Endothermic and exothermic processes

● Forms of Energy
○ Energy: capacity to do work or transfer heat
■ Kinetic Energy: energy resulting from motion
● KE=½mv^2 (KE=kinetic energy in Joules, m=mass in kg,
v=velocity (m/s))
■ Potential Energy: stored energy in an object due to its position
● PE=mgh (PE=potential energy in Joules, m=mass in kg,
g=gravitational constant, h=height in meters)
■ Electrostatic Energy: form of potential energy resulting from interaction
of charged particles
● Eel=(kQ1Q2)/d (Eel=electrostatic potential energy, Q1Q2 are two
charges, d=distance, k=constant of proportionality)
○ First Law of Thermodynamics: the total amount of energy in the universe is
constant because energy is neither created nor destroyed (similar to law of
conservation of matter)
■ Internal Energy: sum of all kinetic+potential energy of all components of a
system (E)
● Studying Energy Changes
○ System: specific part of the universe selected for study
○ 3 Types of Systems
■ Open System
● Capable of exchanging mass and energy (in the form of heat w/
surroundings)
■ Closed System
● Allows transfer of energy/heat but NOT matter
■ Isolated System
● Allows neither a transfer of heat nor mass
○ Surroundings: the remainder of the universe outside the system; this INCLUDES
the container
● State Functions
○ Properties determined by the state of the system and NOT on how it got there; no
importance to the process by which the system reached its final state
■ Focuses on initial and final states of a system
○ Includes:
■ Energy
■ Pressure
■ Volume
■ Temperature
 ○ Standard State Conditions
■ All gases are at 1 atm pressure
■ All liquids are pure
■ All solids are pure
■ All solutions are 1M
■ 1 mole of compound is involved
■ Energy of formation of element in normal state is 0
■ Temperature is almost invariably 25ºC
■ These are indicated by thermodynamic values that are denoted as below
using a small circular superscript:
● ∆Hº (enthalpy)
● ∆Sº (entropy)
● ∆Gº (Gibbs free energy)
● Path Functions
○ Opposite of state functions; dependent on the path that leads from initial→ final
state
■ Ex: heat and work
● Extensive vs Intensive
○ Extensive: properties that are dependent on the amount of the substance
■ All thermodynamic quantities are extensive (ΔH, ΔS, ΔG, and ΔE)
○ Intensive: properties that are independent of the amount of the substance
■ Ex: density, color
■ All thermodynamic quantities can be made to be “intensive” ONLY if the
substances being studies are under standard state conditions
● Exothermic Process: processes giving off heat and transferring thermal energy to
surroundings (system is LOSING energy so ∆H is NEGATIVE)
● Endothermic Process: processes in which heat is supplied to system by surroundings
(system is GAINING energy so ∆H is POSITIVE)
● ∆H=enthalpy(heat energy)
● Work: energy used to cause an object to move against a force
○ w=Fd (w=work in Joules, F=force (F=mg; refer to potential energy formula),
d=distance in meters)
○ ∆E=q+w (∆E=change in internal energy, q=heat, w=work)
■ +q=internal energy increases, heat goes from surroundings to system
■ -q= internal energy decreases, heat goes from system to surroundings
■ w follows same principles as q
● Enthalpy
○ w=-P∆V(w=work, P=pressure, V=volume)
Energy diagrams
 ● Can be used to describe any process (physical or chemical) in which a change of energy
occurs

●
● Exothermic Reactions
○ Energy of reactants is greater than the energy of the products

○
● Endothermic Reaction
○ Energy of products is greater than energy of reactants

○
Heat transfer and thermal equilibrium
● Temperature: represents average kinetic energy present in a given substance
 ● Heat: represents energy flow between two substances at different temperatures
● Transfer of energy is caused by molecular collisions; involves collision theory
○ Rate of reaction is proportional to rate of collisions
○ Orientation matters for reactant molecules colliding
○ This means that higher temperatures lead to higher collisions
● Transfer of Heat
○ Thermodynamic Equilibrium: the state in which two objects exchange heat
such that they end up with the same temperature or average kinetic energy
● Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: if body a and body b are in thermal equilibrium, and
body b and body c are in thermal equilibrium, then bodies a and c are in thermal
equilibrium
Heat capacity and calorimetry
● Coffee Cup Calorimetry
○ Absolute enthalpy: exact amount of energy in a system; cannot be measured
directly
■ Instead, the change in enthalpy is measured using temperature changes
○ Calorimetry: measurement of heat changes during chemical reactions
■ Uses a process by which a reaction takes place in a controlled vessel in
which there is a liquid and a temperature gauge like a thermometer to
measure how much the liquid heats up
■ At constant pressure, q=∆H

○
● Specific Heat: amount of heat required to raise temperature of one gram of a substance
by one degree Celsius
○ High specific heat means that more heat is required to bring about a temperature
change and the temperature is less variable
○ Low specific heat means a substance changes temperature very easily
○ q=mc∆T (q=∆H or heat in Joules, m=mass in g, c=specific heat in J/gºC,
∆T=change in temperature in Celsius or Kelvin)
 ■ +qsystem=-qsurroundings (or vice versa) → this means that whatever heat is gained by
the system, an equal amount is lost by the surroundings same applies in reverse
■ This concept must be used when calculating the enthalpy change; when a
solution in a calorimeter gains energy, an equal amount is lost by the reaction
(NOTE: the solution and solvent are part of the SURROUNDINGS not the
system)
Energy of phase changes
● Phase Diagrams

○
○ Represents graphically the three main phases and how they change
○ Axes
■ Temperature
● An increase in temperature leads from solid→ liquid→ gas
■ Pressure
● Increasing pressure makes it more likely that a substance that is
usually a liquid or gas stays as a liquid or a solid
○ Triple Point
■ A point at which the substance is in all three states of matter
○ Critical Point
■ Beyond this point liquids cannot exist, so there is only a gas or a
supercritical fluid
● Naming Phase Changes
○ s→ l=melting
○ l→ s=freezing
○ l→ g=vaporization
 ○ g→ l=condensation
○ s→ g=sublimation
○ g→ s=deposition
● Heating Curves

○
○ X-axis is amount of energy added and y-axis is temperature
○ The temperature of a substance increases steadily until the substance reaches its
melting/boiling point
■ Energy then goes into transitioning that substance to the next phase of
matter
○ Heat of Fusion: energy needed to melt a substance
○ Heat of Vaporization: energy needed to evaporate a substance
○ Heat of Condensation: energy loss required to condense a substance
○ Heat of Freezing: energy loss required to freeze a substance
○ NOTE: heat of condensation and freezing are the NEGATIVES of heat of fusion
and vaporization respectively
○
Introduction of enthalpy of reaction
● Enthalpy: thermodynamic quantity equivalent to total heat content of a system
● Enthalpy of Reaction: change in enthalpy due to a reaction; described in kJ/mol of
product
○ In order to find this, use q=mc∆T to calculate q and then divide q by the moles of
product formed by the reaction
● -∆H=exothermic reaction; energy released into the surroundings
● +∆H=endothermic reaction;energy absorbed by system
Bond enthalpies
● Bonds contain energy
○ This is what a reaction does → breaks/forms bonds which requires/releases
energy (respectively)
● Bond Dissociation Energy
 ○ Energy required to break specific bond
○ The greater the number of bonds, the stronger the bond is and thus the higher the
bond dissociation energy
○ The longer the bond, the weaker its strength, thus meaning that the bond
dissociation energy is lower
○ ∆H=∑H(broken)-∑H(formed)
■ Add up the bond dissociation energies of the reactants and subtract the
sum of the bond dissociation energies of the products
■ Remember to take into account EVERY bond (in molecules that have
many atoms, you must account for the individual bonds between each

○
Enthalpy of formation
● Enthalpy of Formation (∆Hf): the change of enthalpy during the formation of the
substance from constituent elements
○ Standard Enthalpy of Formation (∆Hfº): the change of enthalpy during the
formation of 1 mole of the substance from constituent elements
■ NOTE: an element’s ∆Hfº is 0 (this includes diatomics)
● ∆Hrxn=heat of reaction/enthalpy of reaction; can be determined using standard enthalpy
of formation
○ ΔHrxn = ΣΔHf([n*prod1]…) - ΣmΔHf([m*reactant1]…) (n and m are the
coefficients of the products/reactants respectively)
● ∆Hsoln=heat of solution; defined as kJ/mol of reactant
○ In order to calculate, find the heat, then divide by moles of reactant(whatever is
being dissolved)
Hess's Law