Romanovsky 2021

Journal of Physics: Conference
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Intelligent Information Technology and Mathematical Modeling 2021 (IITMM 2021) IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2131 (2021) 042100 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2131/4/042100
Improvement of lithium-ion rechargeable battery (LIRB) for

Electric Ships
V Romanovsky*, B Nikiforov, and A Avramenko

Admiral Makarov State University of Maritime and Inland Shipping, 198035, Saint
Petersburg, Dvinskaya str., 5/7, Russian Federation
E-mail: romanovskiyvv@gumrf.ru
Abstract. The rapid improvement of lithium-ion rechargeable battery (LIRB) has given a
powerful impetus to the development of environmentally friendly, powerful and universal
for use on ships and underwater vehicles. The practice of building electric ships for many
years has confirmed the effectiveness of electric propulsion for many types of vessels.
Organically, electric propulsion fits into icebreakers and those vessels whose operation is
associated with increased maneuvering modes and variable loads on propellers. LIRB has
been actively used on ferries operating in a wide range of outdoor temperatures. On diesel-
electric submarines (DES), the use of rechargeable batteries is traditional and is the main
source of electricity. The subsequent development of new sources of electricity, the
improvement of power semiconductor devices and microelectronics has led to the
successful implementation of ideas for the construction of fully electric offshore facilities.
1. Introduction
The evolution of the development of air-independent sources of electricity for offshore autonomous
facilities is traced with an assessment of their priority properties. The positive effect of the
introduction of powerful lithium-ion batteries on electric vessels is revealed with a brief overview of
various electrochemical circuits.
The concept of a fully electric vessel or ship does not have a strict definition, and the authors
identify with the presence in the project primarily of three main components: an all-power electric
propulsion system, a powerful main source of electricity and a highly reliable, highly efficient
auxiliary electric drive of various electric mechanisms with deep smooth control over the entire range
and short reverse based on valve inductor or with excitation from permanent magnets of electric
motors to replace mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic drives with electric ones.
The main source of energy is both a nuclear, gas or diesel installation, and a rechargeable battery
(RB). An additional powerful impetus to this direction was given by the rapid improvement of lithium-
ion rechargeable batteries (LIRB).
The practice of building electric ships for many years has confirmed the effectiveness of electric
propulsion for many types of vessels. Organically, electric propulsion fits into icebreakers and those
vessels whose operation is associated with increased maneuvering modes and variable loads on
propellers. On diesel-electric submarines (DES), it is traditional and dictated by the main source of
electricity - RB. The subsequent development of new sources of electricity, the improvement of power
Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 licence. Any further distribution
of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI.
Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd 1
semiconductor devices, microelectronics led to the successful implementation of the ideas of building
fully electric offshore facilities [1-6].
2. Methods and materials

The desire to increase the underwater autonomy of the navigation of the DES forced submariners to
work with unconventional sources of electricity in the first turn.
The most striking example of movement in this direction is an electrochemical generator (ECG)
with fuel cells (FC) (Fig. 1), which converts the energy of hydrogen and oxygen into electricity. The
choice of options for storing or producing hydrogen on board has become a difficult problem to solve,
whereby there is no alternative to storing oxygen on board.
Figure 1. ECG for a power of up to 50 kW at a FE developed by the Central Scientific and Research
Institute of Marine Electrical Engineering and Technology
The practical implementation of projects took place in parallel in Russia and Germany since the
70s and 80s of the last century. In Germany, conventional submarines (CS) of projects U- 212, -214
have air-independent propulsion plant (AIP plant) with hydrogen storage in a bound state in metal
hydride in cylindrical containers behind a strength hull.
The project had export demand in Italy, Greece, South Korea. In Russia, a technical project was
carried out for embedding a module compartment with a compact arrangement of cryogenic hydrogen
storage in a submarine (Fig. 2, a).
It is promising to explore options for the direct production of hydrogen on the CS in the required
quantities.
Figure 2. Layout of the module compartment with PP and ECG with cryogenic storage of fuel and
oxidizer in DES “Kilo – Class”
2
The production of hydrogen by reforming hydrocarbon fuel (methanol) on the submarine board
was tested at a pilot plant in Germany, which did not receive further practical implementation for the
submarine fleet. Heavy petroleum products (diesel fuel, fuel oil and others) are much less amenable to
reforming than methanol and therefore are not suitable for hydrogen extraction, they usually contain
relatively little hydrogen, a lot of sulfur and have the ability to coking. The creation of such
installations was carried out in the USA and France, but there was not practical application, except on
surface ships. Back in 2007, the Federal Administration of the Federal Republic of Germany for
Defense Technologies rejected such an option for the submarine. It is noted that the extraction of
hydrogen for submarines by reforming diesel fuel is economically unjustified and has no broad
prospects, especially considering the global trend in the development of hydrogen energy as an
alternative to hydrocarbon energy.
In 2004, Russian scientists created a full-scale mock-up specimen of a hydrogen production plant
(MHPP) (Fig. 2, b). Tests of the MHPP on the test stand fundamentally confirmed the effectiveness of
the ship's hydrogen extraction system based on the reaction of aluminum powder with water and the
operability of the main components. The output had hydrogen, water and boehmite, which medicine
needs.
In the struggle for the market, the CS–producing countries considered a number of AIP plants. But
the greatest interest was eventually shown to the Stirling engine, whose motor capacity is up to 80
thousand hours, which is almost more than 12 times exceeds the resource of the best ECG samples,
which is about 6000 hours.
Submarines with AIP plants currently operated in the Navies of Sweden, Germany, France, Japan,
Israel, Greece, Turkey, South Korea, Portugal, Brazil, Malaysia, Chile. However, only four countries
are producers in this row - Sweden, Germany, France and Japan. The rest buy boats with AIP plant for
their Navy from this quartet.
Figure 3. Prospective CS with AIP plant based on Stirling engine and cryogenic fuel components
(liquid methane, liquid oxygen) Stirling engine with generator,2- Sustained motor, 3 rechargeable
battery, 4- liquid oxygen, 5- liquefied natural gas
It is already recognized that there is no prospect of creating a CS of 5th generation based on ECG,
as it is difficult to assume the possibility of implementing a single engine based on ECG with a total
capacity of three or more MW. German experts agreed with the results of full-scale tests of the
Swedish Gotland submarine on the duration of underwater navigation on anaerobic engines for 20
days, which is 30% better than the submarine 212 project with PP ECG [7-10].
The pilot operation of the Swedish CS "Nekken" in an underwater position for over 10,000 hours
contributed to the operational construction of the first serial Gotland submarines with the designated
AIP plant. A single high-power Stirling engine (approximately 800 kW) was planned for the
prospective submarine (Fig. 3). According to some data, the German company MAN also designed a
700 kW engine for promising submarines.
3
As part of the French Navy, Stirling engines are equipped CS with the SAGA-1, -2. At the 20th
International Exhibition MARINTEC China 2019 in Shanghai, Chinese specialists demonstrated a
mock-up of a Stirling engine for a national submarine, copied from one imported from Sweden in the
80s and installed in a full-scale sample of the submarine module compartment. Corporation “China
Shipbuilding and Offshore International” presented a model of a submarine with this engine.
The Japanese Navy is building the submarine “Soryu” with similar engines from “Kockums”
(Sweden). Australia tried to install this type AIP plant on the Swedish type CS “Collins”.
But at present, these countries have achieved serious success in creating marine Li-ion batteries of
high power and quickly reoriented their views. Since the end of the last century, there has been a
gradual extrusion of all air-independent systems by Stirling engines, and in recent years lithium-ion
batteries have been rapidly gaining market in marine applications.
The production of lithium-ion batteries has resulted in a fast-growing and promising market
segment. Lithium sources are able to cover the entire range of discharge durations of modern chemical
current sources with higher energy indicators (Table 1).
Table 1. Comparative characteristics of lead and lithium - ion RB in relation to DES
Type RB
Characteristics of RB
Lead Lithium - ion
Specific volume energy, W·h/l 64-150 150-350*
Specific mass energy, W·h/kg 23-55 100-250*
Average battery voltage at discharge, V 1.7-2.0 3.6-3.7
Charge time, h 5-15 2-3*
Need for recharges and treatment cycles Yes No
Need for maintenance Yes No
Storage in a discharged state Undesirable Permissible
Self-discharge, %/day ≤ 0.7 ≤ 0.1
Tightness No Yes
Gas emission during normal operation Yes (hydrogen and No
oxygen)
Resource, cycles 200-300 up to 7000 and above
Service life, years 5-6 8-12
Cost per 1 W·h, US dollars ~0.3 ~0.14**
* - generalized values are given according to a large number of firms and it is noted that the
potential for increasing characteristics is significant.
** - 0.1$ / W·h is expected in 2023
3. Discussion and results

The advance of powerful LIRB began with fragmentary inclusions into separate low-power systems
and spread to light torpedoes. The introduction of an electric drive on heavy torpedoes also pulled
lithium-ion rechargeable batteries. RB of this system have been operated for a long time on numerous
samples of uninhabited and small inhabited underwater vehicles [11-14].
At the beginning of 2000, the department of the EPS Rubin Central Design Bureau in Marine
Engineering, together with Rigel, created a number of prototypes of Li-jon batteries for boat use (Fig.
4, a). Until recently, the production of high-capacity LIRB was concentrated in several companies
from developed countries (for example, American “Yardney” and “Lithion”, French “SAFT”, German
“GAIA” (Fig. 4, b).
4
а b
Figure 4. Experimental Li-ion battery units at company’s stand “RIGEL”-a, company GAIA - b
But the technologies of well-known companies extended to small marine underwater and
recreational surface vehicles. “Yardney” supplied LIRB to the oceanographic carrier vessel of the US
Navy and in the future intended to focus efforts on the creation of marine lithium-polymer RB.
The SAFT module is made of lithium-ion battery elements for small submarines, as well as a
system of such modules using LiFePO4 technology (with an iron phosphate cathode). An electronic
system for monitoring and controlling the charge and discharge modes of a lithium-ion battery, as well
as software, has been developed. For the possibility of implementation on the submarine, SAFT
confirmed that the elements stand the explosion of a mine with parameters of 320 g for 3 ms, without
any damage. In the future, it is planned to install together with the shipbuilding company DCNS Li-ion
RB on the larger submarine “Scorpene”.
а b
Figure 5. Ambling catamaran with a lithium-ion battery from SAFT - a, placement of batteries on
board - b
The concept submarine Type 216 remained at the stage of proposals, offered for export and, first of
all, to Australia, with a hybrid installation, for which GAIA has committed to supply Li-ion batteries
to increase the range of navigation at high speeds.
Swedish shipbuilders have created the fastest electric passenger vessel. The vessel's speed BB
Green of 30 knots is achieved by two electric motors with permanent magnets with a capacity of 280
kW each, powered via an inverter from two lithium titanate-based Li-ion batteries with a capacity of
100 kWh each (with a resource of 15,000 cycles). The unique charging system restores the batteries
within 20 minutes. This is also facilitated by lithium titanate batteries, which do not use graphite,
which has a high energy storage density, but does not allow fast charging. Battery status data is
transmitted to a cloud server where it is stored and processed.
5
a b
Figure 6. High-speed electric vessel BB Green - a, battery compartment - b

While the leading countries, the owners of the submarine fleet, evaluated the prerogative of
developing one or another direction of air-independent sources, Japan in 2020 handed over the 11th
boat “Soryu” to the fleet, but with Li-ion RB and refused in the future to the submarine fleet not only
from lead RB, but also from Stirling engines.
Japan's adoption of a submarine with a Li-ion battery as the main source of electricity is the
culmination of many years of research that began back in 1962. The first lithium-ion battery took
place in 1974, but did not meet the necessary requirements. This forced Japan to turn to the
introduction on submarine the system AIP plant based on Swedish technology. After almost 20 years
of commissioning and sea trials on submarine, the first Japanese submarine with two diesel engines
and four Stirling engines was commissioned in 2009. The duration of the crew's stay under water was
about three months. The more serious looks the complete refusal of the Japanese from the described
power supply structure in favor of LIRB.
a b
Figure 7. Electric Japanese ocean ferry with LIRB - a, tanker e5 – b

In Japan, two types of Li-ion have been brought into operational condition: lithium - nickel -
cobalt-oxide produced by GS Yuasa (including supplies to ocean ferry and deep-sea PA) and lithium-
titanite produced by Toshiba Corporation. The Japanese fleet focuses on the first option as the most
acceptable for high speeds and sailing ranges. The second option is preferable for an "ambush"
(coastal) boat in a hybrid version with an AIP plant on a TP. After the completion of the construction
of a series of three submarines with Li-ion RB, the Japanese Navy offers a new project of submarines
on similar batteries.
Meanwhile, the Japanese company Oshima Shipbuilding created and announced in 2019 a modern
340-ton passenger vessel, known as "e- Oshima" (Fig. 7, a), having as the only source of energy
lithium-ion batteries with a capacity of 600 kWh with a recharge time of 2.5 hours.
Next year, Japan will launch the first electric tanker e5 (Fig. 7, b) on a 3.5 MWh LIRB (supply of
Corvus Energy batteries). Corvus Energy, which has offices in Norway and Canada, has installed
batteries on 400 ships, a quarter of them are fully electric and most are ferries.
Corvus Energy is planning to demonstrate a large-scale combined LIRB system with hydrogen fuel
cells for ships in 2023.
6
Figure 8. Ambling boat "Junlyu”

On the eve of 2018, China commissioned the world's first fully electric LIRB cargo vessel
(weighing 26 tons) and supercondensers with a total capacity of 2.4 MW, capable of traveling up to 40
nautical miles on a single charge at a speed of up to seven knots and with a cargo of up to 2000 tons.
Recharging takes about two hours, which is comparable to the unloading time.
In June 2020, the first voyage of China's largest electric ambling vessel Junlyu with a length of
53.2 m took place in Wuhan, China (Fig. 8). The propulsion system of the ship receives energy from a
rechargeable lithium battery [13-17].
In China, the largest manufacturer of lithium batteries, CATL, announced the start of construction
with its help of the world's largest electric-powered cruise liner with launching in 2021. The total
capacity of the battery of lithium-iron phosphate batteries in the amount of 10 thousand pieces, divided
into 15 independent power plants, of the vessel “Three Gorges of the Yangtze River N1" with a
capacity of 1300 people. it will be 7.5 MWh. In case of fire, a dual fire extinguishing system based on
spraying heptafluoropropane and water mist under pressure is provided. A backup battery unit is
provided.
We can continue to cite countless examples of the latest electrical projects. There are more than 80
projects of electric ships and vessels in the world, mainly with the main source of electricity – lithium-
ion RB, or with hybrid, together with AIP plant.
Table 2 shows the difference in the types of chemical solutions for the six most common batteries
in terms of the main attributes according to the Battery University. The most complete compliance
with the power supply requirements of electric power units, safety and the number of charge/discharge
cycles probably rightfully make lithium-titanite Li4Ti5O12 and iron-phosphate LiFePO4 systems the
most common at present.
Table 2. Expert comparison of the characteristics of various Li - ion batteries
Type of Specific Specific Safety Operation Service Costs
chemistry energy power life
LiCoO2 $$$ $ $ $$ $ $
LiMn2O4 $$ $$ $$ $ $ $
LiNiMnCoO2 $$$ $$ $$ $$ $$ $
LiFePO4 $ $$$ $$$ $$ $$$ $
LiNiCoAlO2 $$$ $$ $ $$ $$ $$
Li4Ti5O12 $ $$ $$$ $$$ $$$ $$$
$$$ - meets the criteria "highest", $$ - "high", $ - "average"

Lithium-iron phosphate batteries are so safe that they tolerate such treatment, as in the photo (Fig.
9). The battery feeds the LED, being completely immersed in a container with water.
7
Figure 9. LiFePO4 battery works in water

The chemistry of these elements is arranged in such a way that oxygen is not formed even at
critical loads, therefore, the pressure inside the element does not increase. The latest generation of
LiFePO4 batteries can stand from 3000 to 7000 charge -discharge cycles, depending on the depth of
discharge and temperature, absolutely insensitive to chronic undercharging modes. The battery is
charged with a constant current without stages.
The lithium polymer battery is the latest practical innovation in lithium technology. These products
approximately with the same energy density as Li-ion allow designs in various plastic geometric
shapes.
The variety of fully unexplored electrochemical circuits contains a great potential for the
development of powerful chemical energy sources. In 2014, French scientists developed Na-ion
batteries. A sodium battery has energy characteristics close to lithium, but sodium is used 100 times
cheaper than lithium, and the chemical properties of sodium allow for the use of light and cheap
aluminum on an anode current collector instead of heavy and expensive copper. However, the radius
of the sodium ion is larger than that of the lithium ion, which means the energy density at the electrode
is lower. Therefore, for electricity comparable to LIRB, sodium-ion RB will be 30-50% more. In
applications where size is not so important, Na-ion RB will also displace lead [17].
Domestic shipbuilders together with the St. Petersburg RPC "Morsvyazavtomatika" commissioned
the ambling catamaran "Ekovolt". It is believed that Li-ion RB will provide ten hours or about 130 km
of travel at speeds up to 7.5 knots. In the future, the company plans to launch a larger and more
powerful marine version “eCocruiser” for traffic between the Hermitage and Petergof.
4. Conclusion
The number of battery-powered vessels has grown around the world from almost zero (excluding
diesel fuel) ten years ago to hundreds today. The development of marine electric transport is certainly
facilitated by the improvement of lithium-ion batteries and the fall of their cost. In 2020, the average
price for battery packs decreased to $140 (expected to reach $100 by 2023) per kilowatt hour against
$670 in 2013. This technology is welcomed by shipping companies in the fight against the carbon
footprint.
Further extension to shipyards of projects of electric vessels with lithium-ion batteries as the main
energy sources in one configuration or another, it is advisable to use in combination with AIP plant.
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Journal of Physics: Conference

PAPER • OPEN ACCESS You may also like

- The effect of geometric characteristics on

- The Development and Problems of

This content was downloaded from IP address 201.17.80.117 on 09/03/2024 at 16:27

Improvement of lithium-ion rechargeable battery (LIRB) for

V Romanovsky*, B Nikiforov, and A Avramenko

2. Methods and materials

3. Discussion and results

Figure 6. High-speed electric vessel BB Green - a, battery compartment - b

Figure 7. Electric Japanese ocean ferry with LIRB - a, tanker e5 – b

Figure 8. Ambling boat "Junlyu”

$$$ - meets the criteria "highest", $$ - "high", $ - "average"

Figure 9. LiFePO4 battery works in water

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