Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2010: Power for Land, Sea, and Air

GT2010
Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2010: Power for Land, Sea and Air
June 14–18, 2010, Glasgow, UK
GT2010
June 14-18, 2010, Glasgow, UK

GT2010-22358
GT2010-

VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS AROUND FILM COOLING HOLES WITH DEPOSITION

Kristian Haase Jeffrey P. Bons∗

Institute of Aircraft Propulsion Systems Department of Aerospace Engineering
University of Stuttgart The Ohio State University
70569 Stuttgart, Germany Columbus, Ohio 43235 USA
kristianhaase@gmail.com bons.2@osu.edu

ABSTRACT coolant gathers and stays behind the large depositions and then
The choice of synthetic fuels (synfuels) in order to achieve flows off very slowly. Film effectiveness and surface heat flux data
greater fuel flexibility may lead to unwanted solid depositions on acquired with the same plates (and reported previously) allow the
the blades of turbomachines. The objective of this paper is to gain identification of flow features and their direct influence on the film
information of the flow field over a turbine blade with depositions cooling performance.
around the film cooling holes. For the investigation the particle
image velocimetry technique (PIV) is utilized. The experiments
are conducted in a low speed wind tunnel at a Reynolds number of
300, 000 based on the distance from the leading edge to the middle NOMENCLATURE
of the cooling holes and a Reynolds number of 9, 200 based on the
Latin characters
hole diameter. Three different simulation plates are tested in the
tunnel—a flat plate for comparison, a plate with large depositions d Hole diameter (17.5 mm)
only upstream of the holes, and one with smaller depositions all DR Density ratio, Eq. (2)
around the holes. The two deposition configurations are scaled F Overall cooling effectiveness
models of actual depositions formed at simulated engine flow con- h Convective heat transfer coefficient
ditions on a turbine test coupon. The experiments are conducted H Height
at four different coolant to free stream blowing ratios—0, 0.5, 1, L Length
and 2—and at a density ratio of 1.1. PIV images are taken in M Blowing ratio, Eq. (1)
four planes from the side of the tunnel to record the main flow Ra Average roughness
structures and in five planes from the end of the tunnel to record Rq Rms roughness
the secondary flow structures. The results show that the type of Rt Maximum roughness
deposition has a large influence on the flow field. With the smaller Re Reynolds number
depositions the penetration of the coolant jet into the free stream is s Hole spacing
significantly reduced but the dimension and strength of the kidney t Thickness
vortices is increased compared to the flat plate. With the large T Temperature
depositions, on the other hand, the penetration of the coolant jet V Velocity
is much higher due to the ramp effect and the dimension of the W Width
secondary vortices is also increased. It can also be seen that the x Streamwise coordinate (x = 0 at the hole leading edge)
y Spanwise coordinate (y = 0 between holes 3 and 4)
z Vertical coordinate (z = 0 at the bottom tunnel wall)
∗ Address all correspondence to this author
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 Greek characters
δ Boundary layer thickness
δ∗ Boundary layer displacement thickness
η Film cooling effectiveness, Eq. (3)
θ Momentum thickness
µ Dynamic viscosity
ν Kinematic viscosity
ρ Density
Φq Heat flux, Eq. (4)
Subscripts
0 Without cooling
ad Adiabatic
c Coolant
f Film (Average of free stream and surface value)
p Plate
r Recovery
s Surface
xz Magnitude in the streamwise xz-plane
yz Magnitude in the spanwise yz-plane
∞ Free stream
INTRODUCTION
Since—for both economical and political reasons—various
synthetic fuels are being tested on gas turbines as a replacement
for natural gas, it has been found that unburned residues of these
fuels tend to form depositions on the engine surfaces. This can
be particularly critical when occurring in the turbine section and
blocking the cooling holes. A study of how the deposition forma-
tion changes with the fuel used was conducted by Bons et al. [1].
Another possibility for deposition is the ingestion of solid parti-
cles from the surrounding environment like sand, dust, or volcanic
ash, which can then stick to the surfaces. Kim et al. [2] showed
how simulated volcanic ash forms depositions and blocks the film
cooling holes of aircraft turbine blades.
Investigations of how obstructions around and inside film
cooling holes affect the cooling have already been conducted. So-
mawardhana and Bogard [3] looked at a three-vane linear cascade
with 30° angled cylindrical cooling holes. They positioned three
different shaped obstructions in front and behind the holes as well
as in front with three lateral offsets. They found out that the shape
of the obstruction has only a minimal effect on the cooling effec-
tiveness and the height the largest. Obstructions with a height
of 0.5 hole diameters reduce the adiabatic effectiveness about
40% at low blowing ratios, and about 30% at high blowing ratios.
Obstructions both upstream and downstream of the holes reduce
the effectiveness not as much as those placed directly upstream.
Obstructions downstream of the holes lead to an improvement
of the film cooling effectiveness. The area in which obstructions
influence the cooling was found to be up to one hole diameter
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upstream and positioned spanwise so that the obstruction at least
partially blocks the main stream from the center of the hole.
Demling and Bogard [4] used the same test facility as [3],
their cooling holes however were 56° angled. The investigations,
conducted with three different shapes of obstructions, show that
the film cooling adiabatic effectiveness is significantly degraded by
placing the obstructions near the holes. Upstream obstructions lead
to larger degradation than downstream ones, and the effectiveness
is decreased between 25% at low and 80% at high blowing ratios.
Downstream obstructions only have a small effect at blowing ratios
of 0.7 and 1.2, while obstructions inside the hole seriously degrade
the film cooling effectiveness due to hole blockage and a steeper
exit angle. The shape of the upstream obstructions changes the
effectiveness by a factor of two. The sharp edged obstruction leads
to the smallest reduction and the smooth and sharp obstruction
to the largest. Looking at the size, the 1/8 d obstruction shows
no influence on the effectiveness, 1/4 d degrades it by 25% to
80% at mid and high blowing ratios. 1/2 d and 1 d obstructions
reduce the effectiveness even more at M = 0.4 and M = 0.7, and
are almost the same for all blowing ratios.
Sundaram and Thole [5] also looked at a vane cascade but
with 72° angled cooling holes on a vane endwall. They positioned
three different shaped obstructions downstream of the film cooling
holes and an obstruction inside the hole that blocked 25% of
the area. The investigation revealed that partial blockage of the
cooling hole and spallation of the thermal barrier coating lead to
a higher reduction of the film cooling effectiveness than surface
depositions. Near the hole, depositions with a height of 0.5 d
improves the effectiveness by about 25%. Those with a height of
1.2 d let the coolant jet lift of the surface and therefore decrease
the effectiveness. The partial blocking of five film cooling holes
results in a 30% reduction of the effectiveness, blocking only
one hole results in a 10% reduction. It was shown that the TBC
spallation also reduces the effectiveness about 10%.
Unlike in the above mentioned investigations, the goal of this
work is not to collect data of film cooling effectiveness. The flow
field shall be visualized in a rectangular wind tunnel with film
cooling holes on one wall using the particle image velocimetry
(PIV) technique. Measurements of the heat transfer and cooling
effectiveness for the same test configuration were already con-
ducted by Lewis et al. [6] in a previous work. Beside the basic
case with a flat geometry, cases with depositions upstream and
around the cooling holes are investigated. Especially interesting
is how the penetration of the coolant jet develops with higher
blowing ratios and what influence the depositions have on the jet
and therefore on the quality of cooling. A distinguishing feature
is that a complete data set of heat transfer, film effectiveness, and
velocity data will be available for the mentioned configurations.
Furthermore, the data is collected using actual scaled depositions,
which formed around film cooling holes with combustion gases
passing by compared to regular shaped obstructions, like blocks
and parts of spheres, used in several investigations.
 z
y
x
Lp
Wp
(a) (b)
tp
Figure 1. Photographs of the simulation plates: (a) Flat plate, (b) small depositions around the cooling holes, (c) large depositions before the holes
EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY
Wind tunnel setup
For the experiments a blower powered open loop wind tunnel
is used. After the blower, the air passes through a settling chamber,
which has a diameter of 0.6 m and consists of one layer of per-
forated aluminum plate, 76 mm of honeycomb straightener, and
five layers of fine screen. A connecting piece reduces the circular
cross section of the chamber to the rectangular cross section of
the following test section.
The test section is shown on a larger scale in Fig. 2. It consists
of Plexiglas sheets with a thickness of t = 19 mm in order to
comply with the requirement of a semi-infinite wall for the heat
transfer measurements and to allow to view inside the tunnel. The
test section has an overall length of L = 3.04 m from the settling
chamber to the end of the tunnel. The inside dimensions for height
and width are both H = 0.38 m and W = 0.38 m. 1.52 m behind
the exit of the settling chamber a knife edge is used to remove the
lower 27 mm of the existing boundary layer in order to start a new
one. 25 mm behind the knife edge a metal trip bar with a diameter
of 1.6 mm is placed on the bottom plate of the tunnel to achieve
the transition to turbulent flow. The cut-out for the different plates
simulating the film cooling holes and the depositions is located
0.39 m behind the knife edge. It is 0.38 m wide and 0.318 m long.
The boundary layer parameters at the location of the film
cooling holes for the flat plate case without cooling are as follows:
the boundary layer thickness δ = 21.09 mm or 1.205 d, the dis-
placement thickness δ ∗ = 3.09 mm, and the momentum thickness
θ = 2.19 mm, with a shape factor of 1.41.
Underneath the plate the coolant supplying facility is located,
which consists of three vortex tubes, a flowmeter, and a condition-
ing box. The vortex tubes are a reliable tool to cool down air and
hold the temperature steadily with a range in temperature within
1 K. For the highest blowing ratio M = 2 a volumetric flow rate
of around 22 l/s and a temperature of 0 °C at the film cooling
hole had to be achieved in order to match the conditions from the
previous heat transfer measurements. The flowmeter is an Omega
FLD114 rotometer, which uses a float that moves vertically in a
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2.1 d
1.5 d
(c)
slightly tapered tube. It has a maximum flow rate of 43 l/s. The
purpose of the conditioning box is to supply all of the film cooling
holes with the same amount of air and simulate an actual cooling
channel. The box is made of 6.5 mm thick wooden plates and is
lined with a 19 mm thick layer of low thermal conductivity foam
to reduce the thermal losses in the box. Inside it two layers of fine
screen are used to condition the flow and provide each cooling
hole with the same mass flow rate. The centerline velocity of the
coolant at each of the film cooling holes was within 0.5 m/s or 6%
at M = 1. Temperature uniformity was found to be within 0.5 °C
at the lowest possible coolant temperature of -13 °C.
For the experiments three different plates simulating a row
of film cooling holes are used. A flat plat for comparison and
two plates with depositions around the holes. The manufacturing
of these plates is described extensively by Lewis [7]. The three
different plates are shown in Fig. 1. They all have the same outside
measures with a width of Wp = 0.38 m, a length of Lp = 0.318 m
and a thickness of tp = 19 mm. Each plate features six film cooling
holes, which have a diameter of 17.5 mm and are 30° inclined. The
distance from the leading edge of the plate to the leading edge of
the holes is 180 mm and the spacing between the holes is 54 mm
(s/d = 3) for the flat plate and the one with large depositions only
upstream and 58.75mm (s/d = 3.35) for the plate with depositions
all around the holes.
Three-dimensional surface files were used to determine rough-
ness statistics for various regions of the two deposition plates. The
statistics of most interest for this study were the centerline av-
eraged roughness Ra , the rms roughness Rq , and the maximum
roughness Rt —all normalized by the hole diameter. The plate
with s/d = 3 has a maximum deposition height of 2.1 d between
the cooling holes, dropping down to 1.5 d directly upstream of the
hole. It is of note that since the boundary layer thickness is of order
the cooling hole diameter, this roughness extends beyond the flat
plate boundary layer. The plate with s/d = 3.35 has Ra = 0.09 d,
Rq = 0.12 d, and Rt = 0.83 d upstream of the holes. Downstream
of the holes, depositions accumulated primarily between the holes,
creating a deposition pattern with “trenches”, that bears striking re-
 Pitot probe and thermocouple
Simulation plate
Free stream fluid
Knife edge and
boundary layer suction
Conditioning box
Coolant fluid
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the test section (not to scale)
semblance to deposition features noted on actual turbine hardware
as reported by Bons et al. [8]. Measurements downstream and
between the holes revealed the roughness parameters Ra = 0.24 d,
Rq = 0.29 d, and Rt = 1.2d , compared to Ra = 0.1 d, Rq = 0.13 d,
and Rt = 0.51 d directly downstream of the holes.
A scaling factor of 17.5 was selected to provide adequate
spatial resolution for surface imaging as well as matching Rex
and Red with typical values on actual turbine hardware. A typ-
ical turbine vane exit Reynolds number based on chord length
is Rec = 1, 000, 000. With a streamwise tunnel location for the
film cooling row of 0.57 m and 8.5 m/s free stream velocity in
the wind tunnel, Rex is approximately 300, 000. This indicates
a cooling row location of roughly 30% of the total vane chord.
The equivalent “chord” length in the wind tunnel would then be
approximately 1.9 m. Thus, the ratio of model hole size (17.5 mm)
to model chord length is 108. This matches the chord to cooling
hole diameter ratio for an industrial gas turbine blade with 1 mm
diameter holes and a 108 mm chord length. The Reynolds number
based on hole diameter Red is 9, 200.
Heat transfer and film effectiveness measurements
The heat transfer and film effectiveness measurements by
Lewis et al. [6] were conducted on the same test facility as this
investigation. The goal of that study was to quantify the heat
transfer effects of film cooling by comparing the local heat fluxes
with and without cooling (see Eq. 4). For that, steady state and
transient tests were performed at five different blowing ratios to
obtain the film cooling effectiveness η and the convective heat
transfer coefficient h, respectively. An Electrophysics Silver
420 infrared camera was used to record the surface temperatures
in a 295 mm × 235 mm area centered on the film cooling holes.
The film cooling effectiveness was calculated using Eq. 3 and the
convective heat transfer coefficient was calculated using Schultz
and Jones’ 1D method [9] as outlined in Lewis et al. [6].
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PIV setup
The PIV-System used for this investigation was provided
completely by LaVision. The laser unit Solo PIV—produced
by the New Wave company—uses a neodymium-doped yttrium
aluminium garnet laser (Nd:YAG), which is often used for PIV
measurements. It emits light with a wave length of 1064 nm and
a power of 500 mJ. By doubling the frequency the wave length
of the infrared light is halved to 532 nm so that the now visible
light can be picked up by the camera. The laser unit is placed
on top of the wind tunnel, the rest of the system on a movable
table. The beam emitted by the laser unit hits a 45° angled mirror,
that is mounted to an Isel three-axial traverse right over the test
section. The beam is deflected 90° down and then passes through
a Rodenstock modular focus lens and a cylindrical lens, that
widens the beam to a light sheet. The Rodenstock lens is used
to adjust the focus of the laser sheet and therefore its thickness in
the examined area. At the inlet to the wind tunnel the seeding is
added to the main flow using a LaVision VZ-Seeder. According
to Raffel et al. [10] the seeding for the free stream air was chosen
to be olive oil with a particle diameter of 0.5 µm to 10 µm. The
coolant air was not seeded, which—due to low mixture of free
stream and coolant near the hole exit—led to untrustworthy veloc-
ity vectors in this region and the indicated maximum velocities.
When passing through the light sheet the seeding then scatters
the laser light, which is picked up by a LaVision VC-Imager In-
tense camera, that is mounted perpendicular to the laser sheet on
a Velmex three-axial traverse. The CCD chip in the camera has a
resolution of 1280 px × 1024 px and the lenses used are Nikon
AF Nikkor lenses with focal lengths of 50 mm and 105 mm. The
first mentioned is used for the main flow images taken from the
side of the tunnel, the second for the secondary flow images taken
from behind the tunnel. The pictures taken by the camera are
passed on to the measurement computer and then processed with
the LaVision DaVis 6.2 software.
For each plate, PIV images were taken in four planes in the
streamwise direction and in five planes in the spanwise direction.
The streamwise measurement planes had offsets of 0.5 hole spac-
ings starting at y = -3 d or y = -3.35 d, which is located in the
middle between hole 2 and hole 3. The spanwise images were
taken in one plane upstream of the cooling holes, in one plane at
the leading edge of the holes, and in three planes downstream of
the leading edge of the holes. The exact positions are summarized
in Tab. 1 and coordinate axes are included in Fig. 1(a) for reference.
Each PIV image shown represents the average of 200 single PIV
images.
Necessary parameters
For investigations, in which two fluid streams interact with
each other—and especially for film cooling applications—, two
flow parameters have to be defined in order to be able to compare
the results. These are the blowing ratio M and the density ratio DR.
 Table 1. Measurement positions for the investigated plates The heat flux ratio is defined as

y/d-position x/d-position
 
Configuration Φq h T∞ − Tc
= · 1 − ηad · (4)
Flat plate -3 =
b -53 mm, -2.857 =
b -50 mm, Φq,0 h0 T∞ − Ts
s/d = 3 -1.5 =
b -26.5 mm, 0=b 0 mm,
0=b 0 mm, 1.143 =
b 20 mm, from Newton’s law of cooling, where h and h0 are the convective
1.5 =
b 26.5 mm 2.857 =
b 50 mm, heat transfer coefficients with and without cooling, respectively,
5.714 =
b 100 mm
and T∞ is the free stream temperature. Since the plate surfaces
Deposition Plate -3, -1.5, -2.857, 0, 1.143, are not perfectly adiabatic, η is used instead of the adiabatic film
s/d = 3 0, 1.5 2.857, 5.714 cooling effectiveness ηad . The temperature difference ratio in
Eq. (4) is often referred to as the overall cooling effectiveness.
Deposition Plate -3.35 =
b -59 mm, -2.857, 0, 1.143, Typical values of T∞ , Tc , and Ts for gas turbines yield an overall
s/d = 3.35 -1.675 =
b -29.5 mm, 2.857, 5.714
cooling effectiveness of F = 0.6 [11], which was the value used
0=b 0 mm,
1.675 =
b 29.5 mm
in this study. If the value of the heat flux ratio is less than one,
it indicates an overall benefit from cooling because less heat is
transferred with cooling than without.
The first is defined as

Vc · ρc
M= , (1)
V∞ · ρ∞
where Vc and ρc are the fluid velocity and density of the coolant
and V∞ and ρ∞ those of the free stream. This ratio is a measure
for the thermal transport capacity, which generally increases as
the blowing ratio increases. Typical numbers of M in actual gas
turbines are in a range from 0.5 to 2.
The other variable, the density ratio, is defined as
RESULTS
The results of the velocity field measurements are presented
as contour plots, which show regions of different magnitudes of
the velocities in the specific plane. Additionally to the contour
plot, the velocity vectors are overlaid to show how the flow field is
oriented. The absolute velocities in each measurement plane are
normalized with the associated mean velocities. Results are shown
for the flat plate with s/d = 3 and both deposition plates at the
blowing ratio M = 2 and—where flow features can be observed—
also at M = 0.5.

ρc
DR =
ρ∞
and it also has a large influence on the interaction between these
two fluid streams. Modern gas turbines typically operate at density
ratios between 1.5 and 2.
Also there are two other parameters, which are necessary
when looking at the heat transfer. These are the film cooling
effectiveness η and the heat flux ratio Φq /Φq,0 . The effectiveness
is defined as
Tr − Tf Tr − Ts
η= ≈ ,
Tr − Tc Tr − Tc
where Tr is the recovery temperature (surface temperature when no
coolant is present), Tc the coolant temperature, and Tf the film tem-
perature, which can be approximated as the surface temperature. If
the surface temperature equals the coolant temperature, η becomes
one and 100% of the coolant is used for cooling. Whereas, if the
surface temperature equals the recovery temperature, η becomes
zero and obviously none of the coolant is used for its purpose.
Flat plate s / d = 3
(2)
The flat plate case is shown first in order to get an impression
of how the flow field looks like without depositions and to be able
to compare the cases easily. At the low blowing ratio M = 0.5
the coolant jet causes only minimal effect on the velocity field.
In summary, the streamwise planes on the hole centerlines at
y/D = -1.5 and y/d = 1.5 show a little deflection of the free
stream fluid by the jet between x/d = 0 and x/d = 3—which can
be seen in Fig. 3—, while the planes between the holes show no
difference at all. The white region in this and the following figures
covers a portion of the PIV domain, that was optically obstructed
and produced questionable velocity vectors. In the spanwise plane
(3) at x/d = 1.143 in Fig. 4 the jet can be observed exiting the cooling
hole. However, due to the low blowing ratio it is very weak, which
is why the effects are already gone in Fig. 5 at x/d = 2.857.
For the highest blowing ratio M = 2, Fig. 6 at y/d = -1.5
shows the jet with very high velocities, up to 1.5 times the free
stream velocity. The film cooling jet penetration can be seen up
to around z/d = 1.3. Due to the high velocity of the coolant jet, it
lifts off the plate and the free stream fluid curls around it, which
can also be observed in the planes between the holes, resulting in
lower primary and higher secondary velocities below the jet.

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 z 1.5 z 1.5
d d

4 4

3 1 3 1

Vxz Vxz
2 V∞ 2 V∞

0.5 0.5
1 1

0 0
x 0 x 0
-1 0 1 2 3 4 d -1 0 1 2 3 4 d

Figure 3. Flat plate s/d = 3, M = 0.5, y/d = 1.5 Figure 6. Flat plate s/d = 3, M = 2, y/d = -1.5
Vyz Vyz
5 V∞ 5 V∞
z z
d 0.3 d 0.3
4 4
0.25 0.25

3 0.2 3 0.2

2 0.15 2 0.15

0.1 0.1
1 1
0.05 0.05
0 0
y 0 y 0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 d Φq -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 d
Φq0
Figure 4. Flat plate s/d = 3, M = 0.5, x/d = 1.143 1.2
Vyz 1
5 V∞
z
Figure 7. Flat plate s/d = 3, M = 2, x/d = 2.857
d 0.3 Vyz
4 5 V∞
0.25 z
d 0.3

3 4
0.2 0.25

2 0.15 3 0.2

0.1 0.15
1 2

0.05 0.1
0 1
y 0
Φq -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 d
0.05
Φq0
0
1 y 0
Φq -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 d
0.6 Φq0
0.2 1.2
1
Figure 5. Flat plate s/d = 3, M = 0.5, x/d = 2.857
Figure 8. Flat plate s/d = 3, M = 2, x/d = 5.714
Figure 7 shows fully developed kidney vortices 2.857 hole
diameters behind the hole leading edge. The penetration of the This can also be seen in Fig. 8 at x/d = 5.714, where the
coolant is around 1.5 d and the velocity magnitude is very high at mixture of coolant and free stream fluid is distributed evenly over
the surface of the plate and behind the cooling hole with values the entire width of the image. The kidney vortices remain intact
of Vyz /V∞ > 0.3. Because the vortices are very strong, the fluid and the velocities in the middle of the vortices behind the cooling
between them is strongly redistributed away from the surface. holes are still very high (Vyz /V∞ ≈ 0.3). The penetration is com-

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Figure 9. Film cooling effectiveness, flat plate s/d = 3, M = 0.5
Figure 10. Film cooling effectiveness, flat plate s/d = 3, M = 2
Figure 11. Heat flux ratio, flat plate s/d = 3, M = 0.5
parable to the one at x/d = 2.857, which indicates strong vortices,
that can remain coherent a long way down the tunnel.
Similar vortex strength and position have been measured in
other investigations with similar setup by Bernsdorf et al. [12],
who also used the PIV technique, and Lee at al. [13], who used a
five-hole directional probe to obtain three-dimensional data of the
flow field.
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The obtained PIV results are compared to the results of the
heat transfer investigations, conducted earlier on the same test
facility by Lewis et al. [6]. Figures 9 and 10 show film effectiveness
contour plots for M = 0.5 and M = 2 on the flat plate. As has been
reported by many others, at the low blowing ratio the coolant stays
on the surface, providing excellent centerline film effectiveness.
As mentioned earlier, this low momentum coolant flow hardly
disturbs the free stream and, thus, heat transfer coefficients are low.
In Fig. 11 a plot of the heat flux ratio indicates favorable values
ranging from 0.2 on the centerline to one between the holes.
The higher blowing ratio film effectiveness plot in Fig. 10
shows evidence of jet lift-off, with centerline effectiveness just
reaching 0.3 at the end of the measurement domain (x/d > 9). In
the region 2 < x/d < 9, the film cooling has limited effectiveness
due to enhanced coolant mixing with the free stream. Considerable
upstream benefit of the coolant is also evidenced in Fig. 10 due to
the internal conduction cooling provided by the 30° inclined holes
at the higher coolant mass flow rate. Because of this undesirable
effect, only the effectiveness values downstream of the holes are
valid in this case.
The combined effect of high blowing ratio on film effective-
ness and heat transfer coefficient can be seen by observing the heat
flux ratio defined in Eq. (4). For that, the heat flux ratio profile is
inserted underneath the spanwise PIV images in Figs. 7 and 8 to be
able to compare them easily. At x/d = 2.857 the profile indicates
high values directly behind the cooling holes, which is due to the
temporary lift-off of the coolant jet after exiting the hole. High
levels of convective heat transfer coefficient are evidenced in this
region due to heightened mixing. This can be observed in Figs. 6
and 7 as well as in the film effectiveness plot (Fig. 10). The kidney
vortices are developed and thus the fluid impinges on the plate,
resulting in values greater than one in the heat flux profile between
the holes. To both sides of the peak centerline heat flux ratio are
symmetric regions of low heat flux ratio, that reach just below
one. These calmed zones between the impinging downdrafts of
the kidney vortices and the separated wake of the film cooling jet
on the centerline benefit from moderate coolant levels and reduced
flow unsteadiness. Downstream at x/d = 5.714, the jet begins to
reattach to the plate, achieving lower heat flux ratios behind the
holes and the profile becomes more flat as the kidney vortices get
weaker and slowly begin to break up.
Deposition plate s / d = 3
In Fig. 12 the flow field on the centerline of the hole at y/d =
1.5 with a blowing ratio of M = 0.5 is shown. The black mask on
the left side of the image represents the optical obstruction of the
largest deposition structures in the optical path from the side of the
wind tunnel to the measurement plane. At y/d = 1.5, the height
of the deposition is actually lower than this black mask, which
is why the separated shear layer starts closer to the plate than in
Fig. 13 (y/d = -3 ), where the deposition is larger. The exiting
 z 1.5 Vyz
d 5 V∞
z
4 d 0.3
4
0.25
3 1
3 0.2
Vxz
2 V∞
2 0.15
0.5
0.1
1 1
0.05
0 0
x 0 y 0
-1 0 1 2 3 4 d Φq -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 d
Φq0

Figure 12. Deposition plate s/d = 3, M = 0.5, y/d = 1.5 1

0.8
z 1.5
d Figure 15. Deposition plate s/d = 3, M = 0.5, x/d = 5.714
4

3 1

Vxz
2 V∞

0.5
1

0
x 0
-1 0 1 2 3 4 d

Figure 13. Deposition plate s/d = 3, M = 0.5, y/d = -3

z 1.5
d
Figure 16. Film cooling effectiveness, deposition plate s/d = 3, M = 0.5
4

3 1 seems to prevent them from interacting. Therefore, the free stream

can keep going straight and is not deflected as much as in Fig. 12.
Vxz
V∞
The spanwise plane in Fig. 15 at x/d = 5.714 shows lower
2
velocity magnitudes than the corresponding plane with M = 0.
0.5 This indicates that the coolant jet reduces the ramp effect of the
1 depositions and keeps the shear layer between back flow and free
stream closer to the plate. Also, it can be seen in Fig. 15 that
0 there is an early stage of kidney vortex development due to coolant
x 0
-1 0 1 2 3 4 d
ejection. This could not be observed in the case without cooling.
The comparison between the PIV and the effectiveness con-
Figure 14. Deposition plate s/d = 3, M = 0, y/d = -3
tour plot for this case shows that these agree very well. Figure 16
shows the film effectiveness contours for the upstream deposition
coolant jet can clearly be observed in Fig. 12, since the velocities plate at M = 0.5. The coolant stays in the cavity behind the de-
of the surrounding fluid are very low in that region compared to positions for a long time due to the back flow and, therefore, is
the flat plate at M = 0.5, where they are around one. able to cool the plate effectively in this region. The convective
Figure 13 shows the image behind the large deposition at heat transfer is also subdued in this region, which can be seen
y/d = −3. Since this y/d-location is between the cooling holes, in the heat flux ratio profile underneath Fig. 15. The profile also
the flow looks almost like it does without cooling (Fig. 14) with a indicates that there are indeed vortices developing since the heat
large recirculation zone. The narrow and clear shear layer with flux ratio is somewhat lower where the fluid impinges on the plate.
very low velocities between the back flow and the free stream The PIV data in Fig. 15 shows evidence of film cooling induced

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 z 1.5 Vyz
d 5 V∞
z
4 d 0.3
4
0.25
3 1
3 0.2
Vxz
2 V∞
2 0.15
0.5
0.1
1 1
0.05
0 0
x 0 y 0
-1 0 1 2 3 4 d -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 d

Figure 17. Deposition plate s/d = 3, M = 2, y/d = 1.5 Figure 19. Deposition plate s/d = 3, M = 2, x/d = 1.143
Vyz
z 1.5
d 5 V∞
z
4 d 0.3
4
0.25
3 1
3 0.2
Vxz
2 V∞ 0.15
2
0.5 0.1
1 1
0.05
0
0 y 0
x 0 Φq -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 d
-1 0 1 2 3 4 d
Φq0
1.4
Figure 18. Deposition plate s/d = 3, M = 2, y/d = -3
1
0.6
0.2
vortices as well, though they are distorted by vortices shed from
Figure 20. Deposition plate s/d = 3, M = 2, x/d = 2.857
the deposition peaks.
In Fig. 17 on the centerline of the hole at y/d = 1.5 and
M = 2 the exiting jet is again clearly visible with a region of the plate between the holes. The maximum velocities are around
higher velocities downstream of x/d = 3 indicating the strength 0.25V∞ in the outer regions behind the largest depositions.
of the jet. In Fig. 21, 5.714 d downstream of the cooling holes, the fluid
Behind the large deposition in Fig. 18 at y/d = -3 the deflec- in the upper area is moving directly downstream. In the lower area
tion of the shear layer towards the plate is very strong unlike in the the fully developed kidney vortices can be observed with high
corresponding plane with the lower blowing ratio or no blowing velocities up to 0.25V∞ . The coolant is evenly distributed over the
case (Figs. 13 and 14). This is due to the strong kidney vortices entire width. The vortices are distorted with the one on the left
induced by the coolant jet, which push the free stream down to side of a hole moving up and the one on the right side moving
the plate. The back flow region downstream of the film cooling down. A reason for this may be the symmetry for every two holes
jet is smaller at M = 2 than at M = 0.5 because the higher rate of in the upstream deposition structures (see Fig. 1(c)), which can
coolant mass flow into the separation zone behind the depositions also be observed in the effectiveness plot in Fig. 22.
replenishes the fluid there and pushes the recirculating coolant The comparison of the PIV and heat transfer images again
downstream. shows that they agree very well. Comparing Fig. 22 with the flat
With the highest blowing ratio the development of the kidney plate data, the jet lift-off is not evident and the effectiveness levels
vortices can already be observed in the spanwise plane at x/d = downstream are excellent. Compared to the upstream deposition
1.143 in Fig. 19. Figure 20 shows the secondary flow structures at case with M = 0.5, there are both advantages and disadvantages
x/d = 2.857. The flow in the upper area above the depositions is to higher blowing ratios. Downstream of the cooling holes the
nearly streamwise, whereas in the lower area the development of transferred heat is very low with heat flux ratios as low as 0.4
the kidney vortices can be seen with the flow being forced down to (see below Fig. 20) since the coolant moves over the plate surface.

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 Vyz z 1.5
5 d
V∞
z
d 0.3 4
4
0.25
3 1
3 0.2
Vxz
2 V∞
2 0.15
0.5
0.1
1 1

0.05
0 0
y 0 x 0
Φq -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 d -1 0 1 2 3 4 d
Φq0
1 Figure 23. Deposition plate s/d = 3.35, M = 0.5, y/d = -1.675
0.6
Vyz
Figure 21. Deposition plate s/d = 3, M = 2, x/d = 5.714 5 V∞
z
d 0.3
4
0.25

3 0.2

2 0.15

Figure 22. Film cooling effectiveness, deposition plate s/d = 3, M = 2
Between the holes, however, the heat flux ratio increases to 1.6,
which is a deficiency compared to the case without any cooling.
Though this region appears to be adequately cooled in Fig. 22,
the secondary flow structures—generated by the high blowing
ratio coolant—increase the heat transfer coefficient, producing
higher heat flux ratios. The coolant is swept away from behind
the depositions too quickly, making room for the free stream to
move down to the plate because of the kidney vortices, seen in the
spanwise PIV images at x/d = 1.143 and x/d = 2.857. Further
down the plate at x/d = 5.714, the heat flux ratios underneath
Fig. 21 are below one everywhere, verifying a film cooling benefit.
Deposition plate s / d=3.35
At the low blowing ratio M = 0.5 almost no effect of the
coolant jet is visible in the streamwise PIV images and they look
very much like the flat plate images. The boundary layer is slightly
elevated in Fig. 23 since it is thicker due to the depositions. Again,
the black mask in the image represents the obstructed optical
path from the side of the wind tunnel. It looks different than
in the upstream deposition case due to the irregular deposition
0.1
1
0.05
0
y 0
Φq -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 d
Φq0
1.4
1
0.6
Figure 24. Deposition plate s/d = 3.35, M = 0.5, x/d = 5.714
pattern (see Fig. 1 (b)). The spanwise images show a little vortex
development, which—contrary to the flat plate—remains coherent
until x/d = 5.714 in Fig. 24. This is believed to be due to the
trenches—created by low deposition levels behind the film cooling
holes—, that shield the vortices from the free stream fluid.
Figure 25 shows the plane on the hole centerline at y/d =
1.675 and M = 2, where the coolant jet can be observed down-
stream of x/d = 3. Here also, the difference to the flat plate case at
the same blowing ratio is marginal except for the elevated boundary
layer and penetration due to the thicker plate.
In the spanwise images the vortex development can be seen
again. At x/d = 2.857 in Fig. 26 the velocities on top of the
vortices and in-between them are higher than in the flat plate case
and the coolant is better distributed spanwise. The penetration is
estimated to be around z/d = 2.5 on the left side of the image.
At x/d = 5.714 the vortices still remain coherent in Fig. 27.
The velocities are lower than the flat plate case behind the cooling
holes but higher between the vortices. This again suggests that
the deposition trenches shield the vortices and prevent them from

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 z 1.5 Vyz
d 5 V∞
z
4 d 0.3
4
0.25
3 1
3 0.2
Vxz
2 V∞
2 0.15
0.5
0.1
1 1
0.05
0 0
x 0 y 0
-1 0 1 2 3 4 d Φq -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 d
Φq0
Figure 25. Deposition plate s/d = 3.35, M = 2, y/d = 1.675 1.4
1

Vyz Figure 27. Deposition plate s/d = 3.35, M = 2, x/d = 5.714

5 V∞
z
d 0.3
4
0.25

3 0.2

2 0.15

0.1
1
0.05
0
y 0
Φq -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 d
Φq0
1.4
1
0.6
Figure 28. Film cooling effectiveness, deposition plate s/d = 3.35, M = 2
Figure 26. Deposition plate s/d = 3.35, M = 2, x/d = 2.857
In the upstream deposition case, the coolant gathers and stays
dissipating laterally. The fluid is evenly distributed and penetrates behind the depositions. Thus, at higher blowing ratios the coolant
into the free stream up to z/d = 2.5. does not leave the plate surface as easily and the effectiveness is
The heat flux ratio profiles underneath the spanwise images quite good in the near hole region at M = 2. This effect is not
are not as smooth as the profiles from the other cases because of seen in the case with depositions all around the cooling holes. The
the very irregular plate surface. Behind the left hole in Fig. 26 the higher massflow of film coolant is largely wasted due to heightened
values in the trench are very low around 0.6, which indicates a mixing and diffusion away from the wall.
benefit compared to the case without cooling. This is because the
coolant can be kept in the trench and shielded from the free stream.
Behind the other hole the heat flux ratio values are somewhat CONCLUSIONS
higher above one, which is a result from less presence of the The focus of this study was to investigate how depositions
coolant and higher fluid activity in that region. These hole-to-hole around turbine film cooling holes—due to synfuel residues, in-
variations are evident in the film cooling effectiveness contour gested sand, ash, etc.—influence the flow field. The PIV technique
plot for this case as well (Fig. 28). At x/d = 5.714 behind both was used to visualize the flow over three different simulation plates
holes the heat flux ratio values have adjusted to just above one, and the results were compared to heat transfer data, previously
which is remarkably close to the values shown below Fig. 8 for acquired under the same test conditions.
the flat plate case at the same blowing ratio. However, in an actual The PIV images for the case with large depositions only
turbine application, the insulation of the depositions would be an upstream of the cooling holes show that at both blowing ratios
additional barrier to the heat transfer and protect the blade surface M = 0.5 and M = 2 the penetration of the coolant jet into the free
over and above the protection provided by the coolant alone. stream is at least twice as high as in the flat plate cases. This is due

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 to the depositions, which elevate the shear layer, shield the jet and Master’s thesis, Department of Aerospace Engineering, The
allow it to penetrate more. The depositions also create a cavity, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA.
which is filled with coolant air, that stays on the plate, resulting in [8] Bons, J. P., Taylor, R., McClain, S., and Rivir, R. B., 2001.
moderate to high effectiveness levels and excellent heat flux ratios “The Many Faces of Turbine Surface Roughness”. Journal
behind the cooling holes. of Turbomachinery, 123(4), pp. 739–748.
In the case with the smaller depositions around the cooling [9] Schultz, D. L., and Jones, T. V., 1973. “Heat-Transfer Mea-
holes, it can be observed that the shear layer is also slightly elevated surements in Short-Duration Hypersonic Facilities”. Advi-
and that the penetration is higher than in the flat plate case. The sory Group for Aerospace Research and Development, 165.
coolant jet induced kidney vortices are shielded by the trenches NATO.
downstream of the holes, resulting in moderate coolant presence [10] Raffel, M., Willert, C. E., Wereley, S. T., and Kompenhans,
and heat flux ratios, which are very similar to the flat plate case J., 2007. Particle Image Velocimetry, 2. ed. Springer, Berlin,
values. Germany.
The findings from this investigation show that if depositions [11] Ekkad, S. V., Zapata, D., and Han, J.-C., 1997. “Film Ef-
build up in front of rows of film cooling holes in real turbine fectiveness over a Flat Surface with Air and CO2 Injection
applications, the coolant will perform better, although the large through Compound Angle Holes using a Transient Liquid
structures might have a negative influence on the aerodynamics Crystal Image Method”. Journal of Turbomachinery, 119(3),
or cause separation of the flow. If depositions build up all around pp. 587–593.
but with trenches downstream of the cooling holes, this region [12] Bernsdorf, S., Rose, M. G., and Abhari, R. S., 2006. “Mod-
will be well cooled since the trenches keep the coolant from being eling of film cooling—part i: Experimental study of flow
completely dissipated by the increased mixing in the boundary structure”. Journal of Turbomachinery, 128, Jan., pp. 141–
layer due to the roughness. 149.
[13] Lee, S. W., Lee, J. S., and Ro, S. T., 1994. “Experimental
study on the flow characteristics of streamwise inclined jets
REFERENCES in crossflow on flat plate”. Journal of Turbomachinery, 116,
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Fletcher, T. H., 2007. “High-Pressure Turbine Deposition in
Land-Based Gas Turbines From Various Synfuels”. Journal
of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, 129, pp. 135–
143.
[2] Kim, J., Dunn, M. G., and Baran, A. J., 1993. “Deposition of
Volcanic Materials in the Hot Sections of Two Gas Turbine
Engines”. Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and
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[3] Somawardhana, R. P., and Bogard, D. G., 2007. “Effects
of Surface Roughness and Near Hole Obstructions on Film
Cooling Effectiveness”. Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo.
GT2007-28004.
[4] Demling, P., and Bogard, D. G., 2006. “The Effects of
Obstructions on Film Cooling Effectiveness on the Suction
Side of a Gas Turbine Vane”. Proceedings of ASME Turbo
Expo. GT2006-90577.
[5] Sundaram, N., and Thole, K. A., 2006. “Effects of Surface
Deposition, Hole Blockage, and TBC Spallation on Vane
Endwall Film-Cooling”. Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo.
GT2006-90379.
[6] Lewis, S., Barker, B., Bons, J. P., Ai, W., and Fletcher, T. H.,
2009. “Film Cooling Effectiveness and Heat Transfer near
Deposit-Laden Film Holes”. Proceedings of ASME Turbo
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[7] Lewis, S. D., 2008. “Effects of Upstream Synfuel Deposition
on Film Cooling Effectiveness and Convective Heat Transfer
Coefficient near Industrial Gas Turbine Film Cooling Holes”.

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