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BIOMASS, BIOFUELS, BIOCHEMICALS
MICROBIAL
ELECTROCHEMICAL
TECHNOLOGY
SUSTAINABLE PLATFORM FOR FUELS,
CHEMICALS AND REMEDIATION
Edited by
S. VENKATA MOHAN
SUNITA VARJANI
ASHOK PANDEY
Series: Biomass, Biofuels, Biochemicals
SERIES EDITOR: ASHOK PANDEY

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Contributors
Rouzbeh Abbassi School of Engineering, René Cardeña Laboratory for Research on

Faculty of Science and Engineering, Macquarie Advanced Processes for Water Treatment,
University, Sydney, NSW, Australia Instituto de Ingeniería, Unidad Académica
Ibrahim M. Abu-Reesh Energy and Environ- Juriquilla, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de
ment Lab, Department of Chemical Engineer- México, Queretaro, Mexico
ing, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar Carlos Castillo-Zacarias Tecnologico de Mon-
Juan S. Arcila Laboratory for Research on terrey, School of Engineering and Science,
Advanced Processes for Water Treatment, Campus Monterrey, Monterrey, Mexico
Instituto de Ingeniería, Unidad Académica Rashmi Chandra Tecnologico de Monterrey,
Juriquilla, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de School of Engineering and Science, Campus
México, Queretaro, Mexico Monterrey, Monterrey, Mexico
Kotakonda Arunasri Prof. Brien Holden Eye K. Chandrasekhar Department of Civil Engi-
Research Centre, L V Prasad Eye Institute, neering, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan,
Hyderabad, India Republic of Korea; Department of Bio-
Juan Antonio Baeza GENOCOV, Department technology, National Institute of Technology,
of Chemical, Biological and Environmental Warangal, Telangana State, India
Engineering, School of Engineering, Uni- Ka Yu Cheng CSIRO Land and Water, Floreat,
versitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Perth, WA, Australia; School of Engineering
Spain and Information Technology, Murdoch Uni-
Enric Blázquez GENOCOV, Department of versity, Perth, WA, Australia
Chemical, Biological and Environmental Govinda Chilkoor Civil and Environmental
Engineering, School of Engineering, Universitat Engineering, South Dakota School of Mines
Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain and Technology, Rapid City, SD, United States
Abhijeet P. Borole The University of Tennessee, P. Chiranjeevi Department of Earth and Envi-
Knoxville, TN, United States; Oak Ridge ronmental Sciences, Indian Institute of Science
National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, United Education and Research (IISER) Mohali, India
States Hulya Civelek Yoruklu Department of Envi-
Germán Buitrón Laboratory for Research on ronmental Engineering, Yildiz Technical
Advanced Processes for Water Treatment, University, Davutpasa Campus, Istanbul,
Instituto de Ingeniería, Unidad Académica Turkey
Juriquilla, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Nazua L. Costa Instituto de Tecnologia Química
México, Queretaro, Mexico e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade
Sai Kishore Butti Bioengineering and Environ- NOVA de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
mental Sciences Lab, CEEFF Centre, CSIR- Debabrata Das Department of Biotechnology,
Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur,
Hyderabad, India Kharagpur, India
xv
xvi CONTRIBUTORS
Ahmet Demir Department of Environmental Venkataramana Gadhamshetty Civil and

Engineering, Yildiz Technical University, Environmental Engineering, South Dakota
Davutpasa Campus, Istanbul, Turkey School of Mines and Technology, Rapid City,
Chirayu Desai P. D. Patel Institute of Applied SD, United States; Surface Engineering
Sciences, Charotar University of Science and Research Center, South Dakota School of
Technology (CHARUSAT), Changa, India Mines and Technology, Rapid City, SD,
United States
Pridhviraj Desale LaboratoireGénie Civil et
géoEnvironnement (LGCgE) Groupe ISA Lille, Lei Gao State Key Laboratory of Urban Water
YncréaHauts-de-France, Lille Cedex, France Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of
Technology, Harbin, China
Bipro Ranjan Dhar Civil and Environmental
Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Vikram Garaniya Australian Maritime College
AB, Canada (AMC), University of Tasmania, Launceston,
TAS, Australia
Sangeetha Dharmalingam Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Anna University, Rajeev K. Gautam Sustainable Environergy
Chennai, India Research Lab (SERL), Department of Chemical
Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Saurabh Sudha Dhiman BuG ReMeDEE con-
Delhi, New Delhi, India
sortium, Department of Chemical and Bio-
logical Engineering, South Dakota School of Veera Gnaneswar Gude Department of Civil
Mines and Technology, Rapid City, SD, United and Environmental Engineering, Mississippi
States State University, Mississippi State, MS, United
States
Ahmed El Mekawy Genetic Engineering and
Biotechnology Research Institute, University of Albert Guisasola GENOCOV, Department of
Sadat City (USC), Sadat City, Egypt Chemical, Biological and Environmental Engi-
neering, School of Engineering, Universitat
Adrian Escapa Chemical and Environmental
Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
Bioprocess Engineering Group, Natural
Resources Institute (IRENA) - University of Weihua He State Key Laboratory of Urban
Leon, León, Spain Water Resource and Environment, Harbin
Institute of Technology, Harbin, China
J. Satya Eswari Department of Biotechnology,
National Institute of Technology (NITRR), Hanaa M. Hegab Department of Chemical
Raipur, India Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, VIC,
Australia
Yujie Feng State Key Laboratory of Urban
Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Manupati Hemalatha Bioengineering and Envi-
Institute of Technology, Harbin, China ronmental Science Lab, CEEFF Centre, CSIR-
Indian Institute of Chemical Technology,
Ana P. Fernandes Instituto de Tecnologia Quí-
Hyderabad, India
mica e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade
NOVA de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal Abid Hussain Civil and Environmental Engi-
neering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON,
Bruno M. Fonseca Instituto de Tecnologia Quí-
Canada
mica e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade
NOVA de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal Kunal Jain Department of Biosciences, Sardar
Patel University, Vallabh Vidyanagar, India
David Gabriel GENOCOV, Department of
Chemical, Biological and Environmental Engi- Jenny Johnson Department of Biosciences, Sar-
neering, School of Engineering, Universitat dar Patel University, Vallabh Vidyanagar,
Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain India
CONTRIBUTORS xvii
Sokhee P. Jung Department of Environment P.N.L. Lens UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water
and Energy Engineering, Chonnam National Education, Delft, The Netherlands; Depart-
University, Gwangju, Korea ment of Microbiology, National University of
Ramesh Kakarla Department of Environmental Ireland, Galway, Ireland
Science and Engineering, Kyung Hee Uni- Alex J. Lewis The University of Tennessee,
versity, Yongin-si, Republic of Korea Knoxville, TN, United States
Vidhi Kalola P. D. Patel Institute of Applied Da Li State Key Laboratory of Urban Water
Sciences, Charotar University of Science and Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of
Technology (CHARUSAT), Changa, India Technology, Harbin, China
Rengasamy Karthikeyan Department of Biol- Nan Li School of Environmental Science and
ogy, Washington University in Saint Louis, St. Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin,
Louis, MO, United States China
James Kilduff Civil and Environmental Engi- Jia Liu State Key Laboratory of Urban Water
neering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of
NY, United States Technology, Harbin, China
Bahareh Kokabian Department of Civil and Wenzong Liu State Key Laboratory of Urban
Environmental Engineering, Mississippi State Water Resource and Environment, Harbin
University, Mississippi State, MS, United States Institute of Technology, Harbin, China
Sanath Kondaveeti Energy and Environment Ricardo O. Louro Instituto de Tecnologia Quí-
Lab, Department of Chemical Engineering, mica e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade
Qatar University, Doha, Qatar NOVA de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
K. Vamshi Krishna Bioengineering and Envi- Datta Madamwar Department of Biosciences,
ronmental Science Lab, CEEFF, CSIR-Indian Sardar Patel University, Vallabh Vidyanagar,
Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India
India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Elena I. Mancera-Andrade Tecnologico de
Research, Hyderabad, India Monterrey, School of Engineering and Science,
Vaidhegi Kugarajah Department of Mechanical Campus Monterrey, Monterrey, Mexico
Engineering, Anna University, Chennai, India Raul Mateos Chemical and Environmental Bio-
B. Sudheer Kumar Medicinal Chemistry and process Engineering Group, Natural Resources
Biotechnology, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chem- Institute (IRENA) - University of Leon, León,
ical Technology, Hyderabad, India Spain
A. Kiran Kumar Bioengineering and Environ- Booki Min Department of Environmental Sci-
mental Sciences Lab, CEEFF Center, CSIR- ence and Engineering, Kyung Hee University,
Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (CSIR- Yongin-si, Republic of Korea
IICT), Hyderabad, India J. Annie Modestra Bioengineering and Envi-
A. Naresh Kumar Bioengineering and Environ- ronmental Sciences Lab, CEEFF Centre, CSIR-
mental Science Lab, CEEFF, CSIR-Indian Insti- Indian Institute of Chemical Technology,
tute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India
India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative S. Venkata Mohan Bioengineering and Envi-
Research, Hyderabad, India ronmental Sciences Lab, CEEFF, CSIR-Indian
Hyung-Sool Lee Civil and Environmental Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad,
Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, India
ON, Canada
xviii CONTRIBUTORS
Gunda Mohanakrishna Energy and Environ- Education and Research (IISER) Mohali, Pun-
ment Lab, Department of Chemical Engineer- jab, India
ing, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar R.S. Prakasham Medicinal Chemistry and Bio-
Antonio Moran Chemical and Environmental technology, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical
Bioprocess Engineering Group, Natural Technology, Hyderabad, India
Resources Institute (IRENA) - University of Navanietha K. Rathinam BuG ReMeDEE con-
Leon, León, Spain sortium, Department of Chemical and Bio-
Y.V. Nancharaiah Biofouling and Biofilm Pro- logical Engineering, South Dakota School of
cesses Section of Water and Steam Chemistry Mines and Technology, Rapid City, SD, United
Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, States; Department of Chemistry and Applied
Kalpakkam, India; Homi Bhabha National Biological Sciences, South Dakota School of
Institute, Mumbai, India Mines and Technology, Rapid City, SD, United
G.N. Nikhil Department of Biotechnology, Dr. States
B.R. Ambedkar National Institute of Technol- Rohit Rathour P. D. Patel Institute of Applied
ogy Jalandhar, Jalandhar, Punjab, India Sciences, Charotar University of Science and
Emre Oguz Koroglu Department of Environ- Technology (CHARUSAT), Changa, India
mental Engineering, Yildiz Technical Uni- C. Nagendranatha Reddy Department of Envi-
versity, Davutpasa Campus, Istanbul, Turkey ronmental Science and Engineering, Kyung
Bestami Ozkaya Department of Environmental Hee University, Yongin-si, Republic of Korea
Engineering, Yildiz Technical University, M. Venkateswar Reddy Institut für Molekulare
Davutpasa Campus, Istanbul, Turkey Mikrobiologie und Biotechnologie, West-
Ashok Pandey CSIR-Indian Institute of Tox- fälische Wilhelms Universität Munster, Mun-
icology Research, Lucknow, India ster, Germany
Soumya Pandit Department of Biotechnology, Isaac Rivera Institute of Environmental and
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Sustainable Chemistry, TU-Braunschweig,
Kharagpur, India; Amity Institute of Bio- Braunschweig, Germany
technology, Mumbai, India Shantonu Roy Department of Biotechnology,
Deepak Pant Separation and Conversion Tech- National Institute of Technology Arunachal
nologies, Flemish Institute for Technological Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, India
Research (VITO), Boeretang, Mol, Belgium David R. Salem BuG ReMeDEE consortium,
Catarina M. Paquete Instituto de Tecnologia Department of Chemical and Biological
Química e Biológica António Xavier, Uni- Engineering, South Dakota School of Mines
versidade NOVA de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal and Technology, Rapid City, SD, United
States; Department of Materials and Metal-
Alka Pareek Bioengineering and Environmental
lurgical Engineering, South Dakota School of
Science Lab, CEEFF CSIR-Indian Institute of
Mines and Technology, Rapid City, SD, United
Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India
States; Composite and Nanocomposite
Piyush Parkhey Amity Institute of Bio- Advanced Manufacturing e Biomaterials Cen-
technology, Amity University, Raipur, India ter (CNAM-Bio Center), Rapid City, SD, United
Roberto Parra-Saldívar Tecnologico de Mon- States
terrey, School of Engineering and Science, Rajesh K. Sani BuG ReMeDEE consortium,
Campus Monterrey, Monterrey, Mexico Department of Chemical and Biological
Sunil A. Patil Department of Earth and Envi- Engineering, South Dakota School of Mines
ronmental Sciences, Indian Institute of Science and Technology, Rapid City, SD, United
CONTRIBUTORS xix
States; Composite and Nanocomposite Pier-Luc Tremblay School of Chemistry,
Advanced Manufacturing e Biomaterials Chemical Engineering and Life Science, Wuhan
Center (CNAM-Bio Center), Rapid City, SD, University of Technology, Wuhan, People’s
United States; Department of Chemistry and Republic of China
Applied Biological Sciences, South Dakota Inês B. Trindade Instituto de Tecnologia Quí-
School of Mines and Technology, Rapid City, mica e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade
SD, United States NOVA de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
Sambhu Saptoka Civil and Environmental Karolien Vanbroekhoven Separation and Con-
Engineering, South Dakota School of Mines version Technologies, Flemish Institute for
and Technology, Rapid City, SD, United States Technological Research (VITO), Boeretang,
Omprakash Sarkar Bioengineering and Envi- Mol, Belgium
ronmental Sciences Lab, CEEFF, CSIR-Indian Jhansi L. Varanasi Department of Bio-
Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, technology, Indian Institute of Technology
India Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India
Uwe Schröder Institute of Environmental and Sunita Varjani Gujarat Pollution Control Board,
Sustainable Chemistry, TU-Braunschweig, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Braunschweig, Germany
Ramya Veerubhotla Department of Bio-
Namita Shrestha Civil and Environmental technology, Indian Institute of Technology
Engineering, South Dakota School of Mines Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India
and Technology, Rapid City, SD, United States
G. Velvizhi Bioengineering and Environmental
Ana V. Silva Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Science Lab, CEEFF, CSIR-Indian Institute of
Biológica António Xavier, Universidade NOVA Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India
de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
Bhuvan Vemuri Civil and Environmental
J. Shanthi Sravan Bioengineering and Environ- Engineering, South Dakota School of Mines
mental Sciences Lab, CEEFF, CSIR-Indian and Technology, Rapid City, SD, United States
Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad,
Anil Verma Sustainable Environergy Research
India
Lab (SERL), Department of Chemical Engi-
Pratiksha Srivastava Australian Maritime Col- neering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi,
lege (AMC), University of Tasmania, Launces- New Delhi, India
ton, TAS, Australia
Ling Wang State Key Laboratory of Urban
Moogambigai Sugumar Department of Water Resource and Environment, Harbin
Mechanical Engineering, Anna University, Institute of Technology, Harbin, China
Chennai, India
Xin Wang MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution
Xiaohang Sun Department of Applied Sciences, Processes and Environmental Criteria, Tianjin
College of Environmental Technology, Mur- Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation
oran Institute of Technology, 050-8585 Hok- and Pollution Control, College of Environ-
kaido, Muroran, Japan mental Science and Engineering, Nankai Uni-
Kuchi Swathi Bioengineering and Environ- versity, Tianjin, China
mental Science (BEES) Lab, CEEFF Centre, Ai-Jie Wang State Key Laboratory of Urban
CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Water Resource and Environment, Harbin
Hyderabad, India Institute of Technology, Harbin, China
Ekant Tamboli Department of Biotechnology, Huanting Wang Department of Chemical
National Institute of Technology (NITRR), Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, VIC,
Raipur, India Australia
xx CONTRIBUTORS
Jonathan W.C. Wong Sino-Forest Applied Dileep Kumar Yeruva Bioengineering and
Research Centre for Pearl River Delta Environmental Sciences Lab, EEFF Center,
Environment, Department of Biology, Hong CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology
Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, P. R. (CSIR-IICT), Hyderabad, India
China Tian Zhang School of Chemistry, Chemical
Lichao Xia Civil and Environmental Engineer- Engineering and Life Science, Wuhan Uni-
ing, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, versity of Technology, Wuhan, People’s
United States Republic of China
Asheesh Kumar Yadav CSIR-Institute of Min-
erals and Materials Technology, Bhubaneswar,
India
Preface
Renewable energy generation using bio-based platform chemical synthesis

microbial catalyzed fuel cells is gaining prom- (as bioelectrochemical systems [BES]),
inence for its potential as an alternative and hydrogen/methane/hythane production (as
sustainable route. Scanning through the liter- microbial electrolysis cell [MEC]), water
ature, the first report on origin of electrical desalination (as microbial desalination cell
effects through microbial catalyzed reactions [MDC]), enhanced bioprocess (as electrofer-
was reported by Galvani in 1789 in “frog mentation [EF]) and waste remediation (as
muscles twitching with copper-zinc couples.” bioelectrochemical treatment system [BET]).
Subsequently, M.C. Potter in 1911 reported Each of these bio-electro-mediated processes
electrical effect accompanying the decompo- can be individually integrated with
sition of organic compounds in presence of acidogenesis, photosynthesis, and bio-
microorganisms such as Saccharomyces or anoxygenesis cascadically to close the loop
bacteria. It remained as one of the earliest enabling a zero waste technology. MET can
observations until 1980s, where research on be potentially established as a sustainable
synthetic mediators has lightened up the alternate with the energy harnessed being
idea of using bacteria-catalyzed fuel cells later clean, green, and renewable in nature. These
termed as “microbial fuel cells (MFC).” How- applications in numerous mundane activities
ever, from 2000 onward the concept has has potential to lower the carbon footprint
resurfaced and gained significant attention on the environment and garner significance
in the research fraternity due to its inherent toward a bio-based circular bioeconomy.
scope for wider application, initially with In this context, this book “Microbial
specific focus on renewable energy genera- Electrochemical Technology: Sustainable Plat-
tion and later by integrated with waste form for Fuels, Chemicals and Remediation”
remediation. aims to comprehensively bring forth the
Understanding on this concept has been recent scientific developments in this
rapidly stretched to cover several domains domain. This book aimed to disseminate
and applications since the past 15 years, giv- the wide information on diverse applications
ing rise to development of “microbial elec- of METs at one juncture as a single source,
trochemical technology (MET)” as a describing details about materials, bio-
platform technology. In this course of devel- catalysts, design, and configurations as well
opment, METs have sprung into current as understanding the process mechanism.
research paving a newfound path for renew- The primary focus is to draw attention in
able energy/fuel generation, chemicals syn- terms of improving microbial electrometabo-
thesis, and waste remediation. METs with lism, bioelectrogenesis, multiple product syn-
their malleable nature have been signifi- thesis, complex waste remediation, carbon
cantly diversified to find their applications dioxide sequestration, etc., along with dis-
in bioelectricity generation (as MFC), cussing the major bottlenecks that need to
xxi
xxii PREFACE
be addressed. The interdisciplinary approach • Widened scope of the existing technolo-

encompasses electrochemistry, material sci- gies giving up-to-date state-of-the-art in-
ence, microbiology, bioengineering, energy formation and knowledge in various
engineering, environmental management, aspects for research and
etc., that are essential to scale up the process commercialization.
with economic viability and socioeconomic • Topics providing interdisciplinary
acceptance. The chapters were written by knowledge on the electrochemistry,
experienced researchers who have been microbiology, material science, environ-
working in the interface of electrochemistry ment, molecular biology, engineering,
and biotechnology. The progress and devel- biotechnology, and economic aspects.
opments in MET were comprehensively out- • Comprehensive source of understanding
lined under six broad themes. the process and parameters becoming a
rich source of knowledge for practical
• Microbial electrochemical technology
applicability, socioeconomic impact, and
(MET)dbasics
cost energy analysis with more than 75
• Electromicrobiology and electron transfer
illustrations, figures, diagrams, flow
mechanism
charts, and tables.
• Microbial fuel cell: power production
• Provides strategic integrations of MET
• Bioelectrochemical treatment systems:
with various bioprocess that are essential
waste remediation
in establishing a circular biorefinery.
• Bioelectrochemical systems for biofuels
and chemicals The editors would like to express their
• Applications and bioelectrorefinery sincere gratitude to the authors for submitting
their work precisely and timely and also
The book intends to dissipate comprehen-
revising it appropriately at a short notice.
sive transfer of essential knowledge to re-
Editors are grateful to the reviewers for their
searchers, students, and science enthusiasts
precious time and contribution in signifi-
providing a complete view of METs, detail-
cantly reviewing various chapters of this
ing the functional mechanisms employed
book and providing their valuable sugges-
and various operational configurations,
tions to improve the manuscripts. We
influencing factors governing the reaction
acknowledge the support received from
progress and integration strategies. The
Elsevier team, specially Dr Kostas Marinakis,
book also provides intricate details on each
Senior Book Acquisition Editor; Ms Hilary
individual parameter essential for evolving
Carr, Book Production Manager; and Mr
of MET from a bench scale to pilot scale, of-
Prem Kumar Kaliamoorthi and others in the
fering multiple product synthesis and
publishing team for their support in bringing
resource recovery, essential for renewable
out this book.
energy and chemical industrial sector, water
treatment bodies, policy makers, etc., docu-
Editors
menting the following features:
S. Venkata Mohan
• Holistic view of the multiple applications Sunita Varjani
of METs in a unified comprehensible Ashok Pandey
manner making it a single point of refer-
ence of any query in operation or
application.
C H A P T E R
1.1
Microbial Electrochemical
Technology: Emerging and
Sustainable Platform
S. Venkata Mohan1, J. Shanthi Sravan1, Sai Kishore Butti1,
K. Vamshi Krishna1, 2, J. Annie Modestra1, G. Velvizhi1,
A. Naresh Kumar1, 2, Sunita Varjani3, Ashok Pandey4
1
Bioengineering and Environmental Science Lab, CEEFF, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical
Technology, Hyderabad, India; 2Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Hyderabad,
India; 3Gujarat Pollution Control Board, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India; 4CSIR-Indian Institute
of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, India
1.1.1 INTRODUCTION
The concept of electrochemical energy system, i.e., microbial electrochemical technology

(MET) functioning with the biological interventions is an emerging area for basic and
applied research in the last decade. MET application is reported in diverse domains, viz.,
bioenergy, waste remediation, CO2 sequestration, bioelectronics, resource recovery, desali-
nation, etc. Its basic advantage lies in its flexibility to valorize any form of waste (solid,
liquid, and gaseous) to generate a spectrum of products (electricity, biofuel, biogas, plat-
form chemicals) in a sustainable way [1e3]. The systems are basically hybrid in nature
and are interdisciplinary with cohesive aggregation of various areas, viz., electrochemistry,
microbiology, environmental engineering, material sciences, biochemistry, and many other
related areas [4e9]. Based on its applications (Fig. 1.1.1) MET can be broadly classified into
microbial fuel cell (MFC) to generate bioelectricity and bioelectrochemical treatment (BET)
system to treat complex, recalcitrant, and high strength wastewaters; microbial electrolysis
cell (MEC) for hydrogen and methane production; microbial electrosynthesis system (MES)
to generate platform chemicals; microbial desalination cell (MDC) to separate ions; and

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-64052-9.00001-7 3 Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
4 1.1. MICROBIAL ELECTROCHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY
Power
Nutrient/Chemical
Domestic Effluent MFC Recovery
Platform Chemicals/
Biogenic Waste BET Precursor molecules
Industrial Effluents BES Hydrogen
Acidogenic Effluents MEC Methane
Short and Medium

CO2 MDC Chain Fatty Acids
Saline Water EF Treated Water
Enhanced Product
Carbon/Nutrient MET Recovery
Source
Biobased
Electro-Product
FIGURE 1.1.1 Applications of diverse METs for bio-based product recovery from various waste feedstocks. BES,
bioelectrochemical system; BET, bioelectrochemical treatment; EF, electrofermentation; MDC, microbial desalination
cell; MEC, microbial electrolysis cell; MET, microbial electrochemical technology; MFC, microbial fuel cell.
electrofermentation (EF) to enhance bio-based product synthesis [10e19]. Every individual

application offers substantial advantages from environmental, economic, and technical
perspectives.
1.1.2 MICROBIAL ELECTROCHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY ORIGIN
The origin of electrical effects through biological catalyzed reactions was reported by Gal-
vani in 1789 when he observed that frog muscles twitched with copper-zinc couples [20],
which is probably the earliest observation on “physiological processes accompanied by chem-
ical changes associated with electrical changes.” Fig. 1.1.2 depicts an overview of the origin
and history of MET. After a considerable gap, in 1911 M.C. Potter reported microbial-
induced electrode reduction, which has led to the development of biofuel cells, later termed
as “microbial fuel cell (MFC)” [21]. The chemical energy stored in the bonds of organic
substrate is catalyzed by the action of bacterial metabolism producing electrical energy,
through a cascade of redox reactions in a defined fuel cell setup. Contrary to the fuel cell,
MFC uses biological organisms to catalyze the electrochemical reactions which are analogous
to an inorganic catalyst. This bioenergy obtained from MFC is recognized as an alternative to
I. MICROBIAL ELECTROCHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY (MET) - BASICS

1.1.2 MICROBIAL ELECTROCHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY ORIGIN 5
Galvani 1789 M C Potter in 1911 Branet Cohen in

(Observed electrical effects (Worked on microbial 1931
in biological catalyzed induced electrode reduction (Extended Potter’s work
reactions) and thus lead to the with stacking type of
development of biofuel cells microbial fuel cell)
later termed as MFC)
Thruston et al., 1985 Karube et al., 1977 Davis and Yarbrough

(Reported on glucose (Studied anodic reaction of
1962
metabolism and its C. butyricum as biocatalyst
stoichiometry of product and reported constant (Experiments using
formation in MFC ) current of 1.1 to 1.2 mA) microbes with
hydrocarbons as substrate)
Kim et al., 1990 Allen and Bennetto Year 2000 onwards

(Patented the process of in 1993 (Microbial electrochemical
microbial desulfurization (Bacterial culture technologies were
utilizing bioelectrochemical immobilization for electricity extensively evaluated and
energy) in MFC ) published)
MET’s
Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC)
Bioelectrochemical System (BES)
Microbial Electrolysis Cell (MEC)
Bio-Electrochemical Treatment (BET)
Microbial Desalination Cell (MDC)
Microbial Electrofermentation (MEF)
FIGURE 1.1.2 Origin and transition of microbial mediated electrochemical systems.
the conventional fuels that reduces the global carbon footprint if applied. Potter had experi-
mented with a special type of galvanic cells using platinum electrodes to determine the elec-
tromotive force (EMF) developed due to the disintegration of organic compounds by
microorganisms through fermentative activity. The study inferred a maximum potential
difference of 0.3e0.5 V when the experiments were performed with microorganisms [21].
Barnett Cohen in 1931 stacked six cells using yeast as a biocatalyst and glucose as substrate
and developed a battery with an output of 35 V (2 mA) [22]. He also used potassium ferri-
cyanide/benzoquinone as artificial electron mediators. In 1962, Davis and Yarbrough stud-
ied microbes function in utilizing hydrocarbon [23]. Electrical output was not detected
when ethane was used as the sole substrate.
Duca and Fuscoe in 1964 explained the thermodynamics pertaining to bioelectrochemical
energy conversion along with the changes in electrode potential during the biochemical
reactions [24]. The report also suggested MET to have application in four general areas,
viz., as power sources, detectors of specific contaminants in low concentrations, sensors for
generation of control signals, and catalysts for the generation of electrochemical reactions
[24]. In 1977, Karube and co-workers studied anodic reactions of a biochemical cell by using

immobilized C. butyricum as a biocatalyst and reported a constant current of 1.1e1.2 mA

along with simultaneous production of 0.6 mol of hydrogen and 0.2 mol of formic acid
from 1 mol of glucose [25]. The study concluded that carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins
are not usually electroactive, but the intermediates formed during the biological oxidation
may be active at the electrode. Matsunaga and co-workers [26] reported microbial sensor
composed of immobilized microorganisms and electrochemical devices with oxygen electrode
and fuel cell type electrode. Davis and co-workers [27] used isolated enzyme (dehydrogenase)
to catalyze oxidation reactions of methanol near anode of an enzymatic fuel cell. Thruston
et al., [28] reported glucose metabolism and its stoichiometry of product formation using
thionine-mediated Proteus vulgaris fuel cell and related to the coulombic yield.
After 1990, research on MFC has gradually gained interest. Kim and co-workers in 1990
patented a microbial desulfurization process utilizing bioelectrochemical energy to catalyze
the reduction of a sulfur compound for hydrogen sulfide production [29]. Allen and Bennetto
in 1993 reported MFC operated with immobilized Proteus vulgaris on the surface of graphite
for electricity production [30]. The studies were eventually shifted later towards mediator-
less MFC with emphasis on the mechanism of electron transfer by bacteria. From 2000
onward, research on MFC was intensified with significant attention of researchers. The key
role of all the METs is dependent on wiring of microbial metabolism to solid-state electrodes,
via a process typically referred to as extracellular electron transfer (EET) [31]. Usage of mixed
culture as inoculum and waste/wastewater as substrate showed significant impact on the
economics and energy intensiveness of METs. METs have also gained the attention among
environmental engineers and biotechnologists and gradually diversified based on their
specific applications.
1.1.2.1 Scientography of MET

According to the Clarivate Analytics Web of Science report (5th March, 2018), research
publications in the MET domain are increasing gradually with the course of time
(Fig. 1.1.3 and 1.1.4). At present, a total number of research articles of 11,183 with 2,82,060
citations are in records. Among METs, MFC contributed high number of publications
followed by BES, MEC, BET, and MDC. In the case of MFC, the total number of research
articles recorded was 7,537 with 2,08,620 citations. On the other hand, BES stood at second
place with 1,584 research articles which contributed to 29,946 citations. MEC and BET are
also emerging areas, which contributed to 972 and 694 research articles with 23,843 and
12,311 citations respectively. MDC has recorded 396 research articles and resulted in 7340
citations. This statistics depicts the significance and momentum that is being gained for
MET research.
1.1.3 MICROBIAL SYSTEMS ASSOCIATED WITH ENERGY

GENERATION
Early research on electro-physiology acquainted the concept of “physiological process
accompanied by a chemical change involving an allied electrical change” [21]. Apparently,

1.1.3 MICROBIAL SYSTEMS ASSOCIATED WITH ENERGY 7
Microbial Fuel Cell Bioelectrochemical System
1200 400 9000
Number of Papers Number of Citations 40000 Number of Papers Number of Citations
360
1000 7500
320
32000
280
Number of Papers
Number of Papers
Number of Citations
Number of Citations
800 6000
240
24000
600 200 4500
160
16000
400 120 3000
80
200 8000 1500
40
0
0 0 0
1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2012 2018* 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2012 2018*
Publishing Year
Publishing Year
Microbial Electrolysis Cell Bioelectrochemical Treatment System
Number of Papers Number of Citations Number of Papers Number of Citations
6000 3600
210 180
5400
3200
180
4800 150
2800
Number of Papers
Number of Papers
Number of Citations
Number of Citations
150 4200
120 2400
3600
120 2000
3000 90
90 1600
2400
60 1200
60 1800
1200 800
30 30
600 400
0 0 0 0
1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2012 2018* 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2012 2018*
Publishing Year Publishing Year
Microbial Desalination System
Number of Papers Number of Citations 2100
90
1800
75
Number of Papers
Number of Citations
1500
60
1200
45
900
30
600
15
300
0 0
1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2012 2018*
Publishing Year
FIGURE 1.1.3 Scientography of individual microbial mediated electrochemical systems.
the observation of light stimulus being absorbed as electrical energy in photosynthesis has
driven towards conception of an idea that a result of dissociation/association generates
current. To confirm this idea of electrical energy generation, preliminary experiments
were carried out to determine if any EMF or potential difference was developed by

Number of Papers Number of Citations

12000 300000
10000 250000
Number of Citations
Number of Papers
8000 200000
6000 150000
4000 100000
2000 50000
0 0
MFC BES MEC BET MDC Total MES
*MFC: Microbial Fuel Cell, BES: Bioelectrochemical System, MEC: Microbial Electrolysis Cell,
BET: Bioelectrochemical Treatment, MDC: Microbial Desalination Cell,
MES: Microbial Electrochemical System
FIGURE 1.1.4 Year-wise published papers and citation indices of different microbial electrochemical technolo-
gies. Clarivate Analytics Web of Science report (5th March-2018).
fermentative activity of yeast or bacteria [23]. A simple yeast glucose experiment was
designed and carried out in a galvanic cell, which generated EMF by glucose metabolism
and has given promising leads for investigating this concept further [22]. The voltage/
EMF registered in yeast glucose cells was recognized to be the effect of charge collected
in the fermenting liquid. It was also observed that some enzymes partly contribute to po-
tential difference/voltage generation. Consecutively, few experiments were carried out us-
ing bacterial species, specifically Bacillus as biocatalyst in the galvanic cell containing
nutrient medium which depicted considerable growth along with current and EMF. It
was observed that biochemical systems such as whole-cell organism/crystallized
enzyme/cell-free extracts can generate ammonia, hydrogen or methanol from complex
organic raw materials such as starch, protein, fats, sugars, urea, etc. as substrate [32]. These
studies concluded that electrode materials can effect potential difference, and the electrical
energy generation is dependent on the activity of microorganism, nutrient availability, tem-
perature, etc. [25].
Biological systems are associated with energy transfer reactions of oxidation/reduction
reactions. The relation between free energy change and standard redox potential of biological
reactions can be determined through the second law of thermodynamics, which will provide
a holistic view of bioenergetics [33]. In general, from a thermodynamic perspective, a reaction
is defined as “spontaneous” or “non-spontaneous” based on the free energy change and the
redox potential. Electron transfer from one compound to the other is in turn dependent on
redox potentials between electron donor and acceptor. The tendency of a redox reaction to

1.1.3 MICROBIAL SYSTEMS ASSOCIATED WITH ENERGY 9
occur depends upon the relative electron affinity of the acceptor in a redox pair, which can be
facilitated either through enzyme/cytochrome components/proteins/intermediate organic
or inorganic compounds. Electrons will tend to flow from the half cell of lower standard
reduction potential to the half cell of higher standard reduction potential. The direction of
electron flow depends upon the relative electron concentration or potential of the two cells.
The electron affinity of donors and acceptors based on the standard redox potential is
depicted in Fig. 1.1.5. The compounds with positive standard reduction potential act as
strong oxidizing agents that will have the tendency to accept more electrons, while it is
vice-versa in the case of reducing agents. Experiments were carried out using either
enzyme or whole organismecatalyzed redox couples under laboratory conditions for energy
generation [2,33].
-0.7 Pyruvate/Acetate [-0.7]
-0.6 Acetate/Acetaldehyde [-0.58]
-0.5 2H+/H2 [-0.42]

-0.4 Latic Acid/Xanthine [-0.39]
CO2/Methanol [-0.38]
Gluconolactone/Glucose [-0.36]
Cystine/Cysteine [-0.33]
NAD/NADH2 [-0.32]
Redox Potential (V)
-0.3
Flavoprotein CO2/Acetate [-0.28]
Acetaldehyde/Ethanol [-0.2]
-0.2
Fe-S proteins Pyruvate/Lactate [-0.18]
Quinone -0.1 Oxaloacetate/Malate [-0.16]
0.0 Fumarate/Succinate [0.02]

Cytochrome bC1
0.1 Ubiquinol/Ubiquinone [0.1]
0.2
Cytochrome C 0.3
0.4
Cytochrome
aa3 0.5
0.6
0.7
NO3-/N2 [0.74]
O2 Fe3+/Fe2+ [0.76]
0.8
O2/H2O [0.82]
FIGURE 1.1.5 Standard redox potentials reported with standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) in volts (V) for
several biological redox mediators.

1.1.4 ELECTROGENSdELECTROACTIVE MICROORGANISMS
1.1.4.1 Electron Transfer and Conservation of Energy

Microorganisms gain energy by respiration, catalyze redox reactions or breakdown
reduced organic/inorganic compounds. Electrons are transferred from a donor (reduced
substrate) to a terminal electron acceptor, making the donor oxidized and acceptor reduced.
The energy released by breakdown of reduced substrate will be captured by nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide (NAD), flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), etc. Various biocatalysts
that can be used in MET operation are depicted in Fig. 1.1.6. Bacteria can extracellularly
transport electrons by outer membrane cytochromes, nanowires and endogenous mediators,
while algae and yeast can transport electrons extracellularly by direct and mediated electron
transport. When NAD and FAD transfer electrons to final electron acceptors such as oxygen
and nitrates, electron transport chain (ETC) conserves a portion of the energy while trans-
ferring electrons to the final electron acceptor. These electrons can be harvested by using
bioelectrochemical systems ans can be conserved in several forms like bioelectricity,
biohydrogen, etc (Fig. 1.1.7). Electron transfer from reduced substrate to final electron
acceptor will be used to transport protons across the inner membrane, thus generating an
electrochemical proton gradient which is finally used for generating energy [34]. Unlike
FIGURE 1.1.6 Various biocatalysts used in METs and their modes of extracellular electron transport.

1.1.4 ELECTROGENSdELECTROACTIVE MICROORGANISMS 11
FIGURE 1.1.7 Extracellular electron transport for bio-based product synthesis. EET, extracellular electron
transfer; IM, inner membrane; OM, outer membrane; VFA, volatile fatty acid.
fermentation, respiration of metals or any other electron acceptors needs transfer of elec-
trons from an donor to an acceptor while conserving the energy. Respiration enables bacte-
ria to use a wide range of substrates [35].
Some microorganisms can conserve energy to support growth by coupling the oxidation of
reduced organic compounds with the reduction of metals such as iron, manganese, etc. or
electrodes [36]. Although iron is known to be a key component of several redox proteins
involved in an ETC to transfer electrons from an electron donor to terminal electron acceptors
such as oxygen, sulfate, nitrates, etc., it has only been recently found that it can also serve as
an electron acceptor. Bacteria which use metals as terminal electron acceptors have an impor-
tant role in the geochemistry of aquatic sediments, submerged soils and the terrestrial
subsurface.
Bacterial respiratory pathways have greater diversity of electron transfer due to their abil-
ity to utilize a wide range of substrates and electron acceptors compared with eukaryotes.
This is mainly because of the vast array of natural habitats where bacteria can live and their
modes of metabolism. Respiratory systems and electron transport systems are branched,
signifying the adaptability of bacteria [37]. Dehydrogenases and oxidases connected by qui-
nines and branched. ETC links high energy compounds such as NAD and FAD with final
electron acceptors such as oxygen, nitrates, sulfates, and metals/electrodes in the case of elec-
troactive bacteria (EAB). Carriers and mechanism of extracellular electron transport in EAB
vary from organism to organism. The cytoplasmic membrane is the primary barrier to the
external environment and the center of electron transfer, which is essential for microbial en-
ergy generation. However, the microbial cell envelope often includes other external structural
components, such as peptidoglycan, the outer membrane, and the S-layer, which are

electrically non-conductive and physically impermeable to minerals. The majority of organ-

isms that perform the metabolic oxidation or reduction of metal species transports electrons
to the cell surface where the catalytic redox reaction takes place. Bacteria that utilize min-
erals/electrodes as terminal electron acceptors require the transport of electrons generated
in the cytoplasm to be transported to the surface of the cell. For bacteria that use minerals
as an electron source, the electrons must be brought to the cytoplasmic membrane in order
to reduce terminal electron acceptors. The outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria is an
insulating barrier that requires a conduit for electron passage, while in gram-positive bacte-
ria, the cell outer wall acts as a barrier between the cell and mineral surface. Consequently, in
order to transfer electrons from inside the cell to the cell surface, bacteria use a diverse range
of co-factor rich proteins. A wide range of microbes have been discovered to be able to ex-
change electrons with solid surface (direct EET) and/or soluble mediators (indirect EET),
but only a few have been studied in depth. In fact, the mechanisms of electron transport
that are found in different species differ significantly from one another [38].
As metal electrodes and several metal ions like Fe(III) and Mn(IV) are practically insoluble
in water under physiological conditions. Bacteria using these insoluble electron acceptors
need to export electrons to reduce them extracellularly as they cannot import these metal spe-
cies [39]. The electrons are transferred from the bacterial cell to the insoluble electron acceptor
either through direct contact between them and a mineral surface/electrode or facilitated by
soluble redox mediators such as flavins, phenazines, methyl viologen, humic acids, etc. The
reason for high electrochemical activity of Shewanella oneidensis and Geobacter sulfurreducens is
due to cell surface c-type cytochromes. The ferric reductase of Geobacter sulfurreducens is a
complex protein containing c-type cytochromes and FAD which is involved in reduction of
ferric ions [40]. Many Fe(III) reducers are electrochemically active and capable of exchanging
electrons with an electrode. They metabolize electron donors with the electrode being used as
an electron acceptor or electron sink. Expression of genes involved in EET depends on several
factors such as electron donor, acceptor, available oxygen, quorum sensing, etc [41].
1.1.5 WEAK ELECTRICIGENSdTHE FUTURISTIC AND VERSATILE

MICROBIOME
METs which are dedicated towards specific applications based on terminal electron accep-
tors employ diverse microbiomes as a biocatalyst. In an MFC, exoelectrogens are considered
vital as their electron transfer mechanism is highly regulated and specified towards elec-
trode/metal as a solid electron acceptor. However, the microbial community that has been
observed in several MFC studies not only possess highly electroactive bacteria (EAB) and
exoelectrogens but also other bacteria that are not electrogenic and can perform moderate
electro-activity, recently emerging as “weak electricigens” [42]. Phylogenetic analysis ob-
tained from several studies revealed most of the EAB belong to gram-negative classification,
while moderate/weak electricigens are gram-positive, with the structural difference in cell
wall and its composition being the key factor in determining the electroactivity [43]. These
weak electricigens typically rely on soluble electron acceptors and can also use solid electron
acceptors under certain stress/variable conditions. As the research transition has been envi-
sioned towards biotechnological and biomedical applications using the principle of MET,

1.1.6 CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES 13
these weak electricigens find importance in this emerging domain, distinct from power gen-
eration [44]. Weak electricigens are capable of growing in a range of different environments
and can compensate for specified metabolic shortcomings of an EAB, facilitating a stable bio-
process in a mixed microbiome [45,46].
The potential application of weak electricigen is “bioelectrosynthesis” for acetate, and
methane synthesis using cathodic microbiome has been expanding towards electrofermenta-
tion as well [1,17,47]. Both these processes employ electrical stimuli to steer and enhance the
metabolic rates of microbes (weak electricigens), as well as end products. Understanding the
microbial ecology of weak electricigens would broaden the scope and applications towards
specific product synthesis and bioremediation of specific compounds, recovery of metals,
etc., although the columbic efficiencies are less [48e50]. Besides this diversity, scalability
and flexibility is considered as a key to the functioning of MET by taking into account the
emerging weak electricigens to be adaptable towards yielding maximum productivity [48].
Novel technique to screen and enrich weak electricigens for multi-faceted applications is
possible through electrochemically controlled experiments (potentiostatically) at high oxida-
tive potentials. Current applications of weak electricigens majorly align with the field of
white biotechnology such as electrofermentation and bioelectrosynthesis, which is gaining in-
terest in the current research scenario. Exploration of these processes would greatly impact
the biotechnology field in terms of transitioning from linear fossilebased economy to bio-
based economy.
1.1.6 CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES
MET is an emerging platform and have the scope to become disruptive technology due to
its documented applications in multiple domains. MET if successfully deployed to applica-
tion will have a critical impact on diverse spheres of activity, specifically in the domain of
waste management and resource recovery along with bioenergy generation [Fig. 1.1.8].
MFCs to some extent can be used as the additional energy source in rural and remote areas
where there is no energy supply [51]. However, the energy generated by individual MFCs is
of a very low order, and to achieve applicability, upscaled version with stacking is needed.
The ability of MET to remediate complex wastewaters/industrial effluents while simulta-
neously generating energy and biobased products gives it an advantage over the pre-existing
waste management technologies and practices [52e55,11,12]. Moreover, most of the conven-
tional waste treatment technologies consume relatively large amounts of energy for treating
wastes, which often makes the process energy intensive and the energy possessed in the
waste remains untapped. The flue gases from the industry majorly consist of CO2, CH4
and CO along with NOx/SOx. MET has the capabilities to utilize these gases as feedstock
for synthesis of value added products. CO2 sequestration through MET is an emerging
domain of alternative routes for platform chemicals synthesis [56e59]. METs can also be
deployed to treat salts as MDC [60]. Upscaled versions of MFCs can be deployed in lakes
for ecological restoration by benthic MFCs, which can also be used as biosensors to monitor
the overall pollution levels or any specific pollutants [48,61]. The microbes are specific to
environment and give discrete response to any changes which can be captured as an

FIGURE 1.1.8 Various applications and locations where microbial electrochemical technology can be incorpo-
rated and enable the development of a sustainable ecosystem.
analogous electrical signal by MET (inherent sensing capability). Recent development, elec-
trofermentation can be employed for the commodity chemical synthesis [1,5,17,18].
In the current scenario, METs have not yet taken the leap for commercialization. However,
continuous, systematic and cross-disciplinary research is essential requirement to overcome
the issues. The critical parameters that need to be extensively understood are microbial phys-
iology, system design, materials, interface of biology and materials, etc. which would enable
in overcoming the low efficiency, limited reliability and complex scalability [2,4,62]. Under-
standing the EET mechanisms and microbial physiology in a rational manner is critical for
better design of these hybrid systems. Recent advances showed that the quantum mechanics
can influence several biochemical reactions, especially electron transport and redox enzymes.
Quantum function in biological systems called as quantum tunneling might help in under-
standing the movement of electrons through a barrier in a quick and efficient way [63].
Tunneling current is produced by electrons when they move through a barrier that should
not actually be allowed to pass. In biological systems, electron transfer may occur by delocal-
ization, tunneling, super exchange and redox conduction. While all the mechanisms have an
equal role in electron transport, tunneling tends to dominate over the short distances
(< 2 mm) [64]. Tunneling phenomena was found in several electron transport proteins like
respiratory complex I or NADH dehydrogenase I [65]. Understanding of these mechanisms

REFERENCES 15
is a fundamental scientific challenge and can give leads to design molecular redox machines
with important technological applications. The microbe-electrode interactions on the struc-
tural and functional development of a microbial community govern the exo-electrogenic
efficiency. Specific electrodes and its material with good catalytic activity, biocompatibility
and cost effectiveness is another domain that need to be pursued [62,48]. Advanced analytical
tools help to understand the interactions of exo-electrogenic microbes with electrode mate-
rials in detail. MET has the potential to drive the current fossil based linear economy into
a self-sustained bioeconomy. Multidisciplinary research in this domain is essential for its
translation.
Acknowledgments
Authors at CSIR-IICT acknowledge the financial support from Department of Science and Technology (New Indigo
Project; DST/IMRCD/New Indigo/Bio-e-MAT/2014/(G)/(ii)). GV acknowledges DST for SERB-Grant (YSS/2015/
001438). JSS, ANK, KVK and JAM acknowledge CSIR for providing research fellowship. SKB acknowledge UGC for
providing research fellowship.
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C H A P T E R
1.2
Microbial Electrochemical System:
Principles and Application
Shantonu Roy1, Soumya Pandit2, 3
1
Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Technology Arunachal Pradesh, Arunachal
Pradesh, India; 2Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur,
Kharagpur, India; 3Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Mumbai, India
1.2.1 INTRODUCTION
The rising pollution and global warming is a major concern in the backdrop of ever-
increasing energy demand and rapid fossil fuel consumption. Access to clean water and en-
ergy securities are considered a few of the major challenges faced by today’s world. Energy
recovery from various waste and wastewater could provide a possible solution for waste
deposal and energy crisis. Use of wastewater could be considered as a potential renewable
feedstock to generate various forms of bioenergy aside from the remediation process by
regulating the biological process [1]. Recently, application of a microbial electrochemical
system (MES) has gained significant importance as a promising process for bioenergy pro-
duction and wastewater treatment [2]. Traditional wastewater treatment systems are an
energy-intensive process. On the contrary, MES promises recovery of valuable chemicals,
fuels, or direct generation of electricity with simultaneous waste treatment. The MES sys-
tem has the advantage of both a microbial-mediated oxidation and reduction system. The
common part of all MESs is an anode where electroactive biofilm oxidizes organics to
generate a potential difference between anode and cathode. In cathode, different purposes
can be executed using in situ electricity, for example, hydrogen generation in microbial
electrolysis cell (MEC), water desalination in microbial desalination cell (MDC), and pro-
duction of valuable fuels in microbial electrosynthesis. In the present chapter, the principle
of different MESs is provided with emphasis on fundamental research on microbial fuel
cell (MFC).

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-64052-9.00002-9 19 Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
20 1.2. MICROBIAL ELECTROCHEMICAL SYSTEM
1.2.2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MICROBIAL ELECTROCHEMICAL

SYSTEMS
MES can suitably be an alternative technology when compared with the conventional
anaerobic wastewater treatment and bioenergy harvesting technologies. In MES, microbes
are the central part of attraction due to their ability to oxidize organic waste through meta-
bolic reactions occurring on anode and biofuel generation or valuable chemical recovery
on cathode via reduction [3]. The working principle of MES is based on the microbial phys-
iology coupled with electrochemistry. The inception of research on MES started with exten-
sive investigation on MFCs. The MFC on principal follows a typical chemical fuel cell
technology. Various applications of MES include bioremediation (sediment/benthic MFC),
desalination (microbial desalination cell; MDC), CO2 sequestration (microbial carbon capture
cells, MCC) using algae, synthesis of chemicals (microbial electrosynthesis; biosensors
(microfluidic MFC)), etc.
The MES usually comprises an anode, a cathode, and electrolyte(s). The cathodic and
anodic chambers may be separated by an ion exchange membrane (IEM). The anodic
chamber has microbes in planktonic state or forms biofilm to oxidize substrates, which
result in the generation of electrons, protons, and other metabolites as end products. The
released electrons are collected by the anode and pass to the cathode through an external
load. On the other hand, the protons percolate or diffuse through the IEM or simply diffuse
to the cathode to get reduced by the arriving electrons, thus completing the circuit. The
electrons flow through the external load generated electric current. The flow of electrons
can be utilized directly for power generation in MFCs or used for hydrogen evolution
and other value-added chemicals in MECs. The potential difference developed across the
electrodes can be utilized for desalting water (microbial desalination cells, MDCs) [4]
(Fig. 1.2.1). The bioelectrochemical systems (BESs) or MXCs were used by different
research communities for various microbial electrochemical tools as a whole.
Nevertheless, BES can be also applied for free or immobilized enzymeebased fuel or elec-
trolysis cell [5].
1.2.2.1 Brief Development of Microbial Electrochemical Systems

The idea of using microbes to produce electricity was first noticed at the beginning of the
20th century. However, in 1780, biologist Luigi Galvani had already demonstrated the rela-
tionship between biology and electricity. In 1911, Michael Cresse Potter generated current us-
ing Escherichia coli, but the work did not come into the limelight due to little coverage. In 1931,
Cohen prepared microbial half fuel cells and connected in series, which produced around
35 V with 2 mA current. In the late 1970s, Allen and Bennetto explained the working principle
of MFCs using bacteria that supplemented the electron mediator externally [6]. The fuel cells
became far more appealing devices in the early 1990s; consequently, MFCs were considered a
promising technology [7]. However, the major breakthrough came in the late 1990s when
MFC was generated by and was run using bacteria which can directly transfer electrons dur-
ing oxidation of waste to the anode without using a mediator. The power generation in MFC
is 102e103 times small. A reduced power generation and thermodynamic limitation led to the

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weeping, and would cling to me, and beg me to forgive her if she
could not do her duty and were not a good wife. But always it
seemed futile to question her; for did I not surmise what the trouble
was? Could I forget that the season of cold winds was at hand?
Not until the first southward flight of the birds did my fears crystallize.
It was as if this event, the occasion for wild rejoicing among the
Ibandru, signalized the close of my idyllic life with Yasma. On a day
of wind and gathering cloud, when the first triangle of living dots
came soaring from across the mountains and out of sight beyond
Yulada, it seemed as if the birds were speeding away with my hopes.
Just as a year before, the entire village became tumultuously
excited, and abandoned all other occupations to watch the winged
travelers; and, as a year before, a great firelight celebration was
held, in which all the tribe participated, and over which Abthar and
Hamul-Kammesh presided.
But although the ceremonies of a year ago were almost duplicated, I
did not find this festival so interesting as the former. Rather, I found it
terrifying, for it brought me visions of deserted cabins and snow-clad
mountainsides, and seemed to impose a dismal gulf between Yasma
and me.
To reassure myself, I sought to stay at Yasma's side during the
celebration. But somehow she slipped away, much as last year; and
I could find no trace of her until late that night I discovered her in our
cabin with moist face, and eyes that even by the flickering firelight
seemed swollen and red.
"Yasma!" I cried. "What is the matter?"
For a moment she did not reply, but looked at me with large
smoldering eyes. Then tenderly she came to me, placed her hands
upon my shoulders, and murmured, "I was thinking of you, my
beloved, thinking of you here all alone when the cold winds blow and
the days grow gray and empty, and there is no one, no one to take
care of you!"
Overcome by her own words, she gave way to sobbing.
And I, faced with the inevitable, could only put the question I had put
so many times before. "But could you not stay with me here, Yasma?
Could you not—"
"No, no, no!" she interrupted, in the midst of her tears. "I could not,
could not! Yulada would not permit it!"
"Not even for me?" I entreated, as one might entreat a favor of a
refractory child.
"Not even for you! Could I make my heart stop beating for you?
Could I cease breathing and still live because you wished it of me?
No, no, no, do not ask me to change my nature!"
"I would not ask you to change your nature, Yasma," I assured her
gently, as I took her again into my arms. "But I love you so much, my
dearest, so much that I can hardly bear to think of being parted from
you."
"Or I to be parted from you!"
Mastered once more by her emotion, she turned from me, wringing
her hands.
A long, silent moment intervened before she faced me again. But
when she did turn to me, her face was more composed, and her
eyes shone with new resolution.
"Let us try to be brave, my beloved," she urged. "I will stay with you
here a while yet; will stay as long as Yulada permits. And what if,
after I go, the winter must come?—it will pass, and the green leaves
will grow again, and the snow will melt on the mountainsides; and I
will come back, come back with the first northward-flying birds!"
She paused, and smiled in melancholy reassurance. But I did not
reply, and the smile quickly faded; and she continued, pleadingly,
"Remember, my beloved, when you asked me to marry you, you said
you were willing to lose me half the year. You promised, or I could
never have consented. So why are you not willing now?"
"Yes, I did promise," I admitted, with a groan. "I did promise, and I
know I should be willing. But how different things seemed then! How
much harder to lose you after all these months together! Why,
Yasma, I must lose you without even knowing where you're going! At
least, you might tell me that! How would you feel if I went away and
you didn't know where?"
As always before, my pleas had no effect except to bring the tears to
Yasma's eyes.
"Do you not think I would tell you if I could?" she asked, gently and
sadly. "But Yulada would not permit it, and I dare not lift my voice
against her. I could not if I would. For there are things we cannot
describe, and things that can be known only to those that share in
them. Could you expect the wild dove to tell you of its flight? Could
you expect the eagle to make known the joy it feels when it sails into
the sun?"
"Oh, but you are not as the eagle or the dove!" I protested.
"Why do you think we are not?" she returned, with a curious smile.
At this query I was struck by a fancy so wild that even now I hesitate
to mention it: the thought that Yasma and her people were not wholly
human! that for half the year they walked the earth as men and
women, and for the other half sailed the sky as birds! Nor did this
notion seem quite so absurd as it would have appeared before my
arrival in Sobul. Here in this world-forsaken valley, with its
periodically migrating inhabitants, anything at all seemed possible;
even the supernatural appeared to lose its remote and fabulous
glow. And so, for an instant, I had the impression that something
unearthly enveloped Yasma, even Yasma, my wife! And once again,
as on first coming to Sobul, I experienced the sense of otherworldly
forces at work all about me, forces that had Yasma in their keeping
and were bound to wrest her from me, no matter how I might groan
and struggle, no matter how I might cry out and entreat and reach
forth my arms and call and call after her dwindling form!
Chapter XIX
THE CYCLE IS COMPLETED
With what sadness I watched the autumn gradually return to Sobul!
The crimson and tan and russet woods, glowing with a forlorn and
dying inner radiance, were tragic as with the sorrow of a crumbling
universe; each frightened leaf that scurried earthward with a sharp
blast, seemed laden with some hope that had withered; the legions
of wild ducks and geese that went speeding ever, ever beyond the
southern peaks, were to me awe-inspiring and solemn portents. And
the clouds that came whirling and clustering by in troops and
squadrons at the goad of the high wind, were grim with evil
reminders; and their glee in overrunning the sky's blue and blurring
the fringes of the peaks, was as the glee of those dark forces that
invisibly blotted out my happiness.
Partly in order to drive tormenting premonitions from my mind, I tried
to keep well occupied during those harrowing days. I had not
forgotten the preparations I had made for the previous winter, nor the
need of fortifying myself for the winter to come. Once again I
gathered large supplies of food and firewood; once again I sealed all
cracks and crannies in my cabin walls, procured heavy garments,
and made ready for a hermit's life. And in these preparations Yasma
helped me as energetically and skillfully as last year. But she worked
sadly, and in silence; and often the tears were in her eyes as she
stored the firewood in orderly heaps or arranged the dried fruits, nuts
and grains in neat and convenient piles.
I alone, just as last autumn, was preparing for the winter; as time
went by, the other inhabitants of Sobul were going their mute and
mysterious way. Gradually the village was being deserted; face after
familiar face was disappearing: first Abthar, then Barkodu, then
Karem, then Hamul-Kammesh; while by degrees the town assumed
a desolate appearance. The end of October saw its population
reduced by more than half; early November found a mere handful
remaining; and I knew that the time was not far-off when even this
handful would have vanished. But where the people went was as
much an enigma as ever.
As during the previous year, I made several attempts to trace the
fugitives. More than once, slipping out of the cabin at night when
Yasma was asleep, I lay in wait for hours in a thicket at the village
edge; but my only reward was fresh torment and bewilderment. I
never caught any glimpse of the departing natives, though always in
the morning I would note that there were more absentees; on my
most successful attempt, I found a number of fresh-made tracks,
which I hopefully traced southward into the woods, until they came to
an end as inexplicably as though their makers had evaporated.
I well remember my last effort. I must have been a little incautious in
leaving the cabin; or perhaps Yasma was not quite asleep, as I had
thought; for no sooner had I taken my usual station in the thicket
than I became aware of a shadowy approaching form. Thinking that
this was one of the fleeing Ibandru, I crouched down so as not to be
seen; but a peal of laughter brought me to my senses; in an instant, I
found myself face to face with—my wife!
"Oh, you silly creature, how do you expect to find out anything that
way?" she chided me, having apparently divined my purpose. "You
may lie there watching till the end of time, and you'll never discover a
thing. It is not by examining the earth that you may learn of the
eagle's flight."
With these words Yasma took my arm; and docilely I accompanied
her back to our cabin.
Only by a great effort of will had I dared to leave her side that night,
for I lived in terror that when I next turned to look for her she would
be gone. Indeed, if she had been a bubble that might burst at a
touch, or a rainbow that a shadow would shatter, I could scarcely
have been more worried; for it would hardly have surprised me to
see her transform herself into a sun-mote, and go dancing into the
air and out of view.
November was not yet very old when some persistent voice within
me proclaimed that the crisis was at hand. There arrived a day when
not a score of the Ibandru paced about among the empty cabins;
there arrived a later day when not half a score were to be seen, and
then the climactic day—not very much later—when only one member
of the tribe still walked in the village.
Even at this distant hour I can relive the sorrow and passion of that
day. I remember how the solemn gray clouds went scudding beneath
the gray solemn sky; how the wild geese, the last of the winged
migrants, called and called plaintively on their way southward; how
the wind, like a harried soul that answered the driven birds, shrieked
and wailed when its impetuous gusts chased down the last of the red
leaves and scattered the swirling eddies of dust. A wild, mad day! a
day when the whole earth seemed risen in fury and revolt! a day
when the elements, alive with the vehemence and vain frenzy of all
created things, were voicing the sadness and despair of the universe
in a dirge for the dying year!
And on that tumultuous day, in that world of raging wind and cloud,
Yasma came to me with such a light in her eyes as the dying may
show when they bid farewell to love. One glance at her shuddering
form confirmed my fears; I knew her message, and felt intuitively the
hopelessness of protest or reproach.
Without a word she flung her arms about me, stormily sobbing; and I
held her in an embrace so long and fierce that I might have been a
foe striving to crush her frail body.
But at length she struggled free, and stood before me, moist-eyed
and pathetically smiling. "Good-bye, my beloved, good-bye," she
murmured, and edged toward the door.
"Do not go, do not go!" I cried, and I stretched out my arms
imploringly. But some numbing force had paralyzed my limbs—I was
unable to move a step.
"Good-bye, my beloved," she repeated, with a look like a tormented
angel's. "Good-bye—until the spring!"
And her slender form slipped past the door, and its wooden bulk
closed behind her. And as she escaped, sudden action came to my
frozen limbs, and I rushed out of the cabin, calling and calling,
"Yasma! Yasma!" And then, frantically, "Yasma! Yasma!" But only the
wind replied. A whirl of dust struck me in the face, and for a moment
I was half blinded. Then, when I turned to look for Yasma, no Yasma
was to be seen. And in bewilderment and balked anger and despair,
I realized that I should see her no more until the birds were flying
north.
III
The Will of Yulada
Chapter XX
THE SECOND WINTER
It would be pointless to dwell at length upon my second winter in
Sobul. In everything essential, it was a repetition of the winter before.
There were the same long solitary months, the same monotonous
loneliness by the evening firelight, the same trudging through the
snow on companionless expeditions, the same arduous gathering of
faggots and the same fear of predatory wild things, the same howling
of wolves from across the valley and the same clamoring of storm-
winds, the same bleak questionings and the same impotent wrath at
the unkindliness of my fate.
But in one respect my lot this year was harder to bear. For now there
were memories to torment, memories that arose like ghosts when in
the long evenings I sat musing by the golden-yellow light of the log
blaze. A year ago there had also been memories; a year ago I had
also thought of Yasma with sadness; but then there had been no
endearing intimacy to haunt every object she had brightened with
her presence and every spot her feet had pressed. Now the very
cabin she had occupied with me seemed desolate because she had
been there; the very pans and kettles and earthen vessels her
fingers had touched became sorrowful reminders, while a little spray
of wildflowers, gathered by her hands months before and now
hanging gray and withered from the log wall, was the perpetual
source of longing and regret. How strange and ironic that every gay
moment we had passed together should have its melancholy
echoes, and that her very smiles and laughter and little winning ways
and little loving kindnesses should all return to mock me now!
As I sat dreaming of Yasma, my thoughts would flicker fitfully as the
flames writhing in the fireplace. One moment I would blame myself
for bringing misfortune upon my beloved; the next moment anger
would rise in my heart and I would feel aggrieved at her and at the
world because I had been forsaken. And when I remembered that
this second lonely winter might not be the last, that next winter and
every winter I might be deserted, then a furious resolve blazed up
within me; and with a strength born of my wretchedness I determined
that never again should I live through the cold season alone. Let
Yasma refuse to stay, and I would coax, cajole, entreat, and if need
be force her to remain. Was she not my wife? Was it not
unreasonable to be abandoned as she had abandoned me? No
doubt she would plead that she had never promised to stay, had
always insisted on the need for a migration—but might that need not
be a mere superstition, born of blind obedience to some secret tribal
tradition? And, whatever the necessity that moved her, how could it
compare with my own necessity?
Another winter of solitary confinement, I feared, and I should go
mad. Already I was tending toward the obsessions that beset one
overlong in his own company—and should I do Yasma a favor by
bequeathing her a lunatic for a husband? Plainly, she did not
understand, could not understand, any more than I could understand
her ways; but was it not my duty to protect us both by any means
within my grasp? Thus I reasoned, repeating the arguments over
and over to myself, until I knew them as the mathematician knows
his axioms; and so, partly by logic and partly by sophistry and largely
because of the frenzy of my love and despair, I decided upon that
step which was to make all succeeding winters different, and was to
mark the fateful climax of my life in Sobul.
Having made my resolve, I could face the world with fresh courage.
All that winter, when the mountains were white specters beneath the
blue sky or when the clouds blotted out the peaks and the snow was
sifted down day after day, I kept hope alive not only at the thought of
Yasma's return in the spring but by the determination that she should
not leave in the autumn. I might be tormented by loneliness; I might
read only sorrow in the denuded woods, and menace in the lowering
skies; I might quiver at the wail of the wolf, and people the shadows
of the night with evil shapes; I might find the peaks cruelly aloof, and
Yulada as disdainful as ever on her rock-throne; yet at least I had
something to clutch at, something to bring me consolation and make
it seem worth while to live.
But there was another thought that lent the world interest. Yulada still
drew me toward her with a mysterious fascination; I was as anxious
as ever to climb to her feet. My previous failures did not discourage
me; I told myself that I had been unlucky, and should succeed if I
persisted. Had the upper altitudes not been coated with ice, I should
have made the attempt immediately after Yasma's departure; but
experience had taught me to wait; and I determined that early in the
spring, before the first Ibandru had reappeared, I should again match
my strength with the elusive slopes.
It was when March was still young that a benign mildness came into
the air; that the snow began to melt, and the streams to run full to the
brim. During most of the month the warmth endured; and shortly
before the arrival of April the peaks were banded and mottled with
wide gray patches, and I concluded that it was time for my new
adventure.
I was not at fault in this judgment. Never before had the ascent
seemed quite so easy; the way had been smoothed as though by
invisible hands. No ice or snow impeded me along the lower slopes,
or blockaded me on the upper; no impassable cliff intervened as I
followed the windings of the trail through groves of deodar and pine,
and along the verge of thousand-foot precipices. But the blue sky,
the invigorating breezes and the new-washed glittering peaks all
served to strengthen my determination. To climb to Yulada appeared
almost a simple matter, and I could scarcely understand why I had
not succeeded before.
Yet somehow I could not remain cheerful as the hours went by and I
trudged along the stony ledges and over ridge after steep projecting
ridge. Or was I being infected with the same superstition as the
Ibandru felt? This much, at least, I know: the higher I mounted, the
lower my spirits sank; I began to feel as one who sacrilegiously
invades a shrine; had I not opposed my determination to my fears, I
might not have come within miles of Yulada.
But, after several hours, my stubbornness appeared to be winning.
By early afternoon I had mounted high among the bare ridges at
Yulada's feet; the stone figure loomed not many hundred yards
above, proud and defiant as ever, so huge that she could have held
me like a pebble in one hand, and so majestic that she seemed the
masterpiece of some titanic artist. Truly, an awe-inspiring, a terrifying
sight! Truly, I had reason to feel my own insignificance as I stood
gazing at those cyclopean outlines, the steel-gray contours of the
exquisitely modelled figure, the firm and haughty face inexorably set
like the face of fate itself, the hands upraised as though in
supplication to the Unseen, and one foot lifted as if to step into the
abyss.
If I had been sanguine before, I was now merely appalled. It seemed
impossible that I, a pygmy intruder, should ever stand within touching
distance of the goddess! Surely some sign would come, as always
before, to checkmate my approach; either the fog would rise, or the
storms be hatched, or my feet would falter and fall. So I thought as
with painstaking slowness I attacked the final few hundred yards,
watching every step and half expecting the ground to give way or the
earth itself to open.
With vigorous efforts, the last lap might have been accomplished in
half an hour; but my cautious crawl took nearer to an hour and a half.
During all that time I had scarcely a glimpse of Yulada, for the grade
was such that I could observe her only as the pedestrian at the base
of a skyscraper may view the flagpole. Yet I was so busy creeping on
hands and knees up the steep inclines, that I could give Yulada
hardly a thought. I did not doubt that, having mastered the slopes, I
should be able to inspect the goddess to advantage.
Finally, in joy not unmixed with dread, I was reaching the end of my
climb. One last pinnacle to surmount, and I should stand face to face
with Yulada! I could scarcely believe in my own good fortune—would
the rock not crumble beneath me, and hurl me into the void? But no!
the rock was solid enough; with one climactic effort, I lifted myself
over the brink, and stood safely on the peak!
But was I on the peak? What was that irregular gray mass above? I
blinked, and observed that I was on a narrow plateau, over which
there loomed a great pile of crags, jagged and beetling and
apparently without form or design. For a moment I stared in idiotic
bewilderment; then gradual recognition came to me. This shapeless
heap of rock was Yulada! It was only from a distance that her
outlines appeared human; seen at close range, she was but a
fantastic formation of stone!
In my first surprise and disappointment at the irony of the discovery, I
laughed aloud. Yet I was not slow to understand. I remembered how
a fine painting, splendid at several yards, may seem a blur to one
who approaches too closely. And was Yulada not a masterwork of
nature, intended for inspection only from afar? Her form, as I saw it,
was full of flaws and irregularities, but how well distance smoothed
away the defects, supplying her with statuesque outlines that were
unreal, a verisimilitude that was only illusion!
For almost an hour I lingered at Yulada's feet, trying to penetrate
what still remained of her secret. But there seemed little enough to
penetrate. The rugged granite of her body, scarred and polished by
the tempests of centuries, was responsible for her gray color; her
head, neck, face and limbs were barely distinguishable—she was as
any other crag which nature, chance sculptress, had modelled into
something lifelike and rare.
As I strolled about the base of Yulada, I found myself wondering
about the beliefs of the Ibandru, their dread of approaching the stone
figure. And suddenly an explanation came to me. What if some wily
priest, climbing long ago where I had climbed today, had realized
that his power would be enhanced and the fear of Yulada intensified
if the people were never to ascend to the peak? And what if, having
conspired with his fellow priests, he had passed an edict forbidding
his followers, under dire penalties, to mount within five stones'
throws of the statue-like figure? Among a superstitious people, could
not such a taboo be made impressive?
But though my reason accepted this explanation, I am an
inconsistent individual, and my emotions rejected it utterly. Even as I
stood gazing up at the rocky mass, fear crept back into my heart;
irrational questionings forced themselves once more upon me
despite all that good sense could do to keep them out. Were the
Ibandru wholly at fault in dreading Yulada? in dreading to stand at
her feet? Here again it may have been only my imagination at work;
but when a cloud came drifting out of nowhere across the sky and for
a moment dimmed the sun, I had a sense of some mysterious
overshadowing presence. And all at once I was anxious to escape,
to free myself from the uncanny imminence of the peak; and it
seemed that the great stone mass above, and the cloud-flecked sky,
and the billowy gaunt ranges, were all joined against me in some
gigantic conspiracy.
As rapidly as safety permitted, I made my way down from the
mountain. But still strange fears disturbed me, that same inexplicable
uneasiness which had obsessed me so often in Sobul. Heedless of
hunger and fatigue, sore muscles and blistered feet, I continued
downward for hours; and that evening I made camp between two
sheltered crags just above the timber-line.
Yet the day's torments were not over. As I skilfully struck my two
flints to make a fire, a greater and more arresting fire was flaring in
the west. Huge masses of cloud were heaped above the dark
ranges, and to the east the bars and patches of snow were
smoldering with a mellow rose-red. But their light was dim beside
that of the clouds, which were luminously golden, as though great
flames leapt and sparkled in their heart; and above the clouds the
crimson of the sky was such as may overtop the towers of a burning
city. Spellbound, I watched; and, as I watched, the crimson seemed
gradually to take form; and the shape was at first vague and
indistinguishable, but by degrees became more clearly pencilled;
and then, perhaps owing to the downward drift of the clouds, and
perhaps because my imagination endowed the scene with unreal
qualities, I thought that I could make out a face, a red peering face
as vast as a mountain! And that face had familiar outlines; and in
amazement and horror and dismay I recognized the features—of
Yulada!
For one moment only, the hallucination endured; then the
countenance became blurred and unrecognizable, and the crimson
was drowned out by the gray, and the fierce blaze of sunset was
quenched and subdued, and the twilight deepened, and the stars
came out. But all that night, while the constellations gleamed above
and I lay huddled close to my fire, I could not sleep but restlessly
stirred from side to side, for I kept seeing over and over again that
terrible vision of Yulada.
Chapter XXI
"THE MOLEB"
When at last I saw the green leaves unfolding on the trees, the green
grass springing up in every meadow and the orchards bursting into
flower, my hopes and fears of the year before were revived. Daily I
watched for the Ibandru's return; daily I was divided between
expectation and dread. How be sure that they would come back at
all? How be certain that, even if they did reappear, Yasma would be
among them?
But my fears were not to be realized. There came an April day when
I rejoiced to see Karem and a fellow tribesman emerging from the
southern woods; there came a day when I was reunited to one
dearer to me than Karem. From the first men to return I had received
vague tidings of Yasma, being told that she was well and would be
back soon; but my anxiety did not cease until I had actually seen her.
Our second reunion was similar in most ways to our first. Awakening
at dawn when the first pale light was flowing in through the open
window, I was enchanted to hear the trill of a bird-song, tremulous
and ethereally sweet, the love-call of some unknown melodist to its
mate. Somewhere, I remembered, I had been charmed by such a
song before, for it had a quality all its own, a richness and
plaintiveness that made it unforgettable. At first I could not recall
when I had heard that sound, if in my own country or here in Sobul;
then, as I lay listening in a pleasant revery, recognition came to me.
It was precisely such a song that had captivated me a year ago just
before Yasma's return!
As I made this discovery, the song suddenly ended. Hopefully I
staggered up from my couch; for a moment I stood peering through
the window in a trance. Then there came a light tapping at the door.
My heart gave a flutter; I was scarcely able to cry out, "Come in!"
Slowly the door began to turn inward, creaking and groaning with its
reluctant motion. But I ran to it and wrenched it wide open, and there
Yasma stood, staring me in the face!
She seemed as much overjoyed as was I, and our greeting was such
as only sundered lovers can know.
Several minutes passed before I could look at her closely. Then,
freeing myself from her embrace, I observed that she was
unchanged—the same vivid, buoyant creature as always! Her eyes
could still dance merrily, her cheeks were still aglow with health;
even her clothes were unaltered, for she wore the same crimson and
blue garments as when she left, and they appeared hardly the worse
for wear.
But, even as last year, she noticed a change in me.
"You look thinner and more worn, my beloved," she remarked, sadly,
as she stood scrutinizing me with tender concern. "You look like one
who has been ill. Have you actually been unwell?"
I replied that I had not been unwell—why tell her that my one
affliction had been her absence?
But now that she was back, I was willing to cast aside all bleak
remembrances. I was as one awakened from a nightmare; I was so
thankful that I could have leapt and shouted like a schoolboy. All that
day, I could scarcely trust myself out of sight of her, so fearful was I
that I might find her vanished; and she would scarcely trust herself
out of sight of me, so delighted was she at having returned. I am
afraid that we both behaved a little like children; but if our conduct
was a trifle foolish, it was at least very pleasant.
Nevertheless, a shadow hovered all the while beside us. Most of the
time, it was not visible, but it swung across our path whenever I
mentioned Yasma's winter absence or sought to discover where she
had been hiding. As always before, she was sphinx-like on this
subject; and since I had no desire to ruin our first day's happiness, I
was cautious to bring up the matter only casually. Yet I assured
myself that I should have no such question to ask next spring.
During the following days, as the Ibandru gradually returned and the
village began to take on an inhabited appearance, I tried to forget the
mystery that still brooded about us, and cheerfully resumed my last
year's activities, almost as if there had been no interruption. More
days than not I worked in the fields with the other men; occasionally
Yasma and her kindred accompanied me on the mountain trails,
exploring many a splintered ridge and deeply sunken gorge; in the
evening I would sit with the tribesmen around the communal fire,
exchanging anecdotes and describing over and over again my far-
off, almost dreamy-dim life in my own land.
And once again Yasma and I were happy. The glamour of our first
few wedded months was revived; we had almost forgotten that the
glow could ever fade, scarcely remembered the old omens and
predictions; and if any of the villagers ever muttered their secret
fears, they made sure that we were well out of hearing. Yet all the
while I realized that we were living in a house of glass, and Yasma
must have realized it too; and in bad dreams at times I heard the
rumbling of approaching storms, and saw the fragile walls of
paradise come clattering about our feet in ruins.
Only one notable event occurred between the return of the Ibandru
and the flight of the first birds southward. And that was an event I
had awaited for two years, and would once have welcomed fervently.
As it happened, it had little immediate effect; but it broke rocket-like
upon my tranquillity, awakened long-slumbering desires, and brought
me bright and vivid visions of the world I had lost.
It was in mid-July that I took an unexpectedly interesting expedition
among the mountains. Yasma accompanied me, as always; Karem
and Barkodu and a dozen other natives completed the party. We
were to carry copious provisions, were to venture further into the
wilderness than I had ever penetrated before, and were not to return
in less than three days, for we intended to journey to a snowy
western peak where grew a potent herb, "the moleb," which Hamul-
Kammesh recommended as a sure cure for all distempers of the
mind and body.
No other mountaineering expedition had ever given me so much
pleasure. Truly, the "moleb" did have remarkable qualities; even
before we had gathered the first spray of this little weed my lungs
were filled with the exhilaration of the high mountain air, and all my
distempers of the mind and body had been cured. I breathed of the
free cool breezes of the peaks, and felt how puny was the life I had
once led among brick walls; I stood gazing into the vacancies of dim,
deep canyons, and through blue miles to the shoulders of remote
cloud-wrapped ranges, and it seemed to me that I was king and
master of all this tumultuous expanse of green and brown and azure.
The scenery was magnificent; the sharply cloven valleys, the snow-
streaked summits and wide dark-green forests stretched before me
even as they may have stretched before my paleolithic forebears;
and nowhere was there a funnel of smoke, or a hut or shanty, or a
devastated woodland to serve as the signature of man.
Yet amid these very solitudes, where all things human appeared as
remote as some other planet, I was to find my first hint of the way
back to civilized lands. It was afternoon of the second day, and we
had gathered a supply of the "moleb" and were returning to Sobul,
when I beheld a sight that made me stare as if in a daze. Far, far
beneath us, slowly threading their way toward the top of the rocky
ridge we were descending, were half a dozen steadily moving black
dots!
In swift excitement, I turned to Karem and Barkodu, and asked who
these men might be. But my companions appeared unconcerned;
they remarked that the strangers were doubtless natives of these
regions; and they advised that we allow them to pass without seeing
us, for the country was infested with brigands.
But brigands or no brigands, I was determined to talk with the
newcomers. All the pleas of Yasma and the arguments of Karem
were powerless to move me. I had a dim hope that the strangers
might be of my own race; and a stronger hope that they could give
me welcome news. At all events, they were the first human beings
other than the Ibandru that I had seen for two years, and the
opportunity was not one to scorn.
As there was only one trail up the steep, narrow slope, the unknowns
would have to pass us unless we hid. And since I would not hide and
my companions would not desert me, it was not long before the
strangers had hailed us. Up and up they plodded in long snaky
curves, now lost from view beyond a ledge, now reappearing from
behind some great crag; while gradually they became more clearly
outlined. It was not long before we had made out that their garments
were of a gray unlike anything worn in Sobul; and at about the same
time we began to distinguish something of their faces, which were
covered with black beards.
As yet my companions had not overcome the suspicion that we were
thrusting ourselves into the hands of bandits. But when we came
close we found that the strangers, while stern-browed and flashing-
eyed, and not of the type that one would carelessly antagonize, were
amiably disposed. At a glance, I recognized their kinship to those
guides who, two years before, had led our geological party into this
country. Their bearing was resolute, almost martial; their well formed
features were markedly aquiline; their hair, after the fashion of the
land, was shaved off to the top of the head, and at the sides it fell in
long curls that reached the shoulders.
Gravely they greeted us in the Pushtu tongue; and gravely we
returned their salutation. But their accent was not that of the Ibandru;
often my comrades and I had difficulty in making out their phrases;
while they in turn were puzzled at much that we said. None the less,
we managed to get along tolerably well.
They came from a town a day's travel to westward, they announced;
and had been visiting some friends in the valley beneath, only a
quarter of a day's journey to the southeast. They were surprised to
see us, since travelers were not often encountered among these
mountains; but their delight equalled their surprise, for they should
like to call us their friends, and perhaps, if our homes were not too
far-off, they should sometime visit us.
It was obvious that they had never seen any of our kind before, nor
any blue and red costumes like ours. But I was not pleased to find
myself the particular object of attention. From the first, the strangers
were staring at me curiously, somewhat as one stares at a peculiar
new animal.
As long as I could, I endured their scrutiny; then, when it seemed as
if they would never withdraw their gaze, my annoyance found words.
"Maybe you wouldn't mind telling me," I asked, "why you all keep
looking at me so oddly? Do you find anything unusual about me?"
None of the strangers seemed surprised at the question. "No, I
wouldn't mind telling you," declared one who appeared to be their
leader. "We do find something unusual about you. You are wearing
the same sort of clothes as your friends, who were surely born in the
mountains; but it is clear that you were not born here. Your stride is
not of the same length as theirs; your bearing is not quite so firm;
you do not speak the language like one who learned it on his
mother's knee, and the words have a different sound in your mouth.
Besides, your companions all have dark skin and eyes, while your
skin is light, your eyes blue, your beard a medium brown. We have
seen men like you before, but none of them lived among these
mountains."
"What!" I demanded, starting forward with more than a trace of
excitement. "You have seen men like me before? Where? When?"
"Oh, every now and then," he stated, in matter-of-fact tones. "Yes,
every now and then they come to our village."
My head had begun to spin. I took another step forward, and
clutched my informer about the shoulders.
"Tell me more about them!" I gasped. "What do they come for? Who
are they?"
"Who knows who they are, or what they come for?" he returned, with
a shrug. "They hunt and fish; they explore the country; they like to
climb the mountains. Also, they always barter for the little trinkets
that we sell."
"Come, come, tell me still more! Where are they from? How do they
get to your village?"
"A road, which we call the Magic Cord, runs through our town. Not
an easy road to travel, but more than a trail. They say it leads to
wonderful far-off lands. But that I do not know; I have never followed
it far enough. That is all I can tell you."
"But you must tell me more! Come! You must! Is it hard to reach your
town? Just how do you get there?"
"It is not hard at all. This trail—the one we are on—leads all the way.
You cross the first range into the next valley, then skirt the southern
shore of a long blue lake, then cross another range, then wind
through a wooded canyon; and in the further valley, by a stream at
the canyon's end, you will find our village."
I made careful mental note of these directions, and had them
repeated with sundry more details.
"Once having started, you cannot lose your way," I was assured.
"Just remember this: we live in the village of Marhab, and our tribe is
the Marhabi."
I thanked the speaker, and we bade a friendly farewell. A few
minutes later, the six strangers were no more than specks retreating
along the vast rocky slopes.
But to them personally I scarcely gave another thought. Almost in a
moment, my life-prospects had been transformed. I could now find
my way back to my own land—yes, I could find my way if Yasma
would only go with me! Enthusiastically I turned to her, told of the
discovery, and asked if she would not accompany me to America. In
my impetuous eagerness, I scarcely gave her a chance to reply, but
went on and on, describing wildly the prospects before us, the
splendors of civilized lands, the silks and velvets in which I should
clothe her, the magnificent sights to be seen in countries beyond the
mountains.
I think that, beneath the shock of the discovery, I was under a
stupefying spell. So wrapped up was I in the great new knowledge
that I scarcely noted how, while I was speaking, Yasma walked with
head averted. But when, after some minutes, my enthusiasm
slackened and I turned to seek her response, I met with a surprise
that was like ice water in the face—I found that she was weeping!
"Yasma," I murmured, in dismay. "Yasma—what has come over
you?"
Her reply was such a passionate outburst that I was thankful the
others were hundreds of yards ahead.
"Oh, my beloved," she cried, while her little fists, fiercely clenched,
were waved tragically in air, "you should never have married me!
Never, never! It wasn't fair to you! It wasn't right! Oh, why did you
make me marry you? For now see what you have done! You have
locked yourself up in Sobul, and can't go back to your own land, no,
you can't—never again—not unless—unless without me!"
The last words were uttered with a drooping of the head and a
gesture of utmost renunciation.
"You know I would never go back without you, Yasma," I assured
her.
"But you can never go with me! I must remain in Sobul—I must! I've
told you so before, and I cannot—cannot be anything but what I am!"
"No one would ask you to be anything but what you are. But think,
Yasma, might it not really be wiser to go away? Remember how long
we have been parted even in Sobul. And would it not be better,
better for both of us, if we could leave this land and be together
always?"
"We could not be together always!" she denied, with finality. "And it
would not be better, not better for me! I must be in Sobul each year
when the birds fly south! Or I too might go the way of the birds, and
never be able to fly back!"
It was an instant before I had grasped the significance of her words.
"But you cannot mean that, Yasma!" I protested, with a return of my
old, half-buried forebodings. "No, no, you cannot—"
"I do mean it!"—In her tones there was an unfathomable sadness,
and the humility of one who bows to inexorable forces.—"I do mean
it! I know that it is so! Oh, if you love me, if you care to have me with
you, do not speak of this again! Do not ask me to go away from
Sobul, and never, never return!"
As she uttered these words, her eyes held such pleading, such
piteous pleading and sorrow and regret, that I could only take her
into my arms, and promise never to distress her so again.
Yet even as I felt her arms about me and her convulsive form
huddled against my breast, I could not help reflecting how strange
was the prison that circumstance and my own will had built about
me; and my glimpse of the doorway out had only made me realize
how unyielding were the bolts and bars.
Chapter XXII
THE TURNING POINT APPROACHES
When the days were shortening once more toward fall and the forest
leaves were showing their first tinges of yellow, I knew that I was
approaching an all-important turning point. Already I had passed two
autumns and two winters in Sobul, two autumns of mystery and two
winters of solitude; and it seemed certain that the third year would
bring some far-reaching change. I tried to tell myself that the change
would be beneficent, that the enigma of Sobul would be penetrated,
and that henceforth there would be no separation between Yasma
and myself; but even though I doubted my own hopes and feared
some undiscovered menace, I remained firm in my determination
that Yasma should not leave me this year.
More than once, when summer was still in full blossom, I gave
Yasma hints of my intention. But she either did not take them
seriously, or pretended not to; she would brush my words aside with
some attempted witticism, and did not appear to see the earnestness
beneath my mild phrases. In my dread of casting some new shadow
over us both, I delayed the crucial discussion as long as possible;
delayed, indeed, until the hot days were over and the woods were
again streaked with russet and crimson; delayed until after the
Ibandru had held their annual firelight festival; delayed until the brisk
winds brought promise of frost, and more than one of the tribesmen
had gone on that journey which would not end until the new leaves
were green. Even so, I still hesitated when the moment came to
broach the subject; I realized only too well that one false move might
precipitate a storm, and defeat my purpose.
The time I selected was a calm, clear evening, when twilight was
settling over the village and a red blaze still lingered above the
western range. Arm in arm Yasma and I had been strolling among
the fields; and as we returned slowly to our cabin, a silence fell
between us, and her exuberant spirits of the afternoon disappeared.
Looking down at her small figure, I observed how frail she actually
was, and how dependent; and I thought I noted a sorrow in her eyes,
a grief that had hovered there frequently of late and that seemed the
very mark of the autumn season. But the sense of her weakness, the
realization of something melancholy and even pathetic about her,
served only to draw me closer to her, made it seem doubly sad that
she should disappear each autumn into the unknown.
And as I pondered the extraordinary fate that was hers and mine,
words came to me spontaneously. "I want you to do me a favor,
Yasma," I requested. "A very particular favor."
"But you know that I'll do any favor you ask," she assented, turning
to me with the startled air of one interrupted amid her reveries.
"This is something out of the ordinary, Yasma. Something you may
not wish to do. But I want it as badly as I've ever wanted anything in
the whole world."
"What can it be that you want so badly and yet think I wouldn't give?"
"Do you promise?" I bargained, taking an unfair advantage. "Do you
promise, Yasma?"
"If it's anything within my power—and will bring you happiness—of
course I'll promise!"
"This will bring me the greatest happiness. When the last birds fly
south, and the last of your people have gone away, I want you to
stay here with me."
Yasma's response was a half-suppressed little cry—though whether
of pain or astonishment I could not tell. But she averted her head,
and a long silence descended. In the gathering darkness it would
have been impossible to distinguish the expression of her face; but I
felt intuitively what a blow she had been dealt.
Without a word we reached our cabin, and entered the dim, bare
room. I busied myself lighting a candle from a wick we kept always
burning in a jar of oil; then anxiously I turned to Yasma.
She was standing at the window gazing out toward the ghostly
eastern peaks, her chin sagging down upon her upraised palm.
"Yasma," I murmured.
Slowly she turned to face me. "Oh, my beloved," she sighed, coming
to me and placing her hands affectionately upon my shoulders, "I do
not want to pain you. I do not want to pain you, as you have just
pained me. But you have asked the one thing I cannot grant."
"But, Yasma, this is the only thing I really want!"
"It is more than I can give! You don't know what you ask!" she
argued, as she quickly withdrew from me.
"But you promised, Yasma," I insisted, determined to press my
advantage.
"I didn't even know what I was promising! Why, it just never occurred
to me to think of such a thing; I imagined that had all been settled
long ago. Was it right to make me promise?" she contested,
stanchly.
"I don't see why not," I maintained, trying to be calm. "Certainly, it's
not unjust to ask you not to desert me."
"Oh, it isn't a question of injustice!" she exclaimed, with passion. "If I
were starved, would it be unjust for me to want food? If I were
stifling, would it be unjust to crave air? Each year when the birds fly
south my people leave Sobul, not because they wish to or plan to but
because they must, just as the flower must have warmth and light!"
"But do you think you alone must have warmth and light? Do I not
need them too? Must I be forsaken here all winter while you go
wandering away somewhere in the sunshine? Think, Yasma, I do not
absolutely ask you to stay! I would not ask you to stay in such a
dreary place! But take me with you, wherever you go! That is all I
want!"
"But that I can never do," she replied, falling into a weary, lifeless
tone. "I cannot take you with me. It is not in your nature. You can
never feel the call. You are not as the Ibandru; you would not be able
to follow us, any more than you can follow the wild geese."
"Then if I cannot go, at least you can remain!"
"No Ibandru has ever remained," she objected, sadly, as though to
herself. "Yulada does not wish it—and Yulada knows best."
Somehow, the very mention of that sinister figure made me suddenly
and unreasonably angry.
"Come, I've heard enough of Yulada!" I flared. "More than enough!
Never speak of her again!" And by the wavering candlelight I could
see Yasma's face distended with horror at my blasphemy.
"May Yulada forgive you!" she muttered, and bent her head as if in
prayer.
"Listen to me, Yasma!" I appealed, in rising rage. "Let's try to see
with clear eyes. You said something about fairness—have you ever
thought how fair you are to me? I can't go back to my own land
because I wouldn't leave you; but here in your land you yourself
leave me for months at a time. And I don't even know why you go or
where. Would you think it fair if I were gone half the time and didn't
tell you why?"
Into her flushed face had come anger that rivalled my own. Her
proud eyes flashed defiance as she cried, "No, I wouldn't think it fair!
And if you are tired of staying here, you can go—yes, you can just
go!"
"Very well then, I will go!" I decided, on a mad impulse. "If you don't
want me, I'll go at once! I'll return to my own people! The road is
open—I'll not trouble you to stay here this winter!"
As though in response to a well formed plan rather than to an
irrational frenzy, I began to fumble about the room for bits of clothing,
for scraps of food, for my notebook and empty revolver; and made
haste to bind my belongings together as if for a long journey.
For several minutes Yasma watched me in silence. Then her
reaction was just what it had been when, in a similar fury, I had run
from her in the woods long before. While I persisted with my
preparations and the suspense became prolonged, I was startled by
a half-stifled sob from my rear. And, the next instant, a passionate
form thrust itself upon me tensely, almost savagely, tearing the
bundle from my grasp and weaving its arms about me in a tearful
outburst.
"No, no, no, you must not!" she cried, in tones of pleading and
despair. "You must not go away! Stay here, and I'll do anything you
want!"
"Then you'll remain all winter?" I stipulated, though by this time I was
filled with such remorse and pity that I would gladly have abandoned
the dispute.
"Yes, I'll remain all winter—if I can," she moaned. "But I do not know,
I do not know—if Yulada will let me."
It struck me that in her manner there was the sadness of one who
stands face to face with misfortune; and in her words I could catch a
forewarning of events I preferred not to anticipate.
Chapter XXIII
THE LAST FLIGHT
As the evening twilight came earlier and the trees were burnished a
deeper scarlet and gold, a strange mood came over Yasma. She
was no longer her old frolicsome self; she would no longer go
dancing light-heartedly among the woods and fields; she would not
greet me with laughter when I returned to our cabin, nor play her little
games of hide-and-seek, nor smile at me in the old winsome
whimsical way. But she was as if burdened with a deep sorrow. Her
eyes had the look of one who suffers but cannot say why; her
actions were as mechanical as though her life-interest had forsaken
her. She would sit on the cabin floor for hours at a time, staring into
vacancy; she would stand with eyes fastened upon the wild birds as
their successive companies went winging southward; she would
gaze absently up at Yulada, or would mumble unintelligible prayers;
she would go off by herself into the forest, and when she returned
her cheeks would be moist.
At times, indeed, she struggled to break loose from this melancholia.
For a moment the old sweet untroubled smile would come back into
her eyes, and she would take my hand, and beg me not to mind her
queer ways; but after a few minutes the obsession would return.
Now and then she would be actually merry for a while, but I would
fancy that in her very gaiety there was something strained; and more
than once her jovial mood ended in tears. I could not understand her
conduct; I was more deeply worried than she could have known; and
often when she sat at my side, wrapped in some impenetrable
revery, I would be absorbed in a bleak revery of my own, wherein
Yasma would have the central place.
Yet, even at this late date, it would have been possible to avert
catastrophe. Dimly I recognized that I had only to release Yasma

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Microbial Electrochemical Technology

SERIES EDITOR: ASHOK PANDEY

Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

For information on all Elsevier publications visit our website at

Publisher: Joe Hayton

Rouzbeh Abbassi School of Engineering, René Cardeña Laboratory for Research on

Ahmet Demir Department of Environmental Venkataramana Gadhamshetty Civil and

Renewable energy generation using bio-based platform chemical synthesis

be addressed. The interdisciplinary approach • Widened scope of the existing technolo-

The concept of electrochemical energy system, i.e., microbial electrochemical technology

Microbial Electrochemical Technology

Industrial Effluents BES Hydrogen

Acidogenic Effluents MEC Methane

Short and Medium

Saline Water EF Treated Water

electrofermentation (EF) to enhance bio-based product synthesis [10e19]. Every individual

1.1.2 MICROBIAL ELECTROCHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY ORIGIN

I. MICROBIAL ELECTROCHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY (MET) - BASICS

Galvani 1789 M C Potter in 1911 Branet Cohen in

Thruston et al., 1985 Karube et al., 1977 Davis and Yarbrough

Kim et al., 1990 Allen and Bennetto Year 2000 onwards

FIGURE 1.1.2 Origin and transition of microbial mediated electrochemical systems.

I. MICROBIAL ELECTROCHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY (MET) - BASICS

immobilized C. butyricum as a biocatalyst and reported a constant current of 1.1e1.2 mA

1.1.2.1 Scientography of MET

1.1.3 MICROBIAL SYSTEMS ASSOCIATED WITH ENERGY

I. MICROBIAL ELECTROCHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY (MET) - BASICS

FIGURE 1.1.3 Scientography of individual microbial mediated electrochemical systems.

I. MICROBIAL ELECTROCHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY (MET) - BASICS

Number of Papers Number of Citations

MFC BES MEC BET MDC Total MES

I. MICROBIAL ELECTROCHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY (MET) - BASICS

-0.7 Pyruvate/Acetate [-0.7]

-0.6 Acetate/Acetaldehyde [-0.58]

-0.5 2H+/H2 [-0.42]

0.0 Fumarate/Succinate [0.02]

I. MICROBIAL ELECTROCHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY (MET) - BASICS

1.1.4 ELECTROGENSdELECTROACTIVE MICROORGANISMS

1.1.4.1 Electron Transfer and Conservation of Energy

I. MICROBIAL ELECTROCHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY (MET) - BASICS

I. MICROBIAL ELECTROCHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY (MET) - BASICS

electrically non-conductive and physically impermeable to minerals. The majority of organ-

1.1.5 WEAK ELECTRICIGENSdTHE FUTURISTIC AND VERSATILE

I. MICROBIAL ELECTROCHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY (MET) - BASICS

1.1.6 CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES

I. MICROBIAL ELECTROCHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY (MET) - BASICS

I. MICROBIAL ELECTROCHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY (MET) - BASICS

I. MICROBIAL ELECTROCHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY (MET) - BASICS

I. MICROBIAL ELECTROCHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY (MET) - BASICS

I. MICROBIAL ELECTROCHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY (MET) - BASICS

I. MICROBIAL ELECTROCHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY (MET) - BASICS

Microbial Electrochemical Technology

1.2.2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MICROBIAL ELECTROCHEMICAL

1.2.2.1 Brief Development of Microbial Electrochemical Systems

I. MICROBIAL ELECTROCHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY (MET) - BASICS

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