of drugs and and image
alcohol on health and safety and the  Accidents: alcohol contributes to an
restrictions or rules on drug and alcohol estimated 20-25 per cent of workplace
use in the business. accidents
Page 143 of 301

 Stress and low morale amongst both the Testing
substance misuser and their family, If allowed by national law, and the
friends and work colleagues employer chooses to use screening and
 Workplace bullying by the misuser top testing for drugs, this needs to be stated in
either get a fellow worker to do work for the policy and any testing needs to conform
them or to give them money to support to recognised international standards for
their misuse example as shown on the European
 Theft by employees from the company Workplace Drug Testing Society website.
and/or fellow workers to fund their
addiction As with all policies, the employer should
 Health problems for the user as taking regularly check if the policy is working and
anything in excess is not good for the whether you need to make changes.
human body and will, eventually, lead to
possible long term medical problems Support employees with a drug or
alcohol problem
When the employer has assessed the risk
Control measures to reduce risks from and have a policy on drug or alcohol
substance abuse at work misuse (or abuse) in the workplace, they
need to make sure the employees know
Develop a policy about the policy and the support offered.
All organisations can benefit from an
agreed policy on drug/alcohol misuse. The Training and awareness
employer could include a drug and alcohol Employers could increase awareness by
policy as part of the overall health and including an explanation of the drug and
safety policy. alcohol misuse policy in the induction
process for all new employees.
If an employee tells the employer they have
a drug or alcohol problem, an effective They should also brief managers and
policy should aim to help and support them supervisors so they are clear about:
rather than lead to dismissal.  how to recognise the signs of drug or
alcohol misuse
But it should also highlight when the  the organisation’s rules on drug and
employer will take disciplinary or other alcohol misuse
action, for example that they will report  what to do if they suspect an employee
drug possession or dealing at work to the is misusing drugs or alcohol
police straight away.  what to do when an employee tells them
about a drug or alcohol problem
There are examples of drug and alcohol
policies in Health, work and wellbeing – an Support for employees
Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Employees with a drug or alcohol problem
Service (ACAS) booklet and Managing may ask for help at work if they are sure
drug and alcohol misuse at work – a their problems will be dealt with discreetly
Chartered Institute of Personnel and and confidentially. But also consider the
Development (CIPD) booklet. legal position if given evidence or
information that suggests an employee’s
drug misuse has involved breaking the law
at work.
Page 144 of 301

Drug and alcohol dependence are Control Measures – Summary
recognised medical problems. Someone Measures which an employer might take to
who is misusing drugs or alcohol has the reduce the misuse of drugs in the
same rights to confidentiality and support workplace include;
as they would if they had any other medical  Carrying out an investigation into the
or psychological condition. existence and scale of the problem
which may become apparent from a
Encourage them to get help from their GP study of sickness and absence records
or a specialist drug or alcohol agency and or through observation of behavioural
refer them to the organisation’s changes in individuals
occupational health service (if you have  The provision of drug awareness
one) and consider allowing someone time training for managers and supervisors;
off to get expert help. Often the cost of  Consulting with the workforce and with
recruiting and training a new employee external drug misuse agencies;
may be more than the cost of time off.  Offering advice and information on
contacts and support groups for those
Think about whether drug and alcohol employees seeking counselling;
misuse in the workplace is treated as a  Identifying safety critical work and
disciplinary matter or a health concern. If including drug screening and testing as
someone is dismissed because of drug or part of the process for the selection of
alcohol misuse without trying to help them, those who would be involved in these
any government employment tribunal may activities
find that the employer has dismissed them  All new workers will be screened, (where
unfairly. allowed)
 Random testing will be applied
But, if their normal work is safety-critical automatically, (where allowed), and will
they may need to be moved temporarily to apply to all staff (management as well as
another job. workers)
 Testing will be carried out after specific,
Health advice and information
serious incidents, (where allowed)
If the organisation does not have access to
 If an employee brings to the attention of
occupational health services, they can still
the employer they have a problem it will
support employees’ health and wellbeing
be treated with confidence
and should ensure that there is information
at work about where they can go for advice  Taking disciplinary actions where
and help if they’re concerned about drug or necessary
alcohol misuse.
Page 145 of 301

Element 6: Musculoskeletal health
Work-related upper limb disorders (WRULDS)
Meaning of musculoskeletal disease and work-related upper limb disorders

Musculo-skeletal disease concerns painful disorders of the upper limb and are often due to
physical activities, especially in the workplace, and they are sometimes known as;
 ‘repetitive strain injury’ (RSI)
 ‘musculoskeletal disease’ (MSD) or
 ‘work related upper limb disorders’ (WRULDS)
Risk factors include: Note: Ergonomics concerns matching

 Repeating an action; the task to the employees’:
 Uncomfortable working position;
 Using a lot of force; 1. physical capabilities
 Carrying out a task for a long period of
time; 2. mental capabilities
 Poor working environment;
 Psychosocial issues (lack of control or 3. individual expectations
status).
Ergonomics
Finding solutions is not always easy, and it Ergonomics is the study of humans and
is important to recognise that people are how they interact with their work
different sizes, have different abilities and equipment, materials and environment and
some are more susceptible due to their organisation.
disabilities. Job design can have a
significant impact, but behaviours are Ergonomics may be defined as:- Designing
equally important, including posture, the job to fit the worker, not trying to make
exercise and taking breaks. People need to the worker to fit the job.
be informed of the risks and how to
minimise them. If someone contracts Ergonomics is employed to fulfil the two
WRULD it may be sufficient for them to goals of health and productivity. It is
change their working methods. However, in relevant in the design of such things as
some cases medical treatment and safe furniture and easy-to-use interfaces to
rehabilitation may be required. machines and equipment. Proper
ergonomic design is necessary to prevent
Examples of repetitive risk activities repetitive strain injuries, which can develop
 Keyboard operation over time and can lead to long-term
disability.
 Using a hammer
 Bolt fixing
One of the first examples of consideration
 Shovelling of ergonomic design was done in Cranfield
 Using a pick University in the 1960,s. They examined
 Bricklaying the operation of a lathe and developed the
 Assembly of small components ideal size of person to operate the
 Tightening nuts and screws machine.
 Supermarket checkouts operation
Page 146 of 301

This became known as the “Cranfield Man”
Measurement Average Operator Cranfield Man

Height 1.75m (5 foot 9 inches) 1.35m (4 foot 5 inches)
Shoulder width 0.48m (19 inches) 0.61m (24 inches)
Arm span 1.83m (6 foot) 2.44m (8feet)
Elbow height 1.07m (42 inches) 0.76m (2 foot 6 inches)
Sources of published information Musculoskeletal - Work Related Upper

regarding ergonomic issues include: Limb Disorders (WRULDs) affecting the
 Ergonomic Checkpoints, ILO Code of  Back
Practice ISBN 92-2-109442-1  Neck, shoulders and arms leading to
 Work Organisation and Ergonomics,  Inflamed joints
ILO Code of Practice ISBN 92-2-  Stiffness, cramps, pain
109518-5  Muscle fatigue
 Ambient Factors in The Workplace, ILO  Deep vein thrombosis (dvt) and
Code of Practice ISBN 92-2-11628  Crepitus.
 Health and Safety Executive (HSE)
website Safety effects:
 Occupational Safety and Health  Increased likelihood of human error
Administration (OSHA) website
 Worksafe website Physiology of upper limb components
 World Health Organisation (WHO)  Bones
website  Muscles
 Tendons
Possible ill-health conditions from  Synovial sheath
poorly designed tasks and  Ligaments
workstations  Joints
 Blood vessels
Health effects
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
Mental
Carpal tunnel syndrome is a specific
 Excessive fatigue example of a Hand Arm Vibration
 Headaches Syndrome (HAVS) condition caused by
 Uncomfortable localised vibration, affecting the tendons
 Stress which pass through the carpal bone in the
hand, leading to tingling and numbness
Page 147 of 301

WRULD’s Ill Health Effects  Equipment
We need to consider the equipment
Symptoms being used and/or worked on:
 Tingling and burning o Positioning of the work equipment
 Numbness and ease of access
 Soft tissue damage o Amount of force/human energy
 Cramps required to work the equipment
 Loss of dexterity and grip strength o Suitable maintenance to reduce the
 Specific, local pain need for force and or likelihood of
 Excessive muscle fatigue breakdown. Things like breakdowns
 General pain in neck/shoulder area can cause distraction and stress,
both of which increase the chance of
 Restriction of joint movement
an incident
 Soft tissue swelling.
o Is it adjustable to suit differing body
sizes and operating positions
Factors that can increase the likelihood
of ill health conditions;
 Equipment suitability and adjustability
 Materials
 Task – repetitive, strenuous work, How are materials used or handled in
insufficient breaks the workplace, considering things
 Environment - space constraints, like the
lighting, glare, temperature, ventilation o Size and weight of packages
 Need for excessive force o Materials used in packaging and
 Total dose= intensity x duration x how much grip they allow
frequency o Temperature, (either hot or cold), of
 Vibration the package, possibly making it
 Use of ‘at risk’ groups – young persons, more difficult to hold securely
new or expectant mothers, pre-existing o Cleanliness of the item, as if it is
conditions dirty, workers will naturally hold it
away from themselves, increasing
Avoiding/minimising risks from poorly the load/strain
designed tasks and workstations o Location of where the materials are
being taken form and placed, for
Things to consider to prevent example is it on the floor or high up,
ergonomic issues – (PEMEO) both of which increase the load on
 People the body
The specific needs of each worker:
o Are a “vulnerable” person, for
example they have a pre-existing  
health condition or injury
o Think about age, for example a
younger people whose bones/joints
have not fully fused, older people who
may be prone to muscular or bone
damage due to wear and the aging
process
o General physique and fitness
o Competence and ability
Page 148 of 301

 Environment Control Measures to manage WRULD’s
The working environment can have a  Conducting risk assessments on all
major impact on the ergonomics tasks/activities to identify job involving
on workers frequent hand and arm movements
o If the temperature is too hot or cold,  Careful recruitment and selection of new
it can affect the health and wellbeing workers to identify pre-existing
of the workers. For example if it is  WRULDs.
too cold, then, unless workers warm  Provision of IITS so workers understand
their bodies up before starting the problem
manual work or are wearing suitable  Reduce the force required and the
warm clothing, they are more likely frequency and duration
to strain muscles  Design or redesign the task or the
o If the lighting is unsuitable, (too equipment.
dark/bright/glare/shadow), it will  Design or redesign the work station.
cause workers to take up a poor  Automate or mechanise the process.
posture, leading to uneven loading
 Ensuring all equipment is adjustable, so
on the body, increasing the
it can fit the worker
likelihood of strain and stress
 Regular inspection, testing and
o Uneven or slippery floors again are
maintenance of this equipment
possible causes of ergonomic
issues in the workplace  Job rotation.
 Regular breaks or job rotation
 Medical surveillance.
 Organisation  Ill health reporting system
From the management of people and
workload we need to consider: Workstation requirements
o Recovery time between shifts  Good lighting
o Scheduling of shifts considering  Adequate contrast, no glare or
things like time of the day distracting reflections
o Juggling shifts with domestic  Distracting noise minimised
responsibilities, which may cause  Leg room and clearances to allow
mental stress, (see earlier) postural changes
o Limiting employees working  Window covering if necessary to
excessive overtime minimise glare
o Repetitive tasks and repetition of the  Suitable software appropriate to the task
same activity within a task, for  Screen:- stable image, adjustable,
example use of a screwdriver or readable and glare free
hammer  Keyboard:- usable, adjustable,
detachable and legible
 Work surface:- Space for flexible
arrangement of equipment and
documents
 Chair:- Stable and adjustable
 Footrest if user need one
 Suitable environment e.g. temperature
Page 149 of 301

The relationship between ergonomics
and human error
Design features that might increase the

likelihood of violations and errors
ERROR (Unintended)
This is informational error either in the brain
of the worker or is an issue with the
workplace
 Mis-perception
o Too much information
o Too little information
 Lapses of attention due to
o Lack of physical barriers
o Lack of warning or safety signs
o Poor lighting
VIOLATIONS (Intentional)
 Mistaken Actions
o Not using fail safe designs
 Wilfulness
o Poor quality SSW
 Mistaken Priorities
o PPE is difficult to use
Page 150 of 301

Manual handling
Manual handling is one of the biggest causes of injury in the workplace and also accounts
for a very large number of people being required to retire from work early due to manual
handling related injuries.
What is a manual handling operation?

Manual handling concerns the transport or supporting of a load and this includes
 Lifting  Pulling
 Putting down  Carrying
 Pushing  Moving
Background
The old thinking on manual handling only thought about the load. This was not good enough
because of the continuous unacceptable high level of injury and ill-health caused by manual
handling operations.
A new approach was required and that the overall aim of the new approach was an ergonomic
approach.
Common types of manual handling Avoiding/minimising manual handling

injury risks
The Manual Handling Problem Main requirements for safe manual

Strains and sprains are among the most handling or the manual handling
common injuries among construction and strategy (AAA)
other workers involved in manual handling
activities.  Avoid
 Assess
These, and many chronically disabling  Action
musculoskeletal disorders, (such as AVOID
tendonitis, carpal tunnel syndrome and Manual handling should be avoided if
low-back pain), occur as a result of either possible and this can be done by using
traumatic injury, repetitive forceful lifting equipment such as hoists, pulley
movements, awkward postures or blocks and transportation equipment such
overexertion as conveyors, chutes and mechanical
means such as fork lift trucks, trolleys or
So manual handling injuries are not just barrows
confined to the back or the spine, and may
internal and/or external: Avoid by considering does a large work
piece really need to be moved, or can the
Internal External activity (e.g. wrapping or machining) safely
 Hernias  Cuts/abrasions be done where the item already is or can
 Slipped discs  Bruising you take the treatment to the patient, not
 Sprains  Crush vice versa?
 Strains  Fracture
Page 151 of 301

Can raw materials be piped to their point of E – Environment Lighting, ventilation,
use? temperature, humidity, obstacles,
staircases, floor conditions, space
Avoid by design, e.g. automation or available, height of work surfaces
mechanisation and using handling aids
such as; ACTION
 A conveyor; On the basis of the risk assessment, the
 An electric or hand-powered hoist; employer must now take action to
 A hoist implement protective and preventative
 A fork lift truck. measures to reduce the risk of injury.
 Or other simple mechanical handling
aids to reduce risk to ALARP; Effort should be made to seek contributions
 Cylinder trolley, stair trolley from workers and, where applicable,
 Pallet truck, sack truck worker health and safety representatives.
 Board clamps
One of the control measures arising from
 Wheeled bogies
manual handling assessments will be the
need for training. Employers should ensure
If it is not possible to avoid the manual
that all workers who carry out manual
handling task we need to carry out a
handling operations receive the necessary
suitable and sufficient risk assessment.
training to enable them to carry out the task
in a safe manner.
ASSESS (LITE)
If manual handling is unavoidable SFARP
A manual handling training programme
then the activity must be assessed by
should include:
considering the following factors;
 How potentially hazardous loads may be
recognised.
L – Load Weight, size, shape,
stability, contents, hot or cold, sharp or  How to deal with unfamiliar loads.
rough edges, rigidity  How to properly use handling aids.
 The proper use of personal protective
I - Individual(s) How many people are equipment.
required, their age, gender, stature,  Features of the working environments
physical strength, fitness, level of training, that contribute to safety.
clothing/footwear •to pregnant woman,  The importance of good housekeeping.
young person with their immaturity and  Factors affecting individual capability.
poor perception of their own ability  Good handling techniques.
T- Task Distance involved,

frequency, any twisting, high work rate, For training to be effective it should be on-
duration and frequency of periods of rest going to reflect improved techniques
and recovery, excessive lifting and developed by experienced workers and be
lowering, lifting distances (high up and low supported by periodic refresher training
down), need to hold loads away from the and supervision. This is commonly done by
body, strenuous pulling or pushing, the use of tool box talks.
repetitive handling, a work rate imposed by
the process
Page 152 of 301

Employees’ duties the natural spinal curve by lifting the
 Avoid tasks likely to cause injury head. The weight should be gripped
 Co-operate with their Employer by with the roots of the fingers and the
making full and proper use of all palms of the hands. Use of the finger
equipment and systems of work tips should be avoided as this will
 If injured they must report it cause loss of grip.
4) Get a secure grip (wear gloves if
Good handling technique for manually necessary); the weight should be
lifting loads gripped with the roots of the fingers and
the palms of the hands. Use of the
1) Assess the load – is it safe to lift on your finger tips should be avoided as this will
own? cause loss of grip.
2) Position feet apart, one foot flat to the 5) Lift smoothly using the thigh muscles;
floor at the side of the load, the other 6) Keep the load close to the body –
foot behind, with heel raised as close to heaviest side to the trunk, avoid jerking,
the load as possible movement;
3) Bend the knees and crouch to the load. 7) Move the feet - avoid twisting at the
Keep the back straight and maintain waist; and put down, then adjust – slide
to desired position.
Worked Example of Manual Handling Risk assessment
“Kerb Laying” using the general hierarchy of controls (ERIC PD)
Eliminate - designing out the need to move kerbstones by hand
Reduce - lighter kerbstones
Substitute - Totally mechanise the laying, or partially mechanise by the use of

mechanical aids
Controls - Manually handle – short periods of time, preferably a team lift
PPE - All workers wearing necessary PPE – safety boots, coveralls, gloves
Discipline - Training – only use trained, competent workers for such work.
Worked Example:- Airport baggage handler (LITE)
Load
 Variable weights of the baggage which is unmarked
 Bulky and unwieldy baggage
 Movement of the bags contents due to poor packing
 Slippery nature of some packaging material prevent good grip
Individual
 Stature and fitness levels
 Training and experience
 Their vulnerability particularly if still young
Page 153 of 301

Task
 Postural issues such as the need to stoop and twist
 The frequency and duration of the effort
 The need to move the loads quickly
 The distances the loads may have to be carried
 Height to lift luggage onto conveyors or trolleys
Environment
 Space constraints inside aircraft hold
 Floor conditions which might be slippery and uneven
 The temperature which the handlers are working in which can be very hot inside the aircraft
hold and very cold and wet outside
 The standard of lighting can be variable inside aircraft hold, unloading at night
 The weather conditions might be anything from sunshine, rain, fog, snow and ice
Page 154 of 301

Load-handling equipment
Hazards and controls for common types of load-handling aids and equipment:
Fork Lift Trucks

Fork lift trucks are found in many differing workplaces, ranging from construction sites, to
warehouses and factories. For this wide variety of uses, there needs to be several different
varieties and also different engine type to suit the various uses.
Some of these various types are:-
Counterbalance Fork-lift Truck Rough Terrain Fork-lift Truck

The fork-lift truck mostly used in the This type of truck operates the same way
workplace is counterbalance fork-lift truck. as the counterbalance truck but has large
It carries the load in front and the load is pneumatic (air filled) tyres which gives a
counterbalanced by a weight at the rear. greater ground clearance and is designed
The load can be raised or lowered and the to work on soft, uneven ground as may be
mast tilts forwards or backwards found on construction sites.
This type of truck is typically used in The 2 most common versions are a vertical
workplaces such as warehouses, factories mast truck the same as a counterbalance
etc.. one fitted with a telescopic handler.
Telescopic handler
Counterbalance fork lift truck
Rough terrain fork lift truck
Page 155 of 301

Industrial Reach Fork-Lift Truck This type truck is usually operated by an
This truck operates by the mast moving individual walking with the truck rather than
away from the body of the truck to pick up riding on it although there are stand on
the load. The load is reached back and versions. The operation of the truck can be
carried within the wheelbase of the vehicle the same as a counterbalance truck or a
which gives the vehicle very good reach truck.
manoeuvrability in narrow spaces such as
warehouse aisles and they can reach to
some considerable heights. One version
will lift the driver up to pick a load.
Reach truck Pedestrian operated pallet truck
Order picker trucks Ride on pallet truck
Page 156 of 301

For example, if a truck is always required
to work inside, it would probably be better
to have a battery powered truck. However,
if the truck works outside and is required to
travel lo g distances, then a diesel powered
one would be more appropriate.
Additionally, there are a number of

changes which can be made to trucks for
additional safety such as having spark
arrestors fitted for use in areas where there
is a risk of explosion.
Fork lift design

Fork lift trucks owe their wide range of
abilities and capacity to lift weights which
are relatively heavy, when compared to
their own size, to the use of a fulcrum point
in their design and in particular to
something referred to as the “stability
triangle”
The stability triangle

This triangle is measured from the centre
of the rear axle to the centre of the front
wheels on a fork lift. The reason that the
centre of the rear axle is used is because
the axle is only fastened to the chassis of
the truck in the centre and is allowed to
articulate to allow steering and to keep the
rear wheels in touch with the ground at all
times. Whereas the front axle is solid and
the chassis is attached in two places
These are used in warehouses and the
driver is lifted up in a platform to reach the Centre of gravity
required items
When selecting any type of truck the

Employer should ensure that they are of
good construction, free from defects and
suitable for the purpose in terms of
capacity, size and type.
There are various types of power sources

for trucks and because of the activities in
the work area only one type of power Stability triangle
source may be able to be used.
Page 157 of 301

The idea is to keep the centre of gravity, Prevention of fork trucks overturning
within the confines of the stability triangle.  Vehicles only be driven over the
Of course as an operator it is not possible surfaces they are designed for
to see what's happening with this stability  Suitable routes should be planned out,
triangle and so instead it is necessary to avoiding steep slopes, uneven or
learn of the conditions that may cause the slippery surfaces, kerbs and sharp turns
centre of gravity to fall outside of this  Vehicles should be driven at a suitable
triangle, such as; speed for the task, load and ground
conditions
 Travelling with an elevated load;  Vehicles should never be overloaded,
 Trying to carry too heavy a load; i.e. operate must within safe working
 Trying to turn the lift truck while it is load (SWL)
moving too fast;  Loads should be evenly distributed
 Lowering the load and turning at the across the vehicle and be secure
same time  Loads should be carried in a lowered
 Driving the lift truck on a hill or incline; position wherever possible
 Starting or stopping too fast;  Loads should only be carried by suitable
 Cornering too fast vehicles
 Having the load off centre  Speed limits must be considered and set
 The jerky operation of the hydraulic where necessary, speed limits must be
system enforced
 Mechanical failure such as hydraulic  The use of speed humps is not
failure or burst tyre. recommended as it can cause
“beaching” and create instability
Commercially available FLT checklists
Page 158 of 301

Rated Capacity Plate
All lift trucks must display a rated capacity plate, which will show the maximum weight at a
certain distance from fork face that the truck can lift. e.g.
Weight Load centre Mast height

2500 kgs 600 mm 4.5 m
The operator must never exceed the rated capacity. Operators must be given information
about the rated capacity and this is normally communicated by fixing a rated capacity plate
to the body of the vehicle.
The capacity will change if:

 The forks are changed for longer or shorter ones
 Attachments are used – such as an extending jib
Fuel and fuelling

There are three main fuels used to power Fork Lift Trucks – diesel, LPG Gas and Battery.
Each of these has specific hazards and Controls.
Fuel type Hazards Precautions

Training, barrier creams,
Dermatitis, CO poisoning, slips
Diesel gloves, spill control procedures,
and falls
selection of suitable FLT
Training, lifting equipment, good
Gas explosion, manual handling
Gas ventilation and fuelling point,
of cylinders, CO poisoning
selection of suitable FLT
Explosion during charging due to Training, good ventilation at
hydrogen build up and/or boiling charging point, charge timers,
Battery
dry, electrocution from mains side use of RCD’s, PPE and eye
of charger, acid burns wash facilities
Note:- Battery operated vehicles are quiet which is a hazard in itself
Hazards of operation
Hazards Causes
Excessive speed, human error, violent
Loss of Control
manoeuvres
Contact with vehicles and fixed
Poor layout, human error
objects
Impact with people and other No room, human error, poor operation,
vehicles poor layout
Overturning of vehicle Operator error/human error
Broken pallets/poor stacking/unstable
Load falling
loads /human error
Mechanical failure Poor maintenance and inspection
Exceeding SWL Human error /poor supervision
Page 159 of 301

FLT safety rules Fork lift truck pre-start checklist for
 Pre-use checks, esp. Tyres and signs of visual check:
mechanical failure  Oil leaks
 Secure and even loads  Tyres
 Raise and lower forks with the mast  Brakes
vertical  Bodywork
 Use tilt with the load lowered  Steering
 Use the hoist when the vehicle is  Mirrors
stationary  Hydraulics
 Move the vehicle with the load as low as  Correct adjustment of seat and mirrors
poss.  Warning devices (flashing beacons
 Never travel, or turn across slopes or &horns)
soft ground  Lifting mechanism (mast, chains, and
 Never undertake violent turns forks)
 Use speed ok for the conditions  Overhead guard system
 Always travel with the load up hill
 No sudden braking
 Clear signage of low level and high level Man riding platforms
obstructions The use of work platforms on fork lift trucks
and telescopic material handlers has
Note: when empty the “load” is the rear become commonplace on many
of vehicle construction sites. Best practice requires
the risk assessment to consider the safe
Safety rules for when FLT is to be left use, design, and machine requirements
unattended associated with utilising work platforms on
 Returning the FLT to a designated area telescopic handlers.
 Parking on firm, level ground with
handbrake on Controls include;
 Leaving the mast tilted forward with forks  Personal protection equipment must
resting on the floor always be worn as required;
 Engine switched off, ignition key removed  Machines must never be driven with
and held by a responsible person occupants elevated in the platform;
 Isolation of the power  Platform occupants must be alerted prior
 Parking where the FLT does not obstruct to moving the platform;
fire points  Overhead protection for occupants as
 Parking the truck away from other operating conditions require;
vehicles  Work area shall be defined to warn others
 Parking where the FLT does not obstruct of work by elevated personnel;
emergency exits or walkways  Path of platform travel must be free of
hazards;
 Personnel are to maintain firm footing on
the platform floor – methods employed
for achieving additional height are
prohibited; and
 Telehandlers are not to be used to lift
personnel unless there is no other
practical option
Page 160 of 301

Powered hoists
Hoists are used extensively in the workplace and vary from the basic chain hoist often known
as a block and tackle to construction hoists used to carry material and people. There are also
hoists which are designed to lift people in hospitals etc.
Definition of a hoist:
‘..incorporates a platform or cage and is restricted in its movement by guides ’
Goods or platform hoists

A goods, or platform, hoist is used to raise materials and
equipment vertically to successive levels as construction
proceeds and is probably the most widely used item of
mechanical handling equipment. It consists of a platform
which is driven either from a rope winch or by a rack and
pinion with the motor and gearbox mounted on the
platform. The principal dangers are of falling down the hoist
way from a landing on the platform, being struck by the
platform or other moving parts, and being hit by materials
falling down the hoist way.
Testing and examination  Traffic impact (vehicles and other plant)

Every hoist should be tested and  Weather conditions (e.g. wind, lightning,
thoroughly examined after installation, and rain)
checks made on the arrester and overrun  People falling from the elevated level,
devices. Weekly recorded checks should  Equipment and materials falling from lifts
then be made by a competent person. It
shall be routinely examined once every 6
months, (12 months where it only lifts Main features:
materials), by a competent engineer.  Sound mechanical construction -
strength and stability
The hazards associated with the use of  Interlocked doors or gates
a powered materials hoist in a
workplace include; Hoists must:
 Pedestrians being crushed, especially by  Be erected by a ‘competent person’
unauthorised use  Be operated by a trained and ‘competent
 Electricity person’
 Overturning due to overloading  Guard dangerous parts of the hoist
 Structural failure leading to collapse mechanism
 Entanglement hazards,  Ensure the integrity of the electrical
 Contact with moving parts installation
 Contact with overhead objects including  Protected at the base and top of the hoist
pipes and OHPL.
 Dangerous materials.
Page 161 of 301

Precautions when using hoists
 Controls only operated from one position
 Clear visibility of landings
 Clear signals
 Secure objects being carried on goods
hoists
 Do not overfill items being carried on
goods lifts
 Do not carry loose items on goods lifts
 No passengers on goods lifts
 Safe working load clearly marked
 Hoist properly examined and tested
 Suitable fencing and gates at all levels Powered pallet truck
 Training in use of hoists
NOTE:
All of the above requirements for hoists,
apply equally to a lift/elevator which is part
of a completed building.
Conveyors
Hazards of conveyors
 Electricity
 Noise
 Manual handling of materials on and off Sack truck
the conveyor
 Parts of the body can be drawn into the
in-running nips between the belt and
roller
 Contact with moving parts, for example,
drive elements, screw conveyors
 Entanglement with roller, drive
mechanisms
 Contact with sharp edges
 Falling off conveyors
 Items falling off
Pedestrian operated trolley
Manual pallet truck
Page 162 of 301

Hazard control measures for
conveyors
 Fixed guards/interlock guards
 Enclosure carried items by side guards
 Elimination of sharp edges
 Avoiding loose clothing
 Trip wires, if necessary, along the full
length of the conveyor
 Emergency stop buttons
 Safe access at regular intervals
 Wearing head and ear protection
 Suitable height and/or cushioning
 Regular maintenance by competent
people
Page 163 of 301

Requirements for lifting operations
Safety in lifting operations/use of lifting equipment
Lifting operations can often put people at great risk of injury, as well as incurring great costs
when they go wrong. It is therefore important to properly resource, plan and organise lifting
operations so they are carried out in a safe manner. Each of these elements requires a person
or people with sufficient competence to be involved at each step.
These people should have sufficient theoretical and practical knowledge of the work and
equipment in question, as well as the requirements of the national law, to be able to do this
properly. For complex and high-risk operations, the planning and organisation should be
extensive and meticulous.
What is a lifting operation? Lifting Operations Main Requirements:

Any operation concerned with lifting or  Equipment strength and stability
lowering a load  Position and installation
 Marking
What is a load?  Thorough examination and
Any object or load to be lifted, including  inspection
humans  Record keeping
What is lifting equipment? Lifting Operations and people as loads!
Anything that lifts or lowers a load. This  Mobile elevated work platforms,
includes any attachments for fixing or (MEWPs)
anchoring lifting equipment such as
 Construction site hoists
holding down bolts on tower cranes and
 Basket on a crane
guy lines for derrick cranes.
 Bosuns’ chair
So lifting equipment ranges from a simple  Window cleaners cradle
pulley and rope (gin and pulley wheel) to a  Tree surgeons harness
tower crane, mobile crane, crawler cranes,  Patient handling equipment
MEWPs and fork lift truck.
What are lifting accessories?

Any equipment used to attach a load to
lifting equipment – this would include lifting
slings, shackles, eye bolts and wire chain
ropes.
When is an activity NOT considered a

Lifting Operation?
 No vertical movement
 Manual handling
 Low risk, e.g. escalators
 Fall arrest equipment
Page 164 of 301

Lifting Operations – a summary of the Equipment (Lifting Equipment and
requirements (PEME) Lifting Accessories)
Need to ensure initial and continued
People integrity of equipment/accessories
A competent person to conduct a lifting  Tested before issue, on-going
operation risk assessment and then inspections and thorough examinations
develop the safe system of work (Lift Plan).  Thorough Examination on installation
 Inspections in use – every 7 days
 All lifting operations to be adequately  Exceptional conditions, (high winds etc.)
supervised.  Periodic Thorough Examination - 12
months Lifting Equipment,(6 months if
 All lifting equipment operators to be the lifting equipment lifts people), 6
appropriately trained and competent months for ALL Lifting Accessories or
earlier where an accident might have
 Any slinger/banksman to be trained and affected the lifting equipment
competent  Records
 Markings
 Minimum number of people in the
danger area Records
 Where a defects is found that is or could
Slinger/Banksman become a danger then the employer
Any slinger is responsible for attaching and must be notified.
detaching slings to and from the load and  A report of a thorough examination (TE)
crane hook, and will inform the banksman must be completed
(signaller) when ready. However, they may  A record of all inspections must be
be the same person. completed
 Where a Thorough Examination
Slingers must be trained in the inspection, identifies a defect which poses an
safe use and correct storage of lifting ‘imminent or serious danger’ then a copy
accessories. In the event of of the report is to be sent to the relevant
communications failing either by radio or enforcing authority.
visual, the lifting operation must stop until
 A Thorough Examination report is to be
communications are restored.
kept for a minimum 2 years
 A copy of an inspection report must be
The banksman is responsible for relaying
kept until the next inspection takes
signals to the crane operator and slingers,
place.
this includes all movements of the crane
hook and load.
Marking of lifting equipment
Lifting machinery and accessories must be
The crane operator can identify the
marked with their safe working load (SWL).
banksman visually, by the high visibility
Where it is not practicable to mark the
clothing (often a bib) that is worn by the
equipment itself, a coding system should
banksman. The banksman must remain in
be used to provide the user with the SWL
contact with the crane operator at all times,
(e.g. colour coding, label). This also
either by radio or visual contact.
applies where the SWL is dependent upon
varying configurations (e.g. fork lift truck
fitted with attachments).
Page 165 of 301

Where a significant hazard arises from the Slings must be selected in accordance with
use of the machinery it should be provided their intended use, based upon the size,
with appropriate equipment or devices type of load and the environmental
such as rated capacity indicators/limiters. conditions of the workplace. All slings must
be visually inspected before use to ensure
Accessories for lifting include single item that there is no obvious damage
(e.g. shackle) or an assembly of items
(such as a lifting beam and slings). The integrity of lifting equipment and
Accessories include slings, shackles, accessories contributes significantly to the
swivel or eye bolts, clamps, lifting magnets, risk in the lifting operation. It should be
vacuum lifters and lifting beams. subject to a thorough examination and be
inspected as necessary at intervals
Any carrier of persons should display the between thorough examinations.
maximum number of persons to be carried
in addition to the SWL. Materials (lifting equipment and load)
All materials that are used in the lifting
Lifting Accessories equipment and accessories shall be
Lifting accessories are pieces of FAGS;
equipment that are used to attach the load
to lifting equipment, providing a link  F free from obvious defect
between the two. Any lifting accessories
used between lifting equipment and the  A adequate strength
load may need to be taken into account in
determining the overall weight of the load.  G good construction
Examples of lifting accessories include:  S sound materials

 Chains (single or multiple leg)
 Wire rope slings For all materials to be lifted we must
 Fibre rope slings consider
 Web slings  Weight
 Thimbles  Shapes
 Ferrules  Size
 Eye Bolts  Content
 Shackles  Rigidity
 Hooks
 Spreader beams Environment
 Magnetic and vacuum devices Environmental considerations would
include both the area and the weather;
Cranes, derricks, and hoists rely upon
slings and ropes to hold their suspended The area
loads. Slings are the most commonly used  Soft ground
piece of materials handling apparatus. The  Underground services
operator must exercise intelligence, care,  Voids and cellars
and common sense in the selection and  Overhead power lines
use of slings.  Structures
 Segregation of lifting area
 Tag Lines fitted to the load when it
needs to be accurately positioned
Page 166 of 301

The weather Factors to consider are;
 Wind strength  Is the person operating the equipment
 Visibility trained and competent in its use?
 Temperature  Is the lifting equipment available and
 Wet/dry suitable for the lifting operation?
 Is the lifting equipment inspected,
thoroughly examined and maintained
Patient Hoists with records?
Hoists and slings are used to lift patients  Is there a safe system of work (lift plan)
from beds and baths, in hospitals and care for the patient lift activity?
homes. These are workplaces, so the
employer must satisfy their duties for safe
lifting operations. Summary of precautions to be taken
 Is the person operating the equipment when using of cranes and other lifting
trained and competent in its use? equipment
 Is the lifting equipment available and
suitable for the lifting operation?  Crane to be suitable for the lift (lift
 Is the lifting equipment inspected, capacity, reach etc.)
thoroughly examined and maintained  Crane test certificates and examination
with records? reports up to date
 Is there a safe system of work (lift plan)  Suitably inspected and tested lifting
for the patient lift activity? accessories
 Stable ground conditions
 Outriggers correctly positioned
Rope access workers  Avoidance of obstructions
 Rope access worker works from two  Safe distance from overhead power
ropes - a working rope and a back-up, lines
fall-arrest rope  Designated and protected lift area with
 Each rope has a separate anchorage barriers
point  Load correctly slung
 To prevent accidental dropping all tools  Driver and slinger are both competent
of a suitable weight are attached to the  Load near to ground as possible
technician at all times; heavier items are  May require the use of tag lines
independently suspended  Good visibility and communications
 A minimum of two technicians are  Monitoring of wind speeds and weather
required for any job so as to enable conditions
mutual surveillance - an extra safety  Carried out in accordance with
feature requirements of the lifting plan
 Only competent persons to be used
(IRATA technicians receive extensive
training and independent assessment
and are required to undergo re-training
every three years)
 Emergency rescue procedures to be in
position
 All equipment is regularly inspected,
thoroughly examined and well
maintained
Page 167 of 301

Summary for lifting equipment and
accessories
All lifting equipment and accessories is

also work equipment so should be
SUMRIC
Suitable for its intended use
Used correctly and only by authorised

persons and prevention of unauthorised
use
Maintained and Inspected and records

kept as required
Risk assessed and risk reduced SFARP
Information, instruction, training and

supervision for all who may be affected by
the lifting operations
Conformity to a recognised international,

appropriate standard.
Page 168 of 301

Element 7: Chemical and biological agents
Size of occupational health problem
The size of the occupational health problem is unclear due to three factors;
 Contributory factors influencing or masking conditions

For example, does a person smoke and have a cough because of the smoking, or do they
have a cough because of the chemicals they are exposed to at work?
Or, perhaps, is the cough a result of a combination of the two activities? In the above
example, the smoking could be influencing – making worse, or masking – hiding the effects
of exposure to the chemicals in the workplace
 Latent period delay identifying symptoms

Many chemicals a worker may be exposed to, sometimes on a daily basis, do not have an
immediate and/or visible effect of them. Sometimes repeated exposure is required to
cause lasting harm, but sometimes a single exposure may be sufficient to cause damage.
However, frequently the harm does not become apparent for a very long time, resulting in
workers believing that they are “immune” form harm, until it is too late.
 Recording accuracy
Finally, due to the first two above, employers and workers are not very good at keeping
accurate records of actual exposure of either substances, quantities or frequencies
ILO and Hazardous substances

The ILO Chemicals Convention 1990 (C170) concerns safety in the use of chemicals at work.
Use of chemicals means the production, handling, storage, transport, disposal, release into
the environment as a result of work activity, and the maintenance, cleaning and repair of
equipment and containers for chemicals. The Convention seeks to reduce risk by requiring
suppliers to evaluate the hazards presented by the chemical and provide information on the
chemical through the supply of a safety data sheet. Employers are required to assess risk
arising from the use of chemicals at work. Article 7 of the Convention requires hazardous
chemicals to be labelled in such a way that they are easily understandable to the worker. The
Convention is supported by ILO Recommendation 1990 (R177)
Categories of occupational health hazard
There are four classes of Occupational Health Hazard
Chemical e.g. asbestos, cement, solvent based paints, isocyanates
Biological e.g. leptospira, tetanus, hepatitis
Physical e.g. noise, vibration, UV light from arc welding, manual handling
Psychological e.g. stress, fatigue

 Metals – lead, (Pb), and mercury, (Hg),
Chemical hazards include: poisoning.
 Acids and alkalis - dermatitis.
Page 169 of 301

 Non-metals – arsenic, (As), and Psychological hazards examples
phosphorus poisoning. include:
 Gases - carbon monoxide, (CO),  Stress.
poisoning, arsine poisoning.  Fatigue
 Organic compounds - occupational  Violence.
cancers, for example, bladder cancer.  Drugs.
 Dust – silicosis, (due to silica Si), coal  Alcohol
worker's pneumoconiosis, asbestosis.
Biological hazards examples include: Physical state or form of chemical

 Animal-borne pathogens - leptospirosis, agents
E. coli. The form or state of the substance can and
 Human-borne pathogens - hepatitis does have a major effect on how the
(hepatitis B). substance affects humans and what type of
 Vegetable-borne fungi, moulds, yeasts - control measures we may put in place to
aspergillosis (farmer's lung). protect people from such affects
 Environmental bacteria - legionnaires’
disease. For example, if we touch a solid piece of
lead, (Pb), and then touch food, there is a
Physical hazards examples include: chance that we will ingest the lead dust
 Heat - heat cataract, heatstroke. from our hands. However, if we heat up the
 Lighting – poor lighting lead to melting point, then we may inhale
 Noise - noise induced hearing loss the lead fume.
(occupational deafness).
 Vibration - vibration induced white Therefore the form of the substance will
finger. help us to decide the controls, for example:
 Radiation - radiation sickness (at  With the dust – personal hygiene before
ionising wavelengths), burns, arc eye. eating
 Pressure - decompression sickness.  With the fume – use of an extraction
system.
 Job movements - cramps (in relation to
handwriting or computer data entry).
The form a hazardous substance takes
 Friction and pressure - bursitis, cellulitis,
affects its route of entry and how easily a
i.e., beat hand, traumatic inflammation
substance gains entry to the body and its
of the tendons or associated tendon
effects.
sheaths of the hand or forearm
(tenosynovitis).
Forms of chemical agent
 Dusts
 Fibres
 Fumes
 Gases
 Mists
 Vapours
 Liquids
Page 170 of 301

Dusts Liquids
These are solid airborne particles, caused Substances which are liquid at normal
by grinding, sweeping. Can cause lung temperature and pressure, such as a
damage where the dust particles may be solvent. These can vary from relatively
small and light enough to become airborne. harmless cleaning fluids through to highly
Often created by operations such as toxic and corrosive acids and alkalis.
grinding, crushing, milling, sanding,
sweeping etc. Inhalable particles are The Globally Harmonized System of
particles small and light enough to become Classification and Labelling System
airborne whereas respirable particles are
the very small inhalable particles able to The Globally Harmonized System of
get past most of the respiratory defence Classification and Labelling of Chemicals
mechanisms into the deep lung. or GHS is an internationally agreed-upon
system, created by the United Nations.
Fibres
A fibre is a thin thread of a natural or It is designed to replace the various
artificial substance, especially one that is classification and labelling standards used
used to make cloth or rope in different countries by using consistent
criteria for classification and labelling on a
Fumes global level. The system standardises the
These are fine, hot solid particles, requirements for the Safety Data Sheet
contained in convected gases and formed (SDS) which should enable users to take
by condensation from the gaseous state the necessary measures relating to
e.g. lead, zinc, copper, which causes metal protection of human health and safety at
fume fever. the workplace, and protection of the
environment.
Gases
Formless fluids usually produced by It replaces the old Material Safety Data
chemical processes involving combustion Sheet (MSDS or COSHH Data Sheet).
or by the interaction of chemical
substances. A gas will normally seek to fill
the space completely into which it is
liberated, e.g. chlorine gas.
Mists
These are finely dispersed liquid droplets
suspended in air. Mists may be created by
spraying, by condensation or atomised via
aerosol by air conditioning systems,
showers etc.
Vapours
This is the gaseous form of a material
normally encountered in a liquid or solid
state at normal room temperature and
pressure but not at the boiling point of the
liquid. Typical examples are solvents e.g.
trichloroethylene and organic solvents
which causes toxic atmospheres
Page 171 of 301

Forms of biological agents: fungi, Viruses
bacteria and viruses A virus is a pathogenic agent capable of
increasing rapidly inside a living cell.
Biological Agents (Pathogens) Examples include hepatitis and AIDS
Biological hazards relate mainly to illness
contracted from exposure to harmful micro- Virus can't multiply on their own, so they
organisms. Not all biological agents are have to invade a 'host' cell and take over its
harmful to humans – those that are we call processes in order to be able to reproduce.
‘pathogens’.
Forms of pathogen Chemical and biological controls

measures - (ERICPD)
Fungi
A fungus is a plant lacking chlorophyll so Eliminate - (pest control - kill the rats or
cannot make its own food like perhaps a prevent mosquitoes breeding)
tree would. Reduce - (time exposure, personnel or
concentration) or Substitute (liquids or
They reproduce by making spores which granules for powders or safer alternatives
are released and spread on the wind, e.g. rockwool for asbestos) or method
animal fur and even humans. Isolate – controlled access to infected
workers
Examples include mushrooms, mould and Controls:
yeasts. Fungal diseases manifest Engineering – microbiological safety
themselves as an allergic or immune cabinet, LEV
response in the form of asthmatic and/or Procedural – use of spill trays,
influenza-type symptoms from inhalation of prohibition of smoking/ eating/ drinking
dust or air contaminated by fungi, such as in work area, disinfection and
dry rot in roofs. sterilisation, immunisation, first aid
provision
Bacteria PPE – gloves, RPE, eye protection,
A bacterium is any of a large group of overalls
single celled, microscopic organisms of Discipline – training, safety signs, good
various shapes that are often agents of personal hygiene, quick first aid treatment
fermentation and putrefaction and that may
cause disease.
Leptospira bacteria (Weil’s disease)
There are many bacteria present in the This is caused by a bacteria found in the
world, but those that we are concerned with urine of rats and can also be carried by
here are those which may be present other mammals such as cattle. It has to
because of the particular nature of the work enter the body either through puncture of
processes themselves. Examples include the skin or by ingestion. It attacks the
legionella, leptospirosis and tetanus. kidneys and liver causing high
Bacteria can multiply on their own and temperatures and headaches the health
capable of living outside of the body. effects include serious damage to internal
organs which can prove fatal.
Page 172 of 301

Contaminated water in places such as a The symptoms of Legionnaires’ disease
river or a sewer are the most common are breathing difficulties, high temperature
cause and the workers at risk are include and possible death. Elderly people are
sewer workers, farm workers, and particularly at risk.
veterinary doctors.
Air conditioning systems have to be
Primary control is through systematic properly maintained and treated. Controls
destruction of rats in infested areas. measures include temperature control,
avoiding ‘dead-legs’ in pipework and
Control of the disease in sewer workers is chemical treatment.
difficult, but immunisation seems to offer
the best solution, together with a campaign Circumstances
of antibody testing. In addition, all ‘at risk’ The bacterium thrives in certain stagnant
workers should carry a card warning of the water between 20 – 450 C with algae
dangers, stressing personal cleanliness present. It does not survive above 60°C
and hygiene, explaining the need for and the organism remains dormant in cool
protective clothing and alerting doctors to water below 200C.
the possibility of the disease.
The presence of sediment, sludge, scale
It is essential that people subject to and/or organic material in the water – these
potential risk are aware of the causes and can act as a source of nutrients, as can
symptoms, given instruction in suitable organisms such as algae, amoebae and
first-aid precautions (such as covering other bacteria.
existing skin wounds, cleaning and
disinfecting all fresh wounds), notify a GP Legionnaires’ disease is a type of
if influenza-like symptoms occur and notify pneumonia affecting the lungs and other
the relevant authorities if rat infestation is organs of the body. Infection is caused by
noticed in a work area inhaling airborne droplets or particles
containing viable
Controls summary: Legionella, which are small enough to pass

 Good housekeeping deep into the lungs and be deposited in the
 Good welfare provision alveoli. The disease has an incubation
 Pest control period of three to six days and the initial
 Personal hygiene symptoms include high fever, chills,
 Prompt first aid provision headache and muscle pain.
 Use of aide memoire card
 Training A dry cough soon develops and most
patients suffer difficulty with breathing. In
Legionella (Legionellosis (flu-like certain cases, this can lead to death,
symptoms) particularly among those with reduced
This is an airborne bacterium and is found resistance such as smokers, alcoholics
in water in locations such as cooling and patients with cancer, chronic
towers, stagnant water, shower heads etc. respiratory or kidney disease.
Inhalation of airborne droplets of water
containing the legionella bacteria, leads to
a form of pneumonia (Legionnaires’
disease).
Page 173 of 301

Legionella is most commonly found in the Blood-borne viruses
water systems of buildings, with those
potentially at risk being: Hepatitis B and C Virus (Blood borne
viruses)
 Cooling towers. Hepatitis is a virus displaying similar
 Evaporative condensers. symptoms to Weil’s disease – fever,
 Hot/cold water services in premises jaundice, enlargement of the liver,
where the occupants are susceptible, haemorrhages and feverish relapses. It is
such as health care premises. contracted primarily through injection,
 Humidifiers and air washers creating a although ingestion of infected substances
spray of water droplets above 20°C. may also be a route of entry.
 Spa baths and pools.
Persons exposed to the risk, who may
Controls: include fire-fighters and ambulance
Identifying and assessing sources of risk, workers in addition to those already
taking into account potential for drop mentioned, can be protected by
formation, water temperature, exposure vaccination. In all cases, protective
probability and adequacy of control. disposable gloves should be worn and
hands and arms washed regularly with
Implementing control measures to avoid disinfectant.
conditions where Legionella can proliferate
and to avoid creating sprays or aerosols – Hepatitis B in particular, is normally self-
for example: limiting with recovery in about six weeks. In
 Keeping the system clean and about 5% of cases, chronic infectious
preventing a build-up of sediments and hepatitis follows, leading to cirrhosis and
slimes. possibly death. Hepatitis B can be
 Avoiding the use of materials which transmitted through blood to blood contact,
provide nutrient for the organisms. but is more commonly transmitted through
body fluids.
 Using appropriate water treatment
chemicals.
Hepatitis C can be transmitted through
 Avoiding stagnant or still water
blood to blood or contact with the body
temperatures between 20°C and 45°C.
fluids of an infected person. If you have
 Monitoring the water quality of previously been infected with hepatitis B
‘susceptible’ systems – those in and successfully cleared the virus you are
premises which contain a high now immune and cannot become infected
proportion of susceptible people again.
(hospitals or nursing homes) and
situations where there is a large number This is NOT the case with hepatitis C
of such people at risk. where it is possible that you can be re-
infected with the same strain again, or
infected with more than one strain at any
given time
Page 174 of 301

Summary Difference between acute and chronic
 Health effects (liver) health effects
 Jaundice
 Fever Scale of effect
 Abdominal pain The scale of effect describes how much of
 Liver failure a substance and how quickly it will affect
the human
Typical locations
Where people come into contact with the Acute
persons body fluids and/or blood, e.g. Acute health effects are an immediate or
emergency services, health sector workers rapidly produced adverse effect, following
and care assistants. a single or short-term exposure to a
hazardous substance, producing a rapid or
There is a vaccine for hepatitis B which can immediate response i.e. within seconds,
prevent you from becoming infected but minutes or hours, which is normally
NOT for hepatitis C. reversible (exception being death).
Normally, a single large exposure is
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) involved. Examples: CO, H2S or Cyanide
Health effects produce acute effects.
HIV is another blood borne virus like
Hepatitis B and C. It is a virus which attacks Acute health effects
the immune system, and weakens the  Headaches/Dizziness
victims ability to fight infections and  Nausea
disease.  Inflammation
 Eye Irritation
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome  Unconsciousness
(AIDS) is caused by the Human  Death
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) which
attacks the immune system by which the Chronic
human body can resist infections. The virus Chronic health effects are repeated
is found in most body fluids of sufferers and exposures over many days, months or
is transmitted by the passing of such years. Symptoms may not be immediately
infected fluids into the blood of another apparent.
person. It is, though, a delicate virus and
relatively easily destroyed outside the Chronic health effects are gradual,
body. progressive and irreversible. May go
unrecognised for a long period of time due
It is, then, not easily transmitted and to long latency period.
requires direct contact.
May get worse with no further exposure.
Typical locations Examples: asbestosis or cancer
Where people come into contact with the
persons body fluids and/or blood, e.g.
health sector workers, care assistants, first
aiders and those coming into contact with
infected needles.
Page 175 of 301

Factors which could affect the level of Respiratory sensitisers include:
harm caused by exposure to a toxic  Mineral oils
substance  Isocynates
 Route of entry  Wood dust
 Specific site of contact  Some glues/resins
 Physical state  Solder flux
 Toxicity of the substance  Latex
 Effectiveness of control measures
 Mis-use or non-use of PPE Germ cell mutagenicity
 Personal factors: age, gender, health, A germ cell mutagen is a chemical that may
pre-existing conditions cause mutations in the germ cells of
 Total dose = concentration × frequency humans that can be transmitted by a parent
× duration to their children. A mutation is defined as a
permanent change in the amount or
structure of the genetic material in a cell.
Main classification of hazardous Chemical and physical agents that cause a
chemical properties (SMIRTCCHA) change of cell DNA leading to diseases in
future generations through embryo/foetus
Sensitisers – skin and respiratory e.g. chloroform.
Skin sensitisers Irritant

A skin sensitiser is a substance that will Triggers an inflammatory response of skin,
induce an allergic response following skin eyes, or mucus lining of respiratory system.
contact. Substances are classed as skin e.g. isocyanates
sensitisers, if there is evidence in humans
that the substance can induce sensitisation Reproductive Toxins
by skin contact in a substantial number of Is a generic term that covers chemicals that
persons, or where there are positive results causes non-heritable changes to
from an appropriate animal test. reproductive cells leading to infertility,
reduced sterility, birth defects or diseases
Respiratory sensitisers in next generation babies only e.g. lead
A respiratory sensitiser is a substance (Pb)
which when inhaled can trigger an
irreversible allergic reaction in the Toxic
respiratory system. Once this sensitisation Substance has a poisonous effect on target
reaction has taken place, further exposure organ or body system, (absorbed into
to the substance, even to the tiniest trace, body, harms or upsets metabolism) e.g.
may produce symptoms. Breathing in the lead or H2S
substances may irritate and cause damage
to the nose, throat and lungs. Carcinogenic
Substances capable, after a long latent
Sensitisation does not usually occur right period, of causing disorder of cell growth,
away. It generally develops after several may lead cancer e.g. asbestos
months or even years of breathing in the
sensitiser/substance. Corrosive
Destroys living tissue (skin, eyes,
respiratory system, stomach) at local point
of contact e.g. ammonia (NH3)
Page 176 of 301

Harmful Dermatitis is classified into two forms:
Substances, which, if swallowed, inhaled
or penetrate the skin may cause damage to Irritant dermatitis is caused by skin contact
health e.g. solvents such trichloroethylene with workplace irritants (wet cement, epoxy
resins, solvents, petrol, diesel, oils,
greases and detergents). Irritant dermatitis
Aspiration will usually clear up if treated properly.
Means the entry of a liquid or solid Exposure over a longer period will result in
chemical directly through the oral or nasal the individual being more susceptible to
cavity, or indirectly from vomiting, into the allergic dermatitis.
trachea (windpipe) and lower respiratory
system. Allergic or Sensitisation dermatitis is
caused by sensitisation to the sensitising
Aspiration hazard. chemical such as chromate present in
An aspiration hazard refers to a substance cement, (rubber additives, nickel
that has the potential to enter the trachea compounds, hardwood dust) and causes
and lower respiratory system via the oral or an allergic reaction. Chromate is the most
nasal cavity through the process of common cause of allergic dermatitis in
aspiration, the introduction of a substance plasterers, concreters and bricklayers.
into the respiratory system through the Once someone has become sensitised,
course of a single inspiration (inhaled any future exposure may trigger dermatitis.
breath). The risk of contact sensitisation chromate
will be increased if cement is left on the skin
Aspiration hazards have the potential to and not washed off.
cause asphyxiation, injury, or negative
health effects. They are ranked according Both irritant and allergic dermatitis can
to their level of toxicity and range in affect a person at the same time.
severity from mildly dangerous to fatal.
Symptoms
Inflammation, redness, itchiness, and, in
Skin corrosion and irritation some cases, blisters. It is caused by direct
contact with an irritant substance or by an
Dermatitis allergic reaction to a substance.
Types of Dermatitis
Dermatitis: non-infectious inflammatory Dermatitis prevention
condition of the skin caused by contact with  Education (IITS)
chemical, physical or biological agents.  Pre-employment health checks
 Substitution
 Skincare – good welfare provision
 Skin checks (health surveillance)
 PPE (barrier creams and gloves)
Controls
 Protect
 Cleanse
 Re-hydrate
 Substitute for safer substance
Page 177 of 301

Factors which increase likelihood of Of course, the most difficult one to prevent
developing dermatitis entry by is inhalation as we must all breath
 Individual sensitivity and it is impossible for everyone to walk
 Poor personal hygiene around all day in respiratory protection.
 Existing skin conditions
 Any cuts or abrasions Therefore more effort is required to prevent
 Specific site of contact substances becoming airborne in order to
 Mis-use or non-use of PPE protect everyone.
 Nature of the agent
 Total dose = concentration × frequency
The body’s defence mechanisms
× duration
Superficial defences
Superficial defences will include things like
Routes of entry of hazardous
our skin which prevent entry of harmful
substances into the body
materials into our body. However, if the
Substances can enter the body by any of
harmful materials manage to breach the
four routes and the effects on the human
skin, perhaps through a cut, then we have
ca vary dramatically dependent upon
a second line of defence, cellular defences,
which route:
ready to protect us.
Absorption – can be a problem;
Cellular defences
substances such as glycol ether and other
Cellular defences, sometime called killer
less volatile organic compounds readily
cells, are cells within the human body
penetrate skin and enter the bloodstream.
which defend the human system by
The eyes are especially at risk from
identifying and attacking unknown
absorption.
cells/bacteria/virus’s. It is this natural
defence which is used when we vaccinate
Ingestion – swallowing (drinking, eating or
people against certain diseases. In
smoking with contaminated hands), usually
vaccination, we inject a small amount of the
the result of poor hygiene, poor training or
inactive virus we wish to protect against.
welfare provision.
This alerts the natural defences causing
them to react with the “invader”. Then, if
Injection – ‘needle-stick’ injuries involving
the person is exposed to the “real” virus,
accidental puncture of the skin allowing
their body is ready and can fight it.
substances, viruses and biological fluids to
enter the bloodstream, causing diseases
The respiratory system and eyes
like hepatitis B and C, HIV, tetanus.
defences against dusts
Projecting nails penetrating the sole of the
Inhalable dust is dust small enough to
foot is common in construction.
become airborne and be present in the
breathing zone. Respirable dusts are the
Inhalation – breathing in through mouth
very small dust particles which are capable
and nose. This is the most common and
of getting past the defence mechanisms
the most dangerous. The large internal
into the deep lung.
surface areas of the lungs mean that
substances can be taken up quickly and in
large quantities
Page 178 of 301

Dust Defence Mechanisms Site of effect
 Sense of smell This describes where the harmful effect of
Allows us to detect and avoid harm exposure to a substance will be observed.
before exposure Local
 Nose hairs Effects noted at first site of contact
The nasal hairs act as a very coarse
filter, removing larger airborne particles Systemic
 Sneeze reflex Effects noted at a point remote from initial
Allows us to clear our nasal cavity of any point of contact
dust that may have entered and been
trapped by the nasal hair
 Cough reflex Target Organ
Coughing causes us to expel a lot of air An organ or system within the human body
and with it any dusts another substances on which a specific toxic material exerts it
which may be causing an irritation to us effects e.g. lungs, liver, brain, skin, bladder,
 Ciliary escalator and eyes. Most substances will affect one
The cilia move constantly, causing a or two organs most and perhaps, not affect
wave like motion which transports the others.
“mucus” and any dust trapped in it
upward towards the back of the throat. These one or two organs are referred to as
Once there, the cough reflex takes over the target organs for that substance.
placing it in the back of the throat giving
us the option to swallow it or pass it out Substances can also target the bodies’
into a tissue for disposal systems e.g. central nervous system,
 Exhalation circulatory system, reproductive system or
Some particles are extremely small and respiratory system. Examples of
as such remain airborne all the time. substances which have a systemic effect
Therefore, when we breath out these and their target organs are:-
smaller particles, which are to light to
settle in the upper and/or lower  Asbestos:- Lungs
respirator area, are expelled on the  Alcohol:- Central nervous
outward breath system, liver
 Lead:- Bone marrow and
 Macrophages or scavenger cells – brain damage
cellular defence mechanism  Mercury:- Brain, central nervous
Macrophages are little scavenger cells system
which clear the surface of the alveoli  H2S – Respiratory system
then the pass them to the body waste
system Scale of effect
The scale of effect describes how much of
 Lachrymation a substance and how quickly it will affect
Blinking and crying for the eyes only the human
Lachrymation or crying creates an
excess of liquid in and around the eyes
which allows it to wash itself and clear
any dust particles trapped there
Page 179 of 301

Acute Specific target organ toxicity – repeat
Acute health effects are an immediate or exposure (STOT-RE) means specific
rapidly produced adverse effect, following target organ toxicity arising from repeated
a single or short-term exposure to a exposure to a substance or mixture. This is
hazardous substance, producing a rapid or an example of a chronic effect
immediate response i.e. within seconds,
minutes or hours, which is normally Factors which could affect the level of
reversible (exception being death). harm caused by exposure to a toxic
substance
Normally, a single large exposure is  Route of entry
involved. Examples: CO, H2S or Cyanide  Specific site of contact
produce acute effects.  Physical state
 Toxicity of the substance
Acute health effects  Effectiveness of control measures
 Headaches/Dizziness  Mis-use or non-use of PPE
 Nausea  Personal factors: age, gender, health,
 Inflammation pre-existing conditions
 Eye Irritation  Total dose = concentration × frequency
 Unconsciousness × duration
 Death
Serious eye damage
Chronic Serious eye damage could be defined as
Chronic health effects are repeated as the production of tissue damage in the
exposures over many days, months or eye, or serious physical decay of vision,
years. Symptoms may not be immediately following the application of a substance to
apparent. the front outer surface of the eye, which is
not fully reversible within 21 days of
Chronic health effects are gradual, application, (OSHA HCS2012).
progressive and irreversible. May go
unrecognised for a long period of time due Eye irritation
to long latency period. Eye irritation could be defined as changes
in the eye following application of a
May get worse with no further exposure. substance to the front outer surface of the
Examples: asbestosis or cancer eye, which is fully reversible within 21 days
of application, (OSHA HCS2012).
The following two classes include all
significant health effects that can impair
functions of target organs, both reversible
and irreversible, immediate and/or delayed
Specific target organ toxicity – single

exposure, (STOT-SE) means specific,
non-lethal target organ toxicity arising from
a single exposure to a chemical. This is an
example of an acute effect.
Page 180 of 301

Assessment of health risks Step 3: Evaluate the risk
 Consider the adequacy of existing
What needs to be taken into account control measures by comparing these
when assessing health risks groups total dose against the workplace
occupational exposure limit for the
As with all risk assessments, we follow the substance.
same 5 simple rules, namely:  It is an absolute duty to get exposure
levels below the OEL but even if the
5 Steps to a Health Risk Assessment existing level is below the OEL, the
1. Identify the hazards employer should consider additional
2. Identify those at risk controls (ERIC PD) so far as is
3. Evaluate the risk reasonably practicable.
4. Record
5. Monitor and review Step 4: Record, inform, instruct and train
 Record the risk assessment where there
Step 1: Identify the hazards are significant findings.
 Typically, the classification of the hazard  Prove information, instruction and
(mutagenic, irritant, reproductive toxin training as necessary.
etc.), it’s form (liquid, gas, fume etc.)
which will influence possible routes of Step 5: Monitor and Review
entry into the body, e.g. dust inhalation  Continue to monitor the effectiveness of
due to handling cement bags, or vapour the controls through airborne
inhalation while using adhesives. monitoring, inspections and through
 To do this consult labels on the examinations, health surveillance,
container and safety data sheets. consultation etc.
 Remember that product labels, safety  Review routinely or earlier if as a result
data sheets and WELs are general of monitoring or changes there is reason
statements. They do not allow for the to believe that the risk assessment is no
localised conditions in which the longer valid.
substances are to be used.
 Finally, if there is any possibility of
significant risk, it will be necessary to Sources of information:
measure the concentration of the As with all health and safety issues, the
airborne contaminant. sources of information available to be
referred to will be from both internal and
Step 2: Identify those at risk external resources, being both written,
 Look at broad groups such as (paper) and verbal, (people).
employees, contractors, visitors and
maybe even the general public. With external sources further broken
down into:
 Evaluate their total dose (concentration  Governmental, written (paper – laws
x duration x frequency). and guidance documents), verbal
(people – government advisors and
Identify anyone at particular risk; regulators), and
 Young Persons  Non-Governmental, written (paper –
 New or Expectant mothers and their SDS/manufacturers’ instructions,
babies product labels), verbal (people doctors,
 Asthmatics etc. safety representatives) resources.
Page 181 of 301

Typical resources for worker health and Contents of a (Material) Safety Data
well-being will include product labels and Sheet (or Hazard Data Sheet)
safety data sheets, (SDS), with the  Trade name
responsibility for provision of the SDS  Chemical composition
being that of the supplier, it will be the  Nature of the hazard
employers responsibility to ensure that  Relevant standards: OEL, LTEL/STEL
they keep that latest version on file and  Control measures its use, handling,
make it available to all who may require it, storage and transport e.g. PPE
both internally, for example in the stores  Emergency procedures: spillage, fire
and also the user and externally, waste and medical
disposal companies and emergency  Disposal requirements
services.
Additionally, less detailed but still very
Safety Data Sheets important information is available on the
Product safety data sheets are a very product packaging and labels. Such
useful source of information for hazard information is useful for everyone involved
identification and advice when carrying out in the transportation, storage and use of
a health risk assessment. Manufacturers of the product and usually takes the form of a
hazardous substances are obliged to warning symbol and basic safety, fire and
supply such sheets to users giving details environmental details as required.
of the name, chemical composition and
properties of the substance.
However, any and all information has its
Information on the nature of the health limitations, for example:
hazards and any relevant exposure
standard (WEL) should also be given
 Signs we assume that
together with recommended exposure
everyone knows what they mean?
control measures and personal protective
 Labels do people actually
equipment.
bother to read the labels?
The sheets contain useful additional  Relevance many details given,
information on first aid and firefighting particularly so called, “safe exposure
measures and handling, storage, transport limits” are often based on:
and disposal information.  single substance exposure – no
information on the synergistic or
The data sheets should be stored in a collective effects of multiple
readily accessible and known place for substance exposure
use in the event of an emergency, such as  usually based on fit, average, health
an accidental release or medical males
emergency.  usually refer to inhalation as the route
of entry into the body
 usually does not take account of other
routes of entry into the body
Page 182 of 301

Role and limitations of hazardous To achieve a reasonable level of
substance monitoring. accuracy we need to consider:
Obviously the only safe amount of a 1 Area monitoring where all

dangerous substance to enter our body is workers are exposed to the same
zero. amount of exposure over their working
shift
However, unfortunately, the chance of 2 Personal monitoring where workers
being exposed to zero is zero! It is are either exposed as individuals
therefore vital that we limit exposure to undertaking a lone task or are exposed
dangerous substances below the point at intermittently and, as such, require their
which there is a reasonably foreseeable own monitoring to give an accurate level
risk of harm to humans. of actual exposure.
How do we know what is the safe amount

of exposure? In the first instance we Monitoring means measuring to:
should consult the SDS and/or any other  Show what the actual exposure levels
proprietary information provided by the are
manufacturer or supplier of the substance.  Prove if any controls we have in place
Occasionally, we may have to revert to are working as we expect them to
specialist documents, usually issued by  Check areas of contamination and/or
government departments, which reflect the spread of contamination
best available knowledge based on many
years of research and collaboration across
the world, for example the UK enforcing Various type of monitoring can give
officer EH40 booklet; different information, for example;
(http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/books/eh40.htm)
 Area monitoring using
colourmetric/stain tubes, will only
However, do remember the weakness show what the exposure in the
highlighted above in any such “safe limits”, workplace is
namely;
 Personal monitoring, will show
 single substance exposure – no
actual exposure for that particular
information on the synergistic or
individual
collective effects of multiple
 Biological monitoring, for example,
substance exposure
blood tests for lead, can show
 usually based on fit, average, health
actual quantity of a substance that
males
has entered the body and been
 usually refer to inhalation as the route
retained
of entry into the body
 usually does not take account of other
However, it has nothing to do with the state
routes of entry into the body
of a worker's health and does not
guarantee that they will not suffer damage
So, having established the safe or
to their health as they may have already
acceptable level of exposure, we need to
been exposed to too much by the time that
consider how we can monitor any and all
the measurement is taken as it is a reactive
such exposure, remember in that not all
measurement not a preventative control.
people are exposed to the same amount all
the time.
Page 183 of 301

However, we have to be careful of reliance
only on monitoring exposure as this is often
measure not only in real time but
sometimes giving an historical report so, if
there are any failings in controls, the
workers may well have been exposed to an
unsafe level of a substance.
Additionally, we also rely on the worker

using the monitoring equipment correctly,
particularly if it is personal and they are not
closely supervised as they may forget or
even deliberately not use the monitoring
equipment as they feel they are being
“watched” and/or if they exceed the
notional control limits, perhaps they feel
that they will be forced to take unpaid leave
in order to even exposure out over the
month.
When undertaking any risk assessment,

we need to ensure that we consider
suitable controls. The ILO Code of
Practice, “Ambient factors in the workplace
– chapters 4.3 – 4.5, gives us excellent
guidance on such controls, as summarised
below:
Page 184 of 301

Airborne Monitoring
No one wishes to be exposed to any harmful gas, but unfortunately we are all surrounded by
them each day, so we have to accept a degree of exposure. However, such exposure needs
to be controlled within certain limits. In order to ensure that we do maintain the required limits,
we need methods of measuring gasses, vapours and dusts.
An essential part of a health risk assessment and checking the effectiveness of our controls,
is the measurement of the quantity of the hazardous substance in the atmosphere
surrounding the workplace. This is known as air sampling. There are four common types of
air sampling techniques used for the measurement of air quality:
Stain tube/colourmetric/grab sampler

Grab Sampling as the name implies means we obtain an immediate sample. This technique
is good where the atmosphere will not change rapidly, for example in a storage tank which is
vented and not connected to any other part of the process. The grab sampler is not suitable
to test the atmosphere
To do this we use indicator tubes with an absorbent material. (The tubes are called Chemical
Stain Detector tubes). A small hand pump is used to pump a known volume of air through
the absorbent material. The presence of a hazardous substance causes the absorbent
material to change colour. The extent of the discoloration shows the amount of contaminant
present.
The gas or vapour needs to be identified before this method is used as the specific tube for
the substance should be obtained.
Direction of
This end
air flow
connects to Glass tube
the bellows
Reactive crystals Measurement

change colour scale
Bellows pump with “tube” inserted
Page 185 of 301

Advantages: Cheap, simple, Personal Sampler
immediate results, little training required, A personal sampler can measure gas,
Good for approximate reading, and useful dust, and radiation. Personal dust monitors
during spillages. are worn by the worker. In a personal dust
sampler the dust is collected onto a filter
Disadvantages: Contaminant must be and then taken to the laboratory for
known, only a rough guide – within 20% gravimetric analysis.
accuracy band, reading only a one off, at a
specific moment, result depends on
positioning and results influenced by other
substances.
Direct reading continuous samplers
Area Sampler: Gas monitor

Infra-red gas analysers are the most
commonly used gas detector but other
types of analyser are also available. They
are very accurate and give continuous or
TWA readings. They tend to be very
expensive and are normally hired or used
by specialist consultants.
Area Sampler: Dusts – (Bubbler)

Bubblers are static dust monitors sited
around the workplace which capture the
dusts in pure water. The water is then
evaporated and the dusts analysed in a
laboratory.
Radiation dose badge
Calibrated
Glass tubes pump
Bung
Flask Pure water
Page 186 of 301

Prevention and control Local exhaust ventilation (LEV) systems
 Where the assessment of hazards or Hazards that can be controlled by the
risks shows that control measures effective use of LEV include;
are inadequate or likely to become  Dust which could cause coughing,
inadequate, risks should be: sneezing and various other respiratory
(a) eliminated by ceasing to use such diseases;
hazardous substances or replacing  Chemicals which might cause
them with less hazardous substances sensitisation or other toxic effects;
or modified processes;  Allergens which could aggravate
(b) minimized by designing and asthmatic conditions;
implementing a programme of action;  Pathogens which can cause diseases;
(c) reduced by minimizing the use of  Asphyxiants that can lead to breathing
toxic substances, where feasible. difficulties, unconsciousness and,
ultimately, death;
 Control measures for implementing  Extreme heat which could result in heat
such a programme could include exhaustion.
any combination of the following:
(a) good design and installation In general, they are used for higher risk
practice: substances in relatively high
(b) work systems and practices: concentrations, which are moving at high
(c) personal protection: velocity, and are locally evolved. Local
exhaust ventilation (LEV) is the standard
 Health surveillance control measure for dealing with dusts,
vapours and fumes which are generated
 Training and information from a point source.
Engineering controls Fan

Filter
Ventilation systems
Ventilation may be by natural or
mechanical means. Extract ventilation Manifold
(removal from the workplace) is an
Ducting
important control strategy in the prevention
of occupational ill-health from exposure to
dusts, fumes, mists, vapours and gases.
Captor hood
Page 187 of 301

The parts of an LEV are; Various LEV systems are used for welding,
soldering, cutting and milling operations.
1. Captor hood and intake – normally a Typical components include a fixed captor
nozzle-shaped point which is sited as close hood, flexible hose and rigid duct, a
to the site of work as possible. The speed manifold, fan and filter. Examples of LEV
of the air entering the intake nozzle is include:
important, if it is too low then hazardous  Glove boxes – total enclosures, often
fume may not be removed (air speeds of used in laboratories, which are
up to 1 m/s are normally required)’ accessed through flexible gloves and
kept under negative pressure to prevent
2. Ducting – this provides a route for the any release of contaminant.
contaminated air and transports it to a filter.  Fume cupboards – partial enclosures,
The filter and settling section are vital, so it again often used in laboratories, which
is very important that this section is are accessed through a vertical sliding
inspected regularly and any dust deposits sash, with the enclosure again being
removed. It has been known for ventilation kept under negative pressure so that the
ducting attached to a workshop ceiling to airflow is through the sash into the hood
collapse under the added weight of metal to prevent any release of contaminant.
dust deposits  Captor hoods – movable ventilators
which can be positioned as near as
3. Filter or other air cleaning device – possible to the hazard and capture
normally located between the hood and the contaminants by a negative airflow into
fan, the filter removes the contaminant the hood before they reach the operator,
from the air stream. The filter requires such as are used to extract woodwork
regular attention to remove contaminant dust.
and to ensure that it continues to work  Receptor hoods – large structures
effectively designed to capture contaminants which
have been directed naturally into the
4. Fan – this moves the air through the hood by thermal draughts, directional
system. It is crucial that the correct type movement, or local generation. An
and size of fan is fitted to a given system example of a receptor hood is a chimney
and it should only be selected by a in an incinerator.
competent person. It should also be
positioned so that it can easily be Factors which might affect the
maintained but does not create a noise effectiveness of LEV
hazard to nearby workers  Blocked filters/incorrect filters
 Hood too far from the source
5. Exhaust duct – this exhausts the air to  Lack of maintenance, inspection and
the outside of the building. It should be testing
checked regularly to ensure that the correct
 Unauthorised alterations
volume of air is leaving the system and that
 Wear or corrosion of fan blades
there are no leakages. The exhaust duct
should also be checked to ensure that  Incorrect settings
there is no corrosion due to adverse  Inadequate design
weather conditions.  Cracks in ducting
 Process changes
Page 188 of 301

There is a need to regularly test the A variation on this is where air may be
effectiveness of LEV to ensure its forcibly removed from the work area, but
continued integrity. not associated with a particular
contaminant source, and air is allowed in
LEV inspection and testing through ventilation ducts to dilute the air in
There is a general duty under ILO C155 to the work area. Sometimes a combination of
provide and maintain plant that is safe and these two approaches is used; an example
without risks to health. may be general air conditioning provided
into an office environment.
To ensure this is the case with LEV it must
be thoroughly examined and tested for Because dilution ventilation does not target
effectiveness at least once every 12 any specific source, and it relies on
months by a competent person. dispersal and dilution, instead of specific
removal, it can only be used with nuisance
Records of such examination and testing, contaminants that are themselves fairly
and any repairs carried out as a result shall mobile in air.
be kept for at least 5 years.
Dilution ventilation systems will only deal
Dilution ventilation with general contamination and will not
Dilution ventilation is a system designed to prevent contaminants entering a person’s
induce a general flow of clean air into a breathing zone. Local exhaust ventilation
work area to dilute the concentration of (LEV) is the preferred means of controlling
airborne contaminants to acceptable a person’s exposure to substances.
levels. A particularly simple approach, to
providing dilution ventilation, is to open Dilution ventilation may only be used as the
windows and doors, and allow natural air sole means of control in circumstances
flow to dilute the workplace air. This is not where there is:
a reliable means of dealing with toxic  Non-toxic contaminant or vapour (not
contaminants and may be over relied on in dusts).
the construction industry. It also conflicts  Contaminant which is uniformly
with the requirement for fire produced in small, known quantities.
compartmentation.  No discrete point of release.
 No other practical means of reducing
On its own it may prove inadequate but, levels.
supported by respiratory protection
equipment (RPE), it may be acceptable for To summarise dilution ventilation is used
some substances. for lower risk substances of low toxicity,
and low density (not dusts), where the rate
Dilution ventilation may be achieved by of production is uniformly evolved and
driving air into a work area, causing air flow constant. It works by diluting the
around the work area, dilution of contaminant to an acceptable level by
contaminants in the work area, and then introducing a flow of clean air into a work
out of the work area, through general area, by inlet or extraction fans in walls or
leakage, or through ventilation ducts, to the roofs, or by natural convection through
open air. open windows and doors
Page 189 of 301

Dilution Ventilation should only be used Indication of a dust problem in the
when: workplace
 Visible signs
 There is a very low toxicity substance  Complaints by employees
 There is a steady rate of release of the  Health surveillance
contaminant  Equipment breakdown problems
 There is a small quantity of the  Blocked filters
contaminant  Monitoring
 It is not practicable to extract  To assess levels of dust:-
contaminant close to its o Visual examination
 The rate of evolution is known o Use of a dust lamp
 Where there is a non-specific point of o Personal sampling
release o Area sampling
 Type of contaminant (not dust)
 Where heat loss or gain is not likely to
cause a problem.
Specific agents
Next we consider a number of toxic
chemicals, and the hazards that they pose,
together with the circumstances in which
these hazards arise.
Effects of dusts
Silica Dust health effects – silicosis and
Dusts acute effects lung cancer
 Sneezing Silica is, like asbestos, another naturally
 Coughing occurring element present in many rocks
 Wheezing - bronchitis and stones, particularly sandstone, quartz
and slate. It is a highly toxic irritant when
 Crying
inhaled as a dust and can cause numerous
chest and respiratory tract diseases.
Dusts chronic effects
 Fibrosis - difficulty breathing e.g.
Occupations at risk include quarry workers,
asbestosis, silicosis
masons, stone-cutting machine workers
 Sensitisation e.g. asthma, bronchitis
and stone dressers.
 Cancer
 Damage to liver and kidneys It is a common industrial disease. In the UK
 Respiratory conditions such as asthma in 1897 the pneumatic hammer drill was
 Various cancers known as a “widow-maker”. The
 Death introduction of sandblasting in 1904 led to
countless cases of silicosis. Sandblasters
were said to survive an average of 10
years.
Page 190 of 301

 Chronic obstructive pulmonary Asbestos
disease (COPD). COPD is a group of According to the ILO asbestos is the most
lung diseases, including bronchitis and important single factor world-wide causing
emphysema, resulting in severe death and disability at work, with 100,000
breathlessness, prolonged coughing fatalities a year. There is no forecast of
and chronic disability. what rate figures will decline. There is no
forecast of what rate figures will decline.
Activities that produce silica dust: The use of asbestos in new construction
 Cannot always be seen; projects has been banned for health
 Can cause a common reportable reasons in many developed countries or
industrial disease - silicosis and regions, including the European Union,
secondary health problems; Australia, Hong Kong, Japan, and New
 May affect others standing near to the Zealand. A notable exception is the United
cutting process; States, where asbestos continues to be
used in construction such as cement
So either damp down or extract the dust, or asbestos pipes.
always wear respiratory protective
equipment, or better still - 'avoid the cut'. Use and removal of asbestos-containing
materials present particular health
problems as they often involve dismantling
Wood Dust or breaking large quantities of friable
Dusts hazardous to health in woodworking materials.
include hardwood and softwood dust;
dusts from hardboard, plywood, Medium The work should be performed by
Density Fibreboard (MDF), timber competent, and usually Government
laminates etc. licensed, contractors and in accordance
with the relevant provisions of the ILO code
Health Effects of practice on Safety in the use of
 Eye and respiratory irritation asbestos, in particular the provisions of
 Occupational asthma Chapter 18 on construction, demolition and
 Dermatitis alteration work.
 Nasal cancer – hardwoods only
In 1995, a study in the UK in 1995, it
became clear that 25% of people dying
Controls include;
from asbestos related illnesses had
 Selecting an alternative material, one
previously worked in the construction
with no formaldehyde added
industry. It could take until 2050 before
 Selecting a low-emission, (formaldehyde) asbestos is fully controlled.
MDF
 Cleaning by using a HEPA, (High It is worth noting that smokers at greater
Efficiency Particulate Arresting) filter risk of harm due to the “compounding”
vacuum effect of the harm caused to the respiratory
 LEV dust extraction systems system due to smoking and that due to
 Respirators with a suitable filter asbestos.
 Health surveillance - regular skin& lung
function checks
Page 191 of 301

Additionally, smokers cause damage to So it is an example of a chronic hazard and
their natural body defences by smoking, can take 5-50 years to have cause the
putting them more at risk than a non- following conditions;
smoker when doing the same work with the
same exposure.  Asbestosis
 Lung cancer
There are 3 main types:  Mesothelioma
 Blue (crocidolite)
 Brown (amosite) Asbestosis is formation of scar tissue
 White (chrystotile) (fibrosis) in the walls of the alveoli (air sacs)
in the lungs, causing thickening, so causing
All are dangerous but of the three main progressive breathlessness.
types blue and brown are the most
dangerous, however, white is also Lung cancer occurs particularly amongst
considered dangerous. smokers exposed to asbestos. Fibres
protecting the lungs are flattened after
Asbestos fibres are very weak, so to give inhaling cigarette smoke, so there is less
them strength it is normal to combine them protection against asbestos fibres.
with other more durable materials. This
combination is referred to as ‘asbestos Mesothelioma is a rare and virulent form of
containing materials’ or ACMs. cancer that affects the lining of the lungs,
the lining around the heart and the lining of
According to OHSA in the United States the abdomen.
asbestos-containing material is any
material with more than 1 percent Managing the risk from working with or
asbestos. near asbestos containing materials
Many of the typical uses of asbestos would Asbestos Surveys

fall into this category. Asbestos-containing Identification of the presence of asbestos is
materials might include insulation, fire- the first action. Asbestos is commonly
retardant applications, floor tiles and found as boiler and pipe lagging, insulation
roofing products. panels around pillars and ducting for fire
protection and heat insulation, ceiling tiles
Locations and asbestos cement products, including
Asbestos is a good insulator so it is asbestos cement sheets. Initial
commonly found in pipe lagging, ceiling investigations will involve the examination
tiles, asbestos cement roof and wall of building plans, the determination of the
sheets, wall insulation and gaskets and age of the building and a thorough
many many other places too examination of the building.
Effects Advice is available from a number of

When disturbed asbestos produces a fine reputable specialist consultants. If the
fibrous dust of respirable dust size which specialist is in any doubt, a sample of the
can become lodged in the lungs. suspect material will be sent to a specialist
laboratory for analysis. It is important for a
The fibres are very sharp and hard causing specialist to take the sample because the
damage to the lining of the lungs over a operation is likely to expose loose fibres.
period of many years.
Page 192 of 301

When asbestos has been identified, a  The same task carried out on different
record, possibly electronic, of its location types of ACM’s can result in different
must be made so that it is available should ACM’s have been identified on your own
any future maintenance be necessary. site or someone else’s site;
 This information is communicated to
Any survey must be carried out by a people in control and workers doing the
competent person. In the UK this is job;
someone who has a minimum a British  The appropriate actions and precautions
Occupational Hygiene Society P402 are taken;
certificate.  Appropriate equipment is provided;
 Adequate training is given;
There are three levels of survey.  There is adequate supervision.
Type 1 Presumptive
Type 2 Sampling Asbestos risk assessment
Type 3 Invasive An asbestos risk assessment is an
evaluation as to whether the location or the
A reputable laboratory should be used to condition could lead to the asbestos being
carry out the analysis of the asbestos disturbed. If it is in good condition,
samples undamaged and not likely to be disturbed,
then it is usually safer to leave it in place
and manage it.
First measure: AVOID Exposure
All work with asbestos is dangerous. Most However, if it is in a poor condition, it may
asbestos removal work must be need to be repaired, sealed, enclosed or
undertaken by a competent contractor but removed.
any decision on whether particular work is
significant high risk is based on the risk If there is doubt, then specialist advice
assessment. Some tasks on asbestos should be sought.
cement, coatings paints, roofing felt, floor
tile, (held in a matrix) are classed as low Removal must only be done by a
risk work. competent contractor. A detailed plan of
work is essential before work begins. The
Risk of exposure and associated risk plan should give details of any equipment
The level of exposure and associated risk to be used for the protection and
will depend upon; decontamination of employees and others.
 The task being carried out. Tasks which
can cause significant disturbance to the This process will also require an
ACM’s will result in more fibres being assessment to be made to ensure that
released into the air. people within the building and neighbours
 Exposure is influenced by the type of are properly protected.
material in which the fibres are found.
 The type of ACM’s, for example sprayed
coating, lagging, AIB, asbestos cement
etc.
Page 193 of 301

Asbestos risk assessment and Step 4: Record your finding
management plan Write the risk assessment and plan of work
down. Then communicate the plan to
Step 1: Identify any asbestos everyone involved in the work
Is asbestos used as a material in the
design? In some countries asbestos has Step 5: Monitor and review
been prohibited, so any building Review routinely by debriefing of the task
constructed since the prohibition can be upon completion to learn lessons for future
assumed to be asbestos free. work. Review earlier if there is any;
 Ask if the area been checked for ACM’s  Change of work
 Is there an Asbestos Register?  Alteration of task
 Ask for survey reports and consider if  Accidental release
they are appropriate
 Check the area
Cement (Corrosive and Irritant)
Step 2: Decide if there is a problem
 Type and quantity of ACM’s present Ill health effects:
 The condition of the ACM’s  Irritation of eyes, nose and throat
 What tasks will directly or indirectly  Irritant Dermatitis
disturb the ACM’s  Respiratory problems
 How the work will be carried out  Cement burns
 Level of exposure and length of job  Ulcers
 Any other risks involved with the task  WRULDs
 Consider who may be affected by the  Use of cement
work
Controls:
Step 3: Evaluate the risk and decide  Use pre-mixed cement
what action to take  Use a cement mixer
Using the information gathered in Steps 1  Mix in well ventilated areas
and 2, decide who will carry out the work  Wetting before mixing
(own staff or specialised contractor)  PPE – alkali resistant gloves, filter
 If you are undertaking the work develop mask, goggles, boots
a safe system of work (Plan of Work).  Good welfare provision
 Consult with the workforce.  IITS
Plan of work Wet cement – Cement burns are

The plan of work should include: preventable if you are wearing the
 The nature and duration of work correct PPE, for example:
 The address and location of work  Knee length rubber boots
 When the work will be carried out  Suitable gloves
 The work procedures and precautions to  Suitable outer clothing
be taken to reduce exposure
 The equipment required including PPE If cement gets on your skin, wash it off
 Decontamination process at once.
 Emergency procedures
 If replacement non-ACM’s required
 Level of supervision required
Page 194 of 301

Carbon monoxide (CO)
Carbon monoxide is a colourless, Carbon monoxide poisoning - Signs
odourless, tasteless gas. It is found in and symptoms
combustion gases such as coal gas, car  Uncooperative
exhaust, producer gas, blast-furnace gas  Lethargic behaviour
and water gas.  Cherry pink coloured skin
CO is toxic. It gathers in the blood impairing  Obstructive/confused
the transportation of oxygen.  Impaired judgement
 Headache
Concentrations above 5% cause  Difficulty breathing, drowsiness
immediate loss of consciousness, but far
 Unconsciousness, death
more people are killed by exposure to
much lower concentrations over a period,
typically when a gas-fired heater is used in
a poorly ventilated room.
Workplace exposure limits (WEL) concentrations of a hazardous substances
A workplace or occupational exposure limit in the air that people breathe averaged
(OEL) is a level of exposure which is over a specified period of time and referred
specified by a competent authority, or to as a time weighted average.
some other authoritative organisation such
as a professional body, as an indicator of The term ‘8-hour reference period relates
the level to which workers can be exposed to the procedure whereby the occupational
without reasonable foreseeable risk of exposures in any 24 hour period are
serious injury. treated as equivalent to a single uniform
exposure for 8 hours, (the 8-hour time-
There is no international standard for the weighted average, (TWA), exposure, (ref
limits. It is used as a general term and EH40 2005)
covers the various expressions employed
in national lists, such as:
a) Maximum allowable concentration The

concentration in air of a gas, vapour or
substance which according to the present
state of knowledge in general remains
without harmful effects to workers and
their offspring albeit after repeated
exposure and during the period of time up
to an entire working life comprising 8
hours per day and 40 hours per week.
b) Threshold Limit Value (TLV) is a level of

a chemical substance which it is believed a
worker can be exposed to day after day for
a working lifetime without adverse health
effects. They are published by The
American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) and are used
in many countries.
c) Workplace exposure limit is the

Page 195 of 301
Two time periods are used which as long
term exposure limit (LTEL) based on 8
hours intended to control effects by
restricting the total intake on a daily basis
and short term exposure limit (STEL)
usually 15 minutes to control effects that
may be seen after a brief exposure (UK
standard published in EH40)
d) Indicative limit values (ILV) these are

more exactly indicative occupational
exposure limit values (IOELVs) and are
human exposure limits to hazardous
substances specified by the Council of the
European Union based on expert research
and advice and attempt to standardise then
throughout the Union. They are not binding
on member states but must be taken into
consideration in setting national
occupational exposure limits. Some
member states have pre-existing national
limits lower than the IOELV and are not
required to revise these upwards. In
practice, most member states adopt the
IOELV but there are some variances
upwards and downwards.
Some substances have a ceiling value that

should not be exceeded at any time to
ensure protection against both acute
effects, such as throat irritation, and
chronic, long-term effects. For others, peak
concentrations are determined. In these
cases, one substance has two limit values
which are the long term exposure limit
(LTEL) and the short term exposure limit
(STEL).
The LTEL is the exposure over a "normal"

8-hours and LTEL may be exceeded
proportionately if exposure is less than 8
hours and provided that the STEL is never
exceeded.
The STELs are intended to protect workers

during brief exposure to dangerous
substances.
Page 196 of 301

These exposure limits are often for 15 Chemical and biological hierarchy of
minutes and referred to as Short-Term control measures – ERIC PD
Exposure Limits - 15 minutes (STEL -
15m). Elimination
The first priority for control of any
Exposure limits should not be considered a significant risk to health is to try to eliminate
hard and fast line between safe and completely the agent responsible in the first
unsafe. The principles require the degree place. National laws normally require the
to which exposure is reduced below the employer to avoid exposing employees to
exposure limit is proportional to the health the risk first, before any other control
risk. measures are considered.
Limitations of exposure limits For each of the agents we have examined,

The exposure limit framework is far from a the option usually exists to eliminate the
perfect system, there are a number of hazard at source by replacement with
problems which should be borne in mind materials which do the same job, but
 Toxicology in an imprecise science and present no risk to health.
the data used could be incorrect
 The actual doses received by workers Improvements in technology often present
may vary due to factors such as work rate the opportunity to replace older hazardous
which will cause more air to be inhaled. processes or activities with those involving
This is not allowed for in the exposure no risk to health – for example, the use of
limit framework new, water-based materials such as paints
 Chemicals can enter the body by routes or adhesives can eliminate completely the
other than inhalation, e.g. skin risk to health of exposure to solvents.
absorption, the airborne concentration
may not be fully indicative of the dose Elimination requires a careful examination
received of the work activity and process, and
 Toxicological data on which limits are demands a good understanding of the
based are not necessarily infallible properties and behaviour of alternative
 Errors in estimating exposures may be substances and materials.
significant
 Many substances do not have a limit set, It may also be the most costly method of
which leaves organisations which may risk control, since it may involve a radical
have little technical expertise with the change in the way that the work is carried
difficult task of setting an in-house limit. out. However, the elimination of hazards is
the overriding goal of the health and safety
These exposure limits assume that the programme and the opportunities available
worker is a healthy, adult male. So they are should be re-examined every time an
no use for protection of new or expectant assessment is reviewed.
mother and her child, young persons or
someone with a pre-existing ill health Reduced Time Exposure
condition such as asthma. The ill-health effects arising from
hazardous substances and agents in the
workplace are often related to the length of
time of exposure as well as the severity
(the concentration) of the contaminant.
Page 197 of 301

As a consequence, reduction of exposure In some circumstances, an analysis of the
can be used as a means of minimising process itself may identify specific activities
possible ill-health effects. which produce harmful substances or
agents.
As a general principle, when a hazard
exists from a substance or a physical In these cases changing the work method
agent, the cumulative dose should be may minimise or suppress the generation
reduced to as low a level as possible by of the agents of concern – for example:
organising the work pattern to provide  Brush painting rather than spraying will
periods of nil exposure. considerably reduce the level of
airborne contaminant.
There are two methods of achieving this,  Vacuuming, rather than sweeping up
based on establishing safe exposure time (which pushes dust into the air), reduces
limits: dust levels.
 Providing for regular breaks away from  Damping of a substance during mixing
contact with the hazardous substance. or when clearing up also reduces dust
 Job rotation – where the exposure of any levels.
particular individual is reduced by sharing
the dose with other workers, such as In general, therefore, the aim is to identify
having a number of workers performing a the particular element of the process or
task in rotation, with strict control over work activity which is responsible for the
length of time of exposure in order to harmful agent and try to replace this
ensure that dose limits are not exceeded. element with one with less potential for
harm. The opportunities for this may,
Substitution though, be constrained by practicability
Although elimination of risk is the ideal, it is from a production point of view.
often not practicable. The next option then
becomes reducing the risk by replacing the Isolation and Segregation
hazard with a different one with less The control measures considered
potential for harm – for example: previously are all based on either
 Using the same material, but in a different preventing the risk or reducing it in some
physical form, such as using a water- way to an insignificant level. If this
based paint instead of one containing a approach is not possible then we have to
volatile organic solvent. consider physical controls which enclose
 Using a similar, but different substance the hazard and segregate people from the
altogether, such as one with a lower process involving it.
volatility and/or WEL. Substituting a toxic
substance with a less hazardous irritant Total enclosure or containment of the
substance. hazard is the best form of such control
since no-one can then be exposed to it –
Since the risk is not completely eliminated for example, total enclosure of a process
but only reduced, it is essential to ensure which generates dust or fumes will prevent
that the potentially harmful properties of the escape of airborne contaminants which
any proposed replacement are fully taken could be inhaled by operators in the
into account to ensure substitution does vicinity.
not introduce different, but equally
unacceptable risks.
Page 198 of 301

When an area has been totally isolated, it Capture and extraction may be through
may still be necessary to access engineered natural air flows, such as
equipment or material within that area and pressurised systems, or by the use of fans
accordingly the use of robotically- or pumps to suck the air away. Some
controlled, remote handling systems may systems are very noisy and this in itself
be incorporated, allowing access without may represent a hazard.
disturbing the integrity of the enclosure.
The contaminant must be carried away by
Where isolation of the source is difficult, it secure ducting to an exhaust outlet.
may be more practical to enclose the
workers to ensure that they remain There will usually be some form of filter
segregated from the hazard. fitted between the capture hood and the
outlet to remove as much of the
There will always be situations where it is contaminant as possible before venting.
not possible to totally enclose the process
or the workers at all times – for example, The positioning of the outlet itself is
when cleaning or maintenance work has to important. The exhausted air must exit the
be carried out, or access is necessary to system to a safe place. This will usually be
introduce raw materials or remove the into the atmosphere, and care must be
product. taken to ensure that this does not create an
atmospheric pollution problem – factors
Special measures will then be necessary to such as chimney height and prevailing
prevent any escape of the substance wind direction and speed must be
during periods when the integrity of the considered to ensure adequate dispersal.
enclosure will be broken – for example, The efficiency of the exhaust outlet must
through the use of ventilation systems to not be impaired by variations in wind
carry away any airborne contaminants. direction or by weather cowls (these should
be sited well away from the end of the
Engineering Control Measures – duct). Exhausted air must also be directed
Local Exhaust Ventilation (LEV) – Uses away from any air inlets, otherwise a cyclic
and limitations pollution system is produced.
Local exhaust ventilation (LEV) is the Engineering Control Measures –

standard control measure for dealing with Dilution Ventilation – Uses and Limitations
dusts, vapours and fumes which are
generated from a point source. The harmful Dilution ventilation operates by simply
contaminant is extracted at the point of diluting the contaminant concentration in
generation using engineered systems to the general atmosphere to an acceptable
ensure that the direction of the ventilation level.
flow is away from the breathing zone of any
operators. This is achieved by efficiently changing the
air in the workplace over a given period of
To be effective, the LEV must be properly time – for example, a number of complete
designed and located close to the source changes every hour.
of contamination so that the system can
extract all, or at least sufficient of the
contaminant to prevent exposure above
the WEL.
Page 199 of 301

The workplace air will be extracted by the Cleaning should be by a dustless method,
use of fans set in the walls or roof, with e.g. vacuum cleaning. Dry material should
fresh air being pumped in. be thoroughly wetted before being swept
up or brushed away.
The system is intended to remove gaseous
contaminants (sometimes fumes) and Good hygiene practices, provision of
keep the overall concentration of any adequate welfare facilities and appropriate
contaminant to below the OEL and/or the Information. Instruction, Training and
concentration of a flammable substance to Supervision (IITS).
below its lower explosive limit.
Personal protective equipment
Where both a harmful and flammable PPE is all equipment (including clothing for
substance is encountered, such as the protection against the weather) which
propanone (acetone), then control of the is intended to be worn or held by a person
first objective will invariably control the at work and which protects them against
second. one or more risks to their health or safety
Dilution ventilation has fairly limited use as Discipline

an effective control strategy in This concerns the provision of IITS:
occupational hygiene. Information in the form of warning labels,
safety signs and safety data sheets.
It can, however, be used with reasonable
success provided the contaminants Instruction from the supervisor on the
conform, where applicable, to the findings of a health risk assessment.
following:
 The WEL of the harmful substance is Training to the workers to understand the
high. nature of the hazard e.g. asbestosis, and
 The vapour pressure of a liquid is low – the need for control measures.
i.e. it has a low evaporation rate.
 The rate of formation of the gaseous Encouraging and enforcing good personal
product is slow. hygiene and use of protective equipment
 Operators are not in close contact with and processes.
the contamination generation point.
 Any hazardous substance is carried Supervision leading by example and
swiftly away from the operator. enforcing company rules.
Procedural controls Involving the workers in the risk

Potential sources of airborne dust arise assessment process and the design of the
from settled dust, waste and off-cut safe system of work, (consultation).
insulation materials. These can be
controlled by good housekeeping. There Clearly disciplinary procedures which are
should be frequent clearing up of waste invoked when a worker repeatedly fails to
and offcuts, and immediate cleaning comply.
should take place after dusty work has
been completed to reduce dust or fibre
exposure.
Page 200 of 301

Extra controls for specific agents  Designating those areas and
There is sometimes a need for additional installations which may be contaminated
controls for substances that can cause by carcinogens or mutagens and using
cancer, asthma or genetic damage that can suitable and sufficient warning signs
be passed from one generation to another.
 Storing, handling and disposing of
Prevention of exposure carcinogens or mutagens safely,
An employer’s first objective must be to including using closed and clearly
prevent exposure to carcinogens or labelled containers.
mutagens.
Manufacturing substances
Carcinogenic or mutagenic substances Additionally, when synthesising or
should not be used, or processes carried creating/mixing chemicals, employers
on, if the employer can use a suitable non- should choose methods which:
hazardous or less hazardous substitute.  Avoid, if possible, the use of
carcinogenic or mutagenic substances
However, employers should take into at the start, or as part of any process or
account the toxic and other properties of activity;
possible chemical substitutes when  Avoid, if possible, the formation of by-
considering changes. products, intermediates, wastes or
residual contaminants consisting of, or
Adequate control of exposure containing, carcinogenic or mutagenic
If it is not reasonably practicable to prevent substances.
exposure to a carcinogen or mutagen, the
employer must put into place all best Where exposure cannot be prevented
practicable measures and controls. Also, where it is not possible to eliminate
exposure to a biological agent, for example
Ideally, this will mean totally enclosing the in a sewer or where blood samples are
process and handling systems, unless this taken, the employer must protect the
is not reasonably practicable. workers by:
In reality this means that whether or not it (a) displaying suitable and sufficient
is reasonably practicable to totally enclose warning signs, including the biohazard
the process and handling systems to sign
prevent exposure to a carcinogen or (b) specifying appropriate decontamination
mutagen, the employer shall apply the and disinfection procedures
following measures in addition to those (c) instituting means for the safe collection,
required by the general hierarchy: storage and disposal of contaminated
waste, including the use of secure and
 The prohibition of eating, drinking and identifiable containers, after suitable
smoking in areas that may be treatment where appropriate
contaminated by carcinogens or (d) testing, where it is necessary and
mutagens technically possible, for the presence,
 Cleaning floors, walls and other outside the primary physical
surfaces at regular intervals and confinement, of biological agents used
whenever necessary at work
Page 201 of 301

(e) specifying procedures for working with,
and transporting at the workplace, a
biological agent or material that may
contain such an agent
(f) where appropriate, making available
effective vaccines for those employees
who are not already immune to the
biological agent to which they are
exposed or are liable to be exposed
(g) instituting hygiene measures
compatible with the aim of preventing or
reducing the accidental transfer or
release of a biological agent from the
workplace, including:
(h) the provision of appropriate and
adequate washing and toilet facilities
i. where appropriate, the prohibition of
eating, drinking, smoking and the
application of cosmetics in working
areas where there is a risk of
contamination by biological agents
ii. where there are human patients or
animals which are, or are suspected
of being, infected with a biological
agent, the employer shall select the
most suitable control and
containment measures with a view
to controlling adequately the risk of
infection.
Page 202 of 301

Element 8: General workplace issues
Health, welfare and work environment
Drinking water
At or within reasonable access of every workplace an adequate supply of wholesome drinking
water shall be provided. ILO C155 specifically requires that drinking water;
 Shall be readily accessible and in a suitable location
 Shall be clearly marked
 Shall be a suitable supply of cups or a drinks fountain
 Conspicuously marked with a safety condition sign
Washing Facilities
Suitable and sufficient washing facilities (see previous table) shall be adjacent to the toilets
with sinks large enough to wash hands, forearms and face shall be provided at readily
accessible places.
Hot and cold running water, soap and towels or a dryer shall be provided and should ideally
be connected to the mains sewer and regularly maintained.
Showers may be necessary for very dirty or hazardous work e.g. asbestos removal, mining.
There are now portable hand washing facilities that can be fitted to the inside of vehicles,
making it easy to ensure adequate facilities are available for any and all workers
Sanitary conveniences (Toilets)

Sanitary conveniences and washing facilities shall be provided but the number and types
shall be suitable and sufficient for the size of the workforce and an example is illustrated
below.
Number of Number of water Number of wash
People at work closets stations
1 to 5 1 1
6 to 25 2 2
26 to 50 3 3
51 to 75 4 4
76 to 100 5 5
An additional water closet, and one additional washing station, should be provided every 25
people above 100 (or fraction of 25).
In the case of sanitary accommodation used only by men a different table can be followed if
desired which uses urinals in the calculation. For example for up to 15 men one urinal and
one water closet is required and for between 91 and 100 male Employees 4 urinals and 4
water closets are required as a minimum.
Page 203 of 301

Facilities for changing clothing Shared Welfare Facilities
Suitable and sufficient facilities shall be Shared welfare facilities between different
provided to change clothing, where special contractors in a workplace such as a
clothing must be worn at work or for other construction site or office block is
health reasons. acceptable, so long as the division of
responsibilities and conditions of use
Clothing storage agreed by all parties safe systems and
Changing facilities will include suitable and procedures apply
sufficient accommodation for clothing shall
be provided for clothing not worn during
working hours, and for special work Workstations and seating
clothing which is not taken home. Every workstation shall be so arranged that
There shall be separate storage for work it is suitable for the person at work and for
and other clothing where there is a risk of any work likely to be done there. (Good
contamination. ergonomics).
The risk assessment may sometimes Wherever reasonably practicable the task
include drying rooms, where necessary, for shall be carried out in the seated position
example where workers might become wet and suitable workstations should be
during their work due to weather or work provided for people at work. If work is done
related reasons. seated the suitable chairs must be
provided. Seating should give adequate
Rest and Eating Facilities support to the lower back and footrests
In appropriate cases, depending on the provided to workers whose feet cannot
number of workers, the duration of the work reach the floor.
and its location, adequate facilities for
obtaining or preparing food and drink at or Working in a seated position for a long
near a worksite should be provided, if they period can cause:-
are not otherwise available.  Musculoskeletal problems
 High blood pressure
Rest and eating facilities shall be;  Circulation problems e.g. deep vein
 Readily accessible thrombosis (dvt)
 Allow for the eating food away from
contamination  A suitable chair for sedentary work
 Protecting non-smokers from tobacco should have:-
smoke  Good lumbar support
 Seat back and seat height capable of
Portable Welfare Facilities being adjusted
It is possible to fit out large vehicles such  Stable base – five legs with castors
as trucks and crew buses with portable  Ability to swivel, if the task involves any
welfare facilities. twisting
 Foot rests may need to be provided
It is also possible to have portable welfare  Arm rests are optional
facilities delivered to transient workplaces
 The front of the chair should be curved to
such as construction sites
prevent pressure behind the knees which
could cause circulation problems.
Page 204 of 301

Ventilation Lighting should be sufficient to enable
Every enclosed workplace shall be people to work and move about safely and
ventilated by a sufficient quantity of fresh or if necessary local lighting provided at
purified air. Any plant used shall include a individual work stations.
visible or audible warning of any failure. Why is it important?
Fresh, clean or purified air should be drawn Inadequate lighting can have both
from a suitable location outside the health and safety effects;
workplace that is uncontaminated by
discharges from exhausts, chimneys etc. Health effects
Ventilation should also remove and dilute  Eye strain
warm, humid air and give a sense of  Headaches
freshness without causing draught.  Effects from adopting a poor posture
(WRULDs)
Temperature and heating of indoor  Stress
workplaces
During working hours, the temperature in Safety effects
all enclosed workplaces shall be  Increased likelihood of trips, slips and
reasonable. falls
 Increased likelihood of human error
In the UK the HSE ACOP suggests a  Increased time to evacuate work area
minimum but no maximum temperature. It during emergency
may be necessary to provide such things
as air movement, air conditioning, Work that requires the provision of
evaporative cooling and thermal insulation suitable and sufficient lighting
to maintain suitable working conditions. includes:
 General Workplaces
A sufficient number of thermometers shall
 Construction sites
be provided for workers to monitor the
workplace temperature.  Work Equipment
 DSE (Display Screen Equipment)
Lighting – ILO lighting requirements  Manual Handling Operations
Where natural lighting is not adequate to  Fire evacuation
ensure safe working conditions, adequate  Confined Spaces Work
and suitable lighting, including portable
lighting where appropriate, should be There are two main forms of lighting in
provided at every workplace and any other the workplace:
place where a worker may have to pass.  General lighting to allow safe access and
egress
Artificial lighting should, as far as  Localised, task lighting
practicable, not produce glare or disturbing
shadows.
Where necessary to prevent danger, lamps

should be protected by suitable guards
against accidental breakage. There are
often national specific illumination levels
specified such as the Dubai Municipality
Code of Practice.
Page 205 of 301

Factors to consider in the provision ILO Requirements
of adequate lighting are:- Whenever heat stress, cold or wet
 Tasks being undertaken, e.g. DSE conditions are such that they can lead to
 The layout and size of the work area impairment of health or extreme
 The equipment being used discomfort, preventive measures should be
 Availability of natural lighting taken, such as:
 The shift patterns
 Suitability of artificial lighting (a) proper design of the workload and
 Glare from computer screens workstation, with special regard to
workers in cabins, and command or
 Areas in shadow
driving operations;
 Need for localised lighting
(b) training, to enable detection of early
 Maintenance and replacement of faulty signs of disorders;
lighting (c) supply of protective equipment;
 Requirement and provision of emergency (d) routine medical surveillance.
lighting
When working in hot conditions, preventive
measures to avoid heat stress should
The effects of exposure to extremes of include rest in cool areas and an adequate
temperature; control measures. supply of drinking water.
Thermal Environment This means that generally workplaces
The effects of excessive cold or heat can should have a temperature inside all
have harmful effects on employees’ health buildings which is reasonable SFARP,
and can cause accidents due to fatigue or where the process allows.
stress. Risk assessments should be
carried out considering the personal For example, the UK HSE Guidance
factors such as the amount of activity and suggests a minimum 160 C is provided and
the type of clothing provided and also the maintained for sedentary work, 130 C
task and environmental factors such as where there is physical work of a strenuous
temperature, radiant heat, specific sources nature. However, best practice suggests a
of cold or heat, if the work is outside and range of 22-25 0 C for human comfort.
the weather conditions.
There is no recommended maximum, but it
Why is it important? must still be reasonable so far as the
The human body must be maintained process allows.
within a limited range of environmental
conditions (temperature, humidity, For detailed best practice guidance on high
ventilation, lighting and noise etc.) temperature workplaces it is
otherwise there are health and safety recommended to consult the Threshold
implications. Limit Values for Heat Stress are published
by the American Conference of
A comfortable thermal environment Governmental Industrial Hygienists
depends upon a complex interaction of: (ACGIH). These values are based on
 Temperature preventing fit, acclimatised workers' core
 Humidity temperatures from rising above 38oC.
 Air flow (ventilation)
Page 206 of 301

High Temperatures Control measures for cold temperatures
 Pre-employment screening
Effects of high temperatures  Use of PPE (thermal clothing)
 Dehydration  Reduced time exposure
 Heat Exhaustion  Regular breaks
 Heat Cramps  Ready access to hot drinks
 Radiant Heat Burns  Monitoring of fellow workers for early
 Heat Stroke signs of a cold problem
 Heat Cataracts  Health surveillance
 Information, instruction, training and
Control measures for high supervision (IITS)
temperatures  Fail safe locking mechanism/alarm
 Medical pre-selection inside cold stores to allow easy escape
 Acclimatisation  Measures to protect from escape of
 Drinking large amounts of fluids refrigerant gas
 Regular work breaks in the shade
 Improved ventilation either natural or
artificial
 Working at night, where possible when
working outside such as in construction.
 Otherwise working in the shade during
the hottest part of the day
 Use of suitable clothing
 Information, instruction, training and
supervision (IITS)
 Use of Shielding and Refuges
 Control of humidity in places such as
steelworks by the use of de-humidifiers
 Mechanical aids to avoid physical
exertion form excessive manual
handling
Cold Temperatures
Effects of cold temperatures

 Rapid onset of fatigue
 Shivering
 Loss of hand dexterity
 Cold burns
 Frostbite
 Hypothermia
Page 207 of 301

Working at height AVOID the risk by not working at height
In construction, work at height is the PREVENT falls SFARP, assess the risks
biggest cause of fatality. MITIGATE the consequences by
adequate control measures including use
What is work at height? of work equipment
Work at height is work from a position at,
above or below ground level, from which it NOTE:
is possible to fall any distance likely to Where we cannot avoid working at height,
cause injury. we should give precedence to collective
protection over personal protective
This includes roof work, and work from measures.
access equipment such as ladders, mobile
elevating work platforms (MEWPs) and Where work at height cannot be avoided
scaffolds (independent tied and mobile then controls should include:-
tower).  The work is properly planned and
organised
Hazards of working at height  All those involved are competent
 Vertical distance  All work at height activity is risk
assessed
 Fragile roofs  Suitable work equipment is selected
 All equipment is properly inspected and
 Deterioration of materials tested
 Risks from fragile surfaces are properly
 Unprotected edges/falling materials controlled
 Ensuring that all safety precautions are
 Unstable/poorly maintained access in place
equipment  Having rescue plans in place
 Weather The above controls for working at height

can be further broken down into a hierarchy
 Falling materials for general types of access equipment;
Work at height General Requirements Avoid
Where work cannot safely be done on or Collective Personal

from the ground or from part of a building protection protection
or other permanent structure, a safe and
suitable scaffold should be provided and Safe place Harneses
maintained or other equally safe and
suitable provision should be made.
MEWP’s Nets
Where there is a possibility of people being
required to work at height, the following
process should be considered: In considering our hierarchy, there will be
some controls which protect everyone,
e.g. a net, and some which only protect
the individual, e.g. a harness
Page 208 of 301

Hierarchy for selecting equipment for Preference is also given to passive
working safely at height: protection as opposed to active protection
which relies on the worker actually using
ILO General Requirements for working the protection – such as work restraint or
at height fall arrest harness and line.
Where work cannot safely be done on or
from the ground or from part of a building Some examples of how to avoid
or other permanent structure, a safe and working at height;
suitable scaffold should be provided and
maintained or other equally safe and  Changing the work process so that the
suitable provision should be made. work is carried out at ground level e.g.
using extension poles for use by window
Hierarchy of controls for Safe Work at cleaners
Height
 Adjustable hinged lighting columns
 AVOID the risk by not working at height which allows the light to be lowered to
wherever reasonably practicable, if not; ground level in order to change a light
o For example using an bulb or carry out a repair.
extended pole to clean
windows instead of using a
ladder to gain access to
height
 PREVENT falls SFARP, assess the risks

and minimise the likelihood of falling by
provision of guardrails, use of restraint
systems etc.
o Here we are providing a
place of work which will
prevent people from falling
 MITIGATE the consequences by

adequate control measures including use
of suitable work equipment such as soft
landing systems including air bags and A mechanically operated sheeting
netting as well as fall arrest harness and system to avoid working at height
lines.
o In mitigation, we accept that
the person has actually fallen
and we are considering how
we can reduce the
seriousness of any fall, for
example by landing on a soft
airbag
Note: Wherever possible give precedence
to collective protection over personal
protective measures.
Page 209 of 301

Safe place of work – mobile elevated
work platform – MEWP
Using a MEWP provides us with a safe
place to work from and lots of flexibility for
access to difficult to reach places.
Safe place of work – scaffolding

If it is not possible to work from an existing
structure, as above, then the next safest
option is to create a suitable safe
workplace, which usually means using a
scaffolding
There are 2 main categories of scaffolding

primarily used in the workplace and they
are:
Instead of a ladder for access a  Independent Tied Scaffold
window cleaner can use an extending  Tower, mobile scaffold
pole and work from the ground
Safe place of work – existing structure Scaffolding is sometimes made of

Wherever possible, if work must be carried individual components, tubes and fittings
out at height, it is preferable to use an and sometimes from pre-fabricated parts
existing structure, for example working on which slot together, without the need for
a flat roof or part of an existing structure, bolts and tools.
for example a balcony which has suitable
and sufficient edge protection. By using There are advantages and
this approach, we are not putting anyone in disadvantages of both, some of which
danger to create, use, maintain or are summarised below
dismantle ay temporary structure.
Page 210 of 301

Tube and fitting Pre-fabricated
Flexible and can be built to suit and shape Requires less skill and knowledge to erect
or size
Usually able to carry greater loads Lightweight component puts less strain on
the foundation and/or the erectors
Made from steel usually less affected by Often aluminium alloy materials, less
corrosive chemicals affected by corrosion from water
Usually more stable in windy conditions due Takes less time to erect and dismantle
to greater weight
Generally, can be erected to an unlimited
height
Requires quite a high level of skill and Less flexible in design/use, so may not suit
knowledge the job “exactly”
Heavier components add weight to the Usually able to carry less loads
foundation and/or for erectors
Takes more time to erect and dismantle Lightweight, may be more affected by wind
Made from steel, may be more subject t Often aluminium alloy materials, strength
corrosion by water may be more affected by certain corrosive
chemicals
Generally, limited in the height to which they
can be erected
Page 211 of 301

Independent tied scaffold Mobile tower scaffolds can be constructed
from either conventional steel tube and
fittings, or more commonly, from
proprietary prefabricated lightweight alloy
components, which are quick and
straightforward to assemble. Either type
are normally mounted on wheels, with one
working platform, the dimensions of which
are normally equal to or less than the
corresponding base dimension.
This type of scaffold is not completely

independent of the building. The scaffold
structure carries its own weight and all
applied loads – workers, materials and
wind loads – down to the ground, but it
must be tied to the building to prevent any
possible movement of the scaffold towards
or away from the building.
Scaffolding may be erected using steel

tubes or prefabricated sections and a
working platform. Base to height ratios (limitations)
There is a risk of a mobile tower scaffold
falling over since it is not normally tied into
Mobile tower scaffolds the structure. So a height to base ratio is
Mobile tower scaffolds arise from the normally stated by the manufacturer and
need for safe working platforms for fast should not be greater than that shown for
moving work such as painters and each condition:
maintenance workers who do lightweight
work from a structure that can readily be
moved from place to place.
Page 212 of 301

There is however, a general rule of thumb
that is used, which is that the platform
height should not exceed 3 x “b” – where
“b” is taken to be the narrowest base
dimension. This narrowest base dimension
may be extended by the use of outriggers
Also, this may be increased if it is tied to a

structure when in use.
Note: However, at all times the Mobile Elevated Working Platforms

manufacturers recommended maximum (MEWP’s)
build height must never be exceeded.
MEWP Issues
Precautions when using mobile tower  Being struck by other vehicles
scaffolds should include:-  Over-reaching by operator
 Only to be used on firm, stable level  Equipment failure
ground  Sudden, unexpected movement
 To be moved only by pulling and  Overturning due to soft/uneven ground
pushing at the base  Ground loading/drain covers
 Working platforms should be clear of  Adverse weather
men and materials when the scaffold is
being moved
 Wheels should be turned outwards to
provide maximum base dimensions and
wheel brakes must be on and locked
when the scaffold is being used
 Correct base to height ratio
 Diagonal bracing may be needed
 Working platform properly boarded and
evenly supported
 Working platform complete and properly
fitted with guardrails and toe-boards
 Internal access and egress provided –
properly secured access extending
above the landing place (ladder or
Safe working practices for MEWP’s
staircase).
 Competent persons to operate and work
 Is the working platform complete
from the platforms
 Is the working platform in good condition
 MEWP suitable for the job
 Not overloaded
 MEWP meets all testing and inspection
 Account taken of overhead power lines
requirements
 Correct fittings and materials used
 Used on firm and level ground which
 Inspected as other scaffolds. may have to be prepared in advance
 Checks made for the presence of
obstructions such as power cables
 Outriggers extended and locked before
raising the platform
Page 213 of 301

 The work platform is fitted with guard Restraint systems are generally suitable if
rails and toe-boards the person needs to work close to the
 The correct tyre pressure and wheels edge.
immobilised
 Prohibition of moving platform when Restraint systems are generally positioned
elevated or in use more than 2 m from the hazard. This is
 The work area is cordoned off to prevent because common practice is for the worker
access below the work platform and to be connected to the system by a fixed
collisions length 1.5 m lanyard.
 Securing all tools and equipment before
platform is used
 Emergency procedures in case of
 platform failure
 If being used on a public highway in poor
lighting ensuring that it is well lit
 Shrouded controls
 Not be overloaded
 Normally only operated by person in
MEWP, except in an emergency
 Inspected and maintained
 Trained, authorised staff to include All workers needing to use such a system
those responsible for any rescue using must be competent to fit and inspect the
controls from ground level components.
 Edge protection
 Suspended access equipment such as
baskets suspended by a mobile crane or Alternatively, mitigate the effects of the
window cleaning cradle fall by;
 Boatswains chairs  Nets
 Rope access equipment such as  Air bags or bean bags
abseiling equipment
 Ladders – least preferred because they Safety Nets
neither prevent or mitigate the risk of Safety nets are designed to catch falling
falling personnel or falling materials and are
another form of fall mitigation.
Minimising the distance and/or  Safety nets should be erected as close

consequence of a fall as possible to the working level
(maximum 2 m below work area) and, if
Work Restraint Systems on the outside of the structure, should be
A fall restraint system prevents workers higher at the outer edges than at the
from being able to fall. They allow a person inner.
access to conduct their duties but prevent  Size and siting of the net are of critical
them from reaching a point where a fall importance; the further a person may
could occur, such as when working near fall, the larger the net needs to be.
the edge of a flat roof or inside a MEWP.
Page 214 of 301

 The use of safety nets is limited to high  The Harness which is attached to the
level work such as roof work and steel person and able to restrain and support a
erection. If the net is too close to the falling person.
ground it will not be able to safely  The Lanyard which is the rope that
accommodate the deflection arising connects the harness to the anchor point.
from the impact of a falling person.  An Energy Absorber to absorb the
energy released during a fall.
Safety nets should:
 Be erected by competent persons Obviously there must be a suitable and
 Ensure that the net tension will allow the strong enough Anchor Point to which to
safe catching of a falling person attach the lanyard.
 Ensure that the supporting framework
can withstand impact or shock loadings Suspended access equipment
 Ensure that it does not in itself present a Suspended access equipment cover such
hazard to falling persons things as suspended cradles e.g. window
 Inspection requirements are the same cleaning cradles, boatswains chairs etc.
as for scaffolds
A suspended access system includes a
Air Bags and Bean Bags working platform or cradle and a means of
Air bags tend to be used where there is raising and lowering it suspended from a
insufficient height to accommodate a roof rig or crane.
safety net or insufficient strong point
attachments such as in house building. The Suspended access cradle
strength of the material and the air Systems may be “fixed” whereby they can
pressure within the bag are critical to only be lowered and raised in a fixed
ensuring the safety of a falling person. position, or “travelling” where the roof rig
They should only be installed by competent permits the cradle to traverse the façade of
specialist suppliers. An alternative is bean the structure.
bags
A temporary installation is one, which is
Fall arrest system dismantled after use, whereas a
A fall arrest system allows workers to reach permanent installation remains on the
a hazard and then protects them if they structure whether or not the cradle is
should fall. Safety harnesses (fall arrest suspended. Cradles may be raised and
system) minimise the risk of injury if a fall lowered manually by pulley blocks or by a
occurs There are 3 basic parts to a safety powered winch.
harness which are:-
The main precautions should be:-
 Regular inspection
 Safe working load
 Competent staff
 Safety equipment working
 Platform edge protection
 Guard rails and toe boards fitted
 Adverse weather rules
 Protected electricity supplies
 Communication
 Emergency procedures
Page 215 of 301

Main precautions necessary to prevent Such falling can be from:
falls and falling materials  Falling from the edges of roofs
Protection against falling objects  Falling through gaps or holes in roofs

Here there is a much simpler version of the
hierarchy of controls when working at  Falling through fragile roof materials and
height; roof lights
Prevent falling objects by use of; Environment

 Toe-boards Additionally, there are environmental
 Brick guards issues to consider when working at height,
 Sheeting/debris netting/scaffold fans for example, the weather – high winds and
 Tool lanyards temperature, (hot or cold), obstructed
vision due to fog or rain and overhead
Mitigate the effect of the fall of any tool by dangers such as power lines.
creating a danger (exclusion) zones
immediately below where someone is
working above. Requirements for emergency rescue
Even in the most safety-conscious
Head Protection (Hard Hat) employers' workplaces accidents happen,
 Employers with activities involving work so a rescue plan is an essential component
at height must carry out a risk of working at height.
 Assessment to decide whether there is
any foreseeable, significant risk of head The lack of any form of post-fall rescue
injury. plan i.e. relying on employees improvising
 If there is a foreseeable significant, risk to rescue a colleague not only puts the
each employer must provide, victim at risk, but also puts rescuers at risk.
 Maintain and replace head protection as Unplanned attempts at rescue can result in
necessary injuries or fatalities.
 Use mandatory safety signs and
 Enforce the wearing of the head Anyone hanging in a harness is at risk of
protection. suspension trauma which means the blood
 As always, the use PPE (hard hat) as a drains from the top half of their body,
last resort – Remember hard hats do not depriving the brain of oxygen. The critical
protect against ALL falling objects! thing is to get them out of danger as soon
as possible as any more than 10 minutes
in suspension and the risk of damage
Roof work – Hazards include: increases rapidly.
Working at height with associated risk
of falling of The safest form of rescue is self-rescue by
employees who remain conscious after a
 People fall, where their equipment allows them to
get to safety. Workers must be trained and
 Equipment
practised in self-rescue.
 Materials
 Environment
Page 216 of 301

But even where a fallen worker appears to General precautions when using
be able to help themselves, the plan must common forms of access equipment
require colleagues to act as though they
are incapable, since the situation might Ladders – Hazards when using ladders
change rapidly and time is at a premium. (PEME)
 Person falling from ladder due to over-
Everyone who could be involved in a reaching from ladder, un-
rescue, managers, supervisors and secured/unstable ladder, ladder at
workers should be fully trained in the types wrong angle or ladder not sufficiently
of situation that might call for a rescue, extended above step off point
what their roles are and how to use the  Materials/equipment falling from ladder
equipment provided. Rescue operations  Ladder falling/collapsing due to erected
are carried out under extreme pressure at wrong angle or using a
and the level of training will determine how damaged/worn ladder or vehicle
they react. collision with base of ladder
 Use of a metal ladder beneath an
The plan must set out the hierarchy of overhead electrical cables leading to
rescue options available on site for getting electrocution due to direct contact or
employees to safety from dedicated rescue arcing
equipment, such as controlled descent  Manual handling injuries when carrying
devices or winches, to access using work and erecting the ladders
equipment such as mobile elevating work
platforms (MEWPs). Precautions when using ladders
(SUMRIC)
In essence, the plan must ensure that  Suitable for the task – wooden, long
rescuers understand their responsibilities enough to get minimum projection
clearly and emphasise the importance of above a platform, good condition - rungs
not endangering themselves in the course should be clear of grease, oil or other
of the rescue. slippery substance.
 Correct use (rested on firm, level base,
The plan must give clear direction to angle of 75% or 1:4 ratio, minimum of 5
anyone who witnesses a fall who is on site rungs projection and secured by the use
at the time is responsible for alerting the of stabilisation devices, tied off at top or
rescue team immediately. footed as necessary
 Provide holsters to carry tools
 Only one person at a time on a ladder
Provision of training, instruction and
other measures  Provide equipment to raise and lower
Many workers do not fully understand what materials/tools to maintain 3
working at height is, for example they may  points of contact
feel that it is acceptable to stand on a chair  Barrier off base and display warning
to reach a high shelf! signs
 Routine inspection and maintenance of
It is therefore, essential that all workers ladder register and maintenance
need to be trained and competent to  programme (no painting)
understand what working at height is, the  Only used by competent persons
dangers, company prohibitions and seeking assistance when
precautions required if they are required to moving/erecting ladder
ever work at height.  Conforms to a recognised standard
Page 217 of 301

Step Ladders Precautions (summary) SUMRIC
 Suitable for the task - right height for the
job – no over reaching
 Correct use (Firm and level base, chain
or rope fully extended, no work from the
top step, footed where necessary,
correctly positioned, not overloaded,
four non-slip feet )
 Routine inspection and maintenance
programme (no painting). Is the
stepladder generally sound? No
damage to the stiles (the outside
uprights) or steps or top platform?
Dents, bends, cracks and splits are all
hazards. If there is any structural
damage the worker shouldn’t attempt to
Hazards when using step ladders (PEME) repair it – they need a new stepladder
– exactly the same as for Ladders  Only used by competent persons
 Conforms to a recognised, minimum
Most stepladder accidents are caused by standard
human error, not by ladders failing.
Issues to be addressed if work is to be
But any equipment in poor condition is safely undertaken from a ladder
potentially dangerous, so workers should  Type, duration and extent of the work to
carry out a ‘pre-use check’ before each job. be undertaken
 Suitability of the ladder (height,
condition, material of construction)
The wrong way to use a step ladder is  Safe positioning of the ladder and need
shown on the right above. for danger exclusion zone
 Overhead hazard  Protection from impact by vehicles
 Wrong height for the job - overreaching  Ability of user to maintain 3 points of
 No grip on ladder contact
 Standing on top handrail  Competence of the operative
 Slippers  Weather conditions
 Loose tools  Type of tools to be used – are they one
 Sideways-on or two handed?
 Slippery steps
 Uneven soft ground, no flat board A useful source of information when
 Damaged stiles working at height is the HSE WAIT Tool
(Work at
 Non-slip foot missing
Height Access Equipment Information
Toolkit) which can be found at
http://www.hse.gov.uk/falls/wait/wait-
tool.htm
Page 218 of 301

Trestles
Although not widely used, due to better,
safer and more productive ways of
working, trestles are still sometimes used.
However, due to their apparent instability

and the fact that they do not have any form
of edge protection, they do provide us with
several work at height hazards and
challenges.
As such, we must ensure that all the usual

controls are in place, much as for ladders
and step ladders, (SUMRIC). Leading edge protection
Prevention of falling materials through

safe stacking and storage.
Brick Guards
Trestle
Leading edge protection

To prevent people, materials and tools
falling the following precautions should be
taken:-  Where materials need to be stored
higher than the toe-board, and there is
 Guardrails to prevent people from falling a risk of them falling through the gaps
 Toe boards to prevent items being between the handrails then additional
kicked off protection will be necessary to stop
 Steel mesh brick-guards to prevent materials falling.
items falling through guardrails, debris
nets/sheeting/debris chutes/ and  This is normally achieved by the use of
scaffold fans to prevent smaller items suspended wire mesh frames (brick
falling to ground uncontrolled guards) hung from the top guard-rail to
toe-board to effect complete closure.
Page 219 of 301

NOTE:
 If guard-rails and toe-boards are
removed to permit loading of materials,
they must be replaced as soon as possible
afterwards.
Sheeting and debris netting

 Debris netting is mainly used scaffolding
to contain or check falling debris (small
sized, materials). Debris netting does not
replace brick guards since it is not strong
enough.
 Scaffolding Sheeting prevents dust and

water from escaping onto passers-by
below. It also provide protection for
workers on the scaffold from bad weather
and can be opaque to provide privacy for
nearby residents/businesses.
 Sheeted scaffolds must be designed by

a competent person and the sheets must
be securely tied using the correct ties.
 The additional wind loading must be

countered by extra bracing and ties.
Page 220 of 301

Safe working in confined spaces
Types of confined spaces and why they are dangerous
What is a confined space?

A confined space has been defined as:- Any enclosed space, where there is a reasonably
foreseeable specified risk associated with that enclosed space, and includes chambers,
tanks, vats, silos, pits, trenches, pipes, sewers, wells etc..
There are a number of ILO Conventions concerning different workplaces and confined
spaces, relating to factories, shipbuilding, agriculture, breathing apparatus etc..
The duty is placed on employer in respect of work carried out by employees, and to ensure
compliance SFARP, in respect of work carried out by non-employees which are within his
control. Similar duty is placed on the self-employed
Definition
Any workplace not designed for continuous occupancy, which by virtue of its enclosed nature,
there arises a reasonably foreseeable risk.
Confined space examples could include

 Trenches
 Tanks
 Silos
 Cellars
 Sewers
 Ducting
The main hazards and associated risks of working within a confined space
Hazard Risk
Lack of oxygen Asphyxiation
Toxic gases Toxic poisoning
Free flowing solids and liquids Drowning
Flammable atmospheres Fire/explosion
High temperatures Heat exhaustion/heat stroke
The hazards to be considered when

undertaking confined space work are:-  Could there be an explosive/toxic
 Previous contents of confined space atmosphere
(chemical/biological)  What are the access and egress
 Are there any contents (residues) left facilities
 What cleaning materials are being used  What tools and equipment need to be
– possibly solvents used – is it an explosive atmosphere?
 Reactions between contents left and  What are physical dimensions of
cleaning materials confined space
 Could there be an oxygen  Is there a risk of structural collapse
deficient/enrichment atmosphere
Page 221 of 301

What should be considered when Materials: Safe system of Work
assessing risks from confined spaces?  Sediment
 Hazardous substances
AVOID  Flammable materials (segregation/no
Try to avoid entry, so far as is reasonably smoking)
practicable (SFARP). Examples would  Pathogens – bacteria like leptospirosis
include cleaning a tank by flushing from the  Manual Handling – pumps, winches
outside or using a camera to conduct an  Oxidising materials/oxygen bottles
inspection of tank rather than a person.
Environment: Safe system of Work
If not possible then we must plan and  Limited space
implement a safe system of work (ACME)  Weather forecast
 Atmospheric monitoring
A safe system of work involves
 Gas monitoring
Assess the hazards and associated risks
 Inspections
Controls (Permit to Work)
Monitor adequacy of controls  Supervision
Evaluate performance  Employees
Emergency Arrangements
The precautions to be included in a  Audible/visual alarms on blowers
safe system of work for confined  Resuscitation equipment
spaces PEME  Escape Sets
 Top man/B.A. rescue set
People: Safe system of Work  Tripod & Harness
 How many? As few as reasonably  Emergency lighting
practicable.
 Competence (PTW, RPE, Fire etc..)
 Pre-employment screening 1) AVOID entry SFARP
 Adequate supervision 2) IDENTIFY the hazards and assess the
risk
 Top Man
3) ESTABLISH a SSW, to include:
Equipment: Safe system of Work
 Appointment of a supervisor
 Isolation (locking off/blanking plates)
 Competent people for the work
 Work Eqpt: chemical, electrical, physical
 Permit to work always used!
 PPE (tripod, harness & line)
 Isolation for all services
 Gas detection
 Cleaning before entry
 RPE
 Size of entrance
 Access/Egress
 Testing air and ventilation
 Ventilation
 Provision B/A Emergency Escape
 Lighting
and Rescue Equipment
 Communication
 Provision special tools/lighting
4) Preparation of emergency
arrangements to include:
Page 222 of 301

 Communications - between persons Some confined space work, where humans
in confined space and top man or are not required to enter, may not
supervisor specifically require a Permit to Work,
 Rescue and resuscitation equipment (PTW), or perhaps where entry is required,
and training in the use of but such confined space work is routine,
 Capabilities of rescuers - properly perhaps during the maintenance of a large
trained staff, capable of using any truck, requiring a worker to enter an
rescue equipment provided for them inspection pit, again may not require a
i.e. BA, winches, harnesses, PTW.
firefighting equipment
 Shut down in case of emergency
 First aid procedures - trained staff
 How to contact local emergency
services
When a permit-to-work for confined

spaces may not be required
Not all confined spaces are equal, by which
we mean, that some are more dangerous
than others, with such dangerous being
made greater by the need for humans to
enter them and the frequency of such
entries.
Page 223 of 301

Lone working Identifying the Hazards of lone workers
Talk to the worker involved as they are a
Employers are responsible for all workers’ good source of information and ideas. Find
safety and in particular, those who are out exactly what is involved to carry out the
more vulnerable due to their personal; task, e.g.:
circumstances, for example age or  Does the workplace present a special
disability and those more vulnerable due to hazard?
the work that they undertake or the  Is the access to, or exit from the
workplace they do it in. workplace safe?
 Is the lighting and ventilation sufficient?
One such vulnerable group are lone  Will other adjacent processes and
workers activities present a risk?
 Is any equipment to be used safe &
What is a lone worker? regularly maintained?
Lone workers are those people who work  What risks would the worker be exposed
by themselves without close or direct to?
supervision. They can be found in a wide
range of situations but can be considered
Control measures for lone working may
under 2 areas which are:
include:
 Information, Instruction, Training,
1) On Site
Supervision
a) One Person on site: Small workshops,
Petrol Stations, Kiosks, Shops  Personal protective equipment
b) Home workers  Communication devices
c) People on site separate from others:  Safe working procedures
Factories, Warehouses, Training  Monitoring
Establishments, Leisure centres etc.
d) People working outside normal hours: Worker competence
Cleaners, Security, Maintenance, urgent Is the person physically and
production psychologically suitable for lone working?
2) Off Site – Employees involved in Consider both routine work and

occupations such as: foreseeable emergencies which may
h) Construction, Plant installation impose additional physical and mental
i) Maintenance, Cleaning burdens on the worker.
j) Vehicle Recovery
k) Agricultural and Forestry Workers Training can help lone workers to:
l) People collecting money from homes  Be sufficiently experienced and fully
m)Postal staff, District nurses, House understand the risks and controls
sellers  Know the set limits of what can and
n) Taxi drivers etc. cannot be done whilst working alone
 Avoid panic in unusual situations
 Be able to deal with situations which are
new, unusual or unexpected and to
know
When to stop work and seek advice from
a supervisor
 Know how to handle aggression
Page 224 of 301

Monitoring procedures will be needed Control measures for lone workers
to ensure they remain safe, these may  Worker properly trained and
include:- experienced
 Periodic visits & supervision of lone  Provision of appropriate equipment or
workers materials
 Regular contact between the lone  Provision of PPE
worker & supervisor.  Employer set limits on what can/cannot
 Automatic warning devices which be done
operate is specific signals are not  Periodic visiting by supervision to
received observe procedures being followed
periodically from the lone worker.  Regular contact between worker and
 Other devices designed to raise the base
alarm in the event of an emergency &  Automatic warning devices
which  Devices to raise the alarm
operate manually or automatically.  Check worker has returned to
 Checks that a lone worker has returned base/home
to their base or home on completion of  First Aid kits and training
their  Action to be taken if worker becomes ill
task.  Ensuring adequate arrangements for
Emergency procedures travel and welfare facilities
What happens if a lone worker becomes
ill, has an accident, or some other
emergency, arises, like a fire? 
 Lone workers should be capable of
responding correctly to emergencies
 Emergency procedures should be
established and lone workers trained in
them
 Information about emergency
procedures and danger areas in the
workplace should be given to them.
 They should have access to adequate
first-aid facilities
 Mobile workers should carry a first-aid
kit
 Occasionally lone workers may need
training in first-aid
Page 225 of 301

What should be considered when  Materials
assessing risks of lone working?  Materials required to be
used by the lone worker, for
The employer is responsible for the example cleaning materials
health, safety and welfare at work of used by a cleaner
their employees and those affected by  Materials which may be
the work. encountered by the lone
worker, for example
To achieve this the employer must; asbestos and other
dangerous substances
 Try to avoid lone working so far as is  Environment

reasonably practicable, SFARP. If it can  Specific hazards posed by
not be avoided: the workplace, for example
working at height, very hot or
cold workplaces
 Assess risks to lone workers –  Ease of safe access and
consider PEME egress within the workplace,
for example security guards
 Access to welfare facilities,
 People for example, washing, eating,
 The lone worker toilets and first aid
themselves
- SPAME Finally, the employer must take steps to
 Other people whom they control risk where necessary SFARP
might need to interact with
- Lack of competence The safety of lone workers is not all down
to assist lone worker if to the employer as employees, albeit lone
required workers, still have all their usual duties and
- Possibility of violent responsibilities as employees, namely:
behaviour
- General attitude of Employee’s responsibilities
other people to the  Taking reasonable care of themselves,
lone worker and other people who may be affected
by their work
 Equipment
 Specific dangers of  Co-operate with their employers in
equipment used by the lone meeting their legal obligations
worker, for example electrical
equipment  Not to intentionally or recklessly
 Specific dangers posed by interfere with anything provided in the
equipment encountered by interests of health, safety and welfare
the lone worker as part of
their duties, for example  Report situations of serious or
automated processes a imminent danger
security guard may work
near in a workplace  Not take drugs or alcohol immediately
before work or during or work time
Page 226 of 301

Slips and trips Main control measures for slips and
trips, including
Common causes of slips and trips  Designated walking routes where
possible
Slips, trips and falls – The Facts  Improved housekeeping resulting in
 One third of all serious injuries due to clear, unobstructed walkways
slips, trips, or falls  A clearly communicated procedure for
reporting and repair of defects
 Slips, trips and falls are a major source  Ensure walkways are level and
of accidents to non-employees maintained in good condition
 Highlight strips to warn of different levels
Slips, trips and falls – Typical Causes such a steps on staircases
 Poor housekeeping which allows  Ensure walkways are non-slip, where
rubbish to and other obstructions necessary
accumulate and block pedestrian  Well-lit and clearly marked walkways
routes.  Provision and use of hand rails and edge
 Trailing cables and hoses causing a trip protection on stairways
hazard  Procedures to quickly identify and
 Floors not properly maintained leading remove spillages and obstacles
to unsafe floor conditions such a pot  Eliminate need to carry loads
holes and lifting floor coverings  Provide suitable footwear
 Sudden changes in level caused by  Make employees aware of the hazards
ramps, slopes or kerbs by induction training and on-going tool
 Slippery floors caused by oil, water, box talks, posters etc.
snow and ice. These accidental  Use of safety signs to highlight sudden
spillages are left in place and not being changes in level
cleaned up  Highlighting changes in level by use of
 Inadequate lighting which results in ‘tiger stripes’
people being unable to clearly see  Cable and flexible hose management by
where they are going running cables high on walls or ceilings
 Unsuitable footwear and around NOT across doorways
 A clear procedure for re-stocking to
prevent blockage of routes
NOTE:  A clear procedures for filling/draining
Poor housekeeping contributes to slips, machinery in factories
trips and falls and;
 Increased risk of fire and blocked fire
exits
 Exposure to hazardous substances
 Vermin (rats and mice)
 Falling materials
 Poor storage leading to work related
upper limb disorders (WRULDS)
 Increased levels of stress amongst staff
 Poor morale and increased
absenteeism
 A crowded and unsafe workplace
Page 227 of 301

Safe movement of people and vehicles Non-movement related hazards
in the workplace  Loading/unloading
 Securing loads;
Hazards to pedestrians:  Sheeting;
Pedestrians are at risk from many sources,  Coupling;
for example being struck by moving  Vehicle maintenance work
vehicles, flying or falling objects from
above and/or nearby processes, e.g. parts Loading and Unloading
being ejected by adjacent machines. Loading and unloading which includes
tipping can lead to accidents from such
Pedestrians are also at risk from collisions things as loads falling off or overturning
with moving vehicles and/or vehicles can seriously injure employees.
vehicles colliding with other vehicles or Also employees may be injured when
fixed objects may not only affect the driver climbing on to or getting off vehicles to
but pedestrians can also be affected as a assist in the loading or unloading.
vehicle colliding with another may bounce Collisions with other vehicles, people, fixed
off into pedestrian areas and/or cause objects
nearby structures, (e.g. racking or
shelves), to collapse onto pedestrians Securing Loads
passing nearby. Employers must make sure that loads are
safely anchored to the vehicle and that the
Additionally, as they move around, there is vehicle is strong enough to take the strain.
a possibility of pedestrians striking against
fixed or stationary objects which they Sheeting
encounter in the workplace The main hazard during sheeting
operations is work at height with the
associated risk of falling. To prevent falls
Transport hazards broken into two from height when sheeting, employers
main areas: should follow the hierarchy for working at
height:
 Non-movement hazards  Avoid the need to work at height
 Movement related hazard wherever possible, i.e. Sheet from the
ground;
Transportation of people and materials  Where work at height cannot be avoided,
within a workplace is common but also use measures such as platforms with
potentially dangerous. Such dangers are  Barriers to prevent falls;
sometimes so obvious, e.g. collision  If there is still a risk of a worker falling,
between people and moving equipment, use personal protective equipment to
that we do not even see it any more.  Minimise both the distance and
consequences in the event of a fall.
It is because of this apparent lack of
awareness that we need to take extra care At each step, always consider measures
and remove or at least reduce the that protect everyone who is at risk
possibility of people and machines and (collective control such as barriers) before
machines and machines from contacting measures that only protect the individual
each other. (e.g. fall-arrest systems).
Page 228 of 301

The walkways of working platforms should Use of power tools can cause vibration
be made of non-slip material. Consult white finger and loud noise can lead to
vehicle manufacturers before installing any permanent hearing loss.
vehicle-based sheeting system
Safety precautions when maintaining
Coupling and uncoupling vehicles
Accidents and dangerous situations occur  Apply brakes.
all too often when drivers of large goods  Chock wheels.
vehicles (LGVs) fail to follow safe coupling  Start engine with brakes on and in neutral
and parking procedures. Unsafe practices gear.
often lead to vehicle runaway or trailer  Prop or support raised parts.
rollaway situations. They can result in  Use a tyre-cage or other restraining
serious and fatal injury to the driver or device when inflating tyres on split-rim
others, and costly damage to both vehicles wheels.
and property  Remove tyres from wheels before
welding, cutting or heating work begins
Drivers and those who have overall control on a wheel or wheel rim, fitted with a tyre,
of sites (site operators) should make sure even if the tyre is deflated.
that coupling and uncoupling areas are well  Beware of the risk of explosion when
lit, with firm and level surfaces. draining and repairing fuel tanks, and
from battery gases. Never drain or fill fuel
Drivers should be properly trained and tanks when the equipment is hot or in a
have their work monitored by site operators confined space, or over a pit.
to make sure they follow a safe system of
 Avoid short-circuiting batteries. Charge
work, involving the use of trailer and tractor
batteries should be charged in well-
unit parking brakes as appropriate to avoid
ventilated areas. Suitable personal
the risk of crush injuries.
protective equipment should be provided
and used for handling battery acid.
Vehicle maintenance
 Make sure that maintenance staff cannot
Most accidents in vehicle maintenance
breathe asbestos dust from brake and
involve slips, trips and falls or occur during
clutch lining pads.
lifting and handling, and often cause
serious injury. Crushing incidents involving  Only allow people who have received the
the movement or collapse of vehicles relevant information, instruction and
under repair result in serious injuries and training to do maintenance work
deaths every year. Petrol-related work is a
common cause of serious burns and fires,
some fatal.
There is also widespread potential for

work-related ill health in vehicle
maintenance. Many of the substances
used require careful storage, handling and
control. Isocyanate containing paints have
been the biggest cause of occupational
asthma in the UK for many years and
vehicle maintenance is also in the top ten
industries for cases of dermatitis.
Page 229 of 301

Movement related hazards Example of large vehicle “blind-spots”
 Collisions with other vehicles, people and
fixed objects In order to reduce the possibility of contact
 Reversing vehicles between vehicles and people, we need to
try and design workplaces to remove, or
Collisions with other vehicles, people, certainly limit, the amount of times vehicles
fixed objects and pedestrians interact.
Vehicles colliding with other vehicles or
fixed objects cannot just affect the driver Where we cannot eliminate reversing
but pedestrians can also be affected as a vehicles we need to ensure that:
vehicle colliding with another may bounce  We limit the number and frequency of
off into pedestrian areas. pedestrians in the reversing area
 Ensure the use of suitable PPE – hi-
Other factors can include such things as visibility clothing, reversing cameras,
poor lighting, distractions. The vehicle may alarms and lighting
also collide with people. This be due to lack  Design the workplace considering
of segregation, driver error or people not physical barriers, suitable lighting and
paying attention. mirrors
Additionally, by educating and training both

Reversing vehicles drivers and pedestrians, we can reduce the
Reversing is probably the most dangerous likelihood of collisions.
activity involved in vehicle movement.
As a simple rule, if we cannot see the
The main hazards of reversing are the lack drivers face in their mirror or, better still,
of all-round vision, particularly in the so- directly, then they cannot see us.
called “blind-spots” at the rear, sides and
even at the front of the vehicle. Internal Transport – reversing controls
 Provision of mirrors
Many people are unaware of or  Use of headlights/flashing lights
underestimate the seriousness of, blind-  Reversing alarms
spots.  Use of horns
 PPE - High visibility clothing
 Segregation of pedestrians and traffic:
demarcation, barriers and raised
pavements
 Suitable lighting
 Speed restrictions and Speed bumps
 Designated crossing points
 Appropriate road markings
 Provision of refuges
 Transparent doors
 Fish eye mirrors
 Suitable routes, preferably on-way
Page 230 of 301

Hazards of workplace transport operation
Hazard type Hazard causes

human error, violent
Loss of Control excessive speed
manoeuvres
Contact with vehicles and
poor layout human error
fixed objects
Impact with people no room human error
Impact with other
poor layout poor operation
vehicles
Overturning of vehicle major mechanical failure operator error
Load falling broken pallets/racking poor operation
Unstable loads poor stacking human error
poor maintenance and
Mechanical failure overloading
inspection
Exceeding SWL poor supervision human error
Movement hazards - additional controls Proximity lights
“Blue Spot” lights
Curtis Instruments
Curtis Instruments
Linde
Page 231 of 301
Control measures to manage  Keeping reversing alarms in good
workplace transport: working order and loud enough to be
heard above other noises at the
Safe site (design and activity) workplace
 Reversing cameras
Reversing Vehicles – Avoid reversing if  Placing fixed mirrors at blind corners
possible by providing:-  Reversing lights on vehicles if workplace
 One way systems noise is too loud for reversing alarms to
 Turning circles and be heard
 Drive through systems  Good levels of lighting and providing
refuges
Suitability of traffic routes  Ensuring drivers have a banksman to
direct them
If it is not possible to avoid reversing,  Provision of high-visibility clothing
then protective measures can  Selection and training of drivers and
include:- banksmen
 Providing clearly marked reversing  Site rules for reversing operations and
areas visible to drivers and pedestrians supervision
 Excluding non-essential personnel from
the area
 Having pedestrian only routes
 Creating crossing zones where both
vehicles and pedestrians can cross with,
speed control and good vision
 Separation of vehicles and pedestrians
by the erection of barriers and signs
 Vehicle design including ensuring rear-
vision mirrors, fixed safety mirrors,
sensors and windscreens are kept clean
and in good repair
Page 232 of 301

General precautions for workplace Spillage control
transport operations and pedestrians
(PEME) MATERIALS (Loads)
 Compatible materials only stored
PEOPLE together
 Restricted access – authorised persons  Minimise stack heights to reduce risk of
only in manoeuvring area toppling
 Provision and use of vehicle marshalls  Safety Data Sheets (SDS) etc. available
(banksman)  Spill control procedures and clean-up
 Information, instruction and training for kits available
all authorised persons  Load secured on vehicles/ racking/
 Careful selection & training of drivers, pallets
including refresher/retraining as  Weights marked/known
required
 Supervision enforcing site rules/ SSW ENVIRONMENT
 Segregation of pedestrians and traffic:
EQUIPMENT o by demarcation
 Selection of suitable vehicles o use of barriers and raised pavements
 Pre-use checks  Suitable lighting
 Provision of mirrors  Speed restrictions which are enforced
 Planned preventative maintenance  Provision of speed bumps
(PPM)  Designated crossing points
 Use of headlights/flashing lights  Appropriate road markings
 Provision of reversing alarms and  Provision of refuges in loading bays
cameras  Transparent doors
 Driver restraint systems, (seat belts and  Fish eye mirrors
harnesses as required)  Suitable routes – ideally one way,
 Use of horns otherwise wide enough for vehicles to
 Fuel types: their use/storage/spillage safely pass in both directions
 PPE - High visibility clothing  Removal or reduction of changes in
 Limiting or restricting vehicle levels and/or gradients
movements at peak times:  Selection of suitable surfaces,
o Internally particularly those able to reduce the risk
 Peak pedestrian movement times of slipping/skidding by vehicles
 start and end of shifts  Clear and enforced site rules and safe
 meal breaks systems of work
o Externally  Suitable vehicles with
 Peak traffic and pedestrian times o Forward, side and rear facing
 School opening and closing cameras
times o Reversing alarms
 Local company start and finish o Flashing lights
times
 Major nearby facilities
 Hospitals
 Shopping centres
Page 233 of 301

The above can be remembered using Managing work-related driving
the Hierarchy of General Controls (ERIC
PD) Extent of work related road injuries
 Eliminate need for reversing by According to the World Health
providing a one-way system, turning Organisation (WHO) every year nearly 1.3
circles, and drive trough’s million people die and 50 million are injured
 Reduce – only authorised persons in the world-wide as a result of road trafﬁc
area crashes. They are the leading cause of
 Isolation - exclusion of pedestrians from death worldwide among those aged 15–29
site traffic areas years.
 Controls Install a safe system of work,
using; Factors associated with driving at work
 Use of banksman that increases the risk of being involved
 Provision of information, instruction, in a road traffic incident;
training & supervision (IITS)  Distance to be driven
 Audible/visual reversing alarms  Driving hours and rest periods in
 CCTV between
 Fresnel lense mirrors on all vehicles  Work schedules and shift patterns
 PPE - Use of hi-viz clothing  Stress due to delays due to traffic and
 Discipline- Supervision enforcing site weather conditions
rules and safe systems of work
Plan
Managing work-related road safety
requires us to
 Ensure that the health and safety policy
covers work-related road safety
 If driving is a large part of the business,
consider having a separate driving
policy which will identify
o Senior management commitment
o Roles and responsibilities of all
concerned
 Require systems to assess and manage
work-related road safety
 Monitor driving performance to ensure
policy is effective e.g. Collection of
 Information, reporting of work-related
road incidents by employees
 Organise and structure to allow
cooperation across departments with
different
 Responsibilities for work-related road
safety
 Stress on drivers the legal
responsibilities of individuals on public
roads
Page 234 of 301

Assess and evaluate the risks (PEME) Check
 monitor performance, (ensure the policy
 P the drivers competency – fitness, is working correctly), of the driving policy
health, and driving licence, driver and associated procedures, by both
training (SKATE) active/leading nd reactive/lagging
 E the vehicle – it’s suitability, indicators.
condition, any safety equipment, safety
critical information, ergonomic  ensure all workers report work-related
considerations (SUMRIC) road incidents or near misses
 M hazardous loads – chemicals, LPG encouraging worker involvement and
 E the journey - routes, scheduling,
sufficient time, weather conditions Act
 review performance by analysis of any
Do routine monitoring tools in place, for
 Ensure co-operation between example the system to monitor the
departments (where relevant). number of miles/KM driven per
day/week/month/year by individual
For example finance department noting the drivers or the number of property
travel expense claims for fuel/driving by damage reports and the effectiveness of
workers using their own vehicles and the various driving policies and
keeping track of the number of miles/KM procedures, and learn from the
driven a month. This can them be used to company’s experience
analyse the workload and driving time for  regularly update the company driving
workers and assess the time they are policy in line with company wishes,
spending in the road against resting time targets and lessons learned from the
during each shift and between shifts. previous year’s experiences
Additionally, the company vehicle The hazards to a long distance lorry/

maintenance department can coordinate truck driver (Health, Safety and Welfare)
the number of miles/KM driven per month  Duration of journey, hours of driving with
and again cooperate in sharing this the possibility of psychological hazards
information to ensure monitoring of safe such as stress and fatigue
driving standards.  Route and types of roads and conditions
 Weather and environmental factors
 adequate systems in place, including  Poor vehicle maintenance leading to
maintenance strategies, planned possibility of breakdown
preventative maintenance wear  Possible manual handling of the goods
monitoring processes. being carried and other hazards such as
 communication and consultation with exposure to chemicals
the workforce to ensure involvement  Physical hazards such as noise and
and buy-in whole body vibration
 provision of adequate instruction and  Possibility of accidents or collisions
training for all workers and others,  Lone working and possible absence of
including visitors etc., who may be supervision or communication
affected by the vehicle operations of the  Lack of emergency procedures such as
organisation first aid and welfare facilities
 Violence hazard due to value of loads
Page 235 of 301

Work-related driving control measures: To ensure this, it is essential to ensure
 Safe driver that vehicles and trailers are:
 Safe vehicle  suitable for the task being undertaken,
 Safe journey (e.g. capacity, load type and terrain)
 maintained correctly in accordance with
Safe driver – driver competence national law, manufacturers guidance
As with all employees, Employers must industry standards and best practice
ensure that all drivers are able to undertake  any and all safety devices, e.g. overload
their work safely. One way to achieve this devices, are installed, working and used
is to ensure competence, (SKATE), of the as required
drivers and other support workers,  safe working loads are never exceeded
(banksmen, maintainers, loaders etc.).  have suitable and correctly used means
of securing loads
Employers should have in place a process
for selection and/or training of competent Safe journey
drivers and regular and routine checking of As indicated above, there are many
their government issued licences, to stressors on both the driver and equipment
ensure that they still have them, have not used for transporting people and materials
had any government sanctions for within and outside of the workplace,
speeding/driving unsafely etc., and that including;
they are still eligible to drive the class of  Distance to be driven
vehicle required for their work.  Driving hours and rest periods in
between
Where required by law and/or best  Work schedules and shift patterns
practice, employers should ensure that  Stress due to delays due to traffic and
whatever routine medical/sight test and weather conditions
surveillance required is undertaken in
accordance with such law/best practice. It is therefore essential that employers
have in place processes and procedures to
Safe vehicle ensure the safety of the both the driver but
In addition to ensuring that people are fit also of the equipment which they are using.
and safe to undertake their work,
employers must also ensure that all In planning such controls, the employer
equipment/vehicles are also suitable and must consider:
safe to undertake the task that they are  Journey management and planning,
being used for. specifying routes, times, breaks and rest
points and emergency procedures
during such travel, (e.g. breakdown,
punctures, hijacking and getting lost)
 Planning for weather extremes and back
up plans in case of sudden weather
changes
 Overall driving and resting hours per
shift/week and month
Page 236 of 301

Hazards associated with the use of Hybrid vehicles
electric and hybrid vehicles Hybrid vehicles typically have two sources
of energy, an internal combustion engine
Introduction using either diesel or petrol for fuel and a
With the growth in environmental battery. Hybrid vehicles will use the two
awareness, the use of electric and hybrid sources of power automatically and may
vehicles (E&HVs) is increasing. The use both simultaneously. The internal
recovery, repair, and maintenance of these combustion engine and energy recovered
vehicles networks is increasing with more from the vehicle braking systems are used
and more people interacting with such to charge the battery.
vehicles, increasing the risk of harm to
such people. A plug-in hybrid vehicle can have its battery
charged directly from the electrical supply
Background network.
People in the motor vehicle repair and
recovery industry are now more likely to Risks of working with E&HVs
come across E&HVs and as a result need E&HVs introduce hazards into the
to be aware of the additional hazards they workplace in addition to those normally
may be exposed to when working with associated with the repair and
these vehicles. They may also need to maintenance of vehicles, roadside
develop a wider range of skills and recovery and other vehicle related
knowledge and have access to specialist activities.
tools and equipment in order to be able to
work safely. These include:
 The presence of high voltage
Voltages in traditional vehicles and EV’s components and cabling capable of
can vary from 12 volts to 650 volts meaning delivering a fatal electric shock
that in the correct conditions, accidental  The storage of electrical energy with the
contact with parts that are live at voltages potential to cause explosion or fire
above 110 Volts dc can be fatal.  Components that may retain a
dangerous voltage even when a vehicle
Additionally, battery systems may contain is switched off
chemicals that can be harmful if released  Electric motors or the vehicle itself that
and they harness significant amounts of may move unexpectedly due to
energy that can give rise to explosion if not magnetic forces within the motors
dealt with correctly.  Manual handling risks associated with
battery replacement
Types of vehicle  The potential for the release of explosive
gases and harmful liquids if batteries are
Electric vehicles damaged or incorrectly modified
Electric vehicles use a large capacity  The possibility of people being unaware
battery and electric motor(s) to drive the of vehicles moving as when electrically
vehicle. The battery needs to be charged driven they are silent in operation
from the electricity supply network when
 The potential for the electrical systems
the vehicle is not in use although some
on the vehicle to affect medical devices
energy may be recovered during braking.
such as pacemakers
 Availability/location of charging points,
possibility of danger from other vehicles
Page 237 of 301

Element 9: Work equipment
General requirements
Safe Use of Work Equipment

ILO Convention C119 Guarding of Machinery and Recommendation R118 as well as the UK
Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations 1998 provide the main requirement for
the safe use of tools, machinery and plant.
The ILO Code of Practice on ‘Safety and health in the use of machinery’ 2013 is intended to
provide guidance on safety and health in the use of machinery in the workplace. Worker
safety and health should be addressed from design to decommissioning of machinery.
The division of responsibilities for securing the safety in the use of machinery throughout its
life cycle is;
 Designer, manufacturer, supplier and installer are responsible for the design, manufacture,
supply and installation.
 The employer is responsible for selection, inspection, testing, maintenance and
decommissioning. The employer’s responsibilities are summarised as SUMRIC
.
Providing suitable equipment
S uitable U se
All work equipment shall be suitable; It is a responsibility of the worker to use
 For intended purpose all work equipment;
 Offer protection from dangerous parts  In accordance with information,
 Controls to be accessible, identifiable, instruction and training(IIT) received
not easily accidentally operated  The employer shall prevent
 Emergency stops, and isolators to be unauthorised use by use of key control
provided, and easily identified policies, storage of tools in a secure
location after use etc.
Note: Specifically, if the equipment is ride  Suitable lighting so that the worker can
on operated, e.g. a forklift truck or dumper clearly see what they are doing and what
truck there are specific requirements for is happening, so minimising the risk of
prevention and protection from roll-over. mis-perception.
 When machinery is installed a clear
For example: suitable design features for a unobstructed workspace shall be
dumper truck against the risk of overturning provided and maintained to minimise the
would be; risk of trips
 Provision and use of seatbelts
 Rollover protection system
 Wide wheelbase
 Low centre of gravity
When working at height tools shall be

appropriately secured or tied using a
suitable fixing such as a lanyard.
Page 238 of 301

M aintained R isk assess and risk reduce
Al tools, plant and machinery shall be; There is a hierarchy of controls for
 Suitably maintained, with records protecting against dangerous parts of
 Subject to regular inspections , as is machinery (FOSPI)
appropriate with records  F ixed guards
 Safe to maintain – use of lockout, tagout  O ther guards (inter-lock, automatic and
(LOTO) trip)
 O ther protective devices (two handed
Types of maintenance (using a car as an controls and hold to run)
example)  S afety devices - jigs, fixtures, push
sticks, hold to run and two handed
 Planned Preventative Maintenance controls
 Replace/repair at a set sequence of  P PE – gloves, coveralls, safety boots,
time, even if not worn out or broken eye protection, ear muffs etc.
(filters/oil)  I ITS to maintain discipline
 Condition Monitoring Maintenance I nform & train
 Replace when reaches a level or  Relevant persons
degree of wear (brake pads/tyres)  Inform and instruct
 Breakdown/Failure Based  Train
Maintenance  Identify danger
 Replace/repair only when  Warn of danger
breakdowns occur (light bulbs)
C onformity
Safety during maintenance  When work equipment is provided it has
Ideally we will isolate before maintenance. to conform to standards which cover its
However, as we often need to maintain supply as a new or second hand (used)
and/or test equipment with it in a “live” piece of equipment and its use in the
condition, we need to consider how to workplace.
protect the maintainer This involves:
 Its initial integrity
 Design equipment to be maintained with  The place where it will be used
guards in position  The purpose for which it will be used.
 Design guards with access slots to allow
access with guard in place and with the
use of extended tools to distance worker
from danger
 Use of temporary guards
 Use of “hold to run” devices
Page 239 of 301

Basic Requirements for guards and Hand-held tools
safety devices – All guards and Simple hand tools can cause injury through
protection devices shall be user error, misuse or mechanical failure.
 Suitable for the purpose for which they Safe use of hand tools requires user
are provided training, compliance with safety rules, and
 Of good construction, sound material routine inspection and maintenance of the
and adequate strength tools.
 Maintained in an efficient state and
working order and in good repair Portable power tools present greater risks
 Not give rise to any increased risk to because of the severity of injury that might
health or safety be caused and the additional hazards
 Not be easily bypassed or disabled presented by each tool by its motive power,
 Be situated at sufficient distance from for example electricity for a drill or petrol for
the danger zone a chainsaw.
 Not obstruct the view of the operating
cycle of the machinery Safe use of power tools requires the same
basic approach as that for hand tools, but
 Remove the possibility of any part of a
with greater emphasis on user
worker’s body accidentally coming into
competence, supervision and
contact with such parts.
maintenance, with additional precautions
 Be compatible with the process, e.g.
being introduced to combat each of the
resistant to dust, chemical, etc.
hazards associated with a tool and its
 Allow for maintenance without removing power source.
the guard, e.g. by provision of
lubrication/greasing points outside the Hazards and Safe Use of Hand Tools
guard Typical conditions found concerning hand
tools which can pose a risk;
Practical precautions when undertaking
 Hammers with loose heads and split
machinery maintenance
shafts
 Use of a permit to work system
 Files with missing handles
 Isolate electrical power supply
 Screwdrivers with worn blades
 Isolation of any other services or
 Chisels with burred (mushroomed) and
pipelines to the machine (LOTO)
split heads
 Allow time for hot machinery to cool
 Corroded tools
sufficiently
 Spanners which are bent
 Release loads or any stored energy
 Segregation by providing barriers and Hand tools can cause serious injury:
warning signs chisels can slip giving rise to serious cuts;
 Provision of safe means of access parts can fly off when the head becomes
 Provide adequate lighting, means of mushroomed where a strike of the hammer
access etc. can cause a metal fragment to fly off which
 Ensuring availability and suitability of have caused blindness in the past.
PPE
 Ventilate work area
 Adequate supervision
 Ensuring only skilled & competent staff
are used
Page 240 of 301

Simple hand tools, such as a hammer, Sub-standard tools should be maintained
chisel or screwdriver, present relatively or discarded.
simple hazards:
 The tool may shatter during use, Users should be given appropriate
throwing off sharp metal fragments (e.g. information, instruction and training.
a hammer head or chisel blade).
 The handle may come loose during use Whereas many workers serve some form
(e.g. axe head comes off handle). of apprenticeship or spend several years in
 The tool may be blunt leading to use of training where they acquire an
excessive force which causes loss of understanding of safety in the use of the
control (e.g. blunt knife). tools for their trade, not all workers come to
 The top of a chisel might become the workplace with this knowledge (which
‘burred’ from repeated strikes with a may seem like common knowledge to
hammer. others), which can out them and others in
 Spanners can become bent from danger due to any ignorance of correct use
overloading and slip in use of the tools.
 The end if a screwdriver blade can
become worn and so slip in use. Supervision is important to ensure that safe
 Tools can become corroded when left working practices are adhered to and
outside. misuse does not become commonplace.
 Simple human error, where the user
misjudges a movement (e.g. hits own
Wood Chisel
thumb with hammer).
Precautions necessary using a wood chisel
 The tool may be misused, i.e. used in an
 The chisel should be of a suitable size
inappropriate way or for an
for the job
inappropriate task (e.g. a screwdriver
used as a crowbar)  In good condition, not damaged and the
handle firmly attached
Precautions (SUMRIC)  Chisel should be sharp and struck with
Tools must be suitable for the task that they a wooden or plastic mallet
are going to perform and for the  Not used if the blade is damaged
environment in which they are to be used,  Operator adopt a suitable position to
e.g. non-sparking tools (do not produce avoid overbalancing and keeping body
sparks when struck) are suitable for use in and hands behind the cutting edge
a potentially flammable atmosphere.  Replace protective cap when not in use
 Use appropriate PPE such as goggles
Tools should be maintained in a safe or face shield
condition, e.g. blades should kept sharp
and handles firmly attached.
Tools should be visually inspected

routinely before use to ensure they are in
an acceptable condition.
This should be done by the user. Spot

checks by line management will ensure
that users comply.
Wood Chisel
Page 241 of 301

Electrically powered hand drill
Electricity seems an obvious hazard
especially if the equipment is not
maintained properly. Dust from the
material being drilled, noise and vibration.
Mechanical hazards include: entanglement
(rotating chuck and bit); contact and
ejected flying particles generated by the
drilling operation, stabbing and puncture
from the drill bit.
Electrically powered hand sander

Electricity, wood dust, noise and vibration
are the main non-mechanical hazards with
this equipment. Mechanical include
entanglement (if a rotary sander), (nips if a
belt sander), and contact with the abrasive
material.
For all electrically operated hand tools we

should either used reduced voltage, e.g.
110V CTE systems or full voltage plus use
of an RCD to protect the workers and
others from electric shock
Additionally, where there is a foreseeable

risk of exposure to a dust hazard, for
example drilling concrete or sanding wood,
suitable respiratory protection and hearing
protection must also be worn.
Page 242 of 301

Machinery hazards Chemical
Potential consequences as a result of
contact with, or exposure to, mechanical or Chemical hazards can be divided into
other hazards (see ISO 12100:2010) three types;
What is work equipment?  Chemicals used – this includes such as

‘Any machinery, appliance, apparatus, tool petrol, diesel, and battery acid to power
or installation for use at work (whether the equipment, or cutting oils to
exclusively or not) minimise wear during drilling and milling.
Work Equipment Hazards  Equipment content such as corrosive

According to ISO 12100:2003 (Parts 1 and liquids inside pipework in a refinery and
2) “Safety of Machinery”, the hazards of toner in a photocopier.
machinery can be divided into:
 By-products such as carbon monoxide
 Electrical (co) from the exhaust of a chainsaw or
 Chemical ozone from a photocopier, or silica dust
 Physical from a disc cutter.
 Mechanical
Physical hazards
The electrical, chemical and physical are These include;
considered non-mechanical hazards –  Weight of the equipment
mainly from the power source or things  Heat (non-ionising radiation) generated
emitted by the equipment or process. by the equipment
 Light such as laser light from industrial
Chemical and physical hazards will be cutting equipment
discussed in greater detail later, with each  Noise and vibration
having their own element. However, below  Pressure - hydraulics (compressed
is a brief introduction of each to allow fluids), pneumatics (compressed air) or
element 9 to make sense. high pressure steam
 Ionising radiation for radiographic
equipment
Electrical
The electrical hazards has a number of
possible risks associated with it and we However, the main content of these
remember these as BSAFE; element is the mechanical hazards.
 Burns (internal and external) Mechanical hazards

 Shock/Secondary injuries These are remembered as ENTICE P
 Arcing
 Fire E entanglement
 Explosion N nips (drawing-in)
T traps – trap shear or trap crush
I impact
C contact
E ejection
P puncture
Page 243 of 301

These 8 Types of Mechanical Hazard are TRAP
from a former British Standard, BS5304 Trap hazards occur when the worker is
which is now an ISO standard (ISO12100- caught between two moving parts or one
1:2010) moving and one fixed part, and include;
Entanglement – this is where a limb or TRAP SHEAR – Body caught between a

other part of body (long hair) are pulled into static surface and passing machine parts
rotating machinery e.g. lathe around e.g. a guillotine
rotating shafts or wheels. The arm is
commonly entangled due to the sleeve trap - shear injuries
becoming entangled.
Source BS EN ISO 12100

NIPS – Part of body is drawn into the
machinery (in-running nips) e.g. rollers, TRAP CRUSH – Part of body caught or
cogs, belts and pulleys. Sometimes called trapped between a static and moving
‘drawing in’ surface e.g. a power press, or overturning
dumper truck.
trap -crush injuries
Page 244 of 301

IMPACT – Body or limb hit by a moving PUNCTURE by sharp items, for example
tool/machine part or vehicle. puncture wounds created by a needle on a
sewing machine, or a heavy duty paper
stapler or nail gun in construction.
CONTACT – Machine with sharp edges or

abrasive machine parts e.g. a grinding
wheel or bench saw coming into contact
with sharp or abrasive surfaces
EJECTION – Body struck by objects

thrown out of machines e.g. swarf from a
lathe, sparks from a grinding wheel being
hit by ejected items, swarf etc.
High pressure fluid ejection is associated

with hydraulic systems, where the fluid is
under great pressure. Bursting of a
hydraulic hose, can force the fluid into
tissue and the circulatory system
Page 245 of 301

Manufacturing/maintenance machinery:
Bench top grinders - hazards

 Electricity
 Noise and vibration
 Entanglement on the rotating wheel or
spindle
 Nip between the wheel and the tool rest
 Ejection from the disintegration of the
wheel
 Contact with rotating wheel Pedestal drill
 Struck by ejected material or sparks
from the wheel when sharpening a tool Agricultural/horticultural machinery:
Cylinder mower - hazards

 Electricity if electrically powered, but this
is unlikely
 Highly flammable petrol used as a fuel
and possible health hazard from
exhaust fumes
 Noise hazard from the drive motor
 Entanglement and contact with moving
Pedestal drill – hazards parts of the drive motor and also the
 Electricity form the motor cylinder
 Noise form the motor and drilling  Nip (drawing in) between chain and
operations sprocket drives
 Chemical contamination from cutting  Trap shear, typically hands or fingers, in
and lubricating oils the shear caused by the rotating cutters
 Entanglement with the chuck, drill bit  Impact and cutting injuries from the
and possibly drive belts and pulleys machine starting accidentally
 Nips between the drive belt and pulley  Burns from contact with hot parts of the
 Traps between the drill chuck and the engine
drill head  Possible sensitization health hazard
 Possible impact by the winding from cutting grass, for example, hay
mechanism as it return upwards fever
 Contact with the drill and chuck
 Ejection of swarf as drilling takes place
 Puncture by being pierced by the front
of the drill bit
Page 246 of 301

Brush cutter/strimmer - hazards The most threatening feature of the saw is
 Electricity its power which can unleash devastating
 Chemical - highly flammable petrol used injuries. The potential for ‘kickback’ and
as a fuel, fumes and dust consequent injuries make this equipment
 Noise and vibration (hand-arm vibration for expert use only.
syndrome)
 Entanglement with rotating parts of
motor and shaft Retail machinery
 Contact with cutting head/line and burns
Retail compactor – hazards
from hot parts of the engine
 Electrical hazard from faulty wiring
 Ejected particles
and/or earthing or during maintenance
 Weight of the strimmer leading to
 High pressure fluids due to failure of
possible back strain from carrying the
hydraulic hoses with liquid released
machine while operating
under
 Pressure causing puncture to eyes or
other parts of body
 Manual handling hazard during loading
and unloading.
 Trap crush hazard between the ram and
the machine sides
 Entanglement with moving parts of
pump motor
 Trap shear between the ram and
machine frame (shear action)
Brush Cutter
Chainsaw
 Fuel or Electricity (if electrically
powered)
 Petrol if chemically powered, plus the
associated vapours and exhaust gases
 Wood dust
 High noise levels
 Vibration Retail Compactor
 Weight of the chainsaw
 Entanglement with the rotating chain
 Nips, impact from kick back
 Ejected flying particles and cuttings
 Contact hazard from the saw teeth,
Page 247 of 301

Retail checkout conveyor system -
hazards
 Electrical hazard from faulty wiring
and/or earthing or during maintenance.
 Manual handling of loads and potential
twisting leading to WRULDs
 Entanglement with belt fasteners if fitted
 Nips (drawing in) between belt and
rollers if under tension Cement mixer
 Nips (drawing in) between drive belt and
pulley Bench mounted circular saw – hazards
 Contact and entanglement with motor  Electricity from the motor
drive  Wood dust
 Noise, vibration
 Entanglement
 Nips
 Contact
 Ejection of saw dust and timber
(kickback if not fitted with riving knife).
Retail Conveyor
Construction machinery
Cement Mixer – hazards

 Fuel – these may be powered by
 Electricity – electrocution and fire
 Diesel internal combustion engine –
exhaust gasses
 Chemicals
 Cement – chemical
hazard/alkali/silica – corrosive and
respiratory harm
 Diesel – skin contact/dermatitis
 Mechanical
 Entanglement with the drum and
drive belts/pulleys
 Nips in between the drive and the
drum
 Traps if the drum falls down on to the
worker
 Ejection of cement mix or stones
 Contact with the rotating drum
 Manual handling during loading and
discharging of the drum
 Noise due to the engine noise and
mixing/cleaning process
Page 248 of 301

Emerging technologies All employers should consider the possible
negative effects of drone use on the health,
How dependent on computer systems safety and wellbeing of employees and
are we now for our health and safety? others who may be affected by their
Computers are already embedded in every activities.
aspect of health and safety. On the roads,
cars have become mobile computers, with Such consideration should, as always,
a modern car containing about 100 million begin with a risk management exercise and
lines of software. specific and detailed risk assessments.
Navigation now depends largely on GPS, Such use may be use by the employer
even for emergency vehicles. themselves, for example television/film
crews/farmers/construction workers and
Computers also control traffic lights, level the possible negative effects of use by
crossings, motorway signs and much unauthorised third parties.
more.
Drones Self-propelled vehicles – robotic and

We have all seen drones, perhaps even self-driving vehicles
used one and they can offer lots of The use of small self-driving/navigating
assistance and in some cases, even help vehicles in factories and stores is not a new
in making the workplace safer by removing phenomenon and we are fairly comfortable
the need for humans to get into dangerous and happy with the human machine
positions, perhaps inspecting tall buildings relationship, as they move slowly and
or structures. always defer to human traffic.
Additionally, drones can be used for search Cars have become increasingly automated
and rescue, particularly after natural and/or and Governments around the world are
industrial disasters, both reducing the time promoting and preparing for fleets of semi-
taken to locate survivors and reducing the autonomous trucks and driverless cars to
time any rescuers spend in harmful hit the worlds’ roads within a few years.
locations.
Already, autonomous vehicles are
However, not all drones are designed increasingly used in agriculture and
and/or used for good, for example, they warehousing, on the water and beneath it,
can also feed information to the media and in the air (and above it) and
which may not be helpful in the warehousing giant Amazon is considering
management or investigation of the delivery drones and the aircraft industry
incident, or as we have seen in recent has started development on pilotless
times, deliberately blocking aircraft taking passenger aircraft. What was science
off and landing. fiction last year is quickly becoming today’s
reality.
At this time, such actions have been used
for protest, but equally, the same tools However, with the advent of truly self-
could be deliberately targeted at not only driving vehicles, some of which are already
aircraft but road vehicles, particularly those licensed for use on public roads in some
carrying dangerous chemicals, with countries, the world of work and all its
possible disastrous consequences. potential problems is also moving on.
Page 249 of 301

As with the introduction of any new Digital technologies – Cyber-attacks
technology, suitable and sufficient and cyber vulnerabilities.
thorough risk assessments must be Many organisations rely heavily
completed before the selection and technology, including computers, Wi-Fi
introduction of any equipment. Thinsg to systems and, perhaps soon, block chain.
consider will include: Whereas all of these technologies have
advantages, especially linking multiple
 Suitability of the equipment for the task operations, sensors and even sites
and the environment within which it is electronically, thereby also lies their
required to work, especially space potential weakness.
requirements and specific
environmental issues, for example, a For example:
self-driving vehicle does not need lights  The well-publicised cyber-attack on the
to work at night, however, humans nuclear fuel centrifuges in Iran
operating ion the vicinity need it to have  The less well publicised physical
lights and/or other warnings, (possibly damage caused by a cyber-attack on a
audible), so that they cans see/hear and blast furnace in Germany
avoid it  In 2018 there were 300 attacks on the oil
industry and other industrial facilities in
 Safe use of such equipment by Norway
competent people and prevention of  245 attacks in the USA, 75 on energy
unauthorised use produces and 65 on manufacturing
plants
 Adequate maintenance of the
equipment and all attendant hazards, And these are the ones that we know
and the safety of the maintenance team about.
for example electric shock from battery
driven vehicles and/or unexpected Consider the possible catastrophic effects
movement of vehicles due to receipt of of either an accidental outage on data and
remote signals /or power or even deliberate attack on a
hospital, or more likely a group of hospitals
 Suitable risk assessment and risk linked by their intranet, the loss of GPS
reduction, as low as reasonably signal for shipping, aircraft and/or
practicable emergency services trying to locate a
casualty or the loss of traffic control signals
 Adequate information, instruction, in major city and the possible impact of a
training n supervision for all who may be grid-locked city.
affected by the equipment, including
non-employees It is therefore in every employer’s interests
to conduct a suitable and sufficient critical
 Conformity to suitable national and/or health, safety and environmental risk
international standards for all equipment assessment of the implication of failure of
used critical control equipment within their
business and endeavour to remove or
reduce the possible effects by prevention
and/or additional hardened controls and
procedures.
Page 250 of 301

Other typical work equipment hazards
Pneumatic drill / chisel

Dust, Compressed air, weight of the tool, noise and vibration.
Mechanical hazards would include trap crush, trap shear and
impact
Electric drill
Electricity seems an obvious hazard especially if
the equipment is not maintained properly. Dust
from the material being drilled, noise and
vibration. Mechanical hazards include:
entanglement (rotating chuck and bit); contact
and ejected flying particles generated by the
drilling operation, stabbing and puncture from the
drill bit.
Disc cutter/cut off saw
Electricity is a hazard plus noise and vibration.
Silica dust if cutting stone or concrete.
Entanglement, contact and the possibility of the

wheel or disc shattering and ejecting high energy
fragments should be considered. These are more
likely if the wheel is damaged (chipped or cracked)
in any way; also if the wheel is saturated with
water or other fluids which will create an out of
balance effect.
Sander
Electricity, wood dust, noise and vibration are the main non-
mechanical hazards with this equipment. Mechanical include
entanglement (if a rotary sander), (nips if a belt sander), and
contact with the abrasive material.
Chainsaw
Electricity (if electrically powered), petrol if chemically
powered, plus the associated fume and exhaust gases,
wood dust, high noise levels, vibration, weight of the
chainsaw, entanglement with the rotating chain., nips,
impact from kick back, ejected flying particle and
cuttings, contact hazard from the saw teeth,
The most threatening feature of the saw is its power

which can unleash devastating injuries. The potential for ‘kickback’ and
consequent injuries make this equipment for expert use only.
Page 251 of 301

Cement Mixer
These may be electrically powered or by
internal combustion engine which will produce
hazardous fumes/gases. There will be an
additional chemical problem in the form of
cement which is both corrosive and irritant.
Mechanical hazards exist in the drive systems

of belts and pulleys or gears. Noise will be a
problem as will manual handling due to the
weight.
The rotating mixer poses an entanglement and nip hazard but there could be
crushing hazards as the equipment tilts.
Pedestrian operated plate compactor
Internal combustion driven will again produce exhaust
fumes/gases. Noise from this machine is accompanied
by high levels of vibration. The weight and size poses a
manual handling hazard.
Dust will be generated by the hammering action of the

equipment on the surface it is compacting.
Bench mounted circular saw

Hazards include electricity, wood dust, noise, vibration,
entanglement, nips, contact, ejection (kickback if not fitted
with riving knife).
Page 252 of 301

Control measures for machinery
Guards
We use guards as a primary protection
form the various hazards found in work
equipment.
Such guards must be designed to suitable

standard, e.g. ISO 12100 2010, and have
the following characteristics;
 To be compatible with the process

 Adequate strength
 Maintained
 Allow for maintenance without removal
 Not increase risk or restrict view
 Not easily by-passed
Types of guard and other protective
devices Fixed Guard Advantages
According to ISO 12100 there are 4 basic  Creates a physical barrier
type of guard which we remember as FIAT  Requires a tool to remove it
 No moving parts
F ixed  Little maintenance
 Easy to inspect and supervise
I nterlock
Fixed Guard Disadvantages
A utomatic
 No protection if removed
T rip (sensitive devices)  Requires a tool to remove
 If solid hampers visual inspection
 If solid may cause heat problems
Fixed Guard (Example: belt drives.)  Vibration can lead to extra noise
A fixed guard has no moving parts which
rely on the movement of the machine. Interlock Guard
It must be securely fixed and require a

special tool to remove it. It physically
prevents access (isolates) to the danger
zone.
This physical barrier is not linked to the

machine operation, so it is unlikely to fail
and is easy to monitor. (Example: microwave or elevator doors)
The advantages of interlocked guards are

that they allow safe access to operate and
maintain the machine without dismantling
the safety devices.
Page 253 of 301

Their disadvantage stems from the Automatic Guard (Example: Power
constant need to ensure that they are Press.)
operating correctly and designed to be fail This types of guard is linked to the machine
safe. Maintenance and inspection mechanism and physically prevents
procedures must be very strict. access and/or moves the operator away
from the danger zone when the machine
The interlock can be: begins working.
 Mechanical Source BS EN ISO 12100
 Electrical ENERGY Or in
 Pneumatic combination
 Hydraulic
An interlock guard must be

connected to the machine in such a way
that:
 It will not operate until the guard is fully
closed
 Opening the guard disengages the drive
 Prevents entry until machine has stopped
in a safe position.
Trip Guard – Sensitive Devices

A trip device does not physically keep
people away but it somehow detects when
a person approaches close to the danger
zone. It should be designed to stop the
Source BS EN ISO 12100 machine before injury occurs.
When access to danger zone is permitted A trip device depends on the ability of the
machine cannot operate and when closed machine to stop quickly and in some cases,
machine will operate but access to danger as below, a brake may need to be fitted.
zone is denied
In this case an electrical brake.
Interlock guard advantages
 Convenient for access
 Give flexibility of design
 A time delay can be built in
Interlock guard disadvantages

 Complex
 Difficult to inspect
 Difficult to maintain
 Subject to wear
 Subject to operator abuse
 If using a gate, worker can gain access
using a second person
Page 254 of 301

Trip devices can be:

 Mechanical in the form of a bar or barrier
 Electrical in the form of a trip switch on an
actuator rod, wire or other mechanism
 Photoelectric or other type of presence-
sensing device
 Pressure-sensitive mat.
They should be designed to be self-

resetting so that the machine must be
restarted using the normal procedure
Other devices
These are additional items of equipment
including two handed controls, and hold to
run devices which turns on the equipment
and maintains functions only as long as the
device is operated.
This means that it is not possible for the

operator to put his body into the danger
zone whilst the machine is working.
Two-handed control devices

These are devices which require the
operator to have both hands in a safe place
(the location of the controls) before the
machine can be operated. They are an
option on machinery that is otherwise very
difficult to guard but they have the
drawback that they only protect the
operator’s hands.
Page 255 of 301

It is therefore essential that the design  The hand controls should be situated at
does not allow any other part of the such a distance from the danger point
operator’s body to enter the danger zone that, on releasing the controls, it is not
during operation. More significantly, they possible for the operator to reach the
give no protection to anyone other than the danger point before the motion of the
operator. dangerous parts has been arrested or,
where appropriate, arrested and
reversed
Hold-to-run control
This is a control which allows movement of
the machinery only as long as the control is
held in a set position. The control must
return automatically to the stop position
when released.
Shrouded two handed control
Where two-handed controls are used, the

following principles must be followed:
 The controls should be so placed,
separated and protected as to prevent
spanning with one hand only, being
operated with one hand and another
part of the body, or being readily bridged Source BS EN 12100
 It should not be possible to set the
Where the machinery runs at crawl speed,
dangerous parts in motion unless the
controls are operated within this speed should be kept as low as
practicable.
approximately 0.5 seconds of each
other. Having set the dangerous parts in
Hold-to-run controls give even less
motion, it should not be possible to do so
protection to the operator than two-handed
again until both controls have been
controls and have the same main
 Returned to their off position
drawback in that they give no protection to
 Movement of the dangerous parts
anyone other than the operator.
should be arrested immediately or,
where appropriate, arrested and
However, they are extremely useful for
reversed if one or both controls are
operations such as setting, where access
released while there is still danger from
may well be necessary and safeguarding
movement of the parts
by any other means is difficult to achieve.
Page 256 of 301

Safety Devices (Protective Appliances) Safety devices or protective appliances are
Safety devices or protective appliances are additional items of equipment or hand held
additional items of equipment or hand held devices such as jigs, fixtures, riving knives
devices such as push sticks that enable or push sticks that enable work-pieces to
work-pieces to be fed into machinery while be fed into machinery while keeping body
not having to put body parts into the danger parts clear of the danger zone.
zone.
A push stick
A push stick is a safety device designed to
allow people to push wood through a saw,
router, or other cutting device while
keeping hands clear of the blades. In
addition to improving workplace safety,
push sticks can also help people better
control the pressure on the wood, resulting
in smoother, cleaner cuts.
Source BS EN 12100
Stores stocked with woodworking supplies

often stock push sticks and people can also
make their own from scrap wood and other
materials around the workshop. It is
advisable to use a push stick for any
project involving close contact with the
cutting edge, even if it seems quick and
simple.
Jigs and Fixtures

A fixture holds the work piece in position,
so removing any need to have the hand in
the danger zone, whereas a jig holds the
work piece AND guides the machine tool.
Page 257 of 301

Element 10: Fire
Effects of fire on humans
Health
 Death by asphyxiation
 Toxic poisoning
 Burns (internal and external)
Safety
 Structural failure leading to crush injuries
 Electrocution where the heat melts the insulation on live wiring and the worker comes into
contact
 Trips, slips and falls during the evacuation, especially when there is panic.
Fire triangle Oxygen is provided from the air all around

For a fire to start there must be three us and exists in sufficient quantity for the
elements present. These are usually combustion of most fuels, though other
represented in the form of a triangle, each sources are provided in the form of
constituent forming one side of the triangle. oxidising agents or oxygen cylinders.
Oxygen enrichment is a consideration in
confined spaces since this will result in a
much more intense fire and/or explosion
than under normal atmospheric conditions.
Fuel, the second constituent, surround us

in the furniture, materials such as wood
and fuels on-site.
Heat is the third constituent, (sometimes

referred to as ignition source) is also
always present though generally there is
not enough for fire to start. When more
heat is provided then the temperature rises
If any of the constituents is missing, and when fuels reach their ignition point a
insufficient or removed then the triangle fire will begin. This has the ability to spread
collapses, representing stopping an rapidly because of the generation of
existing fire or prevention of the start of fire. excessive quantities of heat.
Page 258 of 301

If one or more of these elements of the fire is removed, the fire will be extinguished or
cannot begin in the first place.
This can be achieved by:-

1) Cooling the fire to remove the heat- reducing the temperature of the fire by taking the heat
out of the fire – normally using water to reduce the temperature to below fire point.
2) Starving the fire of fuel – limiting the fuel supply by isolating the flow of flammable liquids,
minimizing rubbish by good housekeeping and minimizing quantities of fuels stored on-
site etc.
3) Smothering the fire by limiting its oxygen supply
4) Interfering with the chemical reaction - by interrupting the chain of combustion with for
example with Halon extinguishers. (Halons have generally been withdrawn because of
their detrimental effect on the environment, as ozone depleting agents.
Flammable or explosive range

Lower flammable limit Upper flammable limit
Fuel
Air
Flammable range
Too Lean Too Rich
Flammable limits, also called explosive limits, refer to the conditions under which a mixture
of a flammable material and air will catch fire or explode. If the percentage of flammable
material in the air is between the minimum and maximum limits, the presence of a flame or a
source of ignition will likely lead to rapid combustion or explosion.
The lower flammable limit (LEL) is the concentration below which a flame will not propagate;
the upper flammable limit (UEL) is the concentration above which a flame will not propagate.
A change in temperature or pressure may vary the flammable limits.
Page 259 of 301

Flash point and fire point Combustible materials can include
anything that will burn, but more energy is
Flash Point temperature required for a combustible material to burn
“The minimum liquid temperature at which so a simple spark is definitely not enough.
there is sufficient flammable vapour that
when mixed with air is capable of Paper or wood can be ideal examples of
temporary ignition under prescribed combustible materials and they are often
circumstances” solids but can be liquids and gases.
Combustible materials are a particular

problem because fires can be slow
developing and not obvious to the worker
for some time – these are known as
smouldering fires.
Flammable
Any liquid with a flashpoint of between 21
and 55oC. Example is diesel
Highly flammable
Fire Point temperature Any liquid that has a flash point of less than
“The minimum liquid temperature at which 21oC. Example is petrol.
there is sufficient flammable vapour that
when mixed with air is capable of ignition Extremely flammable
and continuous burning under prescribed Gaseous substances that are easily ignited
circumstances” when in contact with air. Example is
acetylene
Flammable vs Combustible
Flammable and combustible fuels are Maintenance of combustion
materials that can burn.
Fuel
The main difference between the two is  The fuel dictates all aspects of fire. The
that flammable liquids/gases can catch fire type of fuel, the form the fuel is in, or how
and burn easily at normal working much is present in the air will control its
temperatures, whereas combustible liquids susceptibility to fire
require higher than normal temperatures to Heat
ignite.  The level of heat required to cause
ignition is dictated by the format (solid,
The technical classification of these liquids liquid, vapour or gas) and type of fuel
is based on their flash points. Oxygen
 This is provided from the air around us.
Flammable is a material that can easily Other than in specialised industrial
catch fire under normal circumstances and applications and oxidisers, it is always
with the help of minimal ignition source. present
Just a spark is sufficient enough. An ideal
example of a flammable substance is For the combustion process to be
propane. Flammable products are normally maintained all three of the above
liquids and gases. components must remain present
Page 260 of 301

Fire Facts – Australian Study
A study in Australia which interviewed workers in the workplace about fire related issues
concluded that;
1. Less than 50% of building occupants feel confident of knowing what action to take and
where to evacuate to during an emergency
2. Less than 50% of building occupants feel confident in how to operate a fire extinguisher
3. Less than 25% of people when randomly tested can locate their nearest fire extinguisher
from memory without searching the building
4. Over 50% of the people who operate a fire extinguisher do so incorrectly or dangerously
(i.e. not using the correct extinguisher, not sweeping across the fire, not continuing to spray
after the fire is out and not aiming at the base of a fire or using the incorrect fire extinguisher)
5. Only 13% of people are aware that different types of fire extinguishers must be used on
different classes of fire.
Fuel oxygen and heat sources in the workplace.
Workplace sources of the 3 elements of fuel, oxygen and heat (ignition) include:-
Source of Fuel Sources of Oxygen Sources of Heat

Flammable dusts. Atmosphere. Arson.
Flammable gases. Oxidising chemicals. Cooking.
Flammable liquids. Oxygen / air cylinders. Electrical Equipment.
Flammable chemicals. Compressors and piped Engines / boilers.
systems.
Electrical equipment. Ventilation systems. Friction.
Paper, card. Hot processes.
Plastics, rubber and Heaters.
foam.
Furniture, textiles. Lighting.
Fixtures, fittings. Machinery.
Waste materials. Naked flames.
Wood. Smokers’ materials.
Static
Welding / hot work.
Page 261 of 301

European Fire Classification System For fires involving live electrical equipment
Fires are commonly classified into five where the power supply cannot be isolated
categories according to the fuel type and and there is a risk of electrical shock, the
means of extinction plus extinguisher agent must be non-
conductive, such as CO2, vapourising
Class A liquids and dry powder.
Fires involving solid materials, normally of
an organic nature, in which the combustion American Fuel Classification System
occurs with the formation of glowing
embers, e.g. wood, paper, coal etc. Water Class A: Ordinary combustibles
applied as a jet or spray is the most Consists of ordinary combustibles such as
effective way of achieving extinction wood, paper, fabric, and most kinds of
(although CO2, foam, dry powder may also rubbish
be used).
Class B: Flammable liquids and gases
Class B These are fires whose fuel is flammable or
Flammable liquids such as petrol, oils, combustible liquid or gas. The US system
spirits, alcohols, greases and fats. Here designates all such fires "Class B".
the smothering effect of agents which
exclude oxygen are the most effective: Class C: Electrical
foam, CO2 and vaporising liquids and water Electrical fires are fires involving potentially
as a spray. energized electrical equipment.
Class C Class D: Metals

Fires involving flammable gases such as These fires consist of combustible metals
Propane, Butane, natural gas requires dry such as magnesium, potassium, titanium,
powder and foam. Extinguishers used on and magnesium.
liquid gas spillage’s work by smothering.
Class K: Cooking oils and fats (kitchen
Class D fires)
Fires involving metals e.g. magnesium or Class K fires involve unsaturated cooking
aluminium. They can only be extinguished oils in well-insulated cooking appliances
by use of dry powders which include talc, located in commercial kitchens.
soda ash, limestone and dry sand. All
extinguishers work by smothering.
Class F
Fires involving cooking oils and fats. The
foam congeals on top of the oils and
excludes the oxygen.
Fire Involving electrical risk

It is imperative to first disconnect the power
supply. The fire can then be dealt with
according to the classification of the type of
fire as indicated above
Page 262 of 301

Common causes and consequences of Convection currents can carry hot gases
fires in workplaces. produced by combustion upwards through
stairwells and open shafts, thereby
Heat Sources spreading fire to the upper parts of the
building. Prevention is by fire separation
Mechanically generated sparks – from and compartmentation of buildings by the
grinding metals, welding, impact tools use of fire resisting doors/walls, dampers
and fire stopping of openings.
Electrically generated sparks – electrical
switch gear, static electricity Conduction
May occur in solids, liquids or gases, but
Naked flames – from smoking materials, most clearly present in solids. Most metals
cooking appliances, space heating/drying are good conductors, including structural
appliances, braziers and tar boilers steelwork and pipework. Glass, wood, cork
and asbestos are poor conductors.
Hot surfaces - from lighting, cooking, Prevention is by insulating structural
heating appliances, braziers, tar steelwork with fire resistant materials so
boilers, plant and machinery, poorly they do not gain heat & conduct it to
ventilated equipment, faulty and/or badly another area.
lubricated equipment, hot bearings and
drive belts. Originally carried out using asbestos but
now done with dry linings & spray coatings.
Exothermic reaction – the heat created
from the chemical reaction of two reactive Radiation
chemicals Heat may be transmitted in straight lines by
a means which is neither conduction nor
Fire extinction convection. This method of heat
 Cooling – removing the heat transmission does not involve any contact
 Smothering – removing the oxygen between bodies and is independent of any
 Starvation – removing the fuel material in between the fire and possible
 Chemical interference – stopping fuel.
oxidisation reaction
Prevention is by physical separation
between potential fires and other fuels
Principles of heat transmission and fire
including structures. If space separation
spread
cannot be achieved, then a fire resistant
 Convection barrier may need to be required.
 Conduction
 Radiation Direct Burning
 Direct Burning Here fire spread is by physical flame
contact with the nearby material.
Convection
Only occurs in liquids and gases. When As a material burns, it has potential for the
heated they expand and becomes less flames from the combustion process to
dense. Lighter liquid or gas rises, displaced touch and ignite other materials nearby.
by colder / denser liquid or gas. Cooler
liquid or gas becomes heated and a
circulation is set up.
Page 263 of 301

Principles of fire prevention CHESS Highly Flammable Liquids and
C ontrol of ignition sources liquefied petroleum gasses
H ousekeeping Dangers of Liquefied Petroleum Gasses,
E limination/minimisation of fuels LPG, cylinders. LPG is turned from gas to
S torage a liquid using extreme pressure. By doing
S afe systems of work this, the capacity of the cylinder is actually
250 time greater than if it were not
Design features of equipment to prevent pressurised, that is, every one litre of LPG
electrically generated sparks: is the equivalent of 250 litres of gas.
Flameproof equipment This process adds additional hazards to

This is totally enclosed equipment the situation, including the flammability of
designed to withstand any explosion within the LPG itself and the very high pressure,
the equipment/apparatus, so preventing both of which require the cylinder to be very
any internal ignition of gas from passing out strong, thick and therefore heavy, to resist
of the equipment/appliance and igniting the the pressure and protect the gas from
surrounding flammable atmosphere. escape.
Intrinsically safe equipment Additionally, when high pressure gases

Equipment where the electrical energy is discharge rapidly, they also create a
reduced to a level so low as being “cooling” effect, (endothermic), causing the
incapable of providing sufficient energy to cylinder itself to become very cold causing
become an ignition (heat) source. additional hazards to workers.
Measures available to minimise the risk

of fire from electrical equipment For safe transportation, storage and use
 Correct selection of equipment to we must consider:
ensure it is suitable for the environment  Suitable and safe storage
e.g. flameproof  Handling and transportation
 Pre-use visual inspection by the user  Safety signs and information
 Ensure the correct fuse rating  Fire prevention
 Ensuring circuits and sockets are not  Fire precautions
overloaded
 Disconnecting or isolating eqpt when not
in use Main hazards of LPG
 Protection of cables from mechanical  Fire and explosion due to release of high
damage by careful routing or using pressure and/or highly flammable gases
armoured cable  Frostbite due to touching very cold
 Regular inspection, testing and cylinders
maintenance  Asphyxiation by exclusion of oxygen
 Uncoiling extension cables  Manual handling of the cylinders
 Checking all vents are clear and
unobstructed
Page 264 of 301

Storage of LPG Storage options
 Store rooms
Secure  Bins – max 50 Litres Highly Flammable
 well vented (not normally in buildings) Liquids or 250 Litres of Flammable
 appropriate warning signs liquids stored in a suitable fire resistant
bin inside a workplace.
Physically and mechanically protected  Tanks
 weather  Containers
 valve caps  Compounds and yards
Full and empty containers All Containers shall be marked “highly

 Stored upright flammable liquids”, or “flammable liquids”,
 Mechanically restrained and there should be “no smoking” signs.
 Separated full from empty
 Clearly marked for content
Compatible materials only stored

together
 e.g. oxygen not stored close to
acetylene
Provision of suitable and adequate

FAFFE
 Foam or powder
Fire precautions
 Appropriate firefighting equipment,
Safe storage and use of liquefied (FAFFE), to be provided and available at
petroleum gases and highly flammable all times
liquids  A suitable means of escape must be:
 Provided
 Clearly signed
 Available at all times
 Kept clean and absence of combustibles
near by
 No naked fames or sparks in the area
 Flameproof equipment used for lighting
etc.
 Possible use of spark arrestors
Page 265 of 301

Detailed control measures should Storeroom requirement for highly
include:- flammable liquid in occupied buildings
 Selection of suitable, sealed containers  Storerooms in occupied buildings
 Clearly labelling the containers with should be fire resisting. Quantities up to
information about their contents 50 litres may be kept in a workroom in a
 Storing containers at a safe distance suitable fire resisting cupboard/bin.
from the process area  Adequate ventilation (at least 5 air
 Protected against sunlight changes/hour) should be provided for
 Kept in a store constructed of fire storerooms. Vent openings should be
resistant materials which is clearly 1% of the total surface area of the room
marked and should not be sited in the fire
 Limiting quantities in use on site resisting parts of the store room.
 Preventing vapour build up by providing
good ventilation  Where the whole storeroom structure is
 Removing likely sources of ignition fire resisting a suitable mechanical
 Prevent or reducing the impacts of ventilation system should be used. An
spillages by using non spill caps or alarm should indicate when not
bunding area where containers are operating. The fan motor should be in a
stored safe area or protected to zone 2
 Providing spill kits and training workers standard.
in use  Bunding is required in storerooms,
 Segregation of full and empty containers cupboards and bins and any heating
system should not be an ignition source.
 Suitable electrical equipment such as
fireproof or intrinsically safe  External buildings should have
explosion relief (usually light weight
 Providing workers with PPE such as
roof). Internal storerooms will also need
flame retardant overalls
to have explosion relief to a safe area
 Providing suitable firefighting equipment
(one wall of storeroom should be an
such as powder filled
external wall).
 Safe systems of work for handling and
 Dispensing of liquids should be done in
storage of the liquids
areas separated from storage areas.
 Training of workers in the hazards and Static protection and ignition prevention
control measures must be established, adequate
ventilation provided and spillage
Requirements for the storage of small protection provided.
quantities of highly flammable (up to 50
litres) or flammable (up to 250 litres)
liquids
Storage in buildings is permitted if in a safe

position.
Page 266 of 301

Structural measures designed to Fire doors
prevent smoke and fire spread The term fire door refers to a smoke and
 Compartmentation by use of fire fire resisting door. Fire doors are required
resisting materials such as concrete, to act as a barrier to the passage of smoke
brick etc. and fire since they form part of the fire
 Fire doors compartment. Fire door integrity is
 Fire Stopping maintained as the door-leaf is designed not
 Smoke Vents to warp in the frame under the effects of
 Fire dampers fire. Secondary restraint is then provided
 Sprinkler systems by the clamping action of intumescent
seals.
Structural fire protection – segregation
by walls, floors and fire doors Each section should be protected from fire
in adjoining areas by fire resistant doors
Compartmentation which have fire resistance of 30 minutes
Wherever possible large spaces in and close automatically in the event of a
buildings should be divided up into smaller fire. (Provided they are not wedged open).
separate compartments by fire resistant This will hold back the fire and smoke to
walls which should be carried up to the enable occupants to safely leave the
ceiling or roof. building.
National building laws and codes of Fire doors should be fitted with effective
practice will require building designers to self-closing devices and labelled ‘Fire Door
compartmentalise all structures. A Keep Shut’. Self-closing doors may be held
compartment is a part of a building that is open with automatic door release
separated from all other parts by walls and mechanisms linked to the fire alarm system
floors, and is designed to contain a fire for or activated by independent smoke
a specified time. detectors either side of the door. The
release mechanism should operate on
This fire compartmentation will be rated to power failure, on fire alarm activation or
resist the spread of fire and smoke for a operation of one of the independent smoke
specific period of time (normally 30 detectors.
minutes).
Fire resistance
All elements of the compartment will be Combustible materials, when present in a
rated to the same standard. building as large continuous areas, such as
for lining walls and ceilings, readily ignite
Compartmentation concerns and contribute to spread of fire over their
subdividing a building into separate fire surfaces. This can represent a risk to life in
compartments in order to: buildings, particularly where walls of fire
 Restrict fire growth and the spread of fire escape routes and stairways are lined with
materials of this nature.
 Enclose specific fire hazards
 Provide safe refuges and means of
Materials are tested by insurance bodies
escape
and fire research establishments.
 Assist fire-fighting operations
The purpose of the tests is to classify
Compartmentation can be horizontal or materials according to the tendency for
vertical flame to spread over their surfaces.
Page 267 of 301

As with all standardised test methods, care emergency, when evacuation may not be
must be taken when applying test results to safe or possible. Occupants will stay there
real applications. until rescued by fire fighters. Typical
examples of where we might find a refuge
Levels of fire resistance will include where:
 30 minute
 one hour  People who cannot access a safe
 two hour escape route
 Anyone helping another person who is
Fire stopping prevented from escaping
Ceiling and floor voids should be clear of  People with a disability may prevent
debris and protected to prevent the spread them escaping
of fire from one compartment to another.  Immobile patients are in a hospital
Where a cavity occurs over or under a fire-  The old, sick or otherwise infirm or
resistant wall it should be separated by a immobile
fire-resistant partition. Gaps around
services, e.g. pipes, cables, etc. passing Behaviour of common building
through a fire resistant wall should be ‘fire materials when in a fire
stopped’ with a material, e.g. plaster, filler,
etc. of the same fire resistance as the wall. Steel
Spreads fire by conduction and requires
Smoke Vents treatment. It loses 66% strength at 6000C
These are fitted into the roof of structures and begins to distort or sag since it
and operate when subjected to the hot expands when hot and changes properties
convection gases. This will when cooled.
means that all heat and smoke is now
exhausted to atmosphere. Concrete
Dehydrates, crumbles and collapses.
Fire dampers When heated above 3000C steel
Ventilation and heating ducts must be fitted reinforcing bars begin to deform and cause
with fire dampers where they pass through spalling (blistering and breaking away of
compartment walls and floors concrete surface)
Sprinkler systems If steel reinforcement is heated then it

These minimise the spread of fire and reaches a critical temperature 5500C loses
smoke by operating only in the area where 50% of strength. It also loses structural
the fire is located. integrity on cooling but does not normally
collapse suddenly.
Fire refuges
These are required where the fire risk Brick and block
assessment indicates that it is unlikely that Provides vital role of non-combustible and
people will be able to evacuate safely to a fire resistant element and can protect other
suitable assembly point. It is a structure areas e.g. loadbearing columns, staircases
(control room on a chemical plant) or part and shafts. Loadbearing brickwork has
of a structure (concrete stairwell) that is good fire resistance.
designed to resist smoke and flame for up
to 2 hours.
It is an area of a building designed for

occupation by people during a fire or other
Page 268 of 301
The important features which affect the Fire detection
fire resistance of a wall are: This can be either achieved by people in
 Thickness the area or by automatic detection. In most
 Applied rendering or plastering cases automatic fire detection systems are
 Whether load bearing or not the last thing fitted to a building.
 Presence of perforations (weaken
brick). During the construction phase heavy
reliance is placed upon the vigilance of site
Timber (Wood) workers and fire watch procedures. Small
 Fire resistance primarily depends on: domestic style detectors could be utilised
 Thickness and cross sectional area in sensitive areas but these will only give
 Type – hardwoods are better than localised warning.
softwoods
Fuel oil and gas tanks may be fitted
 Sacrificial timber
independently with detectors because of
 Treatment
their inherent risk should a fire start.
Building boards and slabs
There is nothing to say that a manual alarm
Fire resistance and surface spread of flame
system such as a bell or shouting cannot
characteristics are good qualities of board
be used as long as everyone understands
materials. If performance qualities are low
and can hear the system.
then requires treatment.
It is essential that the fire alarm is audible
Lime based plaster on internal walls if
in all parts of the premises. In noisy areas;
supported by lathing or expanded metal
premises where the deaf are employed or
has good fire resistance.
where an audible signal may cause panic
to the public, a perceptible signal, e.g.
Glass
flashing light may also be provided.
Non-combustible but generally offers little
resistance to fire. So standard glass is a
Warning may be manual or automatic such
weak point in compartment due to collapse
as gongs, bells, etc. suitable for small
and will allow radiated heat to travel
single storey buildings with low risk.
through it. However, there is fire resistant
glazing that can last 1.5 hours.
Break glass points - audible signal
throughout the building with indication on a
This can be in the form of wired glass or
central control board. These have the
laminated (Pyran) glass which comprises 3
disadvantage in that they rely on people to
to 5 layers with interlayers of intumescent
detect the fire and sound the alarms. There
material which reacts at 1200C to form
is no cover out of hours.
opaque shield and can also prevent
radiated heat.
Automatic systems provide continuous
detection and alarm sounding and can also
call the fire brigade, indicate precisely
where the fire is; and trigger extinguishers.
Alarms should be tested weekly and also

maintained regularly and records of the
tests kept.
Page 269 of 301

Manual Emergency warning systems No single type of detector is the most
 Shouting ‘Fire!’ suitable for all applications and the final
 Break glass points choice has to depend on individual
 Public Announcement systems circumstances.
 Whistles
 Bells Heat detectors. These operate using a
 Rotary gongs variety of physical principles:
 Klaxons/sirens  Melting of solids, e.g. Fusible links
 Expansion of metals, e.g. Bimetallic
strips
Automatic Fire Detection – When?  Expansion of liquids or gases, e.g.
 Sleeping occupants Pneumatic or hydraulic detectors
 Large numbers of people  Changes in electrical properties of
 High risk materials.
Detectors may be either fixed temperature,

or rate-of-rise detectors which only operate
if the temperature rise is rapid.
Point detectors protect a small area around

the detector whilst line detectors will
provide protection for any area
corresponding to the line covered by the
detector.
Smoke detectors. It is important to

differentiate between the visible and
invisible smoke generated by combustion
processes when selecting the detector.
 Ionisation detectors work on the

Automatic fire alarm systems principle that the small invisible particles
An automatic fire alarm system consists of produced early in a fire will interfere with
fire detectors and manual call points the movement of ionised air inside a
positioned in zones throughout a building. chamber irradiated by a radio-active
These are wired to control and indicating source.
equipment which shows the origin of the
alarm call, and activates audible alarm  Optical detectors rely on the
sounders. obscuration or the scattering of light by
smoking particles. They consist of a
A reliable power supply is required, light source producing a focused beam
including an emergency supply. Fire which is detected by a photocell. When
detectors are designed to detect one or the beam is affected by smoke an alarm
more of the three characteristics of a fire: is given.
smoke, heat or flame.
Page 270 of 301

Flame detectors Just in case:
Infra-red detectors respond to infra-red  On or more may be blocked by the
radiation which has the low flicker emergency
frequency characteristic of a diffusion  They need access to an area remote
flame typical of fires. from the main access points.
Ultra-violet detectors detect the UV Regardless of size or complexity of a

radiation emitted from flames. They are workplace, employers must consider safe
liable to be activated by sources such as and easy access for the fire and
lightning and ultra-violet lamps. emergency teams.
The extent or sophistication of the fire Emergency Evacuation Plan (Fire Plan)
warning will vary from site to site. For Each workplace should have an
example on a small open-air site, or those emergency plan. The plan should include
involving small buildings and structures, the action to be taken by staff in the event
‘word of mouth’ may well be adequate. of fire, the evacuation procedure and the
arrangements for calling the fire brigade.
Whereas on larger open-air sites, or those
involving buildings and structures with a For small sites this could take the form of a
limited number of rooms, such that a shout simple fire action notice posted in positions
of ‘fire’ might not be heard or could be where staff can read it and become familiar
misunderstood, a klaxon, whistle, gong or with it.
small self-contained proprietary fire alarm
unit may well be needed. High fire risk or larger sites will need more
detailed plans, which take account of the
On sites for complex multi-storey buildings, findings of the risk assessment, for
it is likely that a wired-in system of call example, the staff significantly at risk and
points and sounders will be required to their location. For large construction sites,
provide an effective fire warning system notices giving clear and concise
that meets the relevant national standard instructions of the routine to be followed in
case of fire should be prominently
Types of alarm displayed.
 One stage
 Two stage The notice should include the method of
raising an alarm in the case of fire and the
Access for fire, rescue and other location of an assembly point to which staff
emergency services and vehicles. escaping from the workplace should report.
Once the alarm is sounded, we need to  Means of raising the alarm
consider how the fire and rescue services  Means of escape
will access our site. Particularly large  Means of maintaining escape route(s)
and/or vulnerable sites, airports, large  Adequate and appropriate first aid
industrial sites, will have several access firefighting equipment
points for the emergency services to enter
the site.
Page 271 of 301

Fire Drills Provisions for people with disabilities
Practice Fire Drills should take place to Provision for disabled workers and/or
ensure that employees are aware of what visitors may have to be provided and this
to do in the event of a fire and for the safe can be in the form of providing places of
evacuation of the premises. They can also safety as refuges to await rescue. Other
show up any defects in the evacuation precautions could involve consultation with
procedures so they should be as authentic fire brigade, perceptible alarms, provision
as possible. of special escape equipment, appointment
of Fire Wardens to help evacuate and
details of locations of disabled workers.
Regular drills should be undertaken to:-
 Check that the alarm can be heard in all Personal Emergency Evacuation Plans
parts of the premises (PEEPs) are recommended for those
 Test the effectiveness of the evacuation people requiring assistance to leave the
procedures both generally and in building. PEEPs explain the method of
relation to specific requirements (such escape to be used in each area of the
as the need to ensure the safety of building on a case-by-case basis, and
disabled employees & visitors) when agreed are kept by the relevant
 Familiarise employees (particularly parties.
those new to the undertaking) with the
alarms, evacuation procedures, escape Benefits arising from regular fire drills
routes & assembly points so that, in the  Satisfying the legal requirement
case of a real fire they would know what  To provide instruction to employees on
actions to take action to be taken in the event of such
 Providing an opportunity for fire wardens an emergency
& others with specific functions to  Checking that the alarm can be heard by
practice their designated roles everyone within the workplace
 Testing the effectiveness of the
There may also be a legal requirement to evacuation procedure (especially for
provide instruction to employees on the disabled employees and visitors)
action to be taken in emergency situations.  Familiarising new employees with the
alarms, procedure escape routes and
Roll Calls are to be taken at the assembly assembly points
points to ensure that the evacuation is  Providing an opportunity for fire wardens
complete. (and others) to practice their designated
roles
Page 272 of 301

Fire Notices Means of escape
Fire Instructions Notices should be located Means of Escape is a continuous protected
throughout the work area informing route from nearby the place of work to a
employees what action to take on hearing place of relative safety.
the fire alarm or discovering a fire. When considering the suitability of a
means of escape we should consider:-
Such notices should consider the  The number of employees who will use it
disabilities of the workers/visitors found in  Any people with special needs
the workplace and must be able to be  The fire resistance of the structure
found, understood and comprehended by  The position and number of escape
the disabled person, for example: routes (ideally two)
 The presence of contents which are
readily ignitable
 The existence of open wells, open
staircases or other openings in the floors
which would permit the passage of
smoke and hot gases
 Tactile signs for the visually impaired  Use of building
 Tremblers and flashing lights for hearing

impaired
 A combination for anyone with perhaps

both impairments
Page 273 of 301

Emergency escape routes to be Travel Distances
recorded in building plans  Travel distance is measured by way of
Whereas we often require government the shortest route to a place of safety.
permission and/or approval to create a  The distance should be measured from
workplace and part of that approval may be all parts of the premises to the nearest
the suitability or design of the workplace for place of reasonable safety, which is:-
fire resistance and, very importantly,  A protected stairway enclosure
escape so often we must include all such (storey exit).
details, fire resistant walls and  A separate fire compartment from
compartments, escape routes etc., in our which there is a final exit to a place of
building plans, total safety
 The nearest available final exit.
This helps us in our planning but also can  Each escape route should be
help the fire and rescue teams when they independent of each other and arranged
arrive and can see our site layout an decide so that people can move away from a
the safest route fie evacuation. fire in order to escape.
All this planning and preparation is of no
use unless it is formally recorded and, then Escape routes should always lead to a
very importantly, distributed in an easy to place of safety. This should be wide
understand format, to all who may require enough for the number of occupants and
it. should not normally reduce in width.
The main requirements of a safe means Typical Maximum Travel Distances for
of escape will be:- construction sites
 Ideally 2 routes in opposite directions  Maximum Travel Distance only 1 exit- 9
 Fire resistant walls, floors and ceilings Metres
along the route
 Adequate size relative to numbers of  Maximum Travel Distance 2 or more
persons exits – 18 Metres
 Within travel distance guidelines
 Clearly marked/direction arrows In many cases there will not be an
 Emergency lighting alternative at the beginning of the route.
 Exit route free from obstructions
 Final exit door opening outwards and For example, there may be only one exit
readily/easily openable from a room to a corridor, from which point
 Fire/smoke doors on route/self-closing escape is possible in two directions.
 Fixed stairs to upper floors
 Exit to safe place/assembly point
Stairs
Stairways should be of sufficient width for
the number of people who are likely to use
them in an emergency and should not
normally be less than 1 metre wide.
Page 274 of 301

Escape Doors  Near each stairway so each flight
Doors on escape routes should open in the receives direct light.
direction of travel where:  Near any other change of floor level.
 More than 50 people have to use the  Outside each final exit.
door.  Near to each fire alarm call point.
 The door is at or near the foot of a  Near to fire-fighting equipment.
stairway.  To illuminate exit and fire safety signs.
 The door serves a high risk fire area  Within lift cars.
 The door is on an exit route from a  On escalators.
building used for public assembly.  In toilets and lobbies in excess of 8m2;
 Plant rooms.
People escaping should be able to open  Covered car parks.
any door on an escape route easily and
immediately. Each emergency lighting system
should be subject to a regular test and
Outward opening doors which have to be maintenance regime.
fastened whilst people are in the building
should be fitted with a single form of Directional Escape Signs
release mechanism, such as a push bar or (Safe Condition signs)
pad. Emergency escape routes and final exit
doors should be indicated by suitably
Where a door needs to be fastened for located signs. Signs should conform to the
security purposes staff must know how it requirements of country specific standards
works and a notice explaining the method which often requires a pictogram. If the
of operation and, if necessary a suitable route to be taken is not obvious the signs
tool should be supplied. may incorporate a directional arrow.
These devices are not normally suitable for On staircases and ramps the arrow should
use by members of public. leave no doubt as to whether the route is
up or down.
Emergency Lighting
All escape routes, including external ones, Signage can also be supplemented by
must have sufficient lighting for people to words such as ‘Fire Exit’. Where possible
safely evacuate. It should clearly indicate signs should be placed above doors and
the entire escape route and provide openings to which they relate, not less than
illumination of fire alarm call points and fire- 2 metres above floor level.
fighting equipment. It can be battery Assembly Points should be provided and
powered or supplied from a central clearly marked and all staff made aware of
emergency power source. Emergency their correct assembly point and the
lighting should be positioned:- importance of going to it.
 Near each intersection of corridors.
(near means within 2 metres
horizontally))
 At each exit door.
 Near each change of direction (except
on a stairway).
Page 275 of 301

First Aid Fire Fighting Equipment Portable extinguishers
(FAFFE)
 Dry Sand/Powdered Graphite - Class D Water
Fires (Colour code – Red)
 Fire Hose Reels Water extinguishers should only be used
 Fire Extinguishers on class A fires. Water works by cooling
 Fire Blankets the burning material to below its ignition
temperature therefore, removing the heat
Hose Reels part of the fire triangle, and the fire goes
Hose reels are usually a coil of 25mm out. Water is the most common form of
internal diameter flexible hose attached to extinguishing media and can be used on
a metal former permanently connected to the majority of fires involving solid
the mains water supply. materials.
They should be positioned near room exits NOTE:- Never use water on electrical or
or near staircase landings and if in flammable liquid fires. Water is a
cupboards clearly marked. conductor that can lead to short circuits
and the risk of shock. Flammable liquids
Wherever possible sufficient hose reels will float on water and continue to burn or
should be provided so that no part of the vaporise to form an explosive cloud.
building is more than 6 metres from the
nozzle of the hose reel when it is fully Foam Extinguishers
extended. (Colour Code – Cream)
Foam extinguishers contain water and a
The advantages of hose reels are that fairly chemical which produces foam. The foam
cheap to install and maintain, there is provides a “blanket effect which smothers
constant supply of water and the personnel the fire, thus separating the fuel from the
using the hose reel are not too close to the air supply. It also has a cooling effect.”
fire. Where they form part of the building These extinguishers are most effective
design they should be programmed to be when dealing with Class ‘B’ fires, i.e.
installed and commissioned as soon as flammable fluids.
possible during the construction phase.
Dry Powder Extinguisher
The disadvantages are that they are only (Colour Code – Blue):-
suitable for class A fires and also due to the The powder has a smothering effect and
volume of water can cause damage to chemically interacts and excludes oxygen.
equipment. The hoses could be poorly
located which may cause inadequate Designed for Class A, B and C fires but
coverage of the area required. Also the may only subdue Class A fires for a short
hose may be passed through fire doors while. Powders generally provide
preventing them closing. Another possible extinction faster than foam, but there is a
hazard is of people tripping over the hose. greater risk of re-ignition and this should
always be borne in mind. If used indoors, a
powder extinguisher can cause problems
for the operator due to the inhalation of the
powder and obscuration of vision.
Page 276 of 301

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Extinguishers Siting of fire extinguishers
(Colour Code – Black):- The following points should be considered
Smothers with inert gas blanket and when siting fire extinguishers:-
excludes oxygen.  On escape route
 Nearby identified fuels
This type is in effect a high pressure gas  At a suitable height
cylinder containing liquefied CO2 and fitted  Conspicuous
with a nozzle. It is safe to use on electrical  Same position - different floors
fires (it causes little damage to expensive  Readily available - max 30 m
electrical equipment) and on burning  Maintenance requirements
liquids.
 Training requirements
 Protected against damage and weather.
Use with great care – asphyxiation can
occur in a confined space – also, the
Inspection and Maintenance of fire
discharge tube and nozzle should never be
extinguishers
held in the hand during operation, as icing
Arrangements for the inspection and
occurs which can be very harmful to the
maintenance of fire extinguishers in the
skin.
workplace include:-
Wet Chemical  Daily checks (Fire Warden) to ensure
(Colour Code – Canary Yellow) extinguisher is in proper place has not
Cooking Oil Fires. This is a relatively new been discharged, lost pressure or been
style of extinguisher which has been damaged
designed to specifically deal with Class F  Weekly inspection (Fire warden) of safety
fires. This type of extinguisher congeals on clips, indicating device, corrosion,
top of the oil and excludes the oxygen. external damage
 Six monthly serviced by a competent
Sand person to manufacturer’s instructions and
Sand effectively smothers small solid fuel the date recorded on the extinguisher
or flammable liquid fires and excludes  Five yearly extended service by a
oxygen. It must be kept dry. competent person including full
discharge
Dry sand and some other powders are  Twenty year complete overhaul or
used on Class D Metal Fires as these are replacement
a specialist type of fire and they cannot be
extinguished by use of any of the traditional
fire extinguishers.
Metal fires can be extinguished by

smothering them with dry sand. However,
the sand must be absolutely dry or an
explosion may occur.
Special extinguishers specifically designed

for metal fires are produced, the
extinguishing agents used may be
graphite, talc or salt. All of these
extinguishers basically operate by the
smothering principle.
Page 277 of 301

Training
The Organisation should, where
necessary:-
 Take measures for fire-fighting in the
premises
 Nominate competent persons to
implement those measures
 Arrange any necessary contacts with
external emergency services,
 Training of ‘fire-fighting teams’ may be
desirable in some situations, but care
must be taken not to put employees at
risk
 Provide formal training for all workers
Summary: main requirements for a safe

means of escape in the event of a fire
 The provision of means for detecting the
fire and raising the alarm which should be
clearly heard throughout the building
 Ideally at least two escape routes in
different directions
 An acceptable travel distance to the
nearest available exit
 Escape routes have suitable fire integrity
 All fire doors to open easily, self-close, to
prevent spreading of smoke in the event
of a fire and open outwards
 Escape routes are clearly marked
 Emergency lighting is provided where
necessary
 Escape routes of sufficient width and fire
protected an kept clear of obstructions
 FAFFE is located along routes as
required
 There is a designated, appropriate
assembly point
 Provision of adequate, competent fire
marshals
 Regular fire drills requirements to ensure
the safe evacuation of persons from a
building in the event of a fire
 Procedures for the evacuation of those
with a physical impairment (e.g. Sight,
hearing or mobility
 Practice the evacuation at regular
intervals
Page 278 of 301

Fire Risk Assessment
Fire risk assessment involves the same 5 steps methodology that was covered earlier in
General Risk Assessment.
All that is required for a fire risk assessment, (FRA), is to use the same approach used in the
general risk assessment 5 steps
When carrying out a fire risk assessment the factors to be considered should include:-
 Construction and use of building
 Flammable materials
 Sources of ignition
 Work activities generating heat
 Methods of control
 Means of fire detection
 Means of raising alarm
 Means of fighting fire and maintenance of equipment
 Evacuation routes/Protection of evacuation routes
 Numbers of persons at risk
 Those who may specially at risk e.g. disabled
 Fire prevention training
 Fire drills
 Specific hazards which may affect fire and emergency teams, e.g. number and location of
LPG cylinders stored in various places around our site.
5 Steps to Fire Risk Assessment 5 step approach to fire safety risk

assessment
How a risk assessment is carried out will
depend on relevant standards and best Step 1: Identify fire hazards.
practice requirements, the nature of the Step 2: Identify people at risk.
building and work activities and the types Step 3: Evaluate, remove or reduce,
of hazards and risks. The risk assessment and protect from risk.
process should be systematic, practical, Step 4: Record, Plan, Inform and
and take account of the views of Train
employees, who will be able to contribute Step 5: Review.
practical knowledge.
Step 1: Identify Fire Hazards
Risk assessors will need to be competent
to carry out an effective fire risk Sources of ignition
assessment. Competence does not  Naked flames and sparks
necessarily depend on the possession of  Hot processes
specific qualifications, although such  Smoking
qualifications might contribute to the  Heating and electrical equipment
demonstration of competence.  Portable gas equipment
 Lights and light fittings
 Damaged wiring
 Multi-plug adaptors
Page 279 of 301

Sources of oxygen Summary of who is at risk
 Oxygen in the atmosphere  Risks to own workers
 O2 bottles  Other occupiers/employers nearby
 Ventilation systems  Particularly those sleeping where,
 Oxidising substances living/sleeping accommodation is
provided
Sources of fuel;  Contractors
 Wall and ceiling linings  All those with disabilities, physically,
 Furnishings visually or mentally challenged
 Paperwork  Lone and/or isolated people
 Stored combustibles  Visitors
 Flammable fabrics  General public
 Plastics
 Paints and thinners Step 3: Evaluate, Remove or Reduce
 Flammable liquids and Protect from Risk
 Rubber and adhesives
 LPG Evaluate
In order to evaluate the risk, i.e. the
Step 2: Identify People at Risk likelihood of harm and probable severity of
If there is a fire the main priority is to ensure harm occurring, the following should be
that everyone reaches a place of safety considered:-
(outdoors or a fire protected stairway)  Adequacy and effectiveness of the
quickly. existing fire prevention activities
 Consider the existing precautions being
As part of the fire risk assessment, taken, for example, provision of FAFFE,
consideration should be given to who is at fire doors
risk (employees and non-employees such  Review of existing procedural controls,
as contractors, visitors), including e.g. fire drills, fire equipment inspections
vulnerable persons, in and around the  An estimation of the risk (likelihood and
premises, how they will be warned, and severity) and the need for further controls
how they will escape. to be taken
 Next need to consider additional fire
This would include those with sensory prevention controls, fire precaution
impairment (hearing and sight disability). controls and fire procedural controls.
Possible controls might include;
For hearing problems the use of personal 4) Record, Prepare the Fire Plan, Inform,
trembler alarms, flashing lights and ‘buddy Instruct and Train
buddy’ system. The responsible person should record the
fire risk assessment for use by
For those with visual problems the use of management.
tactile way-finding and exit signs and
‘buddy buddy’ systems. The assessments may cross-reference
other documents and records, e.g. safe
systems of work, monitoring
arrangements, etc..
Page 280 of 301

Where further action is required following Contents of training programme for
the assessment then reference to, or the employees on fire (WWWWWH)
inclusion of, an action plan based on  Means of raising alarm/sound of alarm
priorities and set to timescales should also  Contact the emergency services
be included.  Fire evacuation routes/Fire evacuation
signs
 Who are and the role of fire marshals
Step 5: Review  Assembly points/Places of safety/role call
Fire risk assessments will need to be  When not to tackle a fire
reviewed if there is any reason to suspect  Types of fire extinguishers to be used to
that it is no longer valid, or if there is a maintain escape
significant change, resulting from:-
 Prevention of spread of fire/fire
 A fire incident, injury, dangerous doors/close windows
occurrence, etc..
 Not to use lifts
 Changes to the premises
 Evacuation in orderly manner/no running
 Changes to special, technical and
 Prevention of return/Disabled evacuation
organisational measures
procedure
 Changes to the organisation of the work
 The introduction of new equipment Hazards to which Fire and Rescue
 Changes to equipment plant Services can be exposed;
 Changes in personnel  Exposure to fire, heat smoke, fumes or
 Changes in relevant standards toxic gasses
 Monitoring or audit findings  Falls from height
 Advice or action from insurance company  Collapse of structures
 New information becoming available  Being struck by falling objects
 Improved control measures becoming  Contact with electricity
available  Explosion of such things as gas cylinders
 The involvement of young or disabled  Exposure to chemicals, radiation or
persons biohazards such as discarded syringes
 The passage of a specific period of time,  The need to move or handle equipment
as indicated in the risk assessment. in restricted spaces
 Struck by passing traffic
 Attacked by members of the public or
animals
 Stress from the work itself
Page 281 of 301

Element 11: Electricity
Electrical Theory
Electricity is a form of energy passing from one point to another in the form of an electric
current. This electrical current consists of a flow of electrons (charged particles) passing
along a conductor such as a metal, liquid or a gas.
For this flow to occur there must be a continuous circuit of appropriate conducting materials.
Some materials such as wood, plastic and rubber are poor conductors and so have an
insulating effect, which involves a high resistance to the flow of energy.
The strength of, or amount of energy in an electric current is determined by the pressure of
flow (voltage), and the number of electrons contained in that flow (current or flow rate).
 Current (or impedance) is measured in amperes (amps)

 Electrical pressure is measured in volts
 The unit of measurement of resistance is the ohm.
Ohm’s law
This is given by the following equation and shows the relationship between voltage, current
and resistance:
Volts = amps x ohms or V = C x R
Basic circuitry
The diagram represents a simple circuit causing

the bulb to light. The energy is provided by a
Power supply (electrical
current or flow of electrons passing around the
cell or battery)
circuit, driven by the electrical cell. Current is
measured using an ammeter and the units of
current are amperes or amps.
The current is pushed around the circuit by the cell
and this “pushing power” is known as the potential
A Ammeter difference and can be measured in volts. The basic
Bulb principles of this simple circuit can be applied to all
b electrical systems.
Hazard and risks of electricity: is fatal. The great majority of electrical

Introduction accidents result in electric shock and
Electrical hazards are different from other burns. Fire and explosion from sparks in
types of hazard found in work because the flammable atmospheres and radiation from
human senses provide no advance electric arc welding or microwave heating
warning, whereas an approaching vehicle are also possible causes of injury.
may be heard, the prospect of a fall may be
seen, or escaping gas may often be smelt.
About one in every 30 electrical accidents
Page 282 of 301

Electrical Risks Medium amounts cause increasing
Electricity is a hazard with a number of muscular tension, so that anything in the
risks associated with it. grasp can scarcely be released – a
condition which can quickly become
These risks can be remembered as dangerous. Higher amounts can cause
BSAFE fibrillation of the heart (irregular
 Burns (internal/external) from electricity contractions of the muscles), which is
 Shock/secondary injury almost invariably lethal due to cardiac
 Arcing caused by electricity arrest.
 Fires due to electrical overload/sparks
 Explosions initiated or caused by Research has identified that the critical
electricity threshold for a fatal electric shock can be
as low as 70v AC.
 Burns (External and Internal)
The passage of current can also cause This research also found that at 240v AC
burning of the skin at the points of contact. 50 Hz;
Severe burns can occur, too, from
exposure to an electric shock without Effect of current passing through body (mA
actual bodily contact. Damp and wet = milliamps)
conditions greatly increase the danger of 2-5mA threshold of feeling
electric shock and burns. 10 -15mA muscular contraction
20 - 40mA respiration stops
Electrical burns are different to ordinary 50mA+ fibrillation of heart and then cardiac
flame burns. They are caused by the arrest (death)
heating effect of the electric current
passing through body tissues and often It is important to note that death occurs at
occur in (and on) the skin layers at the local less than one amp, so a fuse does not
point of contact with the electrical protect against electric shock. This is also
conductors which gave rise to the electric the case with a circuit breaker as they are
shock. both designed to protect the circuit and
equipment from overload.
Electric shock frequently also results in
internal burns due to the passage of It is the voltage that determines the current
current through the internal organs as it through the body. Since reduced voltage
travels to earth. reduces the severity of electric shock.
Therefore, in high risk situations, for
 Electric shock example construction or maintenance
A person gets an electric shock when they activities, it is best practice to use reduced
becomes part of a circuit. The danger from voltage of 110 V wherever possible.
electric shock is directly related to the
amount of current that passes through the
body and to the time that it takes to pass.
At lower levels, the effect may be no more

than an unpleasant tingle, though perhaps
sufficient to throw a worker off balance and
cause a fall from a scaffold or ladder
(secondary injuries).
Page 283 of 301

The main causes of electric shock Voltage of the tool: The higher the
 The earth or ground wire becomes voltage of the supply, the greater the
disconnected from its plug terminal and severity of the shock. Touching a high
touches a live terminal so that the metal voltage supply results in a higher current
case becomes live; passing through the body. Thus low
 Wrong connections are made to voltage systems (e.g. 50v) are a means of
terminals on the plug or the equipment; making electricity safe.
 Damaged or missing covers on fuse and
terminal boxes, or on socket outlets,
expose bare live conductors; Current: The higher the current passing
 Flexible cables are damaged when they though the body, the greater the severity of
are dragged over sharp surfaces or run shock. This is dependent on the voltage of
over; the supply and the resistance of the body
 Makeshift repairs are made to flexible (see below).
cables with insulating tape alone. If a
person comes into contact with a live
electrical conductor a current will usually Duration of contact: the longer a person
pass through the body. It may take is in contact with a conductor, the greater
many paths through the body and its the chance of serious injury. For this
intensity at any one point is difficult to reason some safety devices (see later)
predict. are designed to operate very quickly (e.g.
within 0.04 seconds or 40 milliseconds) in
order to disconnect the power.
Path taken through the body: sometimes

electric shocks are not severe as the
current only passes through a small part of
the body. The most dangerous path is
where the current passes directly across
the heart.
Resistance: the greater the resistance

provided by the body, the lower the severity
of shock. Resistance can be increased by
wearing protective clothing, eg gloves,
gauntlets and resistant footwear. It can be
Factors influencing the severity of reduced by the worker being wet or
electric shock wearing conductive footwear. Path taken
 The voltage involved through the body (possible damage to
 The current involved internal organs).
 Length of contact time
Environmental ambient factors: these
 The path through the body
may affect the severity of electric shock,
 The conductivity/resistance of the body though usually due to a combination of the
 The conductivity of the environment reasons give above. Hot environments
 The nature of the contact where people may become damp due to
 Age and health status of the victim perspiration or humidity will increase the
likelihood because this will reduce the
insulation protection of their clothing.
Page 284 of 301

Ground conditions and type of However, arcing may also occur in low
footwear: whether a worker is stood on voltage systems particularly where there is
wooden floorboards, who is relatively well loose or faulty wiring, or wet conditions.
insulated, whereas a worker stood on the
ground is less insulated. The type of Arcing causes a particular burn injury
footwear is another factor – are they which is distinct from other types. It
wearing insulated or non-insulated generates ultra violet radiation which can
footwear. cause damage similar to severe sunburn
and a painful eye condition known as ‘arc-
eye’.
Gender: women are generally less
conductive than males. So an equivalent Molten metal particles from the arc itself
electric shock could be more serious for a can penetrate burn and embed in the flesh.
male. These effects are additional to any radiated
heat damage caused by the arc.
Health and age factors: some individuals
are more vulnerable to the consequences A person who is standing on earth too
of electric shock, for example those with close to a high voltage conductor may
heart or respiratory defects. Likewise very suffer flash burns as a result of arc
young and old people are at relatively formation. Such burns may be extensive
increased risk. and lower the resistance of the skin so that
electric shock may add to the ill effects.
 Secondary effects (including falls from
heights) Electric arc faults can cause temporary
blindness by burning the retina of the eye
Electric shock may also initiate secondary and this may lead to additional secondary
causes of injury. The involuntary muscular hazards. The quantity of electrical energy
reaction may throw the arm back so is as important as the size of the voltage
violently that the muscles become since the voltage will determine the
overstrained or ligaments become torn. distance over which the arc will travel. The
risk of arcing can be reduced by the
More often, however, the shock startles the insulation of live conductors.
victim and causes momentary loss of
control and balance resulting in falls. If  Electrical fires (common causes)
working from a ladder the fall can result in Fires may be started by electricity in a
more serious injuries than the electric number of ways.
shock.  Overheating of cables and electrical
equipment due to overloading of
 Arcing conductors
This is where electric currents ‘jump’ gaps  Leakage currents due to poor or
between conductors. This is most likely inadequate insulation
where there are high voltages and damp  Overheating of flammable materials
environments and typically occurs between placed too close to electrical equipment
overhead supplies and paths to earth such which is otherwise operating normally
as scaffold poles and, cranes and  The ignition of flammable materials by
articulates arm access machinery. arcing or sparking of electrical
equipment, including the showering of
hot particles from electrical equipment.
Page 285 of 301

The injuries associated with fire are Damage to internal organs
usually burns but may include other When an electrical current passes through
injuries such as smoke inhalation. the human body it heats the tissue along
the length of the current flow. This can
result in deep burns that often require
major surgery and are permanently
disabling.
Burns are more common with higher

voltages but may occur from domestic
electricity supplies if the current flows for
more than a few fractions of a second.
 Explosion
This includes injuries caused by explosions Muscular contractions
of an electrical nature or those whose People who receive an electric shock often
source of ignition is electrical. get painful muscle spasms that can be
strong enough to break bones or dislocate
Electrical explosions include the violent joints. These are the secondary injuries
and catastrophic rupture of any electrical and physical trauma
equipment. Switchgear, motors and power
cables are liable to explode if they are Stopping breathing (respiratory
subjected to excessive currents, which paralysis)
release violent electromagnetic forces and The electric current causes the lung to go
dissipate heat energy, or if they suffer into spasm and contract violently, stopping
prolonged internal arcing faults. respiration.
Explosions whose source of ignition is Stopping the heart (Fibrillation and then
electrical include ignition of flammable cardiac arrest)
vapours, gases, liquids and dusts by  The heartbeat is disrupted by the electric
electric sparks, arcs or the high surface current.
temperature of electrical equipment.  The heart flutters rather than beats.
 The heart pumps little or no blood
through the circulation system, (this will
The effects of electricity on the body usually need a defibrillator to restore the
rhythm).
Damage to the nervous system  If this does not happen then the heart will
An electrical injury has many go into cardiac arrest.
consequences to a body as the electrical
currents can travel through the nervous
system and burn out tissue in patches
along the way.
Tissue burns at entry and exit

Burns of the skin occur at the point of
electrical contact due to the high resistance
of skin. These burns may be deep, slow to
heal and often leave permanent scars and
there will also be burns at the point of exit.
Page 286 of 301

Work near underground services and Safe Systems of Work for underground
overhead power cables services
A safe system of work for working near
Buried (Underground) Services underground services includes four basic
Underground services may be elements, which complement each other
encountered wherever work involves and should always be used together:
penetrating the ground at or below ground
level. The hazards associated with  Planning the work – consulting service
encountering a cable or pipeline during an drawings for the indication of services in
excavation will vary considerably, the area (Plan)
depending upon the nature of the  Locating the services using cable and
contained service. The main services and pipe locating devices (Locate)
associated hazards are:-.  Safety digging practices (Dig)
Service Hazards Planning the Work

Electricity Explosive effects of arcing Planning the work through a site specific
cables. current when a live cable is risk assessment consulting service
pierced or crushed and
consequential fires.
drawings and the use of a properly
Gas pipes. Damage may cause a gas managed safe systems of work system,
leak immediately or some such as Permit to Dig, will help to avoid or
time later and ignition of the adequately control any hazards.
resulting flammable
atmosphere cases fire or
Locating the services
explosion.
Water pipes. Water under pressure may Buried services usually belong to one of
directly injure someone. the utility companies. Exceptions may be
Flooding may lead to risk of found near commercial, industrial or
drowning or undermine the military sites.
sides of an excavation.
Sewerage. Sewage is rarely pumped
under pressure. Sewers are Service owners should be able to provide
normally gravity fed. The readable, current plans showing the line
main concern is the risk of and depth (if known) of all their services in
contamination from / the proposed work area.
exposure to biological
agents.
Other pipelines. Toxic and flammable liquids
“One call” systems, (where all service
and gases. providers cooperate and share their plans
Inert gases that may displace with a central source), allow information
oxygen and asphyxiate e.g. from all service providers to be obtained
nitrogen, argon. from one contact, provided sufficient notice
Liquids under pressure.
is given.
Plans should not be expected to provide

the absolute truth of the location of
services. Services may not have been laid
to plan, the plans may be subject to errors
in the original drafting, subsequent
modification or reproduction.
Page 287 of 301

Plans can however give a useful indication Safe Digging Practice
of where to start tracing with locating Once a locating device has been used to
devices. determine position and route, excavation
may proceed, with trial holes dug using
Remember:- suitable hand tools as necessary to confirm
Do not believe the plans:- Check the position of any buried services.
Cable and Pipe Locating Devices Special care should be taken when digging
There are many types of cable and pipe above or close to the assumed line of such
locators’ detectors available to detect a service.
underground cables
Hand-held power tools and mechanical
Locators may not be able to distinguish excavators should not be used too close to
between cables or pipes running close underground services. Safety margins
together and may represent them as a differ for each service but power tools and
single signal. If, for example, two are sited mechanical excavators should not be used
one above the other, the lower one may not within 500mm of the marked run of
be detected. electricity or gas services.
Exposing one cable or pipe does not mean Excavations should run alongside the
that there is not another close by. service rather than directly above it.
Frequent and repeated use should be Final exposure of the service by horizontal
made of locators during the course of the digging using hand tools is recommended,
work as service location is likely to become as the force applied can be controlled more
more accurate as cover is removed. effectively.
The most commonly used is a Cable Spades and shovels with curved edges are
Avoidance Tool, (sometimes referred to as the tool of choice and digging techniques
a CAT), although others could be a metal should ease them into the ground with
detector and ground penetrating radar. gentle foot pressure.
Use of Locating Devices All services should be assumed to be live

The degree of confidence with which until disconnected and proven.
buried services can be detected depends
on a number of factors such as:-
 The training, skill and experience of the
operator
 The hearing acuteness of the operator
 The characteristics of the device being
used
 The calibration and reliability of the
locating device
 The type, length and depth of the service
 For cables, the magnitude of the current
being carried
 The effects of other nearby services
Page 288 of 301

Work near overhead cables Control Measures
Contact with live overhead lines kills and The most effective way to prevent contact
causes serious injuries every year. A high with overhead lines is by not carrying out
proportion, about one third, of inadvertent work where there is a risk of contact with,
line contacts prove fatal. or close approach to, the wires. If it is not
possible avoid working near an overhead
Because high voltages can arc across an line and there is a risk of contact or close
air gap, it is not necessary to touch live approach to the wires, you should consult
voltage parts to suffer a shock or burns. its owner to find out if the line can be
permanently diverted away from the work
These incidents often involve: area or replaced with underground cables.
 Machinery, e.g. Cranes, lorry-loader This will often be inappropriate for
cranes, combine harvesters, and tipping infrequent, short-duration or transitory
 Trailers; work, but could be possible for a two year
 Equipment, e.g. Scaffold tubes and construction project.
ladders;
 Work activities, e.g. loading, unloading, If this cannot be done and there remains a
lifting, spraying, and stacking. risk of contact or close approach to the
wires, find out if the overhead line can be
If a machine, scaffold tube, ladder, or even temporarily switched off while the work is
a jet of water touches or gets too close to being done. The owner of the line will need
an overhead wire, then electricity will be time to consider and act upon these types
conducted to earth. of requests and may levy a charge for any
work done.
This can cause a fire or explosion and
electric shock and burn injuries to anyone If the overhead line cannot be diverted or
touching the machine or equipment. switched off, and there is no alternative to
carrying out the work near it, you will need
An overhead wire does not need to be to think about how the work can be done
touched to cause serious injury or death as safely. If it cannot be done safely, it should
electricity can jump, or arc, across small not be done at all.
gaps.
The site-specific risk assessment will
One of the biggest problems is that people inform the decision.
simply do not notice overhead lines when
they are tired, rushing or cutting corners.
They can be difficult to spot, e.g. in foggy

or dull conditions, when they blend into the
surroundings at the edge of woodland, or
when they are running parallel to, or under,
other lines.
Always assume that a power line is live

unless and until the owner of the line has
confirmed that it is dead.
Page 289 of 301

Things to consider as part of your risk  If steel drums are used, highlight them
assessment include: by painting them with, for example, red
 The voltage and height above ground of and white horizontal stripes.
the wires. Their height should be  If a wire fence is used, put red and white
 Measured by a suitably trained person flags on the fence wire.
using non-contact measuring devices;  Make sure the barriers can be seen at
 The nature of the work and whether it night, perhaps by using white or
will be carried out close to or underneath fluorescent paint or attaching reflective
the overhead line, including whether strips.
access is needed underneath the wires;
 The size and reach of any machinery or The safety exclusion zone should extend 6
equipment to be used near the overhead m horizontally from the nearest wire on
line; either side of the overhead line. You may
 The safe clearance distance needed need to increase this width on the advice of
between the wires and the machinery or the line owner or to allow for the possibility
equipment and any structures being of a jib or other moving part encroaching
erected. If in any doubt, the overhead into the safety zone.
line’s owner will be able to advise you on
safe clearance distances; It may be possible to reduce the width of
 The site conditions, e.g. Undulating the safety zone but you will need to make
terrain may affect stability of plant etc.. sure that there is no possibility of
 The competence, supervision and encroachment into the safe clearance
training of people working at the site. distances in your risk assessment.
If the line can only be switched off for short Where plant such as a crane is operating
periods, schedule the passage of tall plant in the area, additional high-level indication
and, as far as is possible, other work should be erected to warn the operators. A
around the line for those times. Do not line of coloured plastic flags or ‘bunting’
store or stack items so close to overhead mounted 3–6 m above ground level over
lines that the safety clearances can be the barriers is suitable. Take care when
infringed by people standing on them. erecting bunting and flags to avoid contact
or approach near the wires.
Working near but not underneath overhead
lines – the use of barriers. Where there will Other options will include the fitting of slew,
be no work or passage of machinery or jib height and radius restrictors to prevent
equipment under the line, you can reduce access into the danger zone.
the risk of accidental contact by erecting
ground-level barriers to establish a safety For very short duration work possibly the
zone to keep people and machinery away use of a signaller sited immediately in front
from the wires. of the machine who will signal to stop, if the
machine begins to move into the danger
This area should not be used to store (exclusion) zone.
materials or machinery. Suitable barriers
can be constructed out of large steel drums
filled with rubble, concrete blocks, wire
fence earthed at either end, or earth banks
marked with posts.
Page 290 of 301

Passing underneath overhead lines So in summary the main control measures
If equipment or machinery capable of to reduce the risk to workers during
breaching the safety clearance distance excavations are:-
has to pass underneath the overhead line,  The detection of underground services
you will need to create a passageway by using plans or cable/pipe detectors
through the barriers.  Maintain minimum distances from
overhead power lines or even better,
In this situation: make the line dead.
 Keep the number of passageways to a  Supporting the sides by shoring,
minimum; stepping etc.
 Define the route of the passageway  Storing materials away from the edges
using fences and erect goalposts at of the excavation
each end to act as gateways using a  Means of preventing vehicles falling in
rigid, non-conducting material, eg timber such as stop blocks
or plastic pipe, for the goalposts,  Guard rails and toe-boards to prevent
highlighted with, for example, red and people falling in
white stripes;  Support for adjacent structures to
 If the passageway is too wide to be prevent collapse
spanned by a rigid non-conducting  Safe means of access and egress
goalpost, you may have to use  Testing atmosphere and providing
tensioned steel wire, earthed at each ventilation if necessary
end, or plastic ropes with bunting  Provision of PPE such as emergency
attached. These should be positioned escape sets for potentially hazardous
further away from the overhead line to substances and safety helmets
prevent them being stretched and the
 Inspection by competent person at
safety clearances being reduced by
regular or specified intervals
plant moving towards the line;
 Ensure the surface of the passageway is Additional precautions in areas used
levelled, formed-up and well maintained by the public
to prevent undue tilting or bouncing of In areas used by the public such as car
the equipment; parks if possible the car park should be
 Put warning notices at either side of the closed and totally fenced off for the
passageway, on or near the goalposts duration of the project, with no access to
and on approaches to the crossing members of the public or their vehicles.
giving the crossbar clearance height and
instructing drivers to lower jibs, booms,
tipper bodies etc. And to keep below this
height while crossing;
 You may need to illuminate the notices
and crossbar at night, or in poor weather
conditions, to make sure they are
visible;
 Make sure that the barriers and
goalposts are maintained.
Page 291 of 301

Electrical safety – general preventative In general it is recommended on
and protective control measures construction, and similar activities outside,
 Reduced voltage that portable tools are rated at 110v and
 Residual current devices that the supply is provided by a centre
 Fuses (overcurrent protection) tapped to earth (CTE) transformer.
 Double insulation
 Earthing Therefore, the principle is to reduce the
 Isolation mains voltage by means of a transformer to
 Inspection, testing and maintenance a lower safer voltage of 55 volts
 All electrical equipment and installations
110v Centre Tapped Earth (CTE)
should be constructed, installed and
transformer
maintained by a competent person, and
This is designed so that under fault
used correctly.
conditions the effective shock voltage is
reduced to 55v. The use of such
Reduced low voltage systems
transformers is sometimes referred to as
In practice the most important factor that
“reduced low voltage”.
determines the severity of electric shock is
the supply voltage.
For lighting, even lower voltages can be
used and are even safer. Another way to
The higher the voltage becomes, the
reduce the voltage is to use battery
greater the current passing through the
(cordless) operated hand tools. So these
body, and the greater the effect.
low voltage systems include battery
powered tools (12 or 24v) and 50v systems
Therefore, logically, that reducing the
(safe extra low voltage or SELV).
voltage can be used as a safety precaution.
Domestic mains systems at 220 or 110v

can be fatal and reduction to around 55v is
necessary to fully ensure safe operation.
+ +
110v
_ _
100 50
Page 292 of 301

Benefits of a 110v CTE transformer
Advantages Disadvantages
Available voltage difference is 55V ac - Specialist equipment/cables required for
injury is highly unlikely 110 V and this is expensive
Colour coded cabling, so system is easy to Lead from supply to transformer at higher
recognise voltages, needing protection with RCD
Residual current devices (RCD) To summarise the RCD detects a sudden,

An RCD compares the electricity flow to the large imbalance between the amount of
equipment with the return flow and if a electricity going to and returning from the
difference is detected the equipment is tool. Since death can be in 0.06 seconds
very quickly isolated. an RCD operates on 0.04 seconds.
N Residual Advantages
240v Appliance Current
L Device  Rapid and sensitive to operate
 Difficult to overcome by the worker
If current ‘A’ = current ‘B’
then induced current ‘C’= 0  Easy to use, test and reset
If current ‘A’ > ‘B’ then  Cannot be reset with a fault on the circuit
induced current ‘C’ operates
solenoid circuit breaking
switch
Disadvantages
Solenoid
 May isolate crucial equipment if one
Spring
Supply
RCD covers a number of distribution
points e.g. freezers and computers
 Mechanical device which could fail
 Only protects against earth leakage
These devices are similar to fuses and faults
circuit breakers in that they disconnect the
electricity supply under fault conditions. Fuses
A specially designed weak link which is
However, they differ in that they are NOT a designed to melt at a predetermined value
form of over current protection. RCD’s of current within an electrical circuit. It
work by comparing the current in the power usually consists of a short length of wire
supply line (live) to a circuit and the current which melts if the current exceeds a certain
returning to the supply point (neutral). level.
These should be the same; if there is a When the wire melts the circuit is broken
difference it means a fault has occurred. and the electricity supply is disconnected.
This results in the device tripping which Fuses are not intended to protect people
disconnects the supply. Typically an RCD from receiving serious electric shocks
will operate if a difference of 40mA is however, they tend to be inaccurate and it
detected for 30msec. may take some time before the wire melts.
The international standard for an RCD is The purpose of the fuse is mainly to protect
that it must trip within 40msec or 0.04 the equipment from overheating.
seconds.
Page 293 of 301

Fuses protect against excess current and A non-conductive barrier is put between
may be referred to as a means of “over the person and the conductors. This
current protection”. usually involves a plastic coating around
the conductors, but could be an air gap
Advantages between the person and the conductor as
 Cheap and readily available with overhead power lines.
 Protects equipment
An appliance which is double insulated has
Disadvantages the whole of the inside contained in plastic,
 Will not protect individuals underneath an outer casing. If anything
 Slow to operate, so does not protect goes wrong with the appliance, no live
against electric shock conductor can touch the outer casing
 Inaccurate because of the insulating plastic.
 Unsuitable or wrong fuse may be used Appliances which are double insulated
 Easy to override include electric drills and grinders.
 Needs tool to replace Outer casing
Circuit Breakers
Electromagnetic devices which perform the L
same function as fuses but operate faster N
they work by detecting the increase in
current electronically. If a current exceeds Insulating
a set limit the circuit breaker detects the layer
increase in the electromagnetic field
causing the circuit breaker to “trip” and Flexible cable
disconnect the supply. However, this
occurs too late to protect against electric
shock.
The symbol for double insulation is shown
above – a square within a square. You will
Advantages
see this symbol printed on the appliance
 Automatically switch or trip under fault
which is double insulated.
conditions
 Easy to test Advantages
 No tools required  Two layers of insulation prevent user
 Not easy to defeat contact with any live parts
 No earth required
Disadvantages
 May be mistaken for an RCD Disadvantages
 Does not protect the individual against  Physical damage may defeat double
electric shock insulation
Double insulation
Insulation is the most common means of
protection. This consists of two separate
layers of insulation which allows for fault
detection where one layer has failed the
other still provides protection.
Page 294 of 301

Earthing/Grounding Isolation
This is used in some countries as a safety When electrical equipment is not in use or
precaution since electricity will always try to when it is being decommissioned or
reach earth; and earthing means that there maintained it should be isolated to protect
is a low resistance path to earth. against injury.
All metal parts of an appliance or system This is more than just turning off, although
are connected to the earth. Under fault the process might be similar, it is identifying
conditions (e.g. if the live wire touches the the right circuit; turning off (often both live
metal casing) the current will take the path and neutral); testing to ensure the
of least resistance and flow to the earth. equipment is in fact ‘dead’ and ensuring
that the equipment or circuit cannot be
According to Ohm’s law, a low resistance turned back on (usually by fixing locks
in a circuit will lead to a high current. This using lock out tag out or LOTO) until it is
will cause the fuse to blow and therefore planned and safe to do so.
disconnect the supply.
 Provides a very low resistance path to  Safest option as it eliminates electricity
earth  May be physically locked off (LOTO)
 Specialist testing and maintenance  May isolate other equipment
 Needs professional installation  May be reconnected without use of lock
off
 Prevents live fault finding
Frequency of inspection and tests of electrical equipment

This depends on the amount of harsh treatment the equipment is likely to be subjected to.
For example, a construction site may require monthly tests, whereas an office may only
require 6 monthly or yearly tests.
However, the exact frequency is to be decided by a competent person carrying out a risk
assessment. There is guidance to help the assessor when deciding upon the frequency of
tests and inspections.
The keeping of records is important. Whatever organisational arrangements are in place for
the regular testing and maintenance of portable electrical equipment there should always be
a user check before the equipment is used.
Page 295 of 301

Example inspection and testing of portable apparatus schedule (HSG10&)
Test Method Pass criteria

1. Mains lead a) Visual inspection of No damage
connectors Un-openable
b) Attempt to open socket No movement
without tool No damage to outer protective
c) Attempt to pull cable from sheath or inner insulation
connector
2. Grommet/clamp a) Inspection of grommet Cable insulation through
grommet
b) Sharp pull of cable No appreciable movement
No rotation.
c) Rotation of cable
3. Mains on/off a) Visual inspection for No damage, correct switch
switch physical damage
4. Conducting case a) Visual inspection No damage
b) Earth resistance test Resistance 0.1 ohm (0.5
(current at 2 x fuse rating) ohms for < 3 amp)
c) High voltage insulation
500V AC min test No fault indicated after 5 sec
5. Insulating case Visual inspection Maker’s double insulated
Case: double mark visible. Case
insulated equipment undamaged
6. Accessible fuse Visual inspection No damage. Removal of
holders (e.g. multi- carrier does not permit live
socket extensions) part to be touched
7. Fuse Visual inspection Correct rating
8. Plug Dismantle and visual Effective termination of wires
and cables. Polarity correct
Portable appliance testing

The frequency of portable appliance
testing varies and needs to be relevant to
the risks involved e.g. portable equipment
used in environments such as construction
sites needs to be inspected more
frequently than equipment used in an office
environment.
 Polarity test (carried out on extension
cables and supply leads to ensure that
live and neutral conductors are wired
correctly)
 Earth continuity test
 Insulation resistance test
 Earth leakage test. Portable appliance tester
Page 296 of 301

The Institution on Electrical Engineers (IEE) in the UK have recommended the following
frequencies as shown on below, (extract from HSG107)
Combined
Type of Type of Formal visual
User checks inspection
premises equipment inspection
and testing
Construction 110V Weekly Monthly 3 monthly
sites 230 V Daily Weekly Monthly
Industrial Stationary Weekly None 12 months
Including I.T. Weekly None 12 months
commercial Movable Before use 1 month 12 months
kitchens Portable Before use 1 month 6 months
Hand held Before use 1month 6 months
I.T. Variable i.e. Monthly 12 months
Equipment used
Movable children’s Weekly 6 months
by public
Portable rides daily weekly 6 months
I.T. Weekly None 12 months
Schools Portable Weekly 4 months 12 months
Hand held Before use 4 months 12 months
I.T. 24 months 48 months
Hotels None
Portable 12 months 24 months
I.T. None 24 months 48 months
Offices and
Portable Weekly 12 months 24 months
shops
Hand held Before use 6 months 12 months
Note:- The above is only a sample of the suggested inspection and testing and the periods
can vary in the same locations for different classes of equipment.
Advantages and limitations of portable Furthermore workers are prone to bring

appliance testing (PAT) personal tools and equipment of their trade
The PAT system (officially known as the to site which may not be on the inventory.
combined inspection and test) allows tools Systems of safety assurance should be in
to be inventoried and tested at regular place when contractors are allowed to use
intervals. The intervals are determined by their own tools.
the extent duty that the tools are put to.
Inspection, testing and maintenance
The tests are recorded so that everyone All electrical tools should receive
knows that the tool passed a test on a inspection, testing and maintenance on a
particular occasion but this is not fool proof. regular basis by a competent electrician,
It is only as reliable as the last test so the and complete records kept.
user should not presume that it is safe
merely because it has a current test record.
The test regime is only as reliable as the

people operating it. Competent judgments
are required.
Page 297 of 301

Types of Electrical Inspection 240v fixed and 110 V portable and hand
held electrical equipment
User check  User check: Weekly
This involves a visual inspection by the  Visual inspection: Monthly
user prior to use of any electrical  Combined inspection and test:
equipment. Checking the general condition Before first use and then three monthly
of the equipment for any damage or
overheating and the integrity of connectors See the following sources of
(sockets and plugs) and cables. information:
Formal visual inspection HS(G)107 Maintaining Portable and

A more formal visual inspection carried out Transportable Electrical Equipment and
at periodic intervals depending upon the HS(G) 85 Electricity At Work - Safe
extent and conditions of use. It is a more Working Practices
thorough inspection of the above items
plus a check to ensure that all fuses are
correctly rated. Conditions that may increase the risk
from the use of portable electrical
Combined inspection and test equipment
A combined inspection and test (PAT)  Possibility of mechanical damage e.g.
carried out by a competent person at a on a construction site
frequency decided by the extent and  Exposure to the elements when working
conditions of use., with the objective of outdoors e.g. rain, wind, sleet and snow
checking that the equipment is functioning  Environments subject to temperature
correctly and of detecting potential faults extremes e.g. foundries or cold stores.
such as loss of earth integrity, deterioration  Environments where chemicals and
of insulation and possible contamination. corrosives are used, i.e. acids and/or
alkalis
Electrical installations should be inspected
 Flammable or explosive atmospheres
and tested and the results recorded in
 Dirty and dusty environments such as
accordance with national laws or
sawmills
regulations, (often every 5 years for
workplaces)..  Wet and humid environments such as
laundries and swimming pools.
An example of combined inspection and  Environments involving work at height or
testing (PAT) schedule from UK for the in confined spaces with increased
high risk construction industry likelihood of trailing cables
240v portable and hand held electrical

equipment
 User check: Daily
 Visual inspection: Weekly
 Combined inspection and test:
 Before first use and then monthly
Page 298 of 301

Typical signs of damage that might be ERIC PD and Electricity
identified during an inspection
 Plug socket hanging off the wall. Eliminate – N/A
 Damaged plug casing.
 Snatched, bare wires Reduce Reduced voltage equipment
 Scorch marks or time exposure (RCD) and
 Wrong fuse also earthing
 No fuse
 Bare wires or
 Damaged cable
Substitute Use of cordless 12/24v
 Out of Date PAT test sticker
battery operated tools
 Overloaded socket
Isolation Putting the cables and
Factors to consider when deciding equipment, (wherever
upon the frequency of inspections possible), in a place where
 Extent and conditions of use. humans never are required
 Age and robustness of the equipment. to go, so making it isolated
 Type of cable fitted from them.
 Number and competency of the users.
 Manufacturers recommendations Controls Procedural controls:
 Any foreseeable mis-use or abuse suitable inspection, testing
 Results of previous inspections and maintenance
 Results of any accident investigations
Engineering controls:
Lockout/tagout and double
insulation, circuit breaker,
RCD, ensure correct fuse,
the protection and
positioning of electric cables
PPE For live working insulated

gloves, boots, tools and mat
Discipline Providing IITS to all

authorised users, use of
signs, competent workers
and supervision. Not using
outdoors when there is wet
weather.
Identify which precautions are available to

minimise the risk of electric shock by
affecting either severity or likelihood
Page 299 of 301

Treatment for electric shock Detailed actions
Switch off the current, but if this is not
Action to be taken in the event of an possible free the victim by using something
electric shock that is non-conductive, long, clean and dry
1 Shout for help and ensure that the such as a piece of wood or rubber, or a
emergency services have/can be piece of cloth such as a jacket.
contacted.
Stand on non-conductive material such as
2 Break the contact by switching off the a dry piece of wood when carrying out this
current. effort.
3 If the casualty is unconscious, check Do not touch the victim before the current
breathing and pulse, and be prepared to is turned off.
resuscitate if necessary.
If the victim is not breathing, start artificial
4 If the casualty is unconscious place respiration, send for help and call a doctor.
them in the recovery position.
Continue artificial respiration until the
doctor or ambulance arrives. Cool any
burns with plenty of cold water. If the
casualty is unconscious place them in the
recovery position.
Page 300 of 301


BSS GC 2019-Syllabus Handout Master V1!14!01!20!1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

BSS GC 2019-Syllabus Handout Master V1!14!01!20!1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Page 1 of 301

The barriers to good standards of health and safety

An incident will include These typically include events like:

Differences between Safety and Health

Birds Accident Triangle

600 Near miss

Use and Limitations of Accident Ratios in Accident Prevention

MANAGEMENT BASIC CAUSES IMMEDIATE INCIDENT LOSS

POLICY JOB & PERSONAL UNSAFE ACTS UNEXPECTED INJURY

(ROOT CAUSES) (UNDERLYING

Wherever people seek to make a living or A strategy aimed at reducing/minimising

Carrying out Risk Assessments. To

 Economic background we grow up in

1 Using equipment without authority or 1 Inadequate guarding of machinery.

This is the point in the accident sequence

This domino is the end result of the accident

Provision of a safe place of work

Provision of a safe person in an unsafe workplace

 engineering controls and

(ii) Procedural controls:

Personal protective equipment (PPE)

The reasons for accident prevention

Indicators of an organisation’s health Cost of accidents

Study 4: Oil Platform in North Sea Legal

In economies with a high level of economic

It may be a mandatory legal requirement

Generally employers will be insured

The purposes of law produced by national governments

Function: Enforces a rules for society and allows for

 Designers, manufacturers, suppliers &

 Employees for themselves and others

 No charges for anything required to be

(b) Comply with instructions given for People: Internal

Sources of information – External

2.4.5. Employers and self-employed

Assess The contractor’s competence

Control Contractor whilst engaged by

Monitor Contractor both proactively

Evaluate Contractor’s performance

As health and safety specialists, we are

This framework is used by HSE Inspectors

Plan establish performance standard

Do Implement plans and achieve

As mentioned, above, a basic three part

Meaning of the term ‘health and safety culture’

Recommendations from the Ladbroke Grove

The benefits of a positive culture are Key indicators of effective communication

An employer should take account of the

Competence in Health and safety should

If contractors are used, employers have a

Someone’s level of competence only

“The essence of competence is relevance

Competence is the ability for every director,

It is what we do to achieve UNDERSTANDING

Methods of communication: So keeping a person’s interest and

Types of communication: Sight - this is the primary sense, and the

The average concentration span of a

Taste - this has a limited application,

Smell - this also has limited application in

Thus, training is most effective when a

Why it is important to use a variety of

Reference One way Competence

Consistent message Often no feedback Level of material

Accurate detail Time consuming Presentation