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Inclusive Teaching
and Learning
for South Africa

Unit 1
Inclusive Education

THIS PROJECT IS FUNDED BY THE EUROPEAN UNION

The Teaching for All project is a partnership between the
British Council, the University of South Africa, the
Departments of Basic Education and Higher Education
and Training, and MIET AFRICA, and is co-funded by the
European Union. The Teaching for All project aims to
provide teachers in South Africa with the skills, knowledge
and attitudes to teach inclusively in diverse classrooms in
diverse communities.

These educational materials are published under creative

commons license:

ISBN: 978-0-620-84393-5
Published by British Council, 2019

Every effort has been made to obtain copyright

permission for material used in this module.
Website addresses and links were correct at the time of
publication.

For more information, please contact the British Council:

PO Box 655, Parklands 2121, South Africa
Telephone: +27 (0)11 560 9300
Email: ssa.enquiries@britishcouncil.org.za
Website: www.britishcouncil.org.za

The British Council is the United Kingdom’s international

organisation for cultural relations and education. It creates
international opportunities for the people of the UK and
other countries and builds trust between them worldwide.
Contents

Overview of study unit..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2

Introduction and aim.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Specific outcomes............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Abbreviations........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
1 The context of exclusion in education......................................................................................................................................................................6
1.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7
1.2 Definitions of exclusion.............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
1.3 Inherited exclusions from the past................................................................................................................................................................................. 10
1.3.1 Arrival of the colonists.................................................................................................................................................................................................................10
1.3.2 Mission schools................................................................................................................................................................................................................................10
1.3.3 Bantu Education...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................10
1.3.4 Post-1994.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................11
2 Inclusive education policies, laws and agreements: South Africa and beyond................................................................13
2.1 International human rights and inclusive education...........................................................................................................................................14
2.2 Inclusive education policies and laws: South Africa and Africa..................................................................................................................16
3 Societal values underpinning inclusive education.....................................................................................................................................20
3.1 Schwartz’s theory of basic values.................................................................................................................................................................................... 20
3.2 Human rights values for inclusive education.......................................................................................................................................................... 22
3.3 Linking human rights principles to the philosophy of ubuntu/botho..................................................................................................... 24
3.3.1 Values that promote an inclusive classroom culture................................................................................................................................................ 26
4 Academic theories and models of inclusive education..........................................................................................................................28
4.1 Theories and models related to inclusive education......................................................................................................................................... 28
4.1.1 Medical deficit theories.............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 29
4.1.2 Social model of disability........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 30
4.1.3 Ecological systems theory and Bronfenbrenner’s model..................................................................................................................................... 30
4.1.4 Critical Diversity Literacy (CDL)............................................................................................................................................................................................. 32
4.2 Theories and models of inclusive education in practice.................................................................................................................................34
4.2.1 Self-contained classrooms (or segregation).................................................................................................................................................................. 35
4.2.2 Integration.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 35
4.2.3 Mainstreaming.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 35
4.2.4 Full inclusion...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 35
5 Inclusive education in the South African context........................................................................................................................................37
5.1 The South African approach to inclusive education........................................................................................................................................... 37
5.1.1 A human-rights-based approach.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 37
5.1.2 A strengths-based approach.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 37
5.1.3 An Afrocentric approach........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 38
a. Aims of an Afrocentric approach................................................................................................................................................................................. 38
b. Africa’s vision of children’s participation................................................................................................................................................................. 38
5.1.4 A broad approach.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 39
a. Affirming diversity................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 39
b. Focus on all learners........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 39
c. Responding to exclusion using the social model of disability................................................................................................................... 39
Contents

5.2 What is inclusive teaching?................................................................................................................................................................................................... 42

5.2.1 Sociocultural consciousness and affirming views about diversity.................................................................................................................. 43
5.2.2 Knowledge......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 43
5.2.3 Teachers’ roles in inclusive school communities........................................................................................................................................................44
5.2.4 Indigenous knowledge systems as part of inclusive teaching and learning..............................................................................................44
a. Why integrate indigenous knowledges?................................................................................................................................................................. 45
b. Challenges to integrating indigenous knowledge into the curriculum................................................................................................. 47
5.2.5 Teacher and learner agency................................................................................................................................................................................................... 46
a. Teacher agency..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 46
b. Learner agency...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 47
5.2.6 Power dynamics in school communities...........................................................................................................................................................................51
5.3 A summary of inclusive teacher characteristics...................................................................................................................................................54

Suggested study unit assessments................................................................................................................................................................................................56

Assessment 1................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 56
Assessment 2................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Study unit summary and reflection................................................................................................................................................................................................58
Selected bibliography / Further reading...................................................................................................................................................................................59
References...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................60
Appendices..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................65
Appendix 1......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 66
Appendix 2......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 69

List of tables
Table 1: International conventions on inclusive education..........................................................................................................................................................14
Table 2: South African and African inclusive education policy/law development.........................................................................................................17
Table 3: Schwartz’s ten basic values.........................................................................................................................................................................................................21
Table 4: Ubuntu values...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Table 5: Eight analytical skills of CDL....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 32
Table 6: Knowledge, attitudes and skills of an inclusive teacher............................................................................................................................................ 55

List of figures
Figure 1: Overview of Unit 1............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2
Figure 2: Exclusion from quality education............................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
Figure 3: Ubuntu values means teaching for all—“Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu”....................................................................................................... 24
Figure 4: Medical model of disability........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 29
Figure 5: Social model of disability............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 30
Figure 6: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model.................................................................................................................................................................31
Figure 7: Critical Diversity Literacy........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Figure 8: Inclusion continuum...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 9: Inclusive education is everyone’s responsibility.......................................................................................................................................................... 42
Figure 10: The teacher’s role: ubuntu in the classroom...............................................................................................................................................................44
Contents

List of activities
Activity 1: What do you know about exclusion in education?...................................................................................................................................................... 6
Activity 2: Overcoming barriers..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Activity 3: Aspects of exclusion..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Activity 4: Exploring power dynamics, marginalisation and exclusion.................................................................................................................................12
Activity 5: Education for children with disabilities in South Africa...........................................................................................................................................12
Activity 6: Why do we have inclusive education policies?...........................................................................................................................................................13
Activity 7: International human rights documents............................................................................................................................................................................16
Activity 8: What do I know already? What do I want to know?....................................................................................................................................................16
Activity 9: South African policies.................................................................................................................................................................................................................19
Activity 10: My personal values....................................................................................................................................................................................................................21
Activity 11: My thoughts on constitutional values............................................................................................................................................................................ 22
Activity 12: A rights-based democratic classroom.......................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Activity 13: My thoughts on ubuntu/botho.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Activity 14: Critically examining ubuntu................................................................................................................................................................................................. 26
Activity 15: Ubuntu and inclusive education....................................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Activity 16: Values in the classroom......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Activity 17: Practising CDL............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 33
Activity 18: Forms of inclusion..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 36
Activity 19: Facilitating sustainable development............................................................................................................................................................................ 39
Activity 20: Examining intersectionality................................................................................................................................................................................................. 40
Activity 21: What do you know about IKS?............................................................................................................................................................................................ 45
Activity 22: Identifying and overcoming challenges...................................................................................................................................................................... 45
Activity 23: Dealing with behavioural issues ethically................................................................................................................................................................... 47
Activity 24: Using teacher agency to empower learners............................................................................................................................................................. 47
Activity 25: Challenging institutionalised racism in schools through learner and teacher agency................................................................... 49
Activity 26: Think about power dynamics..............................................................................................................................................................................................51
Activity 27: Power in the classroom.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 52
Activity 28: Reflect on teacher agency and power......................................................................................................................................................................... 52
Activity 29: A call to educators.................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 54
Activity 30: Interview a teacher.................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 54
Activity 31: My personal vision..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 55
Overview of study unit

SOUTH AFRICAN
CONTEXT

Government
Policies

Inclusive
Teaching
and
Academic Learning Societal
Theories Values
and Models

Figure 1: Overview of Study Unit 1

“The power of education extends beyond the development of skills we need for economic
success. It can contribute to nation-building and reconciliation. Our previous system
emphasised the physical and other differences of South Africans with devastating effects.
We are steadily but surely introducing education that enables our children to exploit their
similarities and common goals, while appreciating the strength in their diversity.” Nelson Mandela

Welcome to the start of your journey into inclusive education. It’s a journey that celebrates and works with the
skills, knowledge, experiences and differences brought by each child—and teacher—into the classroom. This
journey is about more than teaching children different subjects—important though that is. It’s about making
sure that we offer education to all learners, and that this education is relevant, accessible, fair, and of the
highest possible quality, enabling them, as our future adults, to contribute positively to an equitable South
Africa that has high expectations and respect for all its people.
Inclusive education can contribute to nation building and reconciliation as described by Mandela in the above
quote. As you will have realised by this point of your studies and experience, teaching children is not like
following a recipe from a cookery book, focusing on set ways of delivering the curriculum. Teaching with
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

broader, inclusive aims focuses on teaching human beings, not only the curriculum. It’s more like starting with a
large cooking pot, into which goes: prior experience—yours and your learners’; knowledge and beliefs about
both your learners and yourself; theoretical knowledge; teaching and learning strategies; and some essential
personal qualities including commitment, agency1, perseverance, patience, curiosity, sense of humour,
fairness, understanding, plus a love of learning and for the children you are teaching. When you teach

Definition
Unit 1

1 Agency: the ability to put energy and commitment into working in ways, and developing skills, that are seen
as important.

2
 inclusively, you draw continuously on all of these ingredients, varying them as needed to suit your learners and
your context. You also add to them as you progress through your life and career; this module is just the start of
your learning.
This module, as the starting point for your learning about inclusive education, is designed to help you lay the
foundations for becoming the teacher you want to be by finding out about and beginning to add to the
ingredients of your cooking pot in readiness for the classroom. Our aim is that your journey through the
module will help you become the sort of teacher who is: knowledgeable and positive about who your learners
are and what they can do, a motivator, a good listener, and an active advocate for equity and social justice in
your classroom and school. To reach this aim, the module will help you construct knowledge, develop skills and
understanding, and give you ongoing opportunities to reflect on new learning as well as your own valuable
prior experience as a learner in the South African education system.
We ask you to approach the module with an open mind and engage with it fully. As with anything worthwhile,
there will be challenges. When these appear, remember times when you had to be resilient—you will have had
many moments of having to dig deep on the road to where you are now. Break down what seem like big
challenges into smaller, manageable chunks. Start from what you know, and trust that your unique prior
knowledge and experience will help you—bit by bit—to build new knowledge, skills and understanding. Ask
someone—a colleague, a friend, a family member—if you need help or need to talk something through to get
your thoughts in order.
Let’s turn now to the outline of this unit in more detail. In it we focus on helping you construct the knowledge
you need to begin your inclusive education journey. This knowledge is crucial as it will enable you to
understand and explain the reasons for making choices that you know are right for your learners. The ability to
talk with colleagues (who may not see teaching in the same way as you) knowledgeably about how you teach is
important for you as someone new to teaching. These conversations may also be important for teachers who
have not had the same training experience as you. Time spent now building your understanding of concepts,
policies, theories and models underpinning inclusive education in South Africa will be of great value to you
throughout your career.
In the unit, we will give you an overview of the context and concepts of inclusive education from a South
African perspective. We will look at how government, society and academics support the move towards
inclusive education, and what this means for you as a teacher. The unit is in five parts:
In Part 1, we will explore exclusion from education in South Africa, and the roots of this exclusion in the
apartheid system.
In Part 2, we will introduce government’s move towards inclusive education. We will look at:
• International conventions ratified2 by South Africa
• The development of South African and African policies (The Department of Basic Education [DBE] has
recommended some of these policies for us to focus on in greater depth)
Part 3 looks at societal values underpinning inclusive education in South Africa. In particular we focus on the
following, and how they impact on teaching:
• Ubuntu values
• Constitutional values
• Your own personal values
In Part 4, we will introduce you to academic theories and models that can inform the South African model of
inclusive education. Some of these theories and models will be discussed again in more depth in later units.
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

In Part 5, we will begin to outline our approach to inclusive education, as well as key concepts and
characteristics of inclusive teaching. This will lead into the rest of the module, where we will continue to unpack
the skills, knowledge and attitudes needed to teach inclusively in the South African context.
We hope you enjoy this introductory unit on inclusive education. Allow it to inspire your thoughts about the
importance of teaching all learners to enable them to achieve to their highest potential.
Unit 1

Definition
2 Ratify: sign or give formal consent to.

3
Introduction and aim
The overall aims of this unit are for you to:
• Develop an understanding of issues related to inclusion and exclusion and the development of inclusive
education in South Africa. We will help you do this by introducing you to a wide range of material that places
the current situation in South Africa in context, including relevant: concepts, policies, laws and agreements;
theories and models; and values.
• Use this material to begin to develop an idea of what it means to be an inclusive teacher.

Specific outcomes
By the end of the unit, you will be able to:
• Describe historical and current exclusion in education in South Africa, the region and globally
• Discuss the development of international, regional and South African policies of inclusion and how they
inform inclusivity in education
• Critically examine the following relevant policy and guideline documents against the background of the
South African Bill of Rights: Revised Schools Act; Education White Paper 6 on Inclusive Education; Curriculum
Policy and Assessment Statement; Policy on Screening, Identification Assessment and Support
• Identify human rights principles and values of inclusion and link these to the philosophy of ubuntu
• Reflect on your own principles and values and how they can inform your practice as an inclusive teacher
• Critically analyse the relevance of at least three theories applicable to inclusive education in a range of other
relevant school contexts (e.g. rural, urban, peri-urban, informal, mainstream schools, full-service schools,
special schools, academic/technical/schools of skill)
• Evaluate the relevance of at least three models of inclusive education for different contexts
• Explain how differences in the classroom can be prioritised as the result of power relations and, as a result,
positions of privilege and oppression can be reproduced
• Critically analyse key inclusive teacher attributes that promote teacher and learner agency and social justice
in the development of inclusive school communities

INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
Unit 1

4
 Abbreviations

CAPS Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement

CDL Critical Diversity Literacy
CHAT Cultural Historical Activity Theory
CPD Continuing Professional Development
CSTL Care and Support for Teaching and Learning
DBE Department of Basic Education
DHET Department of Higher Education and Training
DoE Department of Education
IKS Indigenous Knowledge Systems
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
SACE South Africa Council for Educators
SADC Southern African Development Community
SEN Special Education Needs
SIAS Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support (Policy)
UN United Nations
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
Unit 1

5
1 The context of exclusion in education

ACTIVITY 1: What do you know about exclusion in

education?

Journal
Throughout this module you will be asked to keep a journal to write down your thoughts and reflections
on various topics. The ability to reflect on and learn from your experience and practice—called
“reflective practice3”—will be key to your ability to teach inclusively.
You can discuss questions for reflection with a colleague or a friend, and then record your main
takeaway points. Or, if you prefer, you can do the journal activities as a reflection on your own.
In your journal, you can write in any language you like. You can also use audio or video recordings. If
you are writing, you can use any style you like: for example, as well as sentences and paragraphs you
could use lists, bullet points, mind maps, collages, drawings, symbols, or anything else that helps you
make meaning from your learning. When we say “make notes about” or “note down your thoughts”, feel
free to work in whatever way helps you most.
Here is your first journal activity:
Reflect on these statements and questions, and make notes about your thoughts.
1. Exclusion from education can mean a child is not attending school at all. Do you know any
children who are not in school? What do you think has led to the child or children being excluded
from the school community?
2. Exclusion from education can still happen when the learner is present in the classroom. This
exclusion is evident when the learner is not participating, not engaged, not accepted or not being
given opportunities to succeed. Do you know someone who has been excluded in the classroom?
What do you think has led to the child being excluded from learning in the classroom?
3. Exclusion from education can even happen unintentionally. Even the most well-meaning and
professional teacher can exclude children without being aware of it. Have you ever noticed such types
of exclusion? If so, give some examples. Why do you think these incidents of exclusion happened?

INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Definition
Unit 1

3 Reflective practice: The ability to reflect on your actions in the classroom—using knowledge, experience,
theoretical understanding and values—in order to gain insights and build learning.

6
 1.1 Introduction
ACTIVITY 2: Overcoming barriers

Reading
Read the article about Mcebisi below, then consider the following questions:
1. From your experience of growing up in South Africa, from what you know of others’ experiences, and
from information in the case study, what sort of obstacles might Mcebisi have faced in his journey to
reach university?
2. What, and who, helped Mcebisi to overcome these obstacles?
3. What sort of obstacles have you had to overcome to get to where you are now? What, and who,
helped you overcome these?

ARTICLE

MIET AFRICA NEWSLETTER / MARCH 2019

“I MASTERED MATRIC!”
Lihlithemba Technical High School is in semi-rural
Ndwedwe, and is one of the best-performing schools
in the province. In 2013 and 2017 learners at the
school were among the top 10 matriculants in KZN,
and in 2018 the school did it again! Mcebisi Ntenga
achieved an outstanding seven distinctions in the
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
Sciences class I knew he was top 10 material. I have
been working with him and motivating him since then.”
Mcebisi is the last-born of five children. His siblings
have all excelled in one way or another in subjects
like Maths, Accounting and Science. But it’s not all in
the genes, he said. “Yes, genes come into it, but I
wouldn’t say that’s what it’s all about. You have to
enhance your smartness.”
And that’s what Mcebisi set out to do. While most
Grade 11s were enjoying the end-of-year holidays,
he spent his days studying the matric syllabus and
answering previous examination papers so that he
could be one step ahead when he started Grade 12
in 2018. He spent all his spare pocket money on
downloading past exam papers; by the time he
wrote his final matric exams last year, he had over
one gigabyte of past papers on his phone!
He also attended extra Maths lessons. “Simo
Mthethwa [MIET AFRICA’s Maths facilitator] helped
me a lot. He assisted us with resources from the
Internet such as Maths education websites.”
The hours Mcebisi spent studying rather than
hanging out with his friends paid off. With his
excellent results he would have been accepted to
study medicine as his dream is to be a surgeon, but

circumstances prevented him from applying to the

2018 National Senior Certificate examinations,
university in time. So he will study his second option,
including 88% for Maths. His top mark was for
Pharmacy, at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, where
Accounting, a subject he admits he did not like at first.
he has been awarded a scholarship. “I am looking
He narrowly missed full marks in the subject by 2%.
forward to moving to Durban and studying at
“I mastered Matric!” said Mcebisi proudly. university. I will apply the same determination I did at
“I am extremely proud of Mcebisi,” said principal Mr school and I know I will do well.” With his tenacity
Zwane. “When he was in Grade 10 in my Physical and drive, we are sure Mcebisi will achieve his goals.
Unit 1

7
South Africa has made some—but limited—gains in addressing barriers, inequities and under-development in education
since its attainment of democracy in 1994 and the adoption of inclusive education. There has been an improvement in
the number of learners enrolling in schools—for example, Statistics South Africa (2016) suggests an overall annual
increase in learner enrolment in all nine provinces. The enrolment rates in primary schools increased from 88.1% in
2002 to 94.2% in 2015, while in secondary school enrolment rates increased from 89% in 2002 to 94.5 in 2015.

Yet, despite these improvements in access to education, many thousands of children and young people in South Africa
still remain marginalised and vulnerable to exclusion from education. They are unable to access their right to quality
education due to attitudes and practices that sustain their marginalisation and exclusion. Most of these attitudes and
practices are inherited from “over three centuries of colonial rule and over 60 years of apartheid” (Phasha, 2010). For
example, the findings of the recent study conducted for the Teaching for All project (Majoko, Phasha et al., 2018)
identified exclusion from and within the school system affecting—in particular—learners with disabilities and those from
disadvantaged communities.

The result of this marginalisation and exclusion is an extremely high school dropout rate, to the extent that this rate has
been described as “a national crisis” (Weybright et al., 2017). It is estimated that “approximately 60% of first graders will
ultimately drop out rather than complete 12th Grade” (Ibid). This figure indicates that, although initial access to
education rates seem to be rising, barriers to accessing education are preventing many young people from
matriculating in Grade 12. Perhaps unsurprisingly, given the dropout rate, over half of young people are unemployed,
and almost a third of all youth are out of employment, training and education opportunities (Baumann, 2018). In addition,
South Africa was the lowest performing country out of 50 in the 2016 Progress in International Reading Study (PIRLS),
suggesting that there is also a problem with engagement in learning in South African schools.

So why has the situation not changed a great deal in the last 25 years? Some of the aspects of inclusion that might be
influencing it include:
• The language of instruction
• Overcrowded classrooms and lack of resources
• Segregated special schools
• Bullying and abuse at school or on the way to and from school
• Outmoded, inaccessible and rigid curriculum (subject matter, pedagogy, assessment and available resources)
• Teachers who have low expectations of learners
• Teachers who lack the knowledge and skills to support a diverse range of learners
• Lack of opportunities in schools for genuine learner voice to be heard and acted on

ACTIVITY 3: Aspects of exclusion

Writing
Consider the list of aspects of exclusion above.
Give examples of situations you know about that show the aspects of exclusion in action, drawing on
your own experience and knowledge.
Add other aspects you think are important.
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

To summarise: The current evidence suggests many schools and other educational institutions are still
reproducing environments that maintain exclusions of the past. Many children and young people therefore still
lack access to quality, equitable education. It is against this background that we clarify the term “exclusion from
education” as we begin our journey to understand it further.
Unit 1

8
 1.2 Definitions
of exclusion
Various definitions of the term “exclusion in
education” exist. As far back as 1996, Booth
defined exclusions in education as “the process of
decreasing the participation of learners in the
cultures and curricula of the regular school“.
Kearney (2011) defines the term as “denial of
access to education, its resources and rewards”.
These two definitions clarify that exclusion is not
only about physical presence—it also includes
learners’ experiences at school. Therefore, the
inability of the education system to provide
learners with quality education in an equitable
way also constitutes exclusion from education. Figure 2: Exclusion from quality education

In June 1994 the World Conference on Special Needs Education, organised by the Government of Spain in
co-operation with UNESCO, was held in Salamanca, Spain. More than 300 participants representing 92
governments (including South Africa) and 25 international organisations attended and ratified the Salamanca
Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education. The signatories undertook to “work towards
‘schools for all’—which include everybody, celebrate differences, support learning, and respond to individual
needs” (UNESCO, 1994). Here is an extract from the Framework.
This extract from the introduction to the Framework indicates that every child is at risk of experiencing
exclusion in education. Depending on the context, those who are most vulnerable to exclusion from quality
education might include, among others, children or young people:
• With chronic illness
• From poverty-stricken households
• Who are teenage mothers
• Who are orphans
• Who are refugees, including unaccompanied minors
• Who have dropped out of school before graduation
• Who have had their education interrupted by gang violence or substance abuse
• Who are bullied
• From minority religious groups
• With physical impairments
• With neurocognitive differences
• With poor mental health
Can you add to this list?
In the next section we are going to look at how our education system in South Africa is shaped by the
exclusionary practices of the past, and the challenges this poses for implementing an inclusive education
system for all.
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
Unit 1

9
1.3 Inherited exclusions
from the past
This section contains a brief discussion about the history of education in South Africa. Its aim is to help you
understand the origin of the exclusionary practices that exist in the current education system and begin to
deepen your understanding of inclusion within the South African context. In particular, you will understand who
needs to be included, by whom and how, and you will begin to appreciate your responsibility to teach inclusively.

1.3.1 Arrival of the colonists

South Africa had a long history before the arrival in 1652 of European colonists and their education practices.
Before 1652, children participated in a community-oriented oral education “intimately integrated with the social,
cultural, artistic, religious and recreational life of the indigenous peoples” (Seroto, n.d.). In stark contrast, the
establishment of the first formal European school in 1658 was specifically meant to train slaves to become
servants of the “master” (coloniser). The suppression of the indigenous population went beyond their removal
from their own countries of origin to include learning the language and religion of their master (Dutch). These
slaves were driven physically and psychologically into the world of the masters (Molteno, cited in Kallaway, 1990).
Division in terms of class between the colonists and slaves became more evident as a separate schooling for
slaves was established, separate from schooling provided for colonists and non-slaves. Discrimination along
gender lines was also introduced as females and males were separated in schools for slaves. Females were
taught domestic tasks and males were taught manual skills. Since the education was designed to make them fit
into Western civilisation, they were forced to abandon their culture.

1.3.2 Mission schools

When the missionaries took over the education of black people in the 19th century, funding was limited and the
standard of teaching was low. Schools continued to weaken traditional religious beliefs and the African way of
life. Christie (1991) described how missionaries helped break people down, and how they imposed Western
culture and undermined the African way of life. Mission schools also contributed to creating class differences
through their curricula. Some schools offered well-resourced academic education based on European-type
curricula, emphasised Christian values, and included technical training. Others had limited funds, poor facilities
and poorly-trained teachers, which contributed to low educational outcomes. Some mission schools focused
only on manual skills.
Racism and subordination were evident even in some schools that admitted both white and black learners, for
example, learners from different races played on separate sports fields, ate at separate tables and slept in
separate dormitories. Education continued to offer different experiences of the curriculum as it prepared
females for domestic life and males for jobs in religion and teaching. For some children, however, opportunities
for schooling were limited or non-existent.

1.3.3 Bantu Education Act

In 1953, the Nationalist government passed the Bantu Education Act. This act formalised, legalised and
deepened the structures around exclusion and segregation. It created racially separate education
departments for each of the South African population groups, at the time termed Whites, Indians, Coloureds
and Blacks. The education for blacks was controlled by the Department of Bantu Education, and was further
separated along the lines of ethnicity. As a consequence, the number of education departments rose to 18.
Overall, blacks were to be trained to be what Hendrik Verwoerd termed “hewers of woods and drawers of
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

water” (SA History online, 2019) and to serve white supremacy. Segregation, discrimination and exclusion were
evident in the following:
• Gross neglect of education for blacks, which denied black people access to the same educational
opportunities and resources enjoyed by white South Africans
• Denial of black people’s history, culture and identity, by promoting myths and racial stereotypes in its
curricula and textbooks
• Limited educational funding for black learners’ education; education for blacks was funded by tax collected
Unit 1

from them, whereas education for white learners was funded from the government’s General Revenue account

10
 • Shortages of resources in schools for blacks, especially in rural areas; shortages of classrooms and teachers;
inadequate facilities such as laboratories, textbooks and libraries
• Overcrowded classrooms, high teacher–student ratios, and poor teacher training, which negatively affected
the quality of teaching and learning
• Creation of private schools to cater for learners from affluent and/or religious backgrounds
• Different educational experiences organised along gender lines: girls, for example, were trained in domestic
science, history and typing, while boys did woodwork, physics and chemistry
Children with special needs or disabilities were also labelled, segregated, stereotyped and given an inferior
education. Those within the Bantu Education System were even worse off than their white counterparts who,
while they were marginalised, still had more resources made available to them (Naicker, 2000). White children
received financial resources through a separate education system for learners with disabilities, often being
educated in “special schools” (Phasha, 2010). On the other hand, black children with disabilities were not
allocated any resources or support. As a result, most black communities resorted to sending their learners with
disabilities to mainstream schools where they received no support (Gwala-Ogisi, 1990; Phasha, 2010).
The provision of education for learners with special needs consisted of two systems: special education and
remedial education. Learners were rigidly categorised as having, for example: slight specific learning
disabilities; moderate specific disabilities; and severe learning disabilities (Gwala-Ogisi, 1990). This labelling
deepened segregation and discrimination.

1.3.4 Post-1994
Even post-1994 many children and young people are excluded from education because they:
• Cannot receive education in their home language, and/or
• Are not receiving the specific support they need to overcome the challenges preventing them from
developing their potential
Learners continue to be marginalised because of: economic inequality; an inability to access quality education;
the daily challenges of living in communities that are deeply affected by substance abuse and violence; and
school cultures that are still burdened by sexism, racism, homophobia and xenophobia. Many learners are
further held back by low expectations due to labelling, and the cultural assumptions and stereotypes attached
to these labels.
Exclusion from quality education violates children’s constitutional rights and reinforces existing structural
injustices. This in turn leads to marginalised groups being excluded from full participation in social, economic
and political life as adults. They remain trapped in inter-generational cycles of poverty and exclusion, thereby
increasing inequality. This situation exacerbates South Africa’s two key development challenges: redressing the
high levels of poverty, and inequality (DBE, 2015: 3).
Inclusive education needs to be understood against this background of social oppression and educational
exclusion. For this reason, education policies and Acts consistently acknowledge the role of teachers in building
an inclusive education system. They call for teachers to advocate for social justice, human rights and inclusivity.
This call means that you, as a teacher, are expected to focus on learner well-being, classroom pedagogies and
educational practices that strongly and clearly challenge exclusion and all forms of oppression and
discrimination. In order to do this successfully, you will need to become a change agent4. The idea of teachers
as “change agents”, who can help reduce educational inequalities, is linked to research showing that teachers
are the most significant in-school factor influencing student achievement (Hattie, 2009; OECD, 2005).
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

We will talk more about teachers as change agents later in this unit, and will expand on the areas mentioned
above throughout this unit and the rest of the module.

Definition
Unit 1

4 Change agent: Someone who puts their time and energy into making change happen in an organisation.

11
ACTIVITY 4: Exploring power dynamics, marginalisation
and exclusion

Reading
Refresh your memory about the Soweto Student Uprising of 1976. The website link shown below is a
good place to start, although there are many others. Through the link below you will find an in-depth
article about what happened and the reasons behind the protests, as well as some interesting
interviews in the left-hand side bar. http://bit.ly/2wN9JjS
While doing your research, consider the following questions and note your answers. Here we want you
to focus on the issues of exclusion, marginalisation and inequality of power that you have studied so far
in this unit.
1. What were the power dynamics underlying the protest? Who was being marginalised? Who had
the power?
2. How was language used to racialise the education system under the Bantu Education Act?
3. Who were the change agents before, during and after the uprising? What qualities did they show as
change agents?
4. To what extent do you think the power dynamics of the apartheid era persist: in South African
culture? In schools? Draw on your own life experiences.
5. How do current power dynamics continue to shape the lives and outlook of many South Africans?
How do they shape your own life and outlook?

ACTIVITY 5: Education for children with disabilities in

South Africa

Audio Visual
Watch the Human Rights Watch film South Africa: Children with disabilities denied education.
http://y2u.be/l7LdwV1gaVg
Consider the following questions:
1. What is the definition, and what are the aims of, inclusive education for children with disabilities in
South Africa?
2. What do you think are the values informing inclusive education for children with disabilities in
South Africa?
3. Why, according to the video, are children with disabilities in South Africa not accessing quality education?
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
Unit 1

12
 2 Inclusive education policies, laws and
agreements: South Africa and beyond

ACTIVITY 6: Why do we have inclusive education policies?

Reading
Read the following case study, which is an extract from an essay by a Grade 10 learner in South Africa.
Then consider:
How do you think an inclusive education policy might enable Aviwe to get support from:
1. The district education authority
2. The principal
3. Teachers
4. Family

CASE STUDY: Aviwe

I am a sucker for horror and supernatural movies,
and a fan of metal rock and hip-hop music.
Being a South African teenager comes with its ups
and downs.
Sometimes it becomes a living nightmare because
there is not a single day that a person like me does
not face discrimination, unless we spend our time
indoors. This is because I was born with a medical
condition called albinism.
Growing up and now as a teenager I’ve been called
names such as “mlungu”.
People also point at me and will say things like I
bath with milk.
I once had an emotional breakdown, but through
the support of my parents, I overcame it.

Policies5 for inclusive education play a vital role because they can:
• Motivate and empower—and sometimes give incentives to—districts, schools and teachers to work
inclusively
• Empower families to ensure children get what they need to learn effectively
South Africa has been committed to building an inclusive education and training system since 1994. It has
developed education laws and policies based on the Constitution that aim to develop a just, equitable, safe and
productive society for the benefit of everyone. And since the end of World war ll, the world as a whole—
through the United Nations and other international organisations—has also been working to develop policies
and guidelines around inclusive education. In this section we will look at the development of inclusive
education policies, laws and agreements, explore the extent to which they are effective, and think about some
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

of the barriers to their effectiveness.

We will start by considering the international human rights and inclusive education movement, then turn our
focus to South African developments against this backdrop.

Definition
Unit 1

5 Policy: A course of action, proposed by the government for a particular situation, that has been officially agreed to.

13
2.1 International human rights
and inclusive education

Education is seen as a fundamental human right. As a result, there is a range of United Nations (UN)
conventions6 and declarations dating back over 70 years that inform the field of inclusive education. These
conventions and declarations started life as a written document: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
agreed by the newly-formed UN after World War II. Over the last fifty years, though, the idea of human rights
has developed from words on a page to become a global movement, driven by people from all walks of life and
communities across the world. This movement has led to human rights becoming a fundamental, globally
acknowledged part of every individual’s life, and to their being integrated into international law.
Human rights policies in education aim to:
• Promote, respect and protect the universal right of all children to inclusive, quality education
• Recognise that every learner and teacher is free to explore, discover, develop and express their potential,
with dignity, with equal opportunity and without discrimination
A rights-based approach to education is closely linked to human rights principles. These principles are defined
in many international declarations, which many countries—including South Africa—have ratified (signed).
Below is a timeline of the development of some UN human rights documents and a summary of how they
inform inclusive education:

Table 1: International conventions on inclusive education

Year Document title How it impacts on inclusive education

Education is a right. Primary school should be free. We should learn about the
Universal Declaration
UN and how to get on with others. Our parents can choose what we learn.
1948 of Human Rights
Children should not be discriminated against. The best interests of the child
(Article 26)
and the child’s view should be considered.

International Convention Condemns apartheid and racial segregation and obliges countries to "prevent,
on the Elimination prohibit and eradicate" these practices in all of their territories. Combats racial
1965
of All Forms of Racial prejudice and encourages understanding and tolerance between different
Discrimination racial, ethnic and national groups.

Strategy to enhance disability prevention, rehabilitation and equalisation of

World Programme of
opportunities. Refers to full participation of people with disabilities in social life
1982 Action Concerning
and national development. Emphasises the need to approach disability from a
Disabled Persons
human rights perspective.

Protects the rights of children in all areas of their life. Governments have a
responsibility to:
• Take all available measures to make sure children’s rights are respected,
UN Convention on the protected and fulfilled
1989
Rights of the Child
• Agree to review their laws relating to children
Calls on governments to assess their social services, legal, health and
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

education systems, as well as levels of funding for these services.

Definition
Unit 1

6 Convention: An agreement between countries covering particular issues; less formal than a treaty.

14
 Year Document title How it impacts on inclusive education

Is a major milestone in the international dialogue on the place of education in

World Education Forum:
human development policy. Makes education a top priority; broadens the
1990 Jomtien Conference
discussion about education from its previous, limited focus on access to
Education for All (EFA)
primary school.

Standard Rules on the

Equalisation of Emphasises strong moral and political commitment of governments to take
1993 Opportunities for action to attain equity for persons with disabilities. Document is still a basis for
Persons with Disabilities: policy-making and cooperation between countries.
UN General Assembly

Salamanca Statement Calls for major school reform. Recognises the need for and urgency of
and Framework for providing education for all children, young people and adults “within the
Action on Special Needs regular education system”. Children with “special educational needs” must
1994
Education: 92 countries, have access to regular schools as the most effective way of addressing
25 international discrimination, creating welcoming communities, building an inclusive society
organisations and achieving Education for All.

Culmination of a major assessment of the state of education across the world

World Education Forum:
2000 1990–2000. Resulted in a set of priorites that aimed to address equitable
Dakar Framework
access to quality education –particular focus on gender.

UN Millennium
Sets out eight global goals, including halving the extreme poverty rate, halting
2000 Development Goals
the spread of HIV & AIDS and providing universal primary education.
2000–15

Followed decades of work by the UN to change attitudes and approaches to

UN Convention on the persons with disabilities. Aims to shift culture of viewing people with disabilities
2006 Rights of Persons with as “objects” of charity, medical treatment and social protection to viewing
Disabilities them as “subjects” like anyone else—people with rights, who are capable of
claiming those rights, making decisions and being active members of society.

Sets out seventeen global goals, which followed on from the Millenium
UN Sustainable
Development Goals. SDG 4 ensures inclusive, equitable, quality education and
2015 Development Goals
promotes lifelong learning opportunities for all, and has a specific focus on all
2015–30
marginalised groups.

Focused on the framework for action for SDG 4. Outlines a commitment to

World Education Forum:
2015
Incheon Declaration
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
Unit 1
“addressing all forms of exclusion and marginalisation, disparities and
inequalities in access, participation and learning outcomes”, in practice:
• Provides twelve years of free education
• Ensures access to education and learning is equitable, with a focus on
vulnerable groups
• Ensures that outcomes are relevant and effective, and provide the building
blocks for lifelong learning

15
 ACTIVITY 7: International human rights documents

Reading
Read the timeline of international human rights documents and consider the following questions:
1. Which of the documents is most interesting to you from an inclusive education point of view (i.e.
education is provided for all children, is relevant, accessible, fair and of the highest possible quality)?
Why do you find this the most interesting document?
2. Look the document up on the internet and read more about it.
3. Think about a child or young person you know who is at risk of being marginalised or excluded from
education.
• How does the document you have chosen apply to them?
• How could it help them—what is useful and relevant about the document?
• Are there parts that are unhelpful or would need adapting to be relevant for this child or young
person? If so, what are these? What do you think needs adapting and how?
4. To what extent do you think there is an awareness of human rights related to education in your
community? What helps or hinders this awareness?
5. Do you think this awareness has changed over the last five to ten years? If so, how? What do you
think might be the reasons for the change, or lack of change, in your community?

2.2 Inclusive education policies and laws:

South Africa and Africa

ACTIVITY 8: What do I know already? What do I want

to know?

Journal
Before we continue, spend a few minutes considering the following two questions. If you can, discuss them
with a colleague. If you are working on your own, reflect on the questions and make notes in your journal.
1. What do you already know about inclusive education policies and laws in South Africa? For example,
do you know which policies and laws exist? Do you know what they are designed to do?
2. What would you like to know about inclusive education policies and laws in South Africa? What do
you think teachers working inclusively in schools need to know?

Following the dismantling of the discriminatory Christian National Education system in 1994, new education
policies, laws and guidelines have been put in place in South Africa. These are grounded in the South African
Constitution and Bill of Rights and are also in line with major international conventions, treaties and declarations
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

to which South Africa is a signatory.

The Constitution was the country’s first policy document to reflect a commitment to equity and equality. It
embraced the international principles of human rights and committed itself to building an inclusive education
and training system.
Since 1994, South Africa and Africa have developed a number of documents that show a clear national and
regional obligation to implement inclusive education. In this section we introduce you to some of these
Unit 1

documents. Once you know about them, you can use them to empower you to promote an inclusive culture
and address exclusion from education in your classroom and school.

16
 “This is our national soul, our contract with one another as citizens, underpinned by our
highest aspirations and our deepest apprehensions. Our pledge is: Never and never
again shall the laws of our land rend our people apart or legalise their oppression and
repression. Together, we shall march, hand-in-hand, to a brighter future.”
President Nelson Mandela at the unveiling of the mural celebrating the adoption of the new Constitution, 8 May, 1996

The timelime below shows some of the most significant South African and African policies and laws, with a brief
summary of some of the ways each informs inclusive education.

Table 2: South African and African inclusive education

policy/law development

Year Document title How it impacts on inclusive education

Emphasises the need to include African cultural values and experiences when
African Union: African
dealing with the rights of the child, as their realities are particular to Africa. Any
1990 Charter on the Rights
custom, tradition, cultural or religious practice that is inconsistent with
and Welfare of the Child
children’s rights is discouraged.

The South African

Supports the rights to basic education, to a safe environment and to act in the
1996 Constitution and Bill
best interest of the child.
of Rights

Articulates the roles and responsibilities of public schools. Ended the system
of separate schooling on the basis of race and created a single system for all
The South African learners. Right of equal access to basic and quality education for all learners
1996
Schools Act without discrimination of any sort. No learner may be denied admission to an
ordinary school on any grounds. The first step towards a single, inclusive
education system for South Africa.

Suggests structural and programme changes to South Africa’s education

DoE: Education White
system so that diverse learners can be included in mainstream schools.
Paper 6: Special Needs
Outlines an inclusive education system in which all learners have equal access
2001 Education: building an
to quality educational opportunities. Recognises the importance of developing
inclusive education and
learners’ strengths, and of empowering and enabling learners to participate
training system
actively and critically in the learning process.

Protects the rights of children so they are able to grow up safely and develop
well. If abused or neglected, they will be helped to recover. Children are
The South African
2005 allowed to have their say and participate in decisions that affect their lives.
Children’s Act
Values and protects families. Ensures proper and safe after-care, crèches,
drop in centres, and child and youth care centres.

DHET: Revised Policy

on Minimum
All teachers need to be familiar with what is needed to implement inclusive
2015 Requirements for
education practices.
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Teacher Education
Qualifications

DBE: Policy on
Framework of procedures to identify, assess, and provide programmes for all
Screening Identification,
2011 learners who need additional support to boost their participation and inclusion
Assessment and
in school.
Unit 1

Support (SIAS)

17
Year Document title How it impacts on inclusive education

DBE: Guidelines for

Responding to Learner Strategies for differentiated teaching and learning to meet the diversity of
2011
Diversity in the learners’ needs.
Classroom

South African Council

for Educators (SACE):
2011 Details ten principles for professional teaching.
Draft Professional
Teacher Standards

DBE: National
Curriculum and States what should be in the curricula for each grade in South Africa, and how
2012
Assessment and Policy it should be assessed.
Statement Grades R–12

The South African Promotes nation building as a key element within social cohesion schemes.
2012 National Development Identifies 31 actions that will help to achieve this based on values, equal
Plan 2030 opportunities, inclusion, cohesion, citizenship and leadership.

African Union: Agenda Strategic plan for the socio-economic transformation of the continent.
2013 2063—Africa’s Agenda Emphasises the importance of education and children’s civil and political
for Children rights as the foundations of sustainable, rights-based development.

Southern African
Development Aims to realise the educational rights of all children, including those who are
Community (SADC): most vulnerable, by addressing barriers to learning and participation. Supports
2014
Care and Support for schools through nine programmes to become inclusive centres of teaching,
Teaching and Learning learning, care and support.
(CSTL) framework

DBE: Draft Norms and

2018 Addresses how an inclusive education system will be funded and resourced.
Standards for Funding

Identifies standards for the development of inclusive teachers in five key

areas: valuing and understanding learner diversity; agency for social justice
DHET: Standards for
2018 and inclusion; collaborating to enable inclusive teaching and learning;
Inclusive Teaching
developing professionally as an inclusive teacher; employing classroom
practices that promote learning for all.
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
Unit 1

18
 ACTIVITY 9: South African policies

Reading
Look at the timeline of South African policies in relation to the timeline of international policies. Identify
links between the two.
Choose three policies from the list below that particularly interest you and read the summaries, which
can be found in Appendix 1.
• South African Bill of Rights
• Revised South African Schools Act
• Education White Paper 6: Special Needs Education
• Curriculum Policy and Assessment Statement (CAPS)
• Policy on Screening, Information and Assessment and Support (SIAS)
Once you have read the summaries, think about and answer the following questions for each policy:
1. What is useful and relevant about this policy for inclusive education in your school and community?
Why do you think this?
2. Are there parts of the policy that are not useful or relevant for inclusive education in your school and
community? If so, which are they? Why do you think this?
3. Are there parts of the policy that, if they were adapted, could be more useful or relevant for inclusive
education in your school and community? If so, which are they? How do you think they need to be
adapted?
4. To what extent do you think this policy is put into practice in your school and community? What
factors do you think help or hinder it being put into practice?
5. What needs to be done to overcome some of the factors that get in the way of this policy being put
into practice in your school and community?
6. What have you learnt about inclusive education laws and policy in South Africa in this section that is
going to be useful to you as a teacher working inclusively?

Remember: despite the limitations of some of the policies and laws about inclusive education, they are what we
currently have in place to support us to teach inclusively. Use them to do everything you can to make sure that the
education learners experience in your classroom is equitable and inclusive.

Another aspect of wider life that can support us to teach inclusively is our values. This is the next topic we are going
to discuss.
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
Unit 1

19
3 Societal values underpinning
inclusive education
In this section we will reflect on and analyse overall principles and values of inclusive education within South
Africa. There are South African values that can provide a strong foundation for inclusive education and
inclusive teaching and learning, including ubuntu/botho and constitutional human rights values. These include
shared values that can unite school communities and prevent the exclusion of children from education. You will
also have the opportunity to reflect on your own personal values, because an awareness of the values that
motivate us will enhance the process of self-discovery and underpin the choices we make in our classrooms.

“One of the most powerful ways of children and young adults acquiring
values is to see individuals they admire and respect exemplify these values
in their own being and conduct.” Nelson Mandela, Saamtrek Conference, 2001

Before we begin, it is important to clarify the difference between values and rules. Rules are imposed from the
outside, while values are grown from the inside. Our first glimmerings of values are experienced as instincts
and emotions as we experience the world and respond to it. These first values are “written” by the culture in
which we are growing up. As we grow and develop, our values are also formed through experience.
One of the reasons it’s so difficult to grasp what values are is because they are so fundamental and mostly
operate in our subconscious. One of the biggest obstacles to understanding them is the assumption that they
are all good and desirable; but values are in themselves neither right nor wrong. Their usefulness depends
entirely on their impact on you and your community. This is why we need to become more aware of the values
that motivate us, understand them and question them.
You, as a teacher starting out in the profession, bring your own set of values that will inform your thinking and
practice, and over time with experience, these will develop and change. Learners, principals, parents and
officials also come into the school community with their own value systems. Therefore, no education is
neutral—all education, teaching practice and school culture is based on values. Having a better understanding
of the role of values in our society is empowering. So, let’s first get a deeper understanding of what values are,
and then expand that understanding through a discussion of ubuntu/botho and human rights values for
inclusive education.

3.1 Schwartz’s theory

of basic values
Shalom H Schwartz is a social psychologist, cross-cultural researcher and creator of the Theory of Basic Human
Values. He also contributed to the formulation of a values scale in the context of social learning theory and
social cognitive theory. Schwartz reasoned that since values are motivational goals, basic human values might
be derived by considering the most basic needs of human beings, which he divides into three categories:
• Our biological needs as individuals
• Our need to coordinate our actions with others
• The need of groups to survive and flourish
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
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20
 By considering these needs Schwartz arrived at the following set of ten basic values:

Table 3: Schwartz’s ten basic values

1. Benevolence: Preservation and enhancement of the people with whom one is in frequent personal
contact—especially family
(helpful, honest, forgiving, responsible, true friendship, mature love)
2. Universalism: Understanding, appreciation, tolerance, and protection for the welfare of all people and
for nature
(broadminded, social justice, equality, world at peace, world of beauty, unity with nature, wisdom,
protecting the environment)
3. Self-Direction: Independent thought and action—choosing, creating, exploring
(creativity, freedom, choosing own goals, curiosity, independence)
4. Security: Safety, harmony and stability of society, of relationships and of self
(social order, family security, national security, cleanlines, reciprocation of favours, healthiness, sense
of belonging)
5. Conformity: Restraint of actions, inclinations and impulses likely to upset or harm others and violate
expectations or norms
(obedience, self-discipline, politeness, honouring parents and elders)
6. Hedonism: Pleasure or sensuous gratification for oneself
(pleasure, enjoying life, self-indulgence)
7. Achievement: Personal success through demonstrating competence according to social standards
(ambitious, successful, capable, influential)
8. Tradition: Respect, commitment, and acceptance of the customs and ideas that one’s culture or
religion provides
(respect for tradition, humble, devout, accepting my portion in life)
9. Stimulation: Excitement, novelty, and challenge in life
(a varied life, an exciting life, daring)
10. Power: Social status and prestige, control or dominance over people and resources
(authority, wealth, social power, social recognition, preserving my public image)
(Source: Potts, 2015 http://bit.ly/31mT8BC)

ACTIVITY 10: My personal values

Writing
1. Look at Schwartz’s 10 basic values. Choose three that are important to you in your personal life. Why
are these values important to you?
2. Choose three that you think would be important and appropriate to you in your professional life. How
would these values influence your practice as a teacher who teaches inclusively?
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
Unit 1

21
3.2 Human rights values
for inclusive education
In the section about policy we looked at human rights laws and conventions, including the South African
Constitution and the Bill of Rights. Depending on the context you are in, these human rights tools can
represent a set of rules or a set of values. For example, as a set of rules our Constitution has to be obeyed by
law, regardless of our personal or cultural beliefs. As a set of values that is experienced as personally
meaningful and motivating, the Constitution can be an inspiring vision.
The National Development Plan (RSA, 2013) stresses that in the South Africa of 2030 “there will be broad-based
knowledge about and support for a set of values shared by all South Africans, including the values contained in
the Constitution”. The core values identified by the Constitution that determine an open and democratic society
are human dignity, the achievement of equality and the advancement of human rights and freedoms.
As a teacher, you can be one of the few authority figures in a child’s life who models a commitment to
democracy and human rights, so it’s important that you understand their relationship to the classroom and
your practice within it. Here is a reflective activity to help you develop this understanding.

ACTIVITY 11: My thoughts on constitutional values

Journal
Here are some questions for reflection. Record your ideas in your journal.
1. How do you imagine constitutional values being applied in your school and in your classroom?
2. How can a commitment to human rights inform your teaching practice and school culture?

Our responsibility as teachers with regard to human rights is to embed two areas into our practice, no matter
whom or what we are teaching:
• Human rights education: teaching learners about human rights
• A rights-based approach to education: placing human rights at the centre of all teaching
The second of these areas is more radical. It involves more than teaching learners about human rights; it
requires us to teach learners through human rights. As teachers, a rights-based approach to education means
that we model and practise human rights in every interaction we have with learners, and make it clear we are
doing so. We do this, both specifically in relation to learning, and with informal interactions we have with learners
outside the classroom. Rights-based practice recognises that every learner and teacher is free to explore,
discover, develop and express their potential, equally, with dignity and without discrimination. Essentially, it
promotes, respects and protects the universal right of all children to access inclusive, quality education.
The CSTL Children’s Participation Framework (2018) calls for the mainstreaming of a rights-based approach to
education. It is a tool to support the SADC region to reach its vision about children and young people’s
participation as engaged and active citizens in their communities.
All education systems in the SADC region aim to provide 21st century teaching and learning that empowers
and enables all children to know and exercise their civic and political responsibilities and rights.
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Special measures will ensure the inclusion of the most vulnerable and marginalised, so that they may be
engaged citizens with agency to drive inclusive development.
Unit 1

22
 In order to achieve this vision, the CSTL framework identifies a number of children and young people’s civil and
political rights that all of them—especially those who are marginalised or at risk of exclusion from education—
need to know, and be empowered to exercise:
• The right to express their own views and be heard in all matters affecting them
• The right to express their views without fear or prejudice
• The right to hold their own views and practice religion of choice
• The right to join groups or associations for expressing common or shared viewpoints
• The right to protection from interference with their privacy
• The right to access information that is socially and culturally relevant through diversity of sources, including
the media
So, what does rights-based education look like in the classroom? As stated in Values and human rights in the
curriculum: a guide book (DoE, 2003), a rights-driven, democratic classroom is characterised by:
• Learner-centred methods and strategies for learning and teaching
• Relationships based on dignity, equality and respect
• Classroom management strategies that are in keeping with democratic and human rights values
• Affirmation of diversity rather than homogeneity (sameness)
• Participation of all members of the school community in decision-making that affects them
• Anti-discriminatory policies and practices
• Equitable availability and use of resources
• Inclusive approach to: use of languages; different ways of making meaning from learning; diversity

ACTIVITY 12: A rights-based democratic classroom

Writing
Reflecting on what you have just read about rights-based education, consider the following questions:
1. What values do you think underpin rights-based education?
2. Reflecting on your own experience of education, to what extent do you think it could be described
as rights-based? For example:
• Do you think the curriculum, or/and the teaching style enabled you to practice the rights and skills
needed to become an active and engaged citizen?
• To what extent do you think the adults in the school were comfortable with the idea of children’s
rights? What made you think this? If they were uncomfortable, why do you think this was the case?
• Think of a situation where there was a conflict of rights. How was it resolved, or how could it have
been resolved (or prevented)?
3. Now look back at Schwarz’s list of ten basic values. Which three of these do you think will be most
important for you as a teacher in helping you create a rights-based, democratic classroom? Why are
they important?
4. How could you put these values into action in a classroom to ensure that it is a democratic, rights-
based community? For example:
• What sort of structures—routines, norms, rituals—could you put in place?
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

• What sorts of behaviours would you want to model as a teacher?

• What sorts of activities could you set up with learners in order for them to exercise their rights
and their agency within the school community, and for their views to be considered equally as
important as adults’ views?
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23
3.3 Linking human rights principles to the
philosophy of ubuntu/botho

“We believe that in the long run the special contribution to the world by
Africa will be in the field of human relationship. The great powers of the
world may have done wonders in giving the world an industrial look, but
the great gift still has to come from Africa—giving the world a more
human face.” Steve Biko, 1970

ACTIVITY 13: My thoughts on ubuntu/botho

Journal
1. Can you remember when you first became aware of the principles of ubuntu/botho? Describe the
circumstances. What impact did it have on your life?
2. How would you define ubuntu/botho?

Figure 3: Ubuntu values means teaching

for all—“Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu”
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

At the heart of South Africa’s inclusive education policy—and of this module—lies the philosophy of ubuntu/botho,
which holds unity, “humanness”, togetherness, interdependence and communalism at its core. A commonly used
definition of ubuntu comes from the isiZulu phrase, “Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu” and the Setswana phrase
“Motho ke motho ka batho”, which in English means: “A person is a person through other people.”
Unit 1

24
 Mapadimeng (2009) suggests that the first intellectual attempt to define and explain the ubuntu/botho culture
was in the 1950s, ’60s and ’70s by the journalist Jordan Kush Ngubane, in The African Drum magazine and in
his novels. In his novel Conflicts of minds, Ngubane defined ubuntu as “the philosophy which the African
experience translates into action” and “a philosophy of life and the practice of being humane which gave
content to life for African people long before the arrival of white settlers” (Ngubane, 1979). Any attempt to
define ubuntu must include the possibility that it has had oral traditions for a longer period of time.

“Out of the values of ubuntu and human dignity flow the practices of compassion,
kindness, altruism and respect which are at the very core of making our schools places
where the culture of teaching and the culture of learning thrive.” Manifesto on values,
education and democracy, DHET, 2001

Since Ngubane’s definition of 1979, many scholars have developed other definitions of ubuntu and, importantly,
identified values related to ubuntu:

Table 4: Ubuntu values

Sensitivity to the needs of others; charity; sympathy; care;

NE Chikanda (1990)
respect; consideration; kindness

Nhlanhla Mkhize (2008) Social justice; righteousness; care; empathy for others; respect

Respect; group solidarity; conformity; compassion; human dignity

Mokong Simon Mapadimeng (2009) and humaneness; collective unity and solidarity; sharing; universal
brotherhood; communalism; interdependence; hospitality

Inclusive; deeds of kindness; compassion; caring; sharing;

Mluleki Mnyaka & Mokgethi Motlhabi (2009)
solidarity; sacrifice

Our humaneness; caring; hospitality; our sense of connectedness;

Desmond Tutu (2011)
our sense that my humanity is bound up in your humanity

Polycarp Ikuenobe (2017) Caring; humility; fraternity; mutuality

Ikuenobe stresses that “we can appreciate the merits of traditional African communalism when it is compared
to the social and moral pathologies7 that are engendered by the extreme rugged individualism of Western
modernity” (Ikuenobe, 2017). The main principle of ubuntu is a focus on the group. For example, in a small
community in which you will probably live alongside the same people your entire life, more emphasis is put on
maintaining relationships, rather than on ensuring fairness or justice. Compromises are made more quickly.
Compensation for wrongdoing is focused more on reconciliation and restoring order.
This does not mean that these traditions cannot be abused. They can, especially when traditional leaders are
backed by the administration, and when autocratic leaders try to justify privilege and oppression as “part of our
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

culture”, perpetuating sexism, homophobia, xenophobia and maintaining the practices of corrupt elites.

Definition
Unit 1

7 Pathologies (in this context): Deviations from the “norm” that bring about social problems.

25
 ACTIVITY 14: Critically examining ubuntu

Writing
Read the questions below then do some research—for example online, through books and articles, by
interviewing people in your community—to help you answer them.
Make notes in your journal as you go along and, when you are ready, write answers to the questions:
1. What challenges to tradition and authority are permitted? By whom? In what contexts are
these permitted?
2. How can individuals question the way things are done? What happens when they ask these questions?
3. To what extent do you think ubuntu is contradicted, or weakened, by the prevalence in Africa of:
autocratic rule; patriarchy; corruption; the neglect of the poor; sexism; homophobia; xenophobia;
contemporary slavery and the degradation of the environment?

Where ubuntu is understood as inclusive practice, it is true to the values in Table 4. These values empower
teachers as agents of change, who combat exclusion by employing inclusive pedagogies that empower all
learners. According to Professor John Volmink:
Inclusive education is a connectedness between learners, educators and communities of learning, which provides a
positive environment which in turn positively affects self-worth, self-belief and achievement. The ability to learn depends
on these networks of support. This is the essence of ubuntu—that we live in a delicate web of inter-connectedness and
interdependence with each other. “I am because we are.” If I diminish, insult or mistreat another person, I do so similarly
to myself. So, inclusive education calls for mutual respect and support. (Prof John Volmink, Teaching for All research report, 2018)

ACTIVITY 15: Ubuntu and inclusive education

Journal
Reflecting on what you have just read about ubuntu, discuss the following question with a colleague. If
you are studying on your own, reflect on it and make some notes in your journal.
How could you use the values associated with ubuntu in your classroom to promote a culture that is
inclusive and seeks to provide quality education for all?

3.3.1 Values that promote an inclusive classroom culture

We have considered a range of values, some coming from the Constitution and others from ubuntu/botho.
These two sets of values are sometimes in tension with each other. However, it is important to consider how
they can be integrated into our contemporary understanding of the values that benefit all South Africans,
which can then be deliberately nurtured in our schools.
Both ubuntu/botho and human rights have the potential for manipulation in the interests of power. Together,
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

though, they can hold each other accountable for delivering what is best in both of them. One can think of the
individualism of human rights and the collectivism of ubuntu as a creative and productive partnership. In the
classroom this is not just about encouraging development of all learners as individuals, but also about
encouraging active collaboration between learners who have different characteristics. Here, the values of
ubuntu and human rights combine to serve us well.
Unit 1

26
 ACTIVITY 16: Values in the classroom

Writing
Ubuntu and human rights values can inform the way teachers respond to learners in the classroom. How
would you personally respond to the following learners, and which values would inform your responses?
Think about a learner:
• Who has a physical disability
• Whose brain functions differently to yours
• Is of a different sexuality to yours
• Is of a different race to you
• Believes in knowledge systems that are different to yours
• Has a different faith belief system to yours
• Who is from a different family background to yours
• Who is living in poverty

By now, you have a solid understanding of the purpose of inclusive education, the policies, laws and
conventions that support it, and the values that underpin it. Next, we turn to some of the key theories and
models that influence our understanding of inclusive education.
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
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27
4 Academic theories and models of
inclusive education
There are many theories and models that influence our understanding of inclusive education, and as a result
there is no one overarching definition of inclusive education. In this section, we will:
• Introduce you briefly to some of the theories and models that are most commonly referred to in discussions
by educators discussing and writing about inclusive education
• Give you some opportunities to reflect critically on these theories and models, thinking about their
usefulness in your context
You will meet some of the theories and models again in later units.
Before we get started, there are two points we would like to make about terminology.
First, a word about the word “theory”. Many people are deeply suspicious of this word because they believe
theories are too rigid and abstract to be meaningful in any real life situation (Green, 2001), and that reality
tends to be more complex than any theory can completely capture (Maxwell, cited in Ravitch & Riggan, 2017).
These are valid arguments, and theorists tend to agree with them; all theories (and models) have limitations.
However, theories are important in helping us construct knowledge so they are worth our attention.
Second, we want to clarify the difference between “theory” and “model”:
• Theories give us a set of ideas, or a framework, for understanding, interpreting and explaining an
experience. For example, we might think we know the different ways in which children learn to read because
there are plenty of theories written about this topic in books.
• Models are representations of how something works in real life. So, using the reading example above, we
might set up a classroom with groups of children who are learning to read in different ways, with each
group’s method based on a theory we have read about in books. Each of these methods is a model. Models
can tell us whether the theory works in a particular situation. The findings from models can also bring new
information that develops theories further.
Let’s move on to look at some theories and models that add to our understanding of inclusive education, and
their limitations.

4.1 Theories and models

related to inclusive education
When we are looking at theories and models related to inclusive education, we need to understand the context
in which they have been developed, and the context to which they are being applied. This is because the
context in which theories and models have been developed may not take into account, and therefore may not
be applicable to, the context to which they are being applied.
South Africa has a unique context. Its past of colonialism and apartheid has led to deep, persistent inequalities
that have left a legacy of power for some and oppression of others. Theories and models of inclusive education
developed elsewhere may not adequately account for these inequalities. Theories and models could therefore,
if applied without adaptation in South Africa, lead to the continuation of exclusion. (Phasha et al., 2017).
As an example, let’s look at the role of parents in the education of their children. The benefits of parental
involvement and support in children’s education are well documented (Sime & Sheridan, 2014). Parental
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

support and involvement go beyond topics like helping children with homework to include issues such as
staying in constant communication with the school, volunteering, decision making, collaborating with
community and learning (Epstein et al., 2002). The legacy of power and oppression left by the apartheid past
continue to make such involvement unachievable for millions of caregivers in South Africa. A teacher in a
school who understands the theory and ideal model of parental involvement, but does not take into account
families’ unique contexts, is likely to exclude them further through feelings of frustration and a lack of
understanding and flexibility.
Unit 1

So, as a teacher it’s important that you always ask yourself questions about theories and models. How do the
unique contexts you know about influence your understanding of a theory or model? What do the contexts

28
 mean for implementing it? Will the theory or model work—wholly, partially, with some adapting or not at all?
Remember, you are the expert on your context, not the people who have developed the theories or models.
Keep the questions above in mind as you read the following section which introduces you to key theories and
models for inclusive education. As you read:
• Analyse the theories and models against the background of historical and current exclusion—including the
role of power and privilege—in the unique South African context.
• Be aware that these theories and models were developed in high-income countries of the North without
taking Indigenous Knowledge Systems8 (IKS) of other countries into account (Phasha et al., 2017). We will
look at the role of IKS in inclusive teaching in Section 5.2.4.
• Ask yourself how relevant the theories and models are to your unique context. What could you do to
develop an approach that makes use of these theories and models but in a way that works for this context?

4.1.1 Medical deficit theories

Medical deficit theories focus on what is “wrong” with a person—their “sickness” or “deficit”—and the causes
of this problem (Swart & Pettipher, 2016). This focus has led to the view of people with a huge range of
differences as having an individual condition. This condition is seen as being outside what is considered
“normal”, and therefore thought to be at a social disadvantage.
Medical deficit theories have had a major influence in the fields of psychology and special education. This has
had a profound effect on the education of learners seen as having “deficits”, including those viewed as having
disabilities or learning difficulties, which are often referred to as “special educational needs” (SEN). Within a
medical deficit model of practice, developed from the theories:
• Where possible, a diagnosis is made
• The learner is then categorised and labelled
• Learners with diagnosed “deficiencies” are viewed as qualitatively different—i.e. of a different nature and/or
standard—to other learners
• Often, these learners are educated separately from their peers
• Specialist support staff intervene to try to improve or even remove the “deficiencies” within the learner; they
do this by using specific educational responses developed for this “deficiency”
Within the model the view is that the person is the problem, and
that it is therefore the person who needs “fixing” to fit in with
everyone else.
Despite the general emphasis on inclusion and the creation of
accepting inclusive school communities, the medical model
described above is still deeply embedded in most countries,
including South Africa. There are still widely held medical deficit
assumptions about the nature and distribution of abilities (Florian,
2015). Research indicates, for example, that despite the fact that
most teachers support the rights of all learners to be in their
classrooms, they still describe them in medical deficit ways and
prefer them to be moved to separate classrooms or special
schools (Engelbrecht et al., 2015).
Figure 4: Medical model of disability
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

We will return to the medical model and see it in practice in Unit 2.

Definition
Unit 1

8 Indigenous Knowledge Systems: The complex set of knowledge, skills and technologies existing and developed
around specific conditions of populations and communities indigenous to a particular geographic area.

29
4.1.2 Social model of disability
In reaction to the medical deficit model, a contrasting view of ability/disability and special educational
needs—the social model—was developed by people with disabilities. It counteracts the medical deficit
model with a view that comes from, according to Terzi (2008: 44), the direct experience of disability, by
people with disabilities.
The social model perspective does not deny challenges caused by
diverse needs or the need for medical treatment. However, it challenges
the view of difference as a “deficit”. It therefore sees the medical
deficit view of “labelling” and defining individuals by their conditions as
discriminatory, constructed by an ability-oriented environment.
In an education setting, the social model asks us to shift our view away
from the learner as being, or having, the problem. Instead, it proposes
that society itself creates barriers around diversity. The issue is not
the person, it’s the world—as the diagram below shows. The social
model proposes that, as inaccessibility is caused by society, solutions
therefore start with society removing barriers to access. These solutions
start with what can be done, not with what can’t.
As a result, the social model stresses the full inclusion of people with
diverse needs in society, and advocates for diverse children to be
Figure 5: Social model of disability educated and participate fully in mainstream schools. In South Africa,
the social model underpinned the development of Education White
Paper 6 (DoE, 2001).

We will discuss the social model in more detail in Unit 2.

4.1.3 Ecological systems theory and Bronfenbrenner’s model

Ecological systems theory aims to show how individual people and groups at different levels of society are
linked in active, interdependent9 and interacting relationships (Donald, Lazarus & Lolwana, 2002). The theory
evolved from combining ecological theory and systems theory.
Ecological theory is based on the interdependence between different organisms and their physical
environment (Ibid.). Similar ideas have been applied to relationships among human beings, and the interactions
among groups of people in their social contexts. The study of these relationships and interactions has led to
the development of systems theory.
At the centre of ecological systems theory is the belief that different groups of people are interactive systems.
The functioning of the whole depends on the interaction between these different groups. For example, a
school as a system may look as if it is made up of staff and learners. However, teachers, heads of departments,
and learners in different grades, for example, are all sub-systems. Therefore, to understand the school as a
whole, you need to examine the relationships among these different sub-systems (Donald et al, 2010;
Engelbrecht, 2006).
Urie Bronfenbrenner was a Russian-born American psychologist who developed a model of child development
based on ecological systems theory. This model suggests that there are layers of different interacting systems
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

that result in physical, social and psychological change and development (Swart & Pettipher, 2016: 11). The
model explains how these systems, and the relationships among them, affect the development of the learner. It
places the child at the centre of the systems and puts central importance on making decisions that are in the
best interests of the child.

Definition
Unit 1

9 Interdependent: Describes the situation when two or more people or things depend on each other.

30
 We will discuss the ecological systems model in relation to collaboration in Unit 3.

ACROSYSTEM
M
XOSYSTEM
E
S O S YS T E
ME M Media

Extended
Family ROSYSTE
IC

M
Healthcare Religious
Services Institutions
Legal
Services Social
Culture
Class

Friends
of Family Family
School

Peers

Welfare Neighbours

Figure 6: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological

Systems Model (Source: Adapted from:
Law http://bit.ly/2KqobHv)

Bronfenbrenner defines five types of systems which consist of roles, norms and rules that shape the
development of the child: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and chronosystem:
The microsystem is the family, classroom, neighbourhood or systems in the person’s immediate environment.
In the South African context, family as the microsystem where socialisation takes place first may include the
extended family.
The mesosystem is an interaction of two microsystems, such as the connection between a child’s home and
school, or between neighbourhood and home. In the mesosystem, all of the microsystems interact together
and contribute to the development of the child.
The exosystem is an environment that does not directly involve a child but affects them anyway. For example,
when a child’s parent’s workplace requires a lot of travelling this impacts on the child. Or when a new
community service is introduced that the child can access, this will have an impact on their life.
The macrosystem is the larger cultural context: the circumstances, beliefs, customs and laws shared by the
community around the child. The cultural context can include, for example, socio-economic status, poverty
and ethnicity. The macrosystem evolves over time, because each generation’s circumstances change.
Chronosystems show change over time, for example to family structure, socio-economic status, schooling and
living conditions, as well as events in the country, region and world (known as socio-historical events)
(Bronfenbrenner, 1994). These changes also impact on the child’s life.
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Bronfenbrenner places the child at the centre of all of these structures. The child is therefore continuously
affected in one way or another by the continuous changes that happen in their environment (Howard &
Johnson, 2000). It is crucial that teachers know about and understand these changes, and their impacts, so
that they can understand how they affect the learners in their classroom and respond appropriately.
Unit 1

31
4.1.4 Critical Diversity Literacy (CDL)
One of the greatest challenges in understanding exclusion and inclusion is how to “read” the processes around
exclusion, i.e. how to look at, analyse and critique them. Many of these processes use difference to reinforce
privilege and oppression, and they therefore maintain an unequal society. The difficulty of this challenge means
that we do not address these processes, which means that they, and the inequalities they maintain, continue.
In this section we discuss one way—Critical Diversity Literacy, or CDL—of thinking and speaking about the way power
constructs privilege, oppression and exclusion. We also explore how using CDL can help us develop a deeper
understanding of the relationship between power, privilege, oppression and exclusion (Reygan & Steyn, 2017). CDL
with its broad focus on “current social problems” extends the scope of inclusive education beyond impairment, and
follows a social model approach.
CDL is inspired by France Winddance Twine’s (cited in Steyn, 2015) “racial literacy”. Melissa Steyn (2015)
describes it as “a sharply focused critical lens which examines those operations of power which implicate
social identities to create systems of privilege, advantage, disadvantage and oppression”. Put more simply we
might talk about CDL as being a combination of:
• Being critical in your thinking about social systems, without accepting them unquestioningly
• Understanding diversity and the issues related to diversity: power, privilege, advantage, disadvantage, oppression
• Having the language—the literacy—to talk and express clear views about diversity, the issues related to it
and the systems that maintain the status quo (the current situation)
Steyn also explains CDL as a “reading practice”, i.e. a way of understanding and responding to the social climate
and established structures of oppression and exclusion.
Steyn (ibid.) proposes that there are eight analytical skills involved in practising CDL. These are shown below
(adapted from Steyn, ibid.) in a way that shows the skill and how it relates to: being critical; understanding
diversity: or having the language (literacy) to express your views.

Table 6: Eight analytical skills of CDL

Skill Skill Area

1. Recognise the symbolic and material value of dominant identities, such as Understanding diversity and
whiteness, masculinity, heterosexuality, ablebodiedness, middleclassness, etc. connected issues

2. Analyse how these systems of privilege intersect, interlock, co-construct and Being a critical thinker
establish each other

3. Define oppressive systems such as racism as current social problems and not only Understanding diversity and
historical legacy connected issues

4. Understand that social identities are learnt and are an outcome of social practices Understanding diversity and
connected issues

5. Develop and use grammar and vocabulary that facilitates a discussion of race, Having the language—
racism and antiracism, plus equivalent ideas used in the analysis of other forms of literacy—to discuss and
oppression (e.g. gender, sexism, age, ageism, sexuality, homophobia etc.) express opinions
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

6. Interpret coded dominant practices, which might be hinted at but not made explicit Being a critical thinker

7. Analyse the ways that: Understanding diversity and

• Diversity hierarchies (putting differences into a “pecking order” so that some connected issues
become more important than others) Being a critical thinker
• Institutional oppressions (the systematic mistreatment of particular social
groups) are facilitated by class inequality
Analyse how the above process varies in specific social contexts
Unit 1

8. Engage with issues linked to transforming these oppressive systems towards Having the language—
deepening democracy / social justice, in all levels of social organisation literacy—to discuss and
express opinions

32
 Steyn emphasises that people in positions of power in
communities determine which differences influence
exclusion and inclusion. For example, a single mother in
a poor community and a suburban-based, corporate
executive single mother cannot be said to have the
same power of political persuasion or opportunity
regarding the education of her children (Spreen &
Valley, 2006).
The differences between these women are not in
themselves superior or inferior, but must be recognised
as real distinctions that give some people advantages
and privileges, including power over others (Spreen &
Valley, 2006: 353). We therefore need to develop a
more subtle and sophisticated approach to power and
privilege. This approach needs to include examining
multiple forms of exclusion and the ways in which these
play out in school communities, often in very tangible
and material ways (Reygan, Walton & Osman, 2018).
Figure 7: Critical Diversity Literacy
Maintaining a position of power and exclusion can be
illustrated as per the diagram on the right.

ACTIVITY 17: Practising CDL

Reading
Read the following article about how schools use language to exclude children.
Now re-read the table that shows the eight analytical skills linked to CDL.
Then read the article again, thinking about the following questions. Here, your aim is to put the eight
CDL skills into practice. Use the article and the eight skills to:
• Think critically about the issues around diversity that are brought up by the article
• Deepen your understanding of these issues through your thinking
• Express your views about the issues brought up by the article
Here are some questions to think about. You are not limited to these; their purpose is to stimulate your
thinking. If more questions come into your mind, note them down as well.
1. What dominant identities do you think are shown through the article? Why do you think this?
2. What systems of power and privilege do these dominant identities maintain? How do you know these
are current social issues, not only historical? Explain your thinking.
3. What social identities might the children described in the article be learning? From which social
practices might they be learning these identities?
4. Are there any dominant social practices that you think are “behind the scenes” of the article? i.e. they
are going on in the background but not talked about explicitly. What are these? What makes you think
they are there?
5. Is there a role being played by class inequality in the article that means:
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

• Some differences are viewed as more important than others?

• You can see there is systematic maltreatment of particular social groups?
6. What are your views on what needs to be done to transform the situation for the children in the
article, so that they achieve equity and social justice?
Unit 1

33
 ARTICLE

How schools use language to exclude children

The Conversation, September 6, 2016, Carolyn McKinney and Xolisa Guzula
Kenyan author Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o once described
language as “the most important vehicle through
which that [colonial] power fascinated and held the
soul prisoner”.
He illustrated this with a disturbing account of
receiving corporal punishment, being fined and
wearing a plate around the neck with inscriptions
such as I AM STUPID or I AM A DONKEY. His “crime”?
Speaking Gikuyu at his English medium school.
Today, decisions about which language resources
should count in schooling— as the language of
instruction, a subject, or a legitimate language for
learning—continue to be informed by the
relationships between language and power. Schools
and universities in post-colonial contexts still
operate within the logic of coloniality.
These realities have been thrown into sharp relief by
revelations that some South African schools discipline
their pupils for speaking any language but English (or
Afrikaans) while on school grounds. At Cape Town’s
Sans Souci High School for Girls, pupils obtain
“losses” (or demerits) for a range of “offences”—like
being caught speaking isiXhosa. For many of Sans
Souci’s pupils, this is their home language.
African children—whose home languages are by
and large not English—are generally not recognised
for the experiences, knowledge and linguistic
resources they bring. They’re expected to adapt to
pre-existing school cultures.
African children in ex-Model C schools are expected
to feel grateful at being given the “opportunity” of a
quality education in a state school system that
performs very poorly.
Many previously white primary and secondary
suburban schools offer only English and Afrikaans as
“home language” and “first additional language”
subjects. This continues apartheid’s ideology of
bilingualism. Where an African language is offered, it
is given marginal status as “second additional
language”. African languages get little space on the
timetable and few resources.
Primary school principals have defended the fact
that they offer only English and Afrikaans by saying
their pupils continue on to high schools that only
offer these languages. High school principals, in
turn, reported that they had to offer English and
Afrikaans because their feeder primary schools
were not offering African languages.
This is a convenient cycle of blame which signals
bad faith. If school leaders and parents were
committed to embracing African languages and the
spirit of the multilingual South African language in
education policy, surely they would consult each
other and design collaborative language policies?

We will explore language and diversity in more detail in Unit 2.

In Appendix 2 we have included a summary of two other theoretical frameworks related to inclusive education:
Capability Theory, and Socio-cultural / Cultural-historical Activity Theories. Once you are confident about the
theories we have discussed so far, you can add to your knowledge by reading about these theories as well.

4.2 Theories and models of

inclusive education in practice
Your head will now be full of theories and models, so let’s take the opportunity to look at them in practice while
they are still fresh. In this section, we will examine a continuum of inclusion. This continuum, shown below, allows
us to describe different forms of inclusion that you are likely to come across in your career, which are influenced
by the theories and models you have just been studying. We will not talk more about exclusion here, as we have
covered it at length already. Below, we describe each of the four other steps shown along the continuum:
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

self-contained classrooms (also referred to as segregation); integration; mainstreaming and full inclusion.
Unit 1

Exclusion Self-contained Integration Mainstreaming Full inclusion

classrooms

Figure 8: Inclusion continuum

34
 4.2.1 Self-contained classrooms (or segregation)
This form of inclusion means learners who have similar academic or social needs are placed together in a
classroom that is separate from the regular classrooms but within the same school. According to Nicole Eredics
(2018) the learners could be at different grade levels working on different concepts. The special education
teacher takes responsibility for teaching all the subjects. The traditional justification for this arrangement is that
learners need, and will receive, specialised support. The challenge is that it limits opportunities for: learning
from others with a wide range of abilities and talents; social interaction; and everyone being able to experience
natural diversity.

4.2.2 Integration
Integration is a model of inclusion that seeks to make learners with significant learning challenges part of the
regular classroom; they learn alongside their peers without significant learning challenges. Separate special
education programmes are put in place for these children. These programmes are delivered either within the
classroom or through “pull-out” services, where learners are withdrawn from the classroom to learn in small
groups (which takes us back to segregation, although on a temporary basis). Phasha (2016) regards this model
of inclusion as narrow; it views one group as having learning challenges in the context of “all is well” with the
other learners. She cites Steve Biko (2004) as saying: “The concept of integration is full of unquestioned
assumptions that embrace the values of the dominant group.” Integration expects learners to adapt to the
practices, methods, curriculum, values and rules of the dominant group, rather than the system adapting to the
learner’s needs.

4.2.3 Mainstreaming
Mainstreaming involves placing learners with significant learning challenges in a special education class for
some of the time, and mixing them with their peers without significant learning challenges for some of the time.
The belief behind this form of inclusion is that all children have the same needs and should therefore (where it
is deemed appropriate and possible) participate in the same social and learning activities.

4.2.4 Full inclusion

The central ideal of full inclusion is that ordinary schools should provide for all learners, regardless of their
differences: social; cultural; emotional; physical; sensory; cognitive; linguistic; gender; sexuality or otherwise
(Florian, 2008). Full inclusion is about creating opportunities for all learners to benefit from this diversity and
learn from each other. It requires the teacher to plan rich, differentiated, collaborative learning experiences
that use diversity in the classroom as a resource. In this way teachers use the natural diversity in the class to
encourage all learners to:
• Explore their growing knowledge and skills together, understanding and developing different ways of making
meaning from learning
• Travel beyond the comfort zones of their predictable personal and cultural assumptions about themselves
and others
Full inclusion is reflected in the teacher’s knowledge, attitudes, values and beliefs about learners and
learning, as well as in their actions and responses when learners experience or encounter challenges in and
outside the classroom.
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

We will explore teachers’ knowledge, attitudes, values and beliefs about

learners and learning in more detail in Unit 2. In Unit 4 we will focus on practical
strategies for supporting full inclusion in the classroom.
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ACTIVITY 18: Forms of inclusion

Writing
For each of the four forms of inclusion described above, think about the following:
1. How are the theories and models you learnt about in the previous section reflected in each form of
inclusion described above?
2. Next, think about your own experience at school, or experience you have had of a school as an
adult—or both—and consider the following questions:
• Which forms of inclusion have you experienced or seen in action?
• Thinking about children’s learning in this school—both academic and social—how well do you
think these forms of inclusion worked? Explain your reasoning.
• What attitudes and beliefs about children with learning challenges did you see or experience?
Which attitudes and beliefs helped inclusion? Which did not?
• Which of the theories and models you learnt about do you think underpinned the main beliefs,
attitudes and culture of the school?
3. There are many different types of school in South Africa, for example rural, urban, peri-urban,
informal, mainstream, full-service, special, academic, technical. If you have had experience of a
school that is different from the one you wrote about above, compare and contrast these schools
using the following questions:
• Were the forms of inclusion you saw different? If so, how?
• Were the impacts on learners of these forms of inclusion different? If so, how?
• Were the theories and models that underpinned the main beliefs, attitudes and cultures of the
schools different? If so, how?
• Did you see differences in attitudes, beliefs and culture of the schools? If so, what were these?

INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
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36
 5 Inclusive education in the
South African context
In this final section we will clarify key concepts related to inclusive education and inclusive teaching, and the
expectations for the actions and characteristics of teachers in South Africa.

5.1 The South African approach

to inclusive education
There is not one, shared definition of inclusive education. Classrooms and schools are the products of different
cultural, political and economic systems, with different dynamics of inclusion and exclusion. Which learners are
considered to be “marginalised” can therefore vary from context to context. As a result, the practice of
inclusive education is as diverse as the classrooms, schools, communities and countries in which it is practised.
If its core principles have been grasped it can be applied in many different ways.

“It is important to advance a rationale and understanding of inclusive education

in South Africa that extends beyond universal values systems and examine own
histories and cultural traditions of knowledge production and ground it in local
community settings.” Phasha, Mahlo & Dei, 2017

In South Africa, we must take care not to allow models of inclusive education from developed countries of the
global North to distort and obscure the dynamics, challenges and opportunities specific to us. This module is
informed by human-rights-based, strengths-based, Afrocentric, broad approaches to inclusive education.
Let’s examine these approaches in more detail.

5.1.1 A human-rights-based approach

Embedded in the human-rights approach is a strong belief that human beings are born equal and therefore
must be afforded equal dignity and rights. In a human-rights approach:
• Education is a basic right for all learners
• Education should be accessible, good quality, and offered in educational environments that embrace and
respect learner diversity
• Education should offer all learners opportunities to participate actively, learn to the best of their ability and,
most importantly, succeed
• Those who hold responsibility for children’s development—the state, families, communities, teachers, civil
society organisations, as well as the international community—should collaborate to provide an environment
that enables quality, respectful, participative education to all in order that everyone has an equitable chance
of success
Learners in South Africa have been denied quality education and have had unequal opportunities to succeed.
It can be argued that even those who were historically privileged were robbed of the opportunities to
understand and appreciate those who were different from them. In South Africa, inclusive education should
be—and is seen by the government as—the educational strategy most likely to address the harms of the past
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

and contribute to the creation of a democratic and just society where everyone’s rights are equally respected
(Engelbrecht 2006).

5.1.2 A strengths-based approach

A strengths-based approach is a collaborative strategy. It involves identifying and building on an individual’s
strengths and capacities to design support strategies that bring positive change (Pattoni, 2012). This approach
Unit 1

values collaboration between an individual (learners) and stakeholders (teachers, families, communities and so
on). It suggests that there are no deficits in an individual. Problems are external to an individual; the problem is
the problem (Hammond and Zimmerman, 2017).

37
Hammond and Zimmerman further share the following social principles, which are embedded in the strategy:
• The rights of individuals to genuine ownership and participation in the process of change in which they are
involved
• Enabling people to engage in strategies, relationships and reflection where they identify and define their
strengths, aspirations and goals
• To embrace the sharing of power and resources, and to ensure that power imbalances among stakeholders
are acknowledged and addressed fairly; all practice needs to be open, transparent, consultative, inclusive
and collaborative
• Recognising and taking steps to address structural and cultural aspects of a person’s life that limit their
ability to control their own life

5.1.3 An Afrocentric approach

a. Aims of an Afrocentric approach

An Afrocentric approach advocates for the understanding of knowledge and reality from the position of
Africans. This standpoint does not support the use of non-African approaches to understand problems in
Africa, as that is seen as promoting colonial supremacy. Asante, cited in Phasha (2016) asserts that:
[W]hen Africans, continental or diasporan, view themselves as centered and central in their own history then they
can see themselves as agents, actors and participants rather than as marginals on the periphery of the political or
economic experience of Europe.

The adoption of an Afrocentric approach can contribute to the appreciation and acceptance of African values
and ideals. Phasha et al. (2017: 5) stress that:
A rethinking of African schooling and education has to take us back to our roots and an examination of our
histories and cultural traditions of knowledge production, dissemination and its use. We need to look at education
from this source in terms of its connections with family life, community and social relevance, and see how the
question of difference was evoked and responded to.

b. Africa’s vision of children’s participation

The CSTL Children’s Participation Framework (2018) identifies national education systems as being responsible
for driving Africa’s vision of rights-based inclusive and sustainable development. It recognises education as
having a fundamentally transformative purpose: to prepare children to be active and engaged citizens in social,
economic, political and cultural life and in so doing be the agents of sustainable development.
Agenda 2063 mainly attributes the failure to attain previous development goals to poor quality education,
which has not adequately prepared the most marginalised children to take their place as active, engaged
citizens and drive sustainable development. Crucially, education has failed to prepare them to be economically
active and find employment in modern society. (African Union 2013, in CSTL, 2019)
To address the above challenges, it is required that by 2040 all African education systems should ensure:
• Access to and integration of affordable information and communication technology devices, content
and connectivity
• A pedagogical approach that equips learners for employment and entrepreneurship, with a focus on
technology, engineering, mathematics and informational technology, and that ensures girls participate fully
in these subjects
• A rights-based curriculum with common features and standards across the continent, aimed at critical
thinking and leadership, and espousing the values of integrity, accountability and transformative citizenship
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

• That children are prepared for change and equipped to be change agents; that they receive age-appropriate,
informed and evidence-based education on sexuality and reproductive rights; that themes such as gender
violence, discrimination and abuse and harmful cultural practices are addressed as part of a life-skills
learning programme
• That every child knows their rights and responsibilities
(Africa’s Agenda for Children, African Union, 2013: 12–13)
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38
 ACTIVITY 19: Facilitating sustainable development

Writing
Consider each of the above measures and say how you think provision of these measures could
facilitate sustainable development on the continent.
What role could teachers play in implementing these measures?
What is the connection between sustainable development and inclusive education?

5.1.4 A broad approach

As we have seen, inclusive education is essential to ensuring sustainable development. While there is no one
overall definition of inclusive education, there are some principles that combine to make up what can be
described as a broad approach to inclusive education. We outline three key principles below.

a. Affirming diversity
Inclusive education affirms learner diversity. Each learner has natural, unique characteristics that influence
how they make meaning from learning, and make them special and different from each other. These
characteristics include: race; ethnicity; socio-economic circumstances; family circumstances; physical and
mental health, gender and other identities; cultures; religions; beliefs; physical, cognitive and sensory
differences.

b. Focus on all learners

You may previously have heard people talk about inclusive education as being focused on children who have a
learning disability or difficulty that leads to them being seen as having “special educational needs”. As you can
see from the list above, whilst these children make up one aspect of inclusive education, diversity in
classrooms comes from a far wider base. “Special educational needs” and inclusive education are not the same
thing, and these terms cannot be used interchangeably.
The approach adopted by this module rejects definitions of inclusive education that focus narrowly on “special
needs” or disability. Inclusive education is a broad and dynamic approach for responding positively to all
learners by:
• Giving them their right to attend school in their home community (physical access)
• Increasing their participation in a curriculum that is inclusive of their experiences and realities (engagement
in quality education)
• Ensuring that they experience success in education and other areas of development

“An education system appropriate to the demands of the twenty-first century must be
designed to establish a foundation of knowledge, values, attitudes and skills for all children
and to nurture the particular talents of each child.” Commission on Social Justice, 1994:131

c. Responding to exclusion using the social model of disability

INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Inclusive education as a broad approach responds to exclusion from all spheres of life, and in particular at
school, by paying attention to its culture, curriculum and community. It acknowledges the existence of barriers
to learning and participation, which can prevent learners from access and engagement in the school system,
much like a fence or a wall. Some of these barriers are a result of dominant systems of power and privilege,
which we will discuss in more detail in Section 5.2.6.
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39
For some children, several of their different characteristics intersect or overlap, and they therefore experience
the effects of more than one system of power and oppression. This experience can lead to them experiencing
multiple barriers to learning and participation. The study of how these human characteristics overlap and the
impact of these overlaps, is called intersectionality10.
The concept of intersectionality was introduced to feminist theory by Kimberlé Crenshaw in 1989. She
examined the interaction between race and gender, arguing that the experience of being both black and a
woman could not be viewed separately, but that their intersection created a unique experience (Crenshaw,
1989). Since then, the concept has been broadened to include other factors that make us different.
Intersectionality examines the ways in which several factors can intersect, or come together in one person’s
life to increase their marginalisation or exclusion.
In order to respond to everyone’s unique experiences in ways that work to decrease marginalisation and
exclusion, we need to understand intersectionality. Given the role of teachers as change agents in providing
equitable, rights-based, inclusive education for all, we will spend some time exploring intersectionality further
through an activity.

ACTIVITY 20: Examining intersectionality

Reading
Read the case study below, and consider the following questions (try and use some of the skills you
learnt in the section on CDL—go back and have a look at these to remind you).
1. What’s going on for Sihle? Note down the different factors in her life that have influenced her thinking
about her life and her ambitions.
2. Next, draw lines between the factors that you think are connected, or overlap in some way. You will
probably end up with something that looks quite messy—just like real life. Doing this should give you
a good idea of how Sihle’s circumstances intersect to compound the difficulties and inequalities she
faces.
3. Now let’s turn our attention to the roles of different people and institutions involved in Sihle’s life.
From your own knowledge and experience, as well as the case study, in what ways do the following
have the potential to increase or decrease the intersecting inequalities Sihle faces?
Family
School
Services in her community
Friends
4. What do you notice about Sihle’s agency as a learner and as a young woman? What do you think the
role of agency is for young South Africans in overcoming the intersecting inequalities that many of
them face?
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Definition
Unit 1

10 Intersectionality: The study of what happens when different forms of discrimination, domination and oppression
combine, overlap and intersect.

40
 CASE STUDY: Sihle, Grade 10 learner from Johannesburg
Describing myself in conversation often proves to
be a task without much difficulty. However, writing
an article about my identity is more challenging.
At the turn of the century, 2000, I was born and
named Sihle Mazibu. Many view this period to be a
carefree one. However, it presents a great amount of
introspection and self-development to prepare
myself for the senior phase, as well as the future.
As a South African teenager, aspirations, goals and
dreams play an important role in my daily life and are
a necessity in motivating myself to strive for those
dreams that seem unreachable. I aspire to get into a
career that I am passionate about, hopefully in writing.
I hope to pursue journalism and make a difference in
society somehow, whether it is in my writing or
motivating those who may not have their voices heard
or the opportunities that I am exposed to.
I aspire to be an inspiration to women in order for
them to realise their potential.
I want to be an inspiration to young black women,
like myself, or those who come from underprivileged
backgrounds so that they may realise that they are
as powerful as any other demographic.
My biggest aspiration, although a cliché, is to be
happy and fulfilled. As a female South African
teenager, there are many challenges and obstacles
that I may face in my progression into adulthood. I
think my biggest challenge is doubt, especially
self-doubt. Believing that you are not as good or
worthy as your seemingly overachieving peers is a
detrimental belief to hold. This is what stood in my
way of doing my best to accomplish or initiate
certain activities, such as simple extramurals or
even sharing my passion for writing with many
others that I subconsciously convinced myself I was
inferior to.
Socially, my challenge is attempting to excel as a
female South African. For instance, a 2016 report by
McKinsey & Company, Women Matter Africa, showed
that in the private sector in Africa, only 5% of women
are CEOs. This is just one of many statistics that show
the difficulty and inequality that women face.
The economy proves to be an ever-challenging
factor in South Africa and this too may be a
challenge for me. Economical and financial difficulty
also feed into my dilemma of deciding whether I
want a career that I am passionate about or a career
that I can excel in financially. Personally, I think South
Africa is a beautiful country regardless of the
difficulties and negatives.
I believe that one of the ways for us to grow further
as a nation is to stop choosing to dwell on the
negative events and allowing them to define the
country, but rather to mend these negatives and to
strive to reach for a place of freedom and
contentment. I believe South Africans need to be
hopeful and patient, no matter how difficult this
proves to be.
I get extremely annoyed when I hear my peers
discussing how they will leave the country for good
in the future and then complaining about our
current leadership.
I think travel and educating yourself on a global
spectrum is incredible and even necessary.
However, I believe that young people have a duty to
take the initiative to better the country in as many
ways as possible, instead of simply wanting to leave
and abandon the country.

While it is crucial that you understand intersectionality in the context of dominant power and oppression,
seeing and affirming it as something positive, which makes each person unique, is also important. Without our
overlapping characteristics, identities and choices, we wouldn’t be ourselves. As you have seen already, it’s
natural to be different. What is key about intersectionality is that by understanding its relationship to power,
oppression, marginalisation and exclusion, we can plan to make sure this does not happen in our classrooms.
Instead, we can plan for socially just, equitable educational opportunities for all our learners, at the same time
acknowledging and affirming their uniqueness.
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
Unit 1

41
A broad approach to inclusive education enables this planning through the social model of disability: seeing
the barriers and inequalities a child experiences as the problem, not the child. The responsibility for
removing these barriers lies with the community around the child, in consultation with the child. In the
classroom, this approach requires teachers to shift views they might have of learner diversity being an
obstacle. Instead it asks them to use learners’ diversity as an opportunity to extend and enrich teaching
and learning activities, so that barriers to learning and participation are removed. We will come back to this
idea in more detail in Units 2 and 4.

Figure 9: Inclusive education is everyone's responsibility

To summarise: Inclusive education involves everyone in school communities: caregivers, teachers,

principals, officials, and the wider community, redefining school culture, policies and practices. The following
aspects underpin schools’ role in developing a broad approach to inclusive education:
• Widening access, both physically and to the same broad educational outcomes for all learners (Sands,
Kozleski & French, 2000)
• Affirming diversity: difference is understood as an ordinary aspect of human development; exclusion,
marginalisation and inequality are rejected
• Meeting the learning needs of all learners: no learners will be marginalised because of pre-determined
judgements about who they are and what they can learn (Florian, 2017: 10–11; Phasha et al., 2017)
• Aiming to improve all learners’ outcomes: academic, social and personal development
Taking this broad approach to inclusive education requires rethinking—or at least extending and enhancing—
our approach to teaching and learning. We will explore practical ways of doing this in Unit 4. Here, we want to
spend some time looking more closely at the roles of teachers in an inclusive education system. We will explore
these roles in the next section.

5.2 What is
inclusive teaching?
In this module we sometimes refer to an effective teacher within an inclusive education system as “an inclusive
teacher”. By this we don’t mean that an inclusive teacher is different from or additional to a science teacher or
a Grade 1 teacher. We mean that an inclusive teacher is “a good classroom teacher who teaches inclusively”
no matter what their grade or subject. But what do we really mean by “teaching inclusively”?
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

In South Africa and elsewhere there are many policies giving guidelines on what constitutes inclusion and how
teachers and schools should be engaged in realising the goals. These policies reflect an understanding about
the need for and goals of inclusion. However, a concern expressed by many is that the policies have not
translated into reality in many classrooms (Hodgeson & Khumalo, 2016; Engelbrecht et al., 2015). Among the
reasons attributed to this gap between policy and classroom practices is that teachers’ thinking, practices and
attitudes might not be attuned to principles of inclusion, as well as the constraining effects of poverty and
Unit 1

inequality that are a common feature of schooling in South Africa. Many teachers, experienced and new, seem
to have a very narrow understanding of what inclusive education is and who it is meant for. Often, teachers and
other sectors of society regard inclusion as the specialised and separate kind of teaching and classroom
accommodation that is afforded learners with disabilities only.

42
 However, good quality teaching for diverse learners is not a specialised kind of teaching for a certain group of
learners, but good quality teaching by all teachers, which caters for every learner in their classroom.
To prepare you for your career, in this section we seek to understand and identify a “teacher who teaches
inclusively” in the South African context (not a specific “inclusive teacher” versus “teachers in general”, as all
teachers in South Africa are required to teach inclusively). We identify the knowledge, attitudes and values that
teachers need, as well as the roles they are expected to play.
Successfully teaching every learner in a diverse classroom requires a new way of looking at society and the
function of schools, at learner diversity, and at our role as teachers.

5.2.1 Sociocultural consciousness and affirming views about diversity

Teachers can bring many assets into teaching–learning interactions. Unique personal experiences, and
exposure to a teacher education curriculum that reflects current developments, can develop some of these
assets. In particular, teachers who affirm diversity and who have sociocultural consciousness are key to the
development of inclusive education in South Africa.
Sociocultural consciousness is the awareness that a person’s life experiences shape their view of, and about,
the world. These experiences are influenced by a variety of factors, including ability, gender, race, ethnicity
and social class. The awareness that my life experience might be different to your life experience is key.
Villegas, Ciotoli and Lucas (2017) stress that teachers who lack it will unknowingly depend on only their own
personal experiences to try and make sense of learners’ lives. This can lead to a mismatch of values and a lack
of understanding. We will explore this further in Section 5.2.4.
To be socioculturally conscious teachers need to understand privilege and inequities in society and how these
give rise to differential access to power. Being socioculturally sensitive and culturally literate enables teachers
to understand that the medical deficit view of individual differences is maintaining the existing social hierarchy
in schools (Pantic & Florian, 2015).
In order to develop a sense of belonging and interest in the classroom, teachers need to know their learners
and recognise and accept that all learners are different (Florian, 2017; Oswald, 2010). In understanding who
their learners are, teachers need to embrace African indigenous knowledge and values of social justice in
education. Young (1990) argues that a school or society that embraces ubuntu and promotes values of
diversity amongst race, gender, human dignity, HIV status, disability and social class, breaks down barriers to
success and inclusion. The development of affirming views of differences therefore enables teachers who
teach inclusively to recognise that learners already know a great deal and have experiences, ideas and
language that can be built up and expanded (Villegas et al., 2017).

5.2.2 Knowledge
The South African Policy on Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications (MRTEQ) states clear
expectations around what knowledge student teachers should graduate with in initial teacher preparation
programmes such as PGCE and B Ed (RSA, 2015). The policy states that teachers as knowledge professionals
should have a three-tier composite knowledge of what to teach, how to teach it and why. Underlying these is
the understanding that the initial teacher education curriculum will have exposed student teachers to
knowledge in the form of disciplinary, pedagogical, practical, fundamental learning and situational learning. The
policy further sets the tone for basic competences of a beginner teacher that include:
1. Sound subject knowledge
2. Knowledge of how to teach the subjects including the selection of relevant teaching methodology,
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

sequencing and pacing of content

3. Knowledge of their learners, their needs and how they learn so that they can tailor their teaching
accordingly
4. Understanding of diversity in the South African context in order to teach in a manner that includes all
learners. Additionally, they must have knowledge about inclusive education and be skilled in identifying and
addressing barriers to learning, as well as in curriculum differentiation, to address the needs of individual
learners within a class. Their knowledge of barriers to learning must enable them to identify learning or
Unit 1

social problems and work in partnership with professional service providers to address these. In addition,
they must be able to manage classrooms effectively across diverse contexts effectively in order to ensure a
conducive learning environment.

43
Teaching inclusively therefore demands that teachers should have the necessary knowledge to:
• Understand that people’s ability is not fixed, but can change and develop
• Demonstrate how the difficulties learners experience in learning can be considered as challenges for
teaching rather than problems within the learners
• Model new creative ways of working with and through others
• Demonstrate inclusive pedagogical perspectives and practices for teaching diverse learners that include
understanding how learners construct knowledge
• Using the insights they gain from being socio-culturally literate to know more about learners’ lives and
applying their inclusive pedagogical teaching skills to provide learners with the space in their classroom to
express who they are and how they experience the world (Florian, 2017; Villegas et al., 2017)
The application of these inclusive teacher attributes will be explored in more depth in Units 2, 3 and 4.

5.2.3 Teachers’ roles in inclusive

Caring school communities
Teachers perform an array of social roles that go beyond
Student– what they do in the classroom. The teacher assumes the
Inter-
teacher
dependence role of being an employee, caregiver, citizen, counsellor and
relationship
Communication so on in the school setting. Education Acts and policies,
practices that including Education White Paper 6 in South Africa (DoE,
enable teaching and
learning and 2001), consistently acknowledge the role of teachers in
practise ubuntu building an inclusive education system and place teachers
Humanness
Cater for at the heart of the initiatives for developing inclusive
individuality human-rights-based learning communities characterised by
equity, equality and inclusivity.
Respect The teacher’s role in promoting ubuntu values, including
interdependence and communalism, is to promote the
respect and value for diversity in the classroom, and plan to
Figure 10: The teacher’s role: ubuntu in the classroom differentiate lessons to suit their learners’ needs. To do this
(Source: Adapted from Shockley, 2011)
they should:
• Be aware of their own identity, beliefs and practices; of who they are as people
• Be change agents and be sensitive to gender and racial issues by educating, empowering and instilling
values of respect, ubuntu, humanity and inclusivity
• Respect and encourage other peoples’ perspectives, histories, cultures and traditions in their classrooms
• Allow space for learners’ voices and diverse perspectives on events that have shaped human history
(Shockley, 2011)

5.2.4 Indigenous knowledge systems as part of inclusive teaching and learning

For over two decades, scholars have criticised the dominance of so-called Western epistemologies in African
education and advocated for the integration of indigenous knowledges (Abdi, 2006; Breidlid, 2013; Dei &
Simmons, 2009; Nyamnjoh, 2016; Odora Hoppers, 2002; Odora Hoppers, Moja, & Mda, 1999). In this section we
explore some of the practical aspects of indigenous knowledge integration and how this contributes to
inclusive teaching and learning practice. The ideas in this section are largely drawn from Maren Seehawer’s
study of South African Science Teachers’ strategies for integrating indigenous and Western knowledges in their
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

classes (Seehawer, 2018).

Dei & Asgharzadeh define indigenous knowledge as:
… knowing developed by local/indigenous peoples over generations as a result of sustained occupation of or attachment
to a place … with the result that such occupancy allows peoples/communities to develop a perfect understanding of the
relationship of their communities to their surrounding natural and social environments (Dei & Asgharzadeh, 2006: 54).
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44
 ACTIVITY 21: What do you know about IKS?

Journal
Reflecting on the above definition, discuss the following question with a colleague. If you are studying
on your own, reflect on it and make some notes in your journal.
What is the relevance of African indigenous knowledge systems to teaching and learning in South Africa?

Sosibo (2013) noted that teachers play an important role in socialising learners in the real world, and need to
be equipped with the knowledge and skills to demonstrate and impart to their learners what cultural diversity
is. African indigenous knowledges are seen as fundamental to reshaping African curricula and education
systems in order to advance the “cultural and socio-educational transformation of the African continent”
(Higgs, 2016: 90), create an African identity (Van Wyk & Higgs, 2012), and counteract colonial influences.
Abdi (2005) does not propose a return to pre-colonial education, but rather a constructive integration of both
indigenous and Western knowledges in education. This integration would include a critique of the way power
and knowledge have been used to marginalise and exclude local knowledge and perspectives.

a. Why integrate indigenous knowledges?

The teachers who participated in Seehawer’s action research study identified the following reasons for
integrating indigenous and Western knowledges:
• Decolonisation: To decolonise people’s minds and advocate against the perception of IK as inferior (Abdi,
2006; Breidlid & Botha, 2015; Dei & Asgharzadeh, 2006; Dei & Simmons, 2009; Ngara, 2012)
• Relevance: Making classroom science more relevant through:
-- Teaching knowledge that is relevant for learners’ daily lives (Keane & Malcolm, 2003)
-- Using indigenous knowledges as a tool to make Western science more accessible, moving from the known
to the unknown (Mawere, 2015)
• Widening perspectives: To offer alternatives and broaden horizons: There are several options in the world
to know or do the same thing in different ways—“two-eyed seeing” (Aikenhead & Elliott, 2010: 326)
• Sustainable development: To promote local solutions and a healthy, sustainable lifestyle, environmental
protection (Breidlid, 2013; Glasson et al., 2010)
• Cultural identity: To connect learners with their culture and bring back the role of parents, community, and
elders into education (Khupe, 2014; Mawere, 2015; Msimanga & Shiza, 2014)

b. Challenges to integrating indigenous knowledge into the curriculum

Let’s consider some of the challenges to integrating IK into the curriculum, and ways to overcome these.

ACTIVITY 22: Identifying and overcoming challenges

INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Reading
Refer back to the article, South African Science teachers’ strategies for integrating Indigenous and Western
Knowledges in their classes: practical lessons in decolonisation, pages 97 to 100 (http://bit.ly/2WI03XF).
1. What did the co-researchers (teachers) identify as the three main challenges to integrating IK into
the curriculum?
2. How did the internalised idea of indigenous knowledges as inferior contribute to the challenges?
Unit 1

3. What strategies did the teachers come up with to address the challenges?
4. Can you think of any other strategies?

45
Sayed, Motala and Hofman (2017) suggest that trainee teachers need to empower themselves with epistemic11
agency so that they can instil in their learners the ability to be creative and accept all forms of knowledge. In
the next section we look at the importance of teacher and learner agency12 in inclusive classrooms.

5.2.5 Teacher and learner agency

a. Teacher agency
Schon (2018) defines teacher agency13 as: “The ability of a teacher to actively shape their work in order to
successfully progress the challenges they encounter. Agency is grown through a complex interplay of a
teacher’s qualities as an individual and the school conditions in which they operate.”
Central to government’s strategy to build an inclusive education system is the understanding that teachers, in
particular, hold the key to transforming the system—they are the “change agents” in the system. Research
shows that teachers are the most significant in-school factor influencing learner achievement (Hattie, 2009;
OECD 2005, cited in Oswald & Engelbrecht, 2018; Swart & Oswald, 2008). Bhatnagar & Das (2013) suggest that
teachers are the most important variable in the implementation of inclusive education.
So, what does being a change agent for inclusive education mean for you as a teacher? At a broad level, you
need to understand that, as a teacher:
• You have a significant, vital role in transforming the education system
• This role is underpinned by a social justice agenda
• To make inclusive education meaningful for South Africa, you need to contextualise the theories, models and
approaches to inclusive education, and embed them in relevant, local cultural ideas
More specifically, teacher agency involves:
• A sense of purpose, including a commitment to social justice in education
• Competence in using an inclusive pedagogical approach, including working collaboratively with others
• Autonomy: understanding and making thoughtful and responsible use of your power and position in relation
to other relevant stakeholders, including learners
• Reflexivity: a capacity to systematically evaluate your own practices and school setting
Teacher agency in an inclusive education system implies a shift from viewing teaching as the implementation of
policies designed by others, to a strong focus on teachers shaping conditions in their own practice. This
shift is needed in order to develop alternatives to policy and practice based on a different way of thinking
about human difference (Florian, 2017: 18–19).
Teachers who consider themselves to be agents of change regard teaching as an ethical activity and assume
responsibility for intervening in inequitable school practices that affect quality teaching and learning. Teachers
are guided by a code of professional ethics which recognises the values of ubuntu. The South African Council
for Educators’ (SACE) Code of Professional Ethics (2017) stipulates the following professional ethics for teachers.

INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Definition
11 Epistemic: Relating to knowledge or knowing

12 Teacher and learner agency: Their active contribution to shaping their work as teachers and learners and its
Unit 1

conditions—for the overall quality of education. In this way agency speaks to what teachers and learners do and
not what they have.

13 Teacher agency: The individual and collective actions taken by teachers in situations in which they find
themselves. In this sense agency is not given but involves a negotiation of power as constituted in the individual
teachers, structures and conditions in which they find themselves. 46
 When working with learners, teachers must:
• Respect the dignity, beliefs and constitutional rights of learners and in particular children, which includes the
right to privacy and confidentiality
• Acknowledge the uniqueness, individuality, and specific needs of each learner, guiding and encouraging
each to realise their potentialities
• Strive to enable learners to develop a set of values consistent with the fundamental rights contained in the
Constitution of South Africa
• Exercise authority with compassion
• Avoid any form of humiliation, and refrain from any form of physical or psychological abuse
• Refrain from improper physical contact with learners
• Promote gender equality
• Refrain from any form of sexual harassment (physical or otherwise) of learners
• Refrain from any form of sexual relationship with learners at any school
• Use appropriate language and behaviour in their interaction with learners, and acts in such a way as to elicit
respect from the learners
• Take reasonable steps to ensure the safety of learners

ACTIVITY 23: Dealing with behavioural issues ethically

Writing
Consider a Grade 9 class that is chaotic and unruly, with learners that bully each other and don’t listen
to instructions. Refer to the SACE Code of Professional Ethics and explain how you would deal with these
issues in an ethical way.

b. Learner agency
It is important to remember that learners also have agency. Learner agency14 involves learners being actively
engaged in their learning. It means they have the power to act and the skills to take responsibility for their own
learning; they therefore rely less on the teacher, the curriculum or other structures. There is growing evidence
that children do better personally, socially and academically when they are encouraged to take ownership of
their learning. Let’s look at how both teacher and learner agency can support inclusive education and address
issues around exclusion and marginalisation.

ACTIVITY 24: Using teacher agency to empower learners

Reading
Read the scenarios below, which represent challenging situations that you might encounter as a
teacher. Consider the following questions:
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

1. How could you use your agency to support the learner in these scenarios/?
2. How you could draw on the policies, values and models discussed in this unit to help you with this?
3. Are there opportunities for the learners in some of these scenarios to use their agency? If so, can
you suggest how?
Unit 1

Definition
14 Learner agency is when learners have “the power to act”, when they take responsibility for their own learning,
and don’t only rely on inputs from the teacher, the curriculum, the resources and so on.

47
 Scenario 1
Leon is being verbally and physically bullied because of his perceived sexual orientation. His
anxiety around the bullying is affecting his academic performance, which in turn lowers his sense
of self worth even further. To report the bullying would necessitate a conversation with school
management about his sexuality, which he is not confident enough to talk about. Homophobic staff
members oppose the bullying weakly, or choose to remain silent when the bullies make
homophobic remarks. The school management avoids dealing with it because it would mean
directly confronting their community’s prejudices around sexuality and taking a stand. A conspiracy
of silence persists.

Scenario 2
Noma has just started working at an isolated rural school. Soon after beginning work she is sexually
harassed by the principal. When she talks about it with some of the other female teachers, they
laugh and encourage her to not make a big deal out of it. When the principal eventually forces
himself on her she threatens to report the incident to the police. On resuming her duties at school,
she suddenly finds she is ostracised by the other female teachers. When she pushes for an
explanation, she is told that her threats against the principal are making it difficult for all of them.
She discovers that many teachers have had the same experience but are afraid of losing certain
privileges they enjoy at the school and perhaps even their jobs.

Scenario 3
Khotso uses a wheelchair. His parents make an application to send him to a school, but are turned
away. The school states that it is unable to meet Khotso’s access needs. They had already rejected
another child a week before on the same grounds, so the procedure for refusing a child who uses a
wheelchair is already in place. Khotso’s parents, however, are assertive and insist on hearing
exactly what the school feels it is unable to do. The parents argue that barriers to access are a fact
of life for a person who uses a wheelchair. They also argue that the school’s fear of not being able
to meet Khotso’s access needs should not prevent them from at least exploring how to make
practical, proactive and inclusive arrangements.

Scenario 4
Christelle, a refugee child whose parents were killed in the war in the Democratic Republic of
Congo, arrives in South Africa. A school gives Christelle’s caregiver misinformation about
application dates and documentation. The caregiver has all the legal asylum papers, but Christelle
has no birth certificate and is not related to them. The school is aware of how difficult it is for them
to fulfil all the red tape required for “unaccompanied minors”. In South Africa, the Constitution, the
Child Care Act, the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Refugee Act protect
unaccompanied foreign children. But schools that do not produce the proper paperwork risk being
fined by the Department of Home Affairs.

As we saw earlier in Section 5.1.3, according to the CSTL Children’s Participation Framework (2018), learners’
participation in democratic processes does not begin when they reach voting age. It begins when they embrace
the knowledge, values and skills that make participatory democratic processes a reality in their classroom, their
school, their community and their homes. Learners can become active citizens long before they vote.
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

The next activity asks you to consider ways in which teachers and learners can play an active role—using their
agency—in challenging some of the policies and practices that persist in the South African education system.
Despite the clear requirement for a rights-based approach to education, policies and practices that undermine
human rights still exist in South Africa. You might remember the case of Pretoria Girls High School and hairstyles
that were prioritised as “normal” over others. We are going to use this case to consider ways that both learners
and teachers can use their agency to address policies and practices that undermine human rights.
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48
 ACTIVITY 25: Challenging institutionalised racism in
schools through learner and teacher agency

Reading
Read the blog and article below about the #StopRacismAtPretoriaGirlsHigh protest. Then consider the
following questions:
1. Why do you think racist policies and practices have persisted so long after the end of apartheid?
2. Why do you think a word like “neatness” has been allowed to become a tool for applying racial prejudice?
3. How do you think learners internalise the racist (or sexist, homophobic, xenophobic, etc.) practices
of institutions and begin applying them to themselves?
4. What role can school-going youth play in leading or invigorating the struggle for dignity, equality
and freedom?
5. In what ways can you as a teacher be a social justice activist?

BLOG

OUR SCHOOLS ARE THE If you’re told from your school years that you are not
BREEDING GROUND OF RACISM enough, you eventually start to believe it. South
African schools are sending a message that their
IN SOUTH AFRICA
standard of beauty does not include black girls, and
By Will-Ed Zungu 31/01/2017 02:58 GMT |
certainly not their natural hair. Fight against this,
Updated 31/01/2017 02:58 GMT
then you’re labelled as an “angry black woman”. This
It’s no longer individuals that are racist per se; it’s is not just an issue of hair. This is racism.
institutions like schools that perpetuate white
supremacy in more surreptitious ways. At one school I attended, black boys weren’t allowed
to shave their heads because the school claimed
Apartheid ended 22 years ago but its racism has
white boys would want to do the same, and it would
stuck around and become institutionalised. It
look untidy (I know, it made absolutely no sense to
particularly manifests itself within schools... In
me either). Schools not only make black people hate
August [2016], the #StopRacismAtPretoriaGirlsHigh
their hair at an emotional level but at an institutional
protest made international news. At Pretoria Girls
level. As a junior in high school, I was the kid with a
High School a group of Grade 8 girls, led by
mini Afro. People stared at me and asked to touch
13-year-old Zulaikha Patel, protested over racial
my hair. All I wanted was to be able to comb and gel
abuse by teachers and institutional racism in their
my hair like the white boys. The institutionalisation of
school, which prohibits black girls from having
white supremacy even made me hate my own hair. I
cornrows, afros, dreadlocks, and any other African
would constantly ask my mom to relax my hair. I’m
hairstyles that don’t meet the school’s white
thankful, in retrospect, that she refused. I have an
Eurocentric standard of “neatness”. At the school,
Afro now, and it’s not just a styling choice, it’s a
black girls were given brushes and told aggressively
political statement.
to “look at yourself in the mirror and neaten your
hair.” When girls spoke in their mother tongue with I believe high school students with different opinions
their friends, teachers would say, “Stop making funny can educate one another through conversation. This
noises or you will have to sit in my office.” In reaction agonizing process involves sitting down with the
to this, the black girls mobilised and stood as one. same people who have discriminated and oppressed
The girls held hands and silently walked to the front you. I’ve been called “monkey” for demanding racial
of the school. Security guards shut the gates and equality, a “faggot” for identifying as a feminist. I’ve
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

pushed the girls back. They kept walking and were
met by the school’s governing body, extra security,
and police threatening to arrest them.
Most South African schools, private and public, don’t
allow black boys and girls to have African hairstyles
because of “neatness”. Black girls’ hair is a central
component to their identity and culture, and for
decades these schools have robbed them of it.
Unit 1
been accused of constantly playing the “Race Card”
(which does not exist, by the way). Insults like these
make it easy to become cynical about the possibility
of change. But part of the fight is believing in
everybody’s capacity to rethink their racist views.
To all my beautiful black people: I love your hair, I
love your shape, I love your skin, don’t ever let
society tell you any different. Stand up for yourself,

Black girls in schools are subjected to intense believe in yourself and join the fight.
scrutiny by their peers and teachers. (Source: Zungu, 2017: http://bit.ly/2KmxOWW)

49
 ARTICLE
GAUTENG / 30 AUGUST 2016, 07:27AM /
TANKISO MAKHETHA
RACISM FURY AT PRETORIA GIRLS
HIGH: MEC STEPS IN
Pretoria - Sometime last week, a pupil at Pretoria
High School for Girls presented an assignment
highlighting inequality in South Africa.
The girl was allegedly taken to the principal’s
office and reportedly threatened with suspension.
By Saturday, during the spring fair, black pupils at
the school marched, claiming they were fed-up
with institutionalised racism and discrimination at
the school.
On Monday anger vibrated across the country as
footage of heavily armed security personnel
patrolling the schoolyard appeared. They threatened
to arrest the pupils.
The pupils were protesting against the school’s hair
policy and for being questioned whenever they
were in groups of two or more. They also claim they
were barred from using their home languages in
private discussions.
Teachers who consider themselves to be agents of change take their ethical commitment seriously and
assume responsibility for intervening in unfair, unequal school practices that negatively impact quality teaching
and learning. Many of these unfair school practices are connected to power, so it is important that we examine
the role of power in schools in more detail.
An online petition was created requesting Lesufi
and headmistress Karen du Toit to ensure the
school’s code of conduct did not discriminate
against black and Asian girls. It also requested that
disciplinary action be taken against teachers and
staff who have implemented racist policies or racist
actions, while also demanding that pupils who
protested not be victimised.
Lesufi met with pupils, management and the school
governing body to resolve the problems. Hundreds
of young black girls emerged from their classrooms
at break-time, repeatedly chanting “We are tired”.
In an emotion-filled two-hour meeting, pupils related
some of the incidents they had experienced at the
school. Several schoolgirls, who cannot be named
because they are minors, made horrendous claims
of being insulted and manhandled. “I was called a
monkey by a teacher. It pains me even now because
we are treated differently at this school. We are
made to feel that we do not belong,” recounted one
tearful girl.
“This was necessary because race has been an
issue for a long time,” said Neo Kgobane. “We
should have done something about it a long time
ago. The school needs to step up its efforts in
changing some of the rules that have kept many
girls oppressed.”
Following another meeting by Lesufi, parents, pupils,
governing body and management, a committee will
be appointed to investigate the matter.
Lesufi said there would be a review of the code of
conduct and setting aside of the regulation
regarding black hair. The committee set up to look
into the matter must report back within 21 days.
Schooling was expected to resume on Tuesday.
tankiso.makhetha@inl.co.za
Pretoria News
(Source: Makhetha, 2016: http://bit.ly/2L2TpUu)
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
Unit 1
50
 5.2.6 Power dynamics in school communities

ACTIVITY 26: Think about power dynamics

Journal
Consider the following questions. If possible, discuss them with a colleague. If you are working on your
own, note your answers in your journal.
1. Think about the power dynamics in your family when you were growing up.
• Who paid the bills and supported the family financially?
• Who made the decisions?
• What power did you have in decision-making?
• Was access to opportunities equal? Why or why not?
2. What about power dynamics at your school when you were a learner?
• What power dynamics and power relations did you experience at school? Give examples.
• What did you experience more of: being empowered or people having power over you? Give examples.
• How have the above experiences affected the way you will approach your practice as a teacher?

All around us things are happening that give some people power, take power away from others, or result in
power being shared. We call these processes “power relations”. We find power relations in families, schools,
sports teams, communities, religious institutions, workplaces, countries, and the global community.
Understanding the power dynamics of a system means understanding the ways in which energy flows and is
exchanged in that system.
For example, think about the power relations between caregivers and teachers; and among different learners. In
theory, while both parties (the caregivers and teachers are adults, the learners are children) have equal power,
many factors can shape the dynamics and create the context. For example, both parties have power related to
their respective roles, but both may at times feel powerless. Sometimes, there may be unspoken or invisible
hierarchies within schools. Some caregivers may have more influence or personal power in the school, or they
may have a personal relationship with the principal. Power relations arising from social inequity and exclusion
can be complex. Let’s look at this complexity through a short case study.

ACTIVITY 27: Power in the classroom

Reading
Read the case study below and consider the following questions. Link your thoughts to ecological
systems theory discussed in Section 4.1.3.
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

1. To what extent do you agree with the idea that teachers are in a position of power? Explain your
answer by giving examples.
2. What aspects of power, in your opinion, are missing from this description of teacher power?
3. It has been noted that there is a potential conflict between meeting diverse learners’ needs and
expecting everyone to meet the same standards. How does this change or expand our
understanding of teacher power?
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51
 CASE STUDY: Hester
Hester, a student teacher doing teaching practice
at a school in Cape Town, overhears her tutor
teacher saying to a colleague:
As a teacher you are in a position of power. Every
day you make choices that affect your learners
directly and have a significant impact on their
actions. Use your power creatively to empower your
learners. To do this effectively, you need to
understand the nature of change and learn how to
use your power to influence the process of change
in your classroom. With enough knowledge and time,
you can do anything, change anything.

The above conversation overlooks the complex relationship between a teacher’s personal agency and the
conditions at the school. This relationship involves power, which works in different forms and at different levels.
As a result, Miller (2001: 6) suggests teachers need to understand four different types of power that impact on
teacher agency:
• Power over: Top-down power, typically found in hierarchical or patriarchal relationships (the most common
form of power in society)
• Power with: The collective power of people and groups working together
• Power within: The potential power and strength within each person, which comes from the intimate
relationship an individual has with their psyche or self
• Power to: The power to act and achieve something (agency), the power to make a difference

ACTIVITY 28: Reflect on teacher agency and power

Writing
Consider the following questions in relation to the four types of power:
1. What do each of the four types of power above mean to you as a teacher? What challenges do you
foresee related to each type of power?
2. The discussion around inclusive education refers specifically to the human power teachers have.
This enables them to make a difference within structures and cultures, and to either transform or
reproduce these (Pantic & Florian, 2015; Pantic, 2015). What are the implications of this idea of
human power for inclusive education and social justice in classrooms and schools?

By now it is clear that a teacher’s contribution to inclusive education is not confined to content knowledge.
Instead, this contribution includes creating an environment where the intersecting domination of power—
“power over” in Miller’s terms—is questioned and disrupted by inclusive education.
People who hold the “power over” role often believe that they have earned this power or that everyone could
have access to it if only they worked to earn it. Dominance here is not about numbers, it’s about the amount of
power or status awarded to a feature of society. For example, the language of teaching and learning is often
not a home language for the majority of learners and teachers. Yet from Grade 4 learning happens in English,
or Afrikaans in an Afrikaans-speaking school. If you are an English or Afrikaans speaker, this makes you part of a
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

dominant group because power lies with the English or Afrikaans languages. Power in this and many other
contexts is not earned; it is granted to people in the dominant groups—whether they want it or not.
Because they don’t have to think about whether they have power or not, people in dominant groups are
frequently unaware that they are members of a dominant group. They have the privilege of being able to see
themselves as individuals rather than stereotypes. People who do not have power, and are oppressed, do not
have this privilege. We can therefore understand privilege as unearned power, which works on many levels:
Unit 1

personal, cultural and institutional. It means advantages and benefits are granted to dominant groups at the
expense of oppressed groups.

52
 Equally important is how power and privilege intersect to give rise to power relations, which in turn determine
who decides what happens in a situation. Generally, people are privileged because of their identity—the
characteristics that make up who they are. Recognising privilege is sometimes difficult for people who have it,
because they don’t have to think about it. However, a person’s understanding of their own privilege provides
them with an opportunity to foster empathy, increase understanding and play a part in correcting some of the
inequities that exist in society.
There are many ways that teachers can contribute to questioning and disrupting dominant models of power
and privilege. In relation to “power over”, for example, a teacher might use CDL to reflect on and disrupt
features of classrooms that appear to be second nature in the classroom, such as:
• Routines, rules or customs that reinforce stereotypes of privilege, prejudice, language use or actions
• Who decides what is best for everyone
• How these decisions are made
It is also crucial for teachers to create an environment where everyone can question their own attitudes
towards power and privilege. For example:
• What assumptions do learners in a class have about the concept of a family, religious beliefs, people in
loving relationships, accent and intelligence, citizenship, socio-economic status and class?
• How are these ideas portrayed in textbooks, in classroom activities, in school culture, etc?
• What worth do learners place on the opinion of different members of society, e.g. a wealthy business
person, a poor, unemployed person, a woman, a scientist, a chef?
By working in this way, teachers bring their own life experience into the classroom. This experience has the
potential to be an important quality of inclusive teachers in South Africa—as long as it is accompanied by
awareness that others have different experiences.

ACTIVITY 29: A call to educators

Audio Visual
Watch the YouTube video, TED Talk: Every kid needs a champion, in which Rita Pierson delivers a rousing
call to educators: http://y2u.be/SFnMTHhKdkw
Watch it a second time and answer these questions:
1. What is Rita Pierson’s call to educators?
2. What attributes does Rita Pierson have that make her a good educator?
3. What strategies does she use to build relationships with her learners?
4. What impact do you think Rita Pierson’s mother had on Rita’s classroom practice?
5. Do you think it’s important for teachers to have role models? Give reasons for your answer.
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
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53
 ACTIVITY 30: Interview a teacher

Discussion
Now, conduct an interview with a teacher in the phase you are studying. Aim to find out about their:
• Personal vision of themselves as a teacher and the ethos they aim to create in the classroom—
including their views on power
• Commitment to social justice in their teaching practice
• Thoughts about diversity in the classroom
• Ability and willingness to constantly re-examine their personal vision of teaching and the impact this
has on their teaching practice
• Familiarity with local knowledge and customs and whether this helps to make their classroom
more inclusive
If you are able to, record the interview—many mobile phones now have a good recording facility. If not,
take as many notes as you can during the interview then review these straight afterwards, adding
further notes from your memory.
Next, analyse the teacher’s responses to each of the five areas above. Give clear examples and
explanations for each of these areas. In addition, highlight where the teacher is facing challenges with
working inclusively.

5.3 Ateacher
summary of inclusive
characteristics
For the purpose of this module we have developed a summary of inclusive teaching characteristics in the
South African context, and concepts stemming from the policies, values, theories and models discussed in this
unit, as well as findings from the Teaching for All research report (Majoko, Phasha et al., 2018).
Teaching inclusively means:
• Understanding learners’ individual needs and abilities
• Changing and modifying teaching and learning content, approaches, assessment, structures and strategies
to support meaningful learning
• Collaborating with key stakeholders as equal partners in education
• Researching, monitoring, evaluating and reporting on learners’ progress
Inclusive teachers:
• Exhibit high expectations for all learners
• Subscribe to and protect the rights of children
• Are agents for social justice
• Value and affirm learner diversity
• Understand how intersecting identities manifest and can compound exclusion
• Act in the best interests of the child
• Collaborate with fellow teachers and other stakeholders
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

• Engage in classroom practices that facilitate and support learning for all
• Are reflective, critical and creative thinkers
• Are lifelong learners who continue to hone their own skills as inclusive professionals
Unit 1

54
 Another way of summarising some characteristics of teachers who work inclusively is shown in the table below.
We will revisit each of these areas in more detail in Units 2 and 4.

Table 5: Knowledge, attitudes and skills of an inclusive teacher

Knowledge See the difficulties learners experience in learning as challenges for teaching rather than problems
within the learners.

Attitudes Be aware of your preconceptions about learners’ abilities, especially when these might marginalise
or stigmatise learners in the classroom, or exclude them from learning in some way.

Skills Model new creative ways of working with and through others.
Demonstrate inclusive pedagogical views and practices for teaching diverse learners, which include
understanding how individual learners construct knowledge.
Use the insights you gain from being socioculturally conscious to find out more about learners’ lives.
Use your inclusive pedagogical teaching skills to provide learners with the space to express who
they are and how they experience the world.

(Source: Adapted from Florian, 2017; Villegas et al., 2017)

ACTIVITY 31: My personal vision

Journal
Think of a teacher who had a positive impact on your life when you were at school. What impact did this
teacher have on your life?
1. What qualities did this teacher have?
2. Why do you want to be a teacher?
3. Consider the summary description of an inclusive teacher. Which of those characteristics are already
personal strengths for you? Which areas do you feel you need to develop?
4. What is your personal vision for yourself as teacher?
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
Unit 1

55
Suggested study unit assessment

Assessment 1
Read and complete the task below.
Critically discuss:
• The development of inclusive education policies, laws and conventions, internationally and
in South Africa
• The principles and values of ubuntu and human rights in relation to inclusive education
• How the theories and models of inclusive education embrace the learner as important and able to
reach their full potential within the South African context
Consider, for example:
• How useful you think each of these areas to inclusive education in South Africa, explaining your
thinking in detail
• How relevant you think these areas are to a variety of school contexts in South Africa (rural, urban,
peri-urban, informal, mainstream, full-service, special, academic, technical)
To help you plan your response, you may find it useful to refer back to the notes and reflections you have
made in your journal as you have progressed through the unit.
Show your own, original thinking in your response, as well as making reference to the unit content and
the key readings.

INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
Unit 1

56
 Assessment 2
Read the following case study and complete the task below it.

CASE STUDY
Naledi is a newly qualified Senior Phase and FET
teacher at Diqhobong High school. She is the
youngest in both age and experience at the school
and these two realities somehow make her feel
insecure. But she is enthusiastic about teaching, and
has lots of ideas she would like to try.
As an “insider-outsider” at Diqhobong she feels there
are a lot of things that need to be reconsidered. There
are many learners that she has learnt are struggling
with reading and writing skills across Grades 8–12.
She has started getting good results with some of
these struggling learners in her classes by putting into
practice some of what she has learnt through her
module on inclusive education. She knows she still has
a lot to learn, but she has been pleasantly surprised at
the positive effects of:
• Making sure the content of the lessons is relevant
to the learners
• Having high expectations of everyone in
the classroom
• Creating an atmosphere of respect and dignity in
her classroom where disrespect and “put downs”
are openly addressed with the learners concerned
• Encouraging her learners to take ownership of
their learning, i.e. increasing their learner agency
• Really listening to her learners to understand
their experiences and needs
• Responding to their needs as best she can, and
getting support from colleagues when she can’t
Naledi discovers that her colleagues believe that
anything that has to do with inclusive education
(which they understand as special education at
Diqhobong) is seen as a primary school matter or
something that should be left to special schools. For
example, there is no school-based support team,
even though the policy says there needs to be one.
She has noticed that at Diqhobong some of the issues
highlighted in her Inclusive Education module—in
particular an inaccessible curriculum, low
expectations, lack of opportunity for learner voice,
and bullying of learners who are seen as “different”—
are “taken for granted” occurrences. Some are just
accepted as “normal”, some are so embedded in the
culture that no one is thinking about them, and some
are obvious issues that are not being addressed.
Naledi decides she would like to share some ideas
about inclusive education with her colleagues. She
discusses the idea with her HOD, who is enthusiastic
and supportive. The school holds fortnightly staff
“bonding sessions”. Naledi volunteers to share
information about barriers to learning and
participation for high school learners, and some of
the things she is doing that seem to be increasing
learner achievement and well-being in her classroom.

Your assessment task

Imagine that you are Naledi. Use the material from the unit to develop aims and a plan for her presentation.
You can present your plan in any way that makes sense to you. It could, for example, be a mind map, a
written document, a series of posters, a PowerPoint presentation, or an audio or video recording.
Your plan will work successfully if it:
• Shows your thinking clearly: anyone else looking at your plan should be able to follow it
• Presents key values, theories, models and concepts you think are particularly important for your colleagues
• Shows the key issues for each idea that you present
• Shows how the ideas are related to each other
• Shares what you have done to make a difference in your classroom, and any future plans you have
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

• Suggests some ways forward for teachers and for the school as a whole
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Study unit summary and reflection
In this unit you have learnt about a number of concepts related to inclusive education, including:
• The context of exclusion and its impact
• The development of policies, laws and conventions that support inclusive education
• Ubuntu and human rights values and the role of IKS in inclusive education
• Theories and models related to inclusive education
• The qualities and attitudes you need as a teacher working inclusively
• How all of these areas impact on the vision for inclusive education in South Africa
In addition, you have learnt—through CDL—a way of thinking critically about concepts that are presented to you.
Inclusive teaching requires you to have some knowledge and skills. However, as we have emphasised
throughout this unit, more importantly it requires a positive attitude, genuine curiosity, understanding, and
commitment to being a change agent. Even within the constraints of the existing school system, it is always
possible to take significant steps that ensure the inclusion of all learners in classrooms and schools. In
particular, following a social model approach, where the education system itself is seen as the barrier to
learning and participation—as opposed to a medical model approach, where the learner is seen as the
problem, can be transformative in the way that you think about and respond to your learners.
Through this unit, you should now have a solid theoretical base from which to build further knowledge and skills
to teach inclusively; these will be developed further as we continue through the module.

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 Selected bibliography / further reading
Christie P (1991) The right to learn: the struggle for education in South Africa. SACHED/Ravan Press. Johannesburg.
Department of Education (2001) Education White Paper 6: Special Needs Education: building an inclusive
education and training system. http://bit.ly/2Z96n7c
Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) (2015) National Qualifications Framework Act, 2008 (No.
67 of 2008): Revised policy on the minimum requirements for teacher education qualifications. Viewed 14
June 2019: https://www.gov.za/documents/national-qualifications-framework-act-revised-policy-minimim-
requirements-teacher
Engelbrecht P & Green L (2018) Contextualising inclusive education in southern Africa. In Engelbrecht P & Green L
(eds) Responding to the challenges of inclusive education on southern Africa (2nd edition). Pretoria: Van Schaik: 3–11.
European Union (n.d.) Working towards inclusive education in South Africa. capacity4dev.eu. http://bit.ly/2Iyj98s
Inclusive Education South Africa (n.d.) Inclusive Education in South Africa. https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=aNM81AkdBZ4&t=9s
Phasha N, Dikeledi M & Dei GJS (2017) Inclusive Education in African contexts: a critical reader. D Mahlo: Chapter
2: Creating rights-based and inclusive schools in South Africa; MJ Themane: Chapter 6: Rethinking inclusive
education in an African Context.
Phasha, N (2016). Inclusive education: an African perspective. Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Reygan F & Steyn M (2017) Diversity in basic education in South Africa: intersectionality and critical diversity
literature. Africa education review. http://dx.doi.orf/10.1080/18146627.2017.1280374
Sayed Y, Kanjee A & Nkomo M (2013) The search for quality education in post-apartheid South Africa:
interventions to improve learning and teaching. Cape Town: HSRC Press.
UNESCO (2007) Quality education for all: a human rights issue. UNESCO-Santiago.
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References
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 Appendices:
Appendix 1: South African policies supporting inclusive education
Appendix 2: Two other theories underpinning inclusive education
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Appendix 1: South African policies supporting
inclusive education
These policies have been summarised for use with Activity 8.

South African Constitution and Bill of Rights (Act No 108 of 1996)

The South African Constitution is the foundation on which all legislation and policies around education are
instituted (RSA, 1996). Chapter two of the Constitution (Bill of Rights) sets out the fundamental rights of all
South Africans, but also states when rights may be restricted. All the ensuing education policies are
premised on the principles well established in the constitution. Developed within a human rights discourse,
the policies support the following rights:
• To basic education
• Not to be unfairly discriminated against
• To life and integrity, privacy; freedom and access to information
• Of freedom of conscience, religion, thought, belief and opinion
• Of freedom of association
• To a safe environment
• Of the best interests of the child

South African Schools Act (No 84 of 1996)

This is a multi-pronged policy (DoE, 1996) with six chapters that establish guidelines to schools with regard to:
• Compulsory attendance, admission to school and exemption from compulsory attendance
• Suspension and expulsion from school
• Code of conduct including disciplinary parameters within which schools should operate
• Language policy
• Governance and professional management of schools
• Funding
• Establishment of governing bodies, including terms of reference, roles and responsibilities
• Rules for the establishment of independent schools
• Transition issues
• General provisions
The policy emphasises inclusion and clearly articulates the roles and responsibility of public schools to ensure
an environment conducive to teaching and learning. It is positioned within a social justice and transformative
framework and therefore seeks to promote equality and create equitable opportunities in schools.
However, the policy presumes that schools are all in the same circumstances, so implementing the policy is
doable for everyone, as well as being something that everyone will want to do. It assumes that each school
has a similar level of capacity, equal distribution of decision-making powers, competency, willingness,
availability of resources, and attitude towards inclusive education. However, there are huge differences
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among schools—for some the policy areas outlined in the act will be part of their everyday practice and
inclusive education is embedded in school culture, and for others this is not the case at all—but the policy
does not offer any answers about how to address these differences.
The policy is also vague on how to implement ways of monitoring that all children are attending school, or
are even in a position to attend school. Many families, schools and communities face social and financial
challenges. Some of these are beyond the control of children and their caregivers, for example in
communities where families have been severely affected by HIV and other diseases. Children who should be
in school may have to take on added, adult responsibilities such as providing for their siblings in child-
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 Education White Paper 6: Special Needs Education (2001)
Education White Paper 6: Special Needs Education (DoE, 2001) focuses on creating an inclusive education
system in which all learners have equal access to quality educational opportunities. It aims to change the
following so as to meet the needs of all learners:
• Attitudes
• Behaviour
• Teaching methods
• Curricula
• Environment
The primary focus of the policy is on changing the understanding of and attitude towards learners
previously labelled as “deficient”, “lacking” or “disabled”, replacing these labels with an understanding that
these learners have diverse needs, which need to be met by the education community. The policy states
that systems, and not people, are lacking and deficient. As a result, it suggests a major change to structures
and systems that will facilitate access, particularly for those learners not previously attending mainstream/
ordinary schools. It calls for a continuum of support throughout the education system, covering the three
types of schools it discusses: ordinary, full service and special.
The weakness of Education White Paper 6 is that, although is lays strong foundations that support the
concept of inclusive education, it does not offer clear, practical pathways that schools can follow to
implement inclusive education. This has slowed implementation, and the progress that has been made is not
consistent across groups of learners or geographical areas.

Policy on Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support (2014)

The key purposes of the SIAS policy are:
1. To provide the framework for a standardised approach to screening, identifying, assessing and supporting
learners who require additional support, to enable them to perform to their potential in school.
2. To promote early identification of learners who experience barriers to learning and participation, enabling
learners to have a positive experience of participation and inclusion at school.
3. To assist teachers, School-Based Support Teams and District-Based Support Teams in their efforts to
meet the needs of all learners, and to provide quality teaching and learning.
The SIAS policy grew from an identified need to provide practical pathways for schools to follow around
inclusive education, following Education White Paper 6. It also draws on the UN Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities, and is a rights-based policy that places the onus on the education system to work
to remove barriers to learning and participation. Its view of support is that it needs to be holistic, taking into
account learners’ individual circumstances and taking a multi-agency approach, bringing in specialists from
different areas as needed. It acknowledges that barriers to learning and participation are multiple and
various, as are suitable support strategies. It categorises these support strategies into three levels:
• Low: generally met within the school’s usual provision, proactive and preventative
• Moderate: over and above the school’s usual provision, usually short term and of moderate intensity
• High: more specialised, of higher intensity and frequency
The organising principle for support within SIAS is that every learner has the right to receive quality basic
education within their local community. This means that, as far as practically possible and affordable, the
support must be brought to the learner with little or no movement from their local community and home. It
every type of school—ordinary, full service and special—is expected to offer an inclusive community that
provides quality education, care and support for its learners.
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One of the questions that the SIAS policy raises is about the capacity of stakeholders (for example teachers) to
participate at the different stages involved in organising and monitoring support. In order to make the policy
and expectations clear, there is a need for teacher training—both at Pre-service Education and Training
(PRESET), and Continuing Professional Development (CPD) levels—and ongoing support. Training and support
for teachers in schools depends on support from the district office, and may be a challenge in some areas.
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Curriculum Policy Statements (1997; 2002; 2012) and Guidelines for Responding
to Learner Diversity in the Classroom (2011)
While respecting the rights of all children to education has been the main driver of policy changes in South
Africa, an equally pressing matter has been whether all children receive quality education once they are in
schools. Several reviews of the curriculum have taken place, as follows:
Curriculum 2005 (DoE, 1997): the first unifying curriculum after the democratic elections
National Curriculum Statement (DoE, 2002)
Revised National Curriculum Statement (DoE, 2004)
Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) (DBE, 2012)
Curriculum 2005 aimed to ensure that all South Africans were provided with education that was not
demarcated along racial lines. Since then, the main principles behind curriculum developments have been
equity, redress and equality.
However, the disheartening performance of South African learners in regional performance measures
indicates a need for the curriculum to focus on engaging, quality learning opportunities. This curriculum
needs to be delivered in ways that close the achievement gaps among diverse learners. In response to to
this need, the DBE developed Guidelines for responding to learner diversity in the classroom (DBE, 2011),
which are intended to be used by teachers alongside the CAPS. These guidelines include the DBE’s
recommendations for responding to learner diversity in the classroom, proposing strategies for
differentiated teaching and learning for the delivery of the CAPS. Throughout the guidelines, the DBE
emphasises that all schools are required to offer the same curriculum to learners, while simultaneously
making sure that teaching, learning and assessment strategies are differentiated to include all learners.
There are three main problems with these guidelines, which could unintentionally promote exclusion:
1. There is evidence of a silo approach towards inclusive education within the document. For example, a
case study of Brenda, who has a visual impairment, is presented like this: “When it was time for her to
attend high school, her parents could not afford to send her to a boarding school catering for partially
sighted children in Johannesburg.” Implicit in this case study is the message that separate education for
children with a visual impairment is the preference, but if this is not possible, teachers are encouraged to
consider how to include Brenda within their mainstream classrooms.
2. No practical tools are suggested to address resource challenges that arise from suggested policy
changes. For example: “Learners who experience significant barriers to learning and participation must
also have the possibility of straddling grades, which allows them to take certain subjects at grade level
and others at a different level” (DBE, 2011). The timetabling implications of this suggestion are a big
challenge, yet no systems or tools are offered to enable schools to implement this strategy.
3. The approach to support taken in the guidelines leans towards a “one-size-fits-all” model. Theyare
simplistic, and do not take into account the complexity of some learners’ situations and the barriers to
learning and participation these can bring. For this reason, it is unlikely that educators will take the
guidelines seriously.

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 Appendix 2: Two other theories underpinning
inclusive education
Here is some information about two other theories that may be of interest to you when developing your
understanding of inclusive education.

Capability Theory
The Capability Theory (CA) was developed by Sen and Nussbaum (cited in Terzi, 2008). It asserts that well-being
and agency are equally important, and interdependent, aspects of human life.
Sen (Ibid.) draws a distinction between functionings and capabilities. When employed in an educational setting,
functionings refer to educational “beings and doings/actions”, such as: “access to” and “participation in”
education; learning and achieving (e.g. reading and writing, mathematics grades); and completing basic
education. Capabilities are opportunities to fulfil educational functionings. Although outcomes/functionings
(e.g. mathematics grades) might appear equal, learners’ actual opportunities to function might be very
different; for example they may be influenced by gender and (dis)abilities (Okkolin et al., 2018).
As a result, the theoretical framework asserts that the ultimate goal of any social and political reform, including
education (from wide-ranging policies to school-level practices), should be to enhance people’s functionings
and capabilities and support agency. Similarly, the assessment of people’s well-being should be based on the
various “beings and doings” that they can achieve and the opportunities or freedoms to realise these.
In other words, strategic policy priorities and practices should be assessed, with equal importance placed on their:
• Impact on people’s functionings (e.g. grades in mathematics)
• Influence on their capabilities (e.g. the set of opportunities needed to achieve a valued grade in mathematics)
• People’s freedom to act “in line with his or her conception of the good” (Sen, 1985: 206).
Terzi (2008) and Norwich et al. (2016) point out that this framework clarifies the relationship between education
and a just society in terms of the equality of capabilities rather than of resources, and presents genuine
opportunities for people to achieve.

Sociocultural and Cultural-historical Activity Theories

Ecological systems theory helped to form more contemporary theories including Sociocultural Theory and
Cultural-historical Activity Theory (CHAT). At the heart of these theories lies an understanding of human learning
processes as social and cultural rather than individual or psychological (Swart & Oswald, 2008) experiences.
Vygotsky emphasised that knowledge is constructed socially, i.e. individual and social learning processes are
interdependent. Meaning from learning, therefore, cannot be separated from its sociocultural contexts and
interaction between people (Donald et al., 2009; Swart & Oswald, 2008). Everyday activities take place in
contexts in which individual identities and cultural histories are being interpreted continuously.
Cultural-historical Activity Theory (CHAT) is a theoretical framework that helps to develop an understanding
and analysis of the relationship between the human mind (what people think) and activity (what people do). The
roots of CHAT are, like Socio-cultural Theory, found in the work of Vygotsky. Today they are closely intertwined
with transformation in education via socio-cultural and cultural-historical approaches to the implementation of
inclusive education.
CHAT’s central principle is that learning is primarily a social accomplishment “achieved through situated
moments in the interactions between the individual(s) and the material and social environment, where the
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

transactions between active individual(s) and an active environment co-construct each other” (Blanton et al.,
cited in Oswald & Engelbrecht, 2013: 438). Core ideas (e.g. Foot, 2014) are that:
• Humans act collectively, learn by doing and communicate via their actions, e.g. in classrooms
• Humans make, employ and develop tools of all kinds to learn and communicate, e.g. classroom routines and policies
• Community and its cultural history are central to the process of making and interpreting meaning and thus
to all forms of communicating and acting
Unit 1

Using CHAT, for example, helps us understand: the structure of interaction and activity in classrooms; and the
gaps between what currently exists and what might be the imagined outcomes (Kozleski, in press).

69
 Insert
HEI logo
here

Inclusive Teaching
and Learning
for South Africa

Unit 2
Learner Diversity

THIS PROJECT IS FUNDED BY THE EUROPEAN UNION

The Teaching for All project is a partnership between the
British Council, the University of South Africa, the
Departments of Basic Education and Higher Education
and Training, and MIET AFRICA, and is co-funded by the
European Union. The Teaching for All project aims to
provide teachers in South Africa with the skills, knowledge
and attitudes to teach inclusively in diverse classrooms in
diverse communities.

These educational materials are published under creative

commons license:

ISBN: 978-0-620-84393-5
Published by British Council, June 2019

Revised August 2019

Every effort has been made to obtain copyright
permission for material used in this module.
Website addresses and links were correct at the time
of publication.

For more information, please contact the British Council:

PO Box 655, Parklands 2121, South Africa
Telephone: +27 (0)11 560 9300
Email: ssa.enquiries@britishcouncil.org.za
Website: www.britishcouncil.org.za

The British Council is the United Kingdom’s international

organisation for cultural relations and education. It creates
international opportunities for the people of the UK and
other countries and builds trust between them worldwide.
Contents

Overview of study unit..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2

Introduction and aim.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Specific outcomes............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Abbreviations........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
1. Learner diversity, intersectionality and equity................................................................................................................................................6
1.1 What is learner diversity?.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.1.1 Defining diversity.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 7
1.1.2 Diversity in learning......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
a. The concept of “normal”...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
b. Time for a change?................................................................................................................................................................................................................10
c. The reality of learner difference...................................................................................................................................................................................11
1.2 Recognising and understanding learner diversity.............................................................................................................................................. 13
1.2.1 Levels of learners’ access to the curriculum..................................................................................................................................................................13
1.2.2 Ways of making meaning from learning............................................................................................................................................................................13
1.2.3 The ways that learners behave...............................................................................................................................................................................................14
1.2.4 Learners’ socio-economic circumstances......................................................................................................................................................................14
1.2.5 Psychosocial well-being..............................................................................................................................................................................................................17
a. Behaviour....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................17
b. Thoughts, feelings and emotions.................................................................................................................................................................................18
c. External factors that affect thoughts and feelings............................................................................................................................................18
d. Internal factors that affect our thoughts and feelings.................................................................................................................................... 20
1.2.6 Disability.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 25
a. Defining disability.................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 25
b. Diversity and disability....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
c. Inclusive education and disability............................................................................................................................................................................... 26
d. The South African context............................................................................................................................................................................................... 27
1.2.7 Gender identity and sexual orientation............................................................................................................................................................................ 28
1.2.8 Race, culture and religion..........................................................................................................................................................................................................31
1.2.9 Language.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................31
1.3 Diversity and intersectionality...........................................................................................................................................................................................32
1.4 Equity to ensure equal education for all.....................................................................................................................................................................33
1.5 Attitudes to learner diversity..............................................................................................................................................................................................36
1.5.1 Learner diversity as an obstacle........................................................................................................................................................................................... 36
1.5.2 Valuing and affirming learner diversity: an asset-based approach................................................................................................................. 38

2. Responding to learner differences...........................................................................................................................................................................44

2.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................44
2.2 Who’s in the classroom? Two lenses...............................................................................................................................................................................46
Contents

3. Language, culture and learning...................................................................................................................................................................................55

3.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................55
3.2 Mother tongue...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................56
3.3 Language in South Africa.......................................................................................................................................................................................................58
3.3.1 Multilingualism.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 58
3.3.2 Language planning and policy............................................................................................................................................................................................... 59
3.4 Language and inclusive education................................................................................................................................................................................. 61
3.4.1 Why language is an important factor in inclusive education............................................................................................................................... 61
3.4.2 Language in the classroom...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 63
3.5 Classroom strategies: a twin-pronged approach.................................................................................................................................................64
3.5.1 Mother tongue teaching and learning...............................................................................................................................................................................64
a. Bilingual approach................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 66
b. Code-switching....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 68
c. Translation................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 68
d. Content and Language Integrated Learning........................................................................................................................................................ 69
e. Stories.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 70
3.5.2 Multilingual teaching and learning activities................................................................................................................................................................. 70
a. Reading....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 70
b. Writing...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................71
c. Speaking......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................71
3.6 Language, culture and identity..........................................................................................................................................................................................73

Suggested study unit assessments................................................................................................................................................................................................75

Assessment 1................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 75
Assessment 2................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 75
Study unit summary and reflection................................................................................................................................................................................................76
Selected bibliography / Further reading...................................................................................................................................................................................77
References...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................78

Appendix: Information sheets on learner differences..................................................................................................................................................81

Information Sheet 1: Albinism....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 82
Information Sheet 2: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder................................................................................................................................................. 83
Information Sheet 3: Autistic Spectrum Continuum........................................................................................................................................................................ 85
Information Sheet 4: Down syndrome..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 87
Information Sheet 5: Dyslexia (and other dys- differences).......................................................................................................................................................88
Information Sheet 6: Foetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder...............................................................................................................................................................91
Information Sheet 7: Gifted and talented—or highly-able—learners.................................................................................................................................. 93
Information Sheet 8: Hearing impairment............................................................................................................................................................................................. 96
Information Sheet 9: Stress, anxiety and depression..................................................................................................................................................................... 99
Information Sheet 10: Visual Impairment.............................................................................................................................................................................................101
Contents

List of figures
Figure 1: Overview of study unit 2................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 2
Figure 2: Bell curve................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 8
Figure 3: Iceberg...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................12
Figure 4: Poverty Cycle.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................14
Figure 5: Onion 1...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................17
Figure 6: Onion 2...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................18
Figure 7: Onion 3...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................18
Figure 8: Onion 4.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 20
Figure 9: Maslow’s original hierarchy of needs—pyramid.......................................................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 10: I am human....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 11: Acrostic explaining gender and sexual diversity....................................................................................................................................................... 29
Figure 12: Learner profiles............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 32
Figure 13: Equality and equity (1)............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 14: One size fits all................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 35
Figure 15: Equality and equity (2).............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 35
Figure 16: Medical model of disability..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 17: Social model of disability......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 39
Figure 18: Head, hand, heart......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 45
Figure 19: Lens 1.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 46
Figure 20: Lens 2................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 48
Figure 21: Overlap................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................51
Figure 22: Four stages of competence.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 54
Figure 23: A surprise..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................64
Figure 24: Grade 4 writing sample and example text.................................................................................................................................................................... 65
Figure 25: Example text................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 70
Figure 26: Sentence-building activity.......................................................................................................................................................................................................71
Figure 27: Gagne: Differentiated Model of Giftedness and Talent......................................................................................................................................... 93

List of tables
Table 1: Attachment styles in the classroom........................................................................................................................................................................................21
Table 2: Medical and social model thinking in school.................................................................................................................................................................... 40
Table 3a: Social vs medical model thinking...........................................................................................................................................................................................41
Table 3b: Social vs medical model thinking......................................................................................................................................................................................... 42
Table 4: Definitions of mother tongue..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 56
Contents

List of activities
Activity 1: Examining assumptions............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Activity 2: Diversity in schools........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 8
Activity 3: What is “normal”?............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
Activity 4: Thinking about learners’ ability.............................................................................................................................................................................................12
Activity 5: Diversity in the classroom........................................................................................................................................................................................................12
Activity 6: Impact of poverty on education outcomes...................................................................................................................................................................15
Activity 7: Put yourself in their shoes........................................................................................................................................................................................................16
Activity 8: Learner behaviour........................................................................................................................................................................................................................17
Activity 9: Remembering learning experiences.................................................................................................................................................................................18
Activity 10: My community..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................19
Activity 11: Impact of external factors......................................................................................................................................................................................................19
Activity 12: Attachment in the classroom.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 20
Activity 13: Impact of adolescence on learning................................................................................................................................................................................ 22
Activity 14: Looking critically at Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.................................................................................................................................................. 23
Activity 15: Getting to know your learners’ psychosocial well-being................................................................................................................................... 24
Activity 16: Sunil and Thandkeka’s experiences............................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Activity 17: Understanding prejudice and discrimination............................................................................................................................................................ 30
Activity 18: Promoting a culture of inclusion in your school..................................................................................................................................................... 30
Activity 19: Dominant and minority groups at school.....................................................................................................................................................................31
Activity 20: My personal profile................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 32
Activity 21: Lerato and Jane.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Activity 22: Intersectionality.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Activity 23: Seeing diversity as an obstacle........................................................................................................................................................................................ 38
Activity 24: Social model thinking.............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 40
Activity 25: Medical and social model thinking...................................................................................................................................................................................41
Activity 26: Medical and social model thinking...................................................................................................................................................................................41
Activity 27: Getting to know your learners........................................................................................................................................................................................... 43
Activity 28: What is happening in the classroom?............................................................................................................................................................................ 46
Activity 29: Ms Willemse’s beliefs............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 47
Activity 30: Ms Willemse’s views of strengths and challenges................................................................................................................................................. 47
Activity 31: Making connections................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 49
Activity 32: Reflecting on Mrs Mbeki’s grouping of learners..................................................................................................................................................... 52
Activity 33: Mrs Mbeki’s beliefs.................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 53
Activity 34: My beliefs....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 53
Activity 35: Learning a new skill.................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 54
Activity 36: My language history and profile....................................................................................................................................................................................... 55
Activity 37: Mapping my language history........................................................................................................................................................................................... 58
Activity 38: Understanding my language practices........................................................................................................................................................................ 58
Activity 39: Reflecting on multilingualism............................................................................................................................................................................................. 58
Activity 40: Talking to a caregiver.............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 60
Contents

Activity 41: Colloquial language.................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 61

Activity 42: Celebrating multilingualism................................................................................................................................................................................................. 61
Activity 43: Do a language survey............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 63
Activity 44: Socio-economic impact on learning............................................................................................................................................................................. 63
Activity 45: language and inclusion..........................................................................................................................................................................................................64
Activity 46: Language of learning and teaching............................................................................................................................................................................... 68
Activity 47: Rwandan language supportive textbooks................................................................................................................................................................. 68
Activity 48: Use of CLIL in different classrooms................................................................................................................................................................................ 69
Activity 49: Write a story.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 70
Activity 50: Reflecting on strategies........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 72
Activity 51: Language and culture............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 73
Activity 52: Learning in English.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................74
Activity 53: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder..................................................................................................................................................................... 83
Activity 54: Autistic Spectrum Continuum 1........................................................................................................................................................................................ 86
Activity 55: Autistic Spectrum Continuum 2........................................................................................................................................................................................ 86
Activity 56: Down syndrome 1..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 87
Activity 57: Dyslexia 1.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................88
Activity 58: Dyslexia 2....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 90
Activity 59: Foetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder...................................................................................................................................................................................91
Activity 60: Gifted and talented learners 1.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 94
Activity 61: Gifted and talented learners 2........................................................................................................................................................................................... 95
Activity 62: Hearing impairment 1............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 96
Activity 63: Hearing impairment 2............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 98
Activity 64: Stress, anxiety and depression...................................................................................................................................................................................... 100
Activity 65: Visual impairment....................................................................................................................................................................................................................101
Overview of study unit

NG AF
DI
N

FI
TA

RM
U N D ER S

IN G
LEARNER
DIVERSITY
Care and Screening
Support for Identification
Teaching and Assessment
Learning and Support

CL
ASS OOM
S T R R IE S
AT EG

Figure 1: Overview of Study Unit 2

South African classrooms are a reflection of the richly diverse communities their learners come from. The idea
of a homogeneous1 classroom is simply not relevant to teaching in the 21st century. Learners speak different
languages, come from different socio-economic backgrounds, religions and cultures. Children also learn in
different ways, and have different strengths and interests. In an inclusive classroom, differences are valued so
that all children understand and feel that they play an equal part in the classroom and school community.
This study unit investigates learner diversity in three parts.
Part 1 will consider some of the many ways in which learners are unique and the teacher’s role in responding
to this uniqueness or diversity in ways that value and affirm it. By doing so, Part 1 will examine the concept of
“normal” as a construct that leads to the identification of some learners as “different” or needing something
“additional” or “special” in the classroom, and how learners learn.
It will also examine learner diversity through a lens of intersectionality2 in order to understand how the unique
combination of identities of each child influences their education experiences. Many of these experiences
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

include marginalisation or limited access to education. Some learners’ exclusion or marginalisation is

compounded by several intersecting oppressive systems such as race, gender and disability.

Definition
Unit 2

1 Homogeneous:: All the same or similar in nature.

2 Intersectionality: The study of what happens when different forms of discrimination, domination and oppression
combine, overlap and intersect.
2
 In addition, Part 1 will explore how teachers’ responses to learner diversity need to be guided by the principle
of ensuring fair and equal opportunities for learning to all learners. All learners must have access to and
participate equally in education. Central to this is an examination of the distinction between the concepts of
“same” and “fair”. It will consider how equity (fairness) in education involves giving every child what they need
in order to fully participate in learning, even if this is different to what others may need.
Parts 2 and 3 will focus on two areas of learner diversity in more depth. Part 2 focuses on responding to
learner difference, and exploring ways of thinking about planning for diverse classes. Part 3 focuses on
language, culture and learning, which is of particular significance for South Africa given its linguistic and
cultural diversity.

Introduction and aim

The main aim of the unit is that, through it, you will value and affirm learner diversity, and promote the values
of equity, inclusion and social justice in your classrooms. To support this aim, by the end of the unit you will
have gained:
• A deeper understanding of learner diversity and its central role in children’s learning
• Insight into the crucial part you play as a teacher in creating and maintaining inclusive classrooms in which
all children are invited, expected and able to learn

Specific outcomes
By the end of the unit, you will be able to:
• Explain the concepts of learner diversity, intersectionality and equity for different relevant school contexts
(with specific reference to disability, language, race, socio-economic status, gender identity, sexual
orientation, religion, cognition, communication and interaction and psychosocial differences)
• Demonstrate how these concepts will enable quality teaching and learning for all in your own teaching context
• Demonstrate how understanding language and cultural diversity contributes to access, acceptance and
participation in inclusive classrooms
• Demonstrate how understanding cognitive, communication and interaction, physical and sensory, psychosocial
and societal differences contributes to access, respect and participation in inclusive classrooms
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y
Unit 2

3
Abbreviations

ASC Autistic Spectrum Continuum

ADHD Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
CAPS Curriculum Assessment Policy Statements
CLIL Content and Language Integrated Learning
DBE Department of Basic Education
DoE Department of Education
EMI English Medium Instruction
FAL First Additional Language
FASD Foetal Alcohol Syndrome Disorder
GAD Generalised Anxiety Disorder
HOD Head of Department
IKS Indigenous Knowledge Systems
LGBTI Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Intersex
LOITASA Language of Instruction in Tanzania and South Africa
LoLT Language of Learning and Teaching
PGCE Postgraduate Certificate in Education
PTSD Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
SAHRC South African Human Rights Commission
SASL South African Sign Language
SBST School-Based Support Team
SEN Special Educational Needs
SIAS Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support (Policy)
TL Target language
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund

LEARNER DIVERSIT Y
Unit 2

4
1 Learner diversity, intersectionality and equity
This unit aims to start your thinking about learner diversity3 and what it means for you as a teacher. It will introduce
you to significant knowledge about learner diversity, ask you to examine beliefs about it—including your own—and
begin to make connections between these beliefs and classroom practice. This process builds on your knowledge
from Unit 1 and forms the next part of your journey towards becoming a teacher who works inclusively.
We are realistic about the challenges this journey poses; we know that, for many of you, it will take place in
schools with large classes and overcrowded classrooms which need more resources. We have designed
material and activities with these challenges in mind. At the same time we encourage you, where necessary, to
think imaginatively about the unit material and take from it what will work for you in your context. There is
always something teachers can do to work with learners more inclusively, no matter what their circumstances,
and we ask you to keep identifying what this “something” is for you as you study.
We hope you find the unit useful and thought-provoking. Let’s begin it by defining what is meant by diversity.

1.1 What is
learner diversity?

CASE STUDY: Progress Primary School, Grade 6

Ms Willemse is in her first year of teaching. She has
been teaching English FAL and Maths to the Grade 6
learners at Progress Primary School for two terms.
She is feeling overwhelmed and her class is
completely out of control. Out of 42 children only
about ten of them sit still and pay attention. Thapelo
is always arguing with her and questions every
instruction, Jayendra gets up every two minutes and
is constantly talking to his friends and organising
games for break time. Aminah stares out the window
all day long and her friend, Funeka just sits next to
her saying nothing. The others just don’t seem to get
what she talking about half the time!
One break-time Ms Willemse overheard another
Grade 6 teacher, Mrs Mbeki, talking and laughing in
the staff room. “I have the most interesting children
in my class. I have a lawyer, an astronaut and an
entrepreneur. I love watching them grow up and
develop their amazing personalities,” said Mrs Mbeki.
It took Ms Willemse a minute, but she realised that
Mrs Mbeki must be talking about the same class,
because Mrs Mbeki teaches Grade 6 Natural
Sciences and Technology.
Feeling even worse about her difficulties with the
class, Ms Willemse went to see her HOD. “I don’t
but I just can’t teach them!” she exclaimed. The HOD
thought for a few seconds then suggested that
maybe it would be a good idea for Ms Willemse to
ask Mrs Mbeki to explain her thinking about the
Grade 6 class to see if this would help.
The next day Ms Willemse approached Mrs Mbeki
and asked, “Why do they behave so badly with me,
but you seem to enjoy teaching them?”
Mrs Mbeki explained, “I love the fact they are all so
different. Thapelo loves to argue, that’s why I think
he will make a great lawyer. I try to plan at least one
debate a week to keep him engaged. Jayendra is
definitely going to have his own business one day.
He is always making a plan and organising everyone.
I put him in charge of classroom clean-up. That way I
know it will always get done.
Aminah is my astronaut, she loves thinking about the
earth, moon and stars. I gently bring her attention
back when I see she is staring out the window, but I
let her teach the class about the planets. They all
love this, especially Funeka, who can be really quiet
but she asks some great questions when Aminah is
teaching them. You see, they are all so different and
that is what makes being a teacher so interesting. I
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

understand why the Grade 6s are so different for me adapt my teaching to make sure they all stay
and for Mrs Mbeki.” Concerned, the HOD asked what engaged and I encourage them to be unique and to
she meant. “They seem to be perfect with Mrs Mbeki follow their dreams.”

Definition
Unit 2

3 Learner diversity: Group and individual differences among learners.

6
 This case study is an example of something that the vast majority of teachers have been through—a class of
extremely diverse children that you find really challenging but that one of your colleagues is really enjoying
and also making good progress with. This situation can bring about challenging feelings for teachers including
frustration and inadequacy. You know things aren’t going well and need to change, but how do you make this
happen? Where do you find the knowledge that will help you do something different? How do you put this
knowledge into practice? And, sometimes most importantly, how do you change your beliefs about this class,
some of the individuals in it, and your ability to teach them?
This unit focuses on the knowledge that is needed to understand diversity in the classroom and explores
attitudes to and beliefs about diversity. It will prepare you for putting this knowledge into practice in an
inclusive way, both for individual learners and whole classes, which is the focus of Units 3 and 4.
We will be coming back to the teachers and learners in this case study during the unit.
Let’s continue by examining “diversity” itself—it’s a term that is widely used in education and beyond, but what
does it actually mean? In the following section we will define diversity and also consider it in the context of learning.

1.1.1 Defining diversity

ACTIVITY 1: Examining assumptions

Journal
Think about someone you met recently for the What do you think are some of the possible
first time. Where did you meet them? Who impacts on human relationships of making
introduced you? When we meet people we make assumptions about others?
assumptions4 —it is part of human behaviour. Try Next, think about a good friend that you know
to think back to what assumptions you made well. For two minutes, list all the ways you can
about this person when you met them. For think of in which you and this friend are similar.
example, did you assume that they came from, or Then, in the next two minutes, do the same for all
have a particular: the ways you are different.
• Type of family? On what evidence did you base your lists, i.e.
• Belief system? what do you know about your friend that led you
• Political viewpoint? to identify these similarities and differences?
• Economic background? What impact does this level of knowledge have
on your relationship with this friend? Has it, for
• Geographical place?
example, changed your understanding of them?
• Linguistic/cultural background? If so, has this understanding had an impact on
• Race? the way you behave at times towards them?
• Ability or disability?
• Sexual orientation?
• Gender identity?
• Academic background?

Assumptions are based solely on what we as individuals construct as our own “reality”, rather than on actual
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

evidence. They can lead us to make quick, uninformed and sometimes unconscious judgments about
people. These judgments do little to help increase our knowledge of others and, in particular, our
appreciation of their differences.

Definition
Unit 2

4 Assumptions: Something you accept as true without question or proof.

7
As Activity 1 has shown, while we share similarities, there are also many ways in which we are different.
For example, aspects of difference you identified might include: gender; sexuality; race; beliefs; family;
language; financial situation; employment status; appearance; abilities; disabilities; likes and dislikes; interests;
strengths; talents; attitudes; personalities; qualities and values—and more. “Diversity is the one true thing we all
have in common” (Anonymous). Each of the differences listed is part of who we are—part of our unique
identity. And if each of us is unique, then each of us has a responsibility to challenge our own assumptions and
help create an environment in which these differences are understood and everyone can thrive. This is what
diversity means, as illustrated by this quote:
It [diversity] is the exploration of these differences in a safe, positive, and nurturing environment. It is about
understanding each other and moving beyond simple tolerance to embracing and celebrating the rich
dimensions of diversity contained within each individual. (Queensborough Community College http://www.qcc.cuny.edu)
When we do what this quote suggests, we start to value diversity as a resource and an asset—a strength. In a
school context, doing this makes it possible for us to hold high expectations for all learners. However, in order
to value and affirm diversity in schools and classrooms, we need to understand in more detail what diversity
means in relation to learning. We will unpack this in the following section.

1.1.2 Diversity in learning

Firstly, let’s consider how schools have often approached diversity.

ACTIVITY 2: Diversity in schools

Writing
Think about schools you attended as a learner or schools you have worked in.
Consider the following questions and note your reflections:
1. In what ways were learners grouped in these schools?
2. What reasons were used to justify the groupings?
3. What beliefs about learners and learning underpinned these reasons?

a. The concept of “normal” Average Person

Often, schools use a particular idea of “normal” to
organise learners, which is based on a “bell curve”,
as shown on the right.
The bell curve was originally used in the 18th
century to test mathematical concepts and
Some People Most People Some People
astronomical measurements. The mean, or average,
of whatever data is being studied is shown at the
middle point and “normal distribution5” is defined
Figure 2: Bell Curve
from this point. More frequent values sit in the
middle of the curve and rarer, very large or very small, values sit at either end.
During the 19th century, the bell curve started to be applied to non-mathematical concepts by sociologists, for
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

example, to the incidence of crime and migration. This sociological use of the bell curve led to the concept of
the “average man”, illustrated in Figure 2 above. When applied to human beings, the bell curve placed our most
frequently-occurring characteristics in the middle of the curve. These became “normal”. Any characteristics that
occurred less frequently, at the edges of the curve, became “abnormal”.

Definition
Unit 2

5 Normal distribution: This concept is based on the idea that intelligence and ability is fixed from birth and
therefore predetermines achievement in school, justifying sorting learners into those who can achieve and those
who will underachieve or not achieve. Therefore, normal distribution can be used to justify exclusion.

8
 Sometimes these “normal” and “abnormal” human characteristics became associated with a value. For example,
judgements such as “good”, “desirable” or “appropriate” were associated with the middle of the bell curve, and
“undesirable” or “inappropriate” with the ends of the curve.
Despite some opposition because of its origins in mathematics, “normal distribution” using the bell curve has
become an accepted way of “sorting” people, as well as numbers, into categories. The field of education is no
different, as Fendler and Muffazar (2008: 64) explain: “So many people believe that the bell curve represents
the way things are in nature, the ideal of a normal distribution has been naturalized in education.”
For example, in schools we routinely talk about: “above-average” or “below-average” intelligence; “high”,
“average” or “low” ability; or “normal” and “abnormal”—and even “extreme”—behaviour. All these concepts are
based on the idea of “normal distribution”, as shown by the bell curve. They are such an embedded part of
educational thinking and organisation that they have rarely been questioned by teachers, school leaders or
policy-makers. The belief that intelligence is something fixed that you are born with, and that learners can
therefore be “sorted” in terms of their intelligence via the bell curve, is still deeply entrenched in educational
thinking. Despite ongoing debates about intelligence—what it is, what forms it takes, how and when to measure
it—it is still widely used as a way of:
• Sorting learners in school settings, for example, grouping them based on test scores and/or teachers’
judgments about learners’ intelligence.
• Trying to understand the difficulties learners meet in schools, for example, in many parts of the world,
identification of disabilities and/or special educational needs depends, at least in part, on some form of
ability test score. These scores tend to reinforce the idea that groups of learners can be sorted into
learners with and without special educational needs, or those who are “normal” and those who are
“different” (or even considered “abnormal”). (Florian & Walton, 2018: 168-170)
This embedded idea of “normal”, based on a concept of what “average” is, promotes the idea that teachers
should focus their planning on “average” learners in the centre of the bell curve. But what is “normal” or
“average” in a school? And what does this concept mean for those who do not fall into this group? Let’s
explore these questions in a context you are familiar with.

ACTIVITY 3: What is “normal”?

Journal
1. Think about a school you attended: What was considered “normal” there? Who decided this?
2. Now think about a school where you have worked or visited, or talk to a friend or child about their
school: What is considered “normal” at this school? Who decides this?
3. Compare these two experiences: What are the similarities and differences between “normal” in
both places?
4. What happens in these settings to people who are not considered “normal”?
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Unit 2

9
b. Time for a change?
Inclusive education challenges bell-curve thinking and the concept of “normal” in a number of ways, which are
summarised below.
Is “normal” a “good thing”, or even a “thing”?
In the previous section, we saw that the bell-curve concept of “normal” is connected to statistics and to ideas
about what is good / not good. The scholar, Martha Nussbaum, questions why this second connection should
be made:
For, obviously enough, what is typical may or may not be very good. Bad backs, bad eyes and bad judgement
are all very typical … [while] much progress in human affairs comes from people who are unusual … So why, in
more or less all societies, has the notion of the normal as the usual also served a normative function6 , setting
up the different for stigmatizing treatment? (Nussbaum, 2004: 218)
Nussbaum suggests that “normal” is a construction—a creation or interpretation of an idea—that:
• Allows us to protect ourselves from disruption
• Allows us to hide from our imperfections that cause us shame
• Reinforces the notion of “normal” as “good”, which also allows others to hide from the shame of
their imperfections
Nussbaum also points out that different people in different places and at different times construct different ideas
of what “normal” is. Here are some questions you might like to think about in relation to these constructs.
• Who makes these decisions?
• Who is on the receiving end of them?
With so much possible variation in the way it is constructed, do you think there is even such a thing as “normal”?
What we know about learning is changing
During your studies, you are learning about the theory and history of learning. Here we will focus on recent
developments that are relevant to developing our thinking about learner diversity.
The study of the mind is undergoing a kind of revolution. New scientific studies of the mind and brain about the
processes of thinking and learning, the development of competence, and the physiology of learning7 are
generating new knowledge all the time.
Two National Research Council reports in the US (2000: 4; 2018, Chapter 2) are particularly useful as they
summarise these understandings:
• We understand more now about people’s abilities to solve problems—how they organise information and how
they use their problem-solving skills effectively.
• We have discovered that young children know more than we think they do.
• We understand more about the importance to learning of existing skills and knowledge; learning goals;
and learning material. All of these are key to planning the structure and delivery of learning effectively.
• Learning takes place in cultural contexts. These—along with social, cognitive (related to the thinking
process) and biological factors—influence learning. We therefore need to take them into account when
planning learning.
• Most significantly, neuroscience is beginning to provide evidence that shows how learning changes the
physical structure of the brain. Intuitively, we would assume that it is the physical structure of the brain that
determines how we learn—not the other way round. However, research is indicating that the relationship
between brain development and learning is reciprocal. This means brain development influences behaviour
and learning, and at the same time learning influences brain development and brain health. This finding
provides scientific evidence against the entrenched view in education that intelligence and ability are “fixed”.
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Definition
Unit 2

6 Normative function: Has the effect of encouraging people to accept what is considered “normal”.
7 Physiology of learning: The human biological processes involved in learning.

10
 What we know about learning is impacting on our understanding of pedagogy
There is an increasing understanding of the connections between different theoretical approaches to teaching
and learning, and between social, emotional and cognitive aspects of educational experience. We have
therefore come to understand that teaching and learning need to take account of the role of the socio-cultural
contexts8 in which children live.
As a result, there is a growing understanding of the need to move away from the belief that one model of
learning informs and justifies one model of teaching, towards a realisation that a combination of teaching
strategies produces more powerful effects. Kershner (2003) offers a typology of teaching strategies that are
linked to the type of learning (not the type of learner) that is the focus of a lesson. She suggests that a mixture
of the following strategies is effective for learning:
• Directly raising attainment
• Promoting “active learning”
• Promoting participation and engagement
• Making use of knowledge about learning
Learners in the 21st century need different skills
Today, the concept of “knowing” has shifted from repeating and remembering information to being able to find
and use it. Learners need different skills to achieve this different sort of “knowing” to enable them to access an
ever-developing employment market, or have the skills for self-employment. So, the emphasis in curricula will
need to shift (and some curricula around the world are shifting) from an emphasis on factual knowledge to an
emphasis on problem solving and strategic knowledge—in other words, learners need to know where to get
knowledge from a wide range of sources and apply it to a wide range of situations.

c. The reality of learner difference

Letsha always has music on when she is studying. She often makes up rhymes or taps out a beat to remember
her periodic table. Her brother Dino always invites two friends around and they sit and study together,
explaining concepts to each other and talking things through. Her older sister, Bokang reads her textbook,
highlights the relevant sections, and paraphrases them in pages of notes.
Who studies in the correct way? They all do! They simply have different preferred ways of making meaning
from learning.
Innate learner differences, such as temperament or personality, inherited characteristics, and other attributes,
interact with the environment in a reciprocal way, i.e. each influences the other. It is therefore inevitable that
the ways in which learners make meaning from their learning, and their support needs, will be different.
Therefore, we think of an everyday classroom as one in which the “classroom community is inevitably diverse,
consisting of individuals who differ in many ways and who may require different forms of support at different
times in their school careers” (Green & Moodley, 2018).
These factors combine to deliver a powerful message that education based on the bell-curve concept of
“normal” is no longer fit for purpose for our learners—it will not help us plan effectively for the what and how
of teaching and learning in diverse classrooms. Davis asks whether this concept of “normal” is “playing itself
out and losing its utility as a driving force”, proposing that “diversity is the new normality” (Davis, 2013, cited in
Slee, 2018: 52). This is a significant shift in thinking that is starting to happen in educational systems across
the world.
As part of this shift we are developing a growing understanding of the need to move away from the belief that
one model of learning informs and justifies one model of teaching. Hart (2004: 3), for example, argues that real
equity in learning “becomes possible when young people’s school experiences are not organised and
structured on the basis of judgements of ability”. Achieving equity for diverse learners therefore requires a shift
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in practice as well as in thinking. This shift will be the focus of Unit 4, but it is worth exploring your initial
thoughts here through an activity.

Definition
Unit 2

8 Socio-cultural contexts: Beliefs, customs, language, culture, practices and behaviours that exist in a society.

11
 ACTIVITY 4: Thinking about learners’ ability

Writing
1. What other ways are there of thinking about children’s learning—different to judgments of ability—
that you could use to organise and structure experiences for learners in your classroom? Consider a
variety of different things you can notice or observe in what learners can do and what they may
struggle with.
2. What might be some alternative ways of thinking about the difficulties children experience with
their learning?
3. How can Indigenous Knowledge Systems play a role in changing perceptions about learning and
difficulties with learning?

As we wrote at the beginning of this unit, throughout it we will be supporting you to start a journey towards
becoming a teacher who works inclusively and who:
• Thinks about and plans for diverse learners
• Views their differences as an asset and uses them as a resource
We continue this journey by exploring some of the ways in which children are diverse; it is vital for you as a teacher
to be able to recognise and understand diversity in order to be able to respond to it effectively.

ACTIVITY 5: Diversity in the classroom

Writing
Think of a class you have recently taught, or a
class you were in at school. What differences did
you notice between the learners in this class?
Record as many as you can think of in whatever
way makes most sense to you, e.g. written,
graphic or audio.
Next, think about an iceberg in which you can
only see part of the iceberg above the water line,
as in the diagram below.
Look at the differences you recorded about the
learners in the first part of the activity. Consider
where they would be in the context of the
iceberg, using the following questions:
1. Are all the differences you recorded
observable just by looking or listening? These
would sit above the surface of the water.
Identify them on your list.
2. If not, which differences sit below the surface?
These are differences that exist between
learners but they are not so easily visible in the
classroom. Identify these too.
3. Do some of the differences you recorded sit
both above and below the surface? Can you
see part of them but there is more to the
difference than just what you can easily see. If
so, which ones?
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Figure 3: Iceberg
Unit 2

12
 1.2 Recognise and understand
learner diversity
We have established that diversity is a reality in 21st century classrooms. Let’s consider diversity in the context
of your classroom.
It is likely that, through thinking about learner differences in relation to the iceberg, you have realised that:
• What you can actually see or hear in terms of learner difference in a classroom is a small part of what is
really going on, and is related to deeper differences that are less visible or not at all visible.
• Differences that you are able to observe more easily in the classroom could be related to a variety of factors
that lie below the surface. It is therefore crucial to plan your responses to learner diversity from knowledge
about your learners rather than assumptions—otherwise you may give them inappropriate support for their
learning. We will return to this idea later in the unit.
Let’s now consider some of the learner differences—from above and below the surface—that are common in
South Africa and classrooms worldwide. It’s important to understand the range of possible differences so that
you can notice the differences between your learners and get to know them well, and therefore know what
they need from you in the classroom.
These differences are often grouped into five broad areas, which are commonly used to talk about
learner difference:
• Cognitive (the way a learner acquires knowledge, how they think)
• Communication and interaction
• Psychosocial (social and emotional)
• Sensory and physical
• Societal factors (e.g. socio-economic and family circumstances, gender identity, sexuality, religious
beliefs, culture)
The sections below are connected to these broad areas—please look out for and make links for yourself while
you are studying them. Hold the image of the iceberg in your head, too. When you’re reading, think about the
connections between what you can see above the surface and what might be happening below the surface.

1.2.1 Levels of learners’ access to the curriculum

In an average class of 40–50 learners you can be sure that not all learners are accessing the curriculum at
their grade level. There are generally four levels of access to the curriculum that can be identified in any class:
• Learners who have already mastered the grade level content (these are gifted learners requiring enhanced
or more complex content)
• Learners accessing the curriculum at grade level
• Learners requiring “scaffolding” or support to access or engage the curriculum at grade level
• Learners who are “grade straddling” or engaging the curriculum at one or more grades below grade level
The percentage of learners in each group differs from school to school, and even from grade to grade. When
viewed in this way it becomes clear that planning a lesson that only allows for grade level access to the
curriculum means that many learners in your class are excluded from meaningful participation and learning.

1.2.2 Ways of making meaning from learning

Each child has unique interests, likes and dislikes, and these will impact on the ways they make meaning from
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learning. Take the example of a child struggling with the mathematical concept of grouping. You know they are
passionate about cars so you could ask them to go through old magazines and newspapers, cut out pictures of
cars and sort them into big/small/different colours to learn about grouping in a way that is relevant as well as
interesting to them. In addition to interests, likes and dislikes, just as children enjoy doing different things, they
are also good at different things or have different strengths. The ability to recognise these different strengths
in your learners is an important aspect of understanding the diversity of your classroom.
Unit 2

13
If you adopt an asset-based9 approach to teaching, you use learners’ strengths to address challenges. This is
different from the deficit10 model or needs-based10 approach, which focuses on the learner’s weaknesses or
areas that need “fixing” and ignores what the learner does well. An asset-based approach says “Let’s take what
we are already good at and build on that”. For example, if a child is hyperactive and does not wait their turn but
is a good leader, put them in charge of allocating turns in the game.

1.2.3 The ways that learners behave

In any class of learners you will notice a wide range of behaviours. Whole books are written about this, so we
only have the space here to summarise. Let’s think back to the Grade 6 class in the first case study, and the
four children mentioned there: Thapelo, Jayendra, Funeka and Aminah. Each of these children displayed big
differences in their levels and ways of communicating, interacting, concentrating and participating. For
example, Thapelo communicates readily, but Funeka less so; Jayendra’s likes to be active and maybe has a
shorter concentration span, while Aminah seems to like to daydream in her seat; Funeka appears to participate
less than some of the other children.
These are the some of the characteristics you would notice above the surface of the water if you were thinking
about them in relation to Activity 5. Underneath the surface, differences in behaviour can be linked to many
different reasons, including differences in the brain that lead to a variety of ways in which learners see and
interact with their environment, changes in circumstances at home, or psychosocial issues.
We will return to working positively with behaviour and supporting learners with psychosocial challenges in Unit 4.

1.2.4 Learners’ socio-economic circumstances

This refers to the interaction of social and economic factors within a community, looking at the differences
between people, based mainly on their financial circumstances. In relation to education, the socio-economic
circumstances of children have a direct correlation or link to their learning outcomes.

Economic advantage or disadvantage determines not only which schools children

end up in, but also how prepared they are physically, socially and cognitively for
school and how well they fare as they progress through the school system. Because
economic advantage is still highly correlated with race, most black and coloured
children, because they have less educated caregivers with fewer resources, enter
the school system with a significant potential academic disadvantage relative to
their white peers. SAHRC & UNICEF, 2014

Child
grows up
In South Africa the resources and quality of in poverty
education offered in schools are still largely unequal.
In well-resourced schools children have access to
Is significantly

The
textbooks, materials, and extra-curricular and a host Family in disadvantaged in
of other activities, all contributing to their holistic poverty education and skills

Poverty
education and development. This is in stark contrast
to learners in poorly resourced schools where
access to even basic amenities like electricity, toilets
and a library are limited. The better schools charge Cycle
higher school fees and are situated in more affluent
or well-off communities. It is difficult for a poor family Fails to escape the Struggles to
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

to access these schools. The situation is even more poverty cycle get a job

challenging for learners in rural areas.

Figure 4: Poverty Cycle

Definition
Unit 2

9 Asset-based: Unlocking the potential of learners by focusing on their talents.

10 Deficit or needs-based: Focusing on your learners’ weaknesses.

14
 ACTIVITY 6: Impact of poverty on education outcomes

OR
Audio Visual
Watch the YouTube video found at
http://bit.ly/2IejhKi. Answer the following
questions.
1. What are the ways (negative or positive) in
which your economic circumstances
impact on your education outcomes?
2. Have your own economic circumstances
enabled or posed a challenge to your
receiving an education? Explain.
Reading
Read the following research paper and consider
the following questions. https://bit.ly/2wkdTjn
1. In which ways do economic circumstances
impact on education outcomes?
2. Do you agree that low quality education is a
poverty trap? Explain.
3. Have your own economic circumstances
enabled or posed a challenge to your
receiving an education? Explain.

The South African legacy of apartheid means that children from poor communities still perform disproportionally
worse in education than their more affluent peers. It is unfortunately also true that poor educational outcomes
mean that it is more difficult for people to escape from poverty.
In addition to families living in poverty not accessing good quality education, the effects of poverty also have a
direct impact on the ability to learn. A child who is cold, tired or hungry cannot concentrate on learning in class.
It is important for you, the teacher, to be aware of this as you may need to access support for learners to
address these barriers. In the same way as financial circumstances impact a child’s learning, so to do their
family and community (social) circumstances.

Children with better-educated caregivers and more educational resources in the

home are more likely to succeed at school and consequently later on in life. The
educational expectations of family members and the broader community may,
furthermore, influence child expectations of and behaviour towards educational
attainment. SAHRC & UNICEF, 2014

Here it is argued that the attitudes and perceptions of both the family and community towards education
impacts the level of the learner‘s educational achievement. Where education is not seen as important, or when
achievement beyond a certain grade is not considered valuable, then the learner’s motivation for and chances
of success beyond this, are limited. In the same way, early childhood intervention impacts “school readiness” and
later achievement in education.

In South Africa less than 30% of children in the poorest 75% of schools have
attended two years of preschool or more, in comparison to 60% of children from
the wealthiest 25% of schools (Spaull, 2013). These early inequalities precede, and
arguably cause to some degree, the large inequalities that are evident later on in
children’s schooling careers. SAHRC & UNICEF, 2014

Community and family violence also have an impact on learning. Children living in fear or who have been
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

traumatised by violence struggle to focus and learn. Moreover, they can suffer long-term psychological effects
from trauma including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or other emotional or behavioural challenges.
These difficulties could include anxiety, depression and deviant behaviour11.

Definition
Unit 2

11 Deviant behaviour: Behaviour that goes against the norms and values of society.
An example of this is criminal behaviour.

15
ACTIVITY 7: Put yourself in their shoes
Reading
Read the four case studies below. Choose one of these case studies and put yourself in the place of the
child and situation described in it.
1. How would you want to be treated at school in these circumstances?
2. You have put yourself in that child’s shoes. How could this impact on how you treat children in
your classroom?
CASE STUDY 1: Maria
Maria is a five-year-old girl. She is in Grade R at the
local primary school. She lives in a violent
community in Cape Town. Rival gangs frequently
battle over territory and drug dealing. Her teacher
was concerned because Maria started crying
every day at school. All she wanted to do was to go
home. The teacher thought it might be problems
with her friends or bullying, and called her mother
in to discuss the situation. Her mom said Maria
seemed happy when she got home. The first thing
she did was run to her daddy to give him a big hug
and then she would stop crying.
Her mom spoke with Maria and she said she liked her
CASE STUDY 2: Lingwile Primary School
Lingwile Primary School is the local school next to
a large informal settlement in an urban township.
The community has high levels of unemployment
and crime. The school is often vandalised. One
Tuesday morning, the Grade 6s and 7s were writing
exams. District officials from the Department were
visiting the school. They had come in a minibus
CASE STUDY 3: Joshua
Joshua is 12 years old. He has always performed
well at school, is well liked and appears to be happy
and confident. But at the start of the third term
things changed. He started fighting with other boys
and picking on one of the girls in class. He often
didn’t finish his homework and his marks started to
deteriorate. He ended up in detention more than
once and didn’t seem to care.
The teacher referred him to the school counsellor
and set up a meeting with his parents. Only his
friends and bullying didn’t seem to be the reason.
One evening one of her dad’s friends came to visit
and Maria started crying uncontrollably and wouldn’t
let go of her father. Suddenly her mom knew the
problem. Her father was a police officer. Maria had
overheard her dad’s friend warning him that a local
gang had put him on their “hit” list. Every day when
she went to school she was terrified that when she
got her home her father would have been shot dead.
The teacher and her mom and dad were able to
discuss this with Maria, reassure her and put
some simple communication plans in place to
ease her fears.
which was parked outside. All of a sudden there
were gun shots. The children all dived under their
desks, screaming. It turned out that the driver of
the mini bus was held up and the vehicle was
hijacked. The learners were traumatised by the
incident and exams were postponed.
mother attended the meeting and explained that
she and her husband were getting divorced.
Joshua’s father had moved out. Joshua was angry
about this and felt betrayed by his dad. It was clear
he felt hurt and powerless and was acting out at
school. His mother and father were shocked to
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realise the impact their divorce was having on him,
made an effort to spend time with him and reassure
him that they loved him. Joshua continued to go for
counselling, and his school work started improving.
Unit 2
16
 CASE STUDY 4: Thuli
Thuli lives with her grandmother and her five siblings
and cousins in a peri-urban area outside
Pietermaritzburg. Her uncles helped build onto the
house and there are now three bedrooms, a big
kitchen area and pay-as-you-go electricity. Because
there is no running water the toilet is outside. Thuli is
a good learner, and has dreams of becoming a
clothing designer. She usually gets her homework in
on time, takes part in activities and enjoys her
projects and assignments. But over the past month
things have changed. Thuli has become sullen. She
won’t respond to questions and she spends much of
her time in class daydreaming. Her marks have fallen
and when she was sent to the principal’s office she
stared at the floor and refused to say anything. Last
week Thuli’s teacher had to break up a fight
between Thuli and her best friend. The principal
asked her grandmother to come to school for a
meeting to find out what the problem was. She told
him that Thuli was raped a month ago. It happened
late one night when she needed to go to the toilet
outside. She found her neighbour’s son and his
friend outside the toilet, smoking dagga and
drinking. The neighbour’s son held her down and his
friend raped her. The principal contacted a local
rape crisis NGO and Thuli is now receiving treatment
and counselling. The two boys have been arrested
and are awaiting trial.

1.2.5 Psychosocial well-being

Psychosocial well-being is a term that is used to describe our mental, emotional and social health—how we think
and feel about ourselves, the quality of our interactions with others, and our sense of belonging in our communities.
We all have different degrees of psychosocial well-being. It can be helpful to think about it as a continuum.

Poor Satisfactory Excellent

Where we are on this continuum can change over time. Our psychosocial health can be influenced by a range
of factors including our biology, life circumstances and experiences—or, to use a technological analogy, our
hard-wiring soft-wiring.

Figure 5: Onion 1 Let’s explore psychological health by comparing it to an onion.

The outer skin of the onion represents our behaviour—how we present
ourselves to the world and behave in different situations. The layers
can be peeled back further and further, revealing various factors that
influence our psychosocial well-being and, ultimately, our behaviour.
a. Behaviour
Let’s have a closer look at this outer skin—behaviour—in relation to
learners in a class.

ACTIVITY 8: Learner behaviour

LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

Journal
Think about a class you are teaching, or have taught, or a class you were in at school.
1. What were the ways in which the learners presented themselves to the world, i.e. what behaviours
do, or did, these children show?
2. Did you ever notice changes in the behaviour of any of the children in this class? If so, what were they?
Unit 2

17
You have probably listed a whole range of behaviours from, for example, loud to quiet, active to passive, or
kind to unkind. Human behaviours are another way in which we are diverse. This is not surprising given the
differences in our life experiences. These experiences combine over time to make “scripts” for how we behave
in different situations. In other words, we learn through our experiences to react and behave in a similar way in
similar situations.
Behaviours are our way of communicating, or sometimes trying to hide—with different degrees of
success!—what is happening underneath our outer skin. This is why it is important that, as a teacher, you are
able to notice differences in behaviour, both between learners and also within a learner. When—as with
Joshua and Thuli in the case studies on pages 15 and 16—a learner’s behaviour suddenly changes, this is an
alarm bell that requires you to take note and question what might be happening in their lives.
Let’s peel back this outer skin to see what’s going on underneath.
Figure 6: Onion 2

b. Thoughts, feelings and emotions

Underneath our “outer skin” behaviour are a number of different layers.
The first layer is our thoughts and feelings—about ourselves, about
others, about situations. Let’s explore this from a personal perspective
in a learning situation.
Again, it’s likely that you came up with a wide range of thoughts and
feelings for this exercise, both positive and negative. Learning can
bring about some amazing thoughts and feelings when things go well,
but it also brings difficult ones. While we can’t know exactly what other
people—including our learners—are thinking and feeling without
asking them, we can at least empathise with them. We can put
Figure 7: Onion 3 ourselves in their shoes and use our own experience to make some
educated deductions which then inform our behaviour towards them.
Let’s peel back the onion layers again and look at some of the possible
causes of how we think and feel.

c. External factors that affect thoughts and feelings

First, let’s consider some external factors that impact on how we think
and feel about ourselves and our lives.

ACTIVITY 9: Remembering learning experiences

Journal
Think of a time when, as a child or adolescent, you felt good about a learning experience—this could
be, for example, something you suddenly understood that had been challenging, something you really
enjoyed, or a teacher who always made you feel confident.
1. What were you thinking at this time about yourself and about the situation?
2. What were you feeling at the time?
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3. Now do the same exercise thinking of a time when you didn’t feel so good about something you
were learning.
Unit 2

18
 ACTIVITY 10: My community

Journal
Think about your own community. What factors—for example, family and socio-economic
circumstances—do you think can have a significant impact on learners’ psychosocial well-being?
You could use the four case studies in the previous section as a starting point for your thinking.
Think of as many factors as you can and record them as words, symbols or drawings.

Many of these factors are similar across the world, there are a number that are particularly significant for the
psychosocial well-being of learners in South Africa. Here are some of them:
• Family circumstances: Child Gauge South Africa 2018 reported that, compared to 48 of the other most
populous countries in the world, children in South Africa are the least likely to live with two parents, and the
most likely to live with one parent or no parents (Hall & Richter, 2018). There are a variety of reasons for this,
including parental death or illness (notably from AIDS or substance abuse), parents working away from the
home, and divorce (Singh & Steyn, 2013). The implications of these circumstances for South Africa are that
there are large numbers of children who might be cared for by extended family members, are in foster care,
or are themselves heading households. All these situations can impact on the level of emotional support a
young person receives as they are growing up.
• Community violence: Many South African children regularly witness high levels of violence both at home
and within their wider community (Barbarin & Richter, 2001; Singh & Steyn, 2013; Jamieson et al, 2018). In one
recent study of 2 000 children born in Soweto in 1990, it was found that 99% had experienced or witnessed
some sort of violence, and over 40% had multiple experiences of violence at home or in their community,
including school (Jamieson et al, 2018).
• Peer relationships: The incidence of bullying and peer pressure is significant in South Africa. The negative
impact of bullying—including physical, emotional, direct and indirect, and online bullying—is well documented
worldwide. Peer pressure can have a significantly positive impact, but is also connected to behaviour that
leads to increased rates of teenage pregnancy and substance abuse.
• Gangs: In some parts of South Africa, gang culture—with its associated violence, aggression, substance
abuse and crime—is widespread.

ACTIVITY 11: Impact of external factors

Writing
Choose two of the above issues. Discuss the possible effects of each on learners, and suggest ways
that you, as a teacher, could support your learners who are experiencing these challenges.
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19
Finally, let’s peel one more layer of the onion back and look at internal factors, or needs, that impact on our
psychosocial well-being.

Figure 8: Onion 4 d. Internal factors that affect our

thoughts and feelings
We are now going to look at three factors inside each of us that
also play a substantial role in our psychological well-being
throughout life. These are:
1. Attachment
2. Adolescence
3. Needs

1. Attachment
Attachment theory suggests that the early relationship a child has with their mother or primary caregiver
impacts on the child’s social, emotional and cognitive development. Although the theory originated in Britain, it
has been tested worldwide and—with some cultural differences—found to be universally applicable. The
theory was developed by psychoanalyst John Bowlby in the 1940s. He worked in London with many children
who had poor psychosocial well-being and found that the mother’s early connection with the child
(“attachment”) had the most significant impact on the child’s well-being.
Attachment characterises how, as infants, we get the security we need by seeking closeness to our primary
caregiver (usually our mother, but this could also be another caregiver). Newborn babies seek this closeness
by crying, and later by smiling and making sounds. Ideally, this communication creates a warm bond with our
caregiver. This closeness and bond gives us the security we need to explore the world as we grow older.
Other psychologists expanded on Bowlby’s theory and identified four main styles of attachment:
• Secure: The infant uses mother as secure base for exploration, is comforted by caregiver when reunited
after separation
• Insecure–ambivalent: The infant does not show much evidence of using caregiver as a secure base for
exploration, passive or upset when reunited
• Insecure–avoidant: The infant does not show much evidence of using caregiver as a secure base for
exploration, keeps distance when reunited
• Disorganised or disoriented: The infant shows no predictable attachment response to caregiver; this
style is often seen in children who have been regularly abused or neglected
These different styles of attachment are relevant to you as a teacher because they impact on how children
behave as they are growing up. Attachment affects friendships, social skills, acceptance in peer groups,
empathy, self-reliance, problem-solving ability, confidence, and level of aggression. Different styles of
attachment also result in different learning behaviours, and impact on achievement, as Table 1 shows.

ACTIVITY 12: Attachment in the classroom

Journal
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Have a look at Table 1 and see if you recognise any of the behaviours in yourself and any other learners
you know. What implications do these behaviours have for classroom management? Can you think of ways
that you, as a teacher, can support the different attachment styles of learners in your class?
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20
 Table 1: Attachment styles in the classroom

Insecure— Insecure— Disorganised/

Secure
ambivalent avoidant disoriented

Learner’s Believes they High level Shows indifference Intense anxiety—

can learn of anxiety to uncertainty in may be controlling
approach
new situations
to school/ Classroom is safe Needs clear
classroom structure, rules
Follows rules and and routines
routines readily

Learner’s Trusts teacher Needs to hold Denial of need Finds it hard to

attention of teacher for help trust the teacher’s
response to
Asks for authority, but may
teacher help readily Depends on Needs to learn submit to higher
teacher to engage to trust teacher authority,
Can wait for in learning but also needs to e.g. principal
teacher’s attention be independent
Hostile to teacher of teacher May not accept
Able to tolerate not when frustrated being taught by
knowing something teacher—
so lets teacher “I know this”
teach it

Learner’s Believes they Finds it difficult Any hostility Fears of

can learn to attempt task if towards teacher is incompetence,
response to
not supported directed at the task being humiliated
tasks Takes risks and through a task
tries new things Unable to focus on Task is an because of not
task for fear of emotional safety knowing—may lead
Sets goals and losing teacher’s barrier between to rejection of task,
works out how to attention—needs learner and teacher particularly if new
reach them to learn that
teacher will not Can only start task Gives impression of
Concentrates forget them on their own knowing everything
on tasks without help

Able to manage
difficult feelings
associated
with learning

Resilient and
optimistic—
keeps trying

Learner’s skills Likely to Challenges with Limited use May seem

be achieving numeracy and of creativity unimaginative
and challenges
concepts of time and language and uncreative
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Likely to be Likely to be Likely to be

underachieving underachieving underachieving
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21
2. Adolescence
For adolescents, another factor to take into account is the biological changes that take place starting roughly
at age 13 and lasting until around 21, when the brain goes through a “re-wiring” process. The brain connections
in the cortex, particularly the pre-frontal cortex—the part of your brain behind your forehead—need to be
thinned out in preparation for adulthood. Many of the childhood pathways fall away, and new ones are formed.
While this is happening, adolescents are more impulsive. They take more risks and do not think as rationally as
they might when they reach adulthood, or even as they did when they were children! They can think things
through, but they need more time to do so.

ACTIVITY 13: Impact of adolescence on learning

Journal
Think back to your adolescence at school. Did your behaviour and that of your classmates change, and
if so, how? What impact, if any, did this have on your achievement and behaviour at school? Can you
think of ways that you, as a teacher, can support your adolescent learners?

If you are interested in adolescents’ brain development, you might like to watch this TED talk:
https://bit.ly/2JQCWSN

3. Needs
American psychologist Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is perhaps the most common model used to
summarise human needs in relation to psychosocial well-being. His theory, which he first developed in the
1940s but continued to refine over several decades, is often represented as a pyramid (although Maslow never
did this himself). Here is a pyramid version of his theory—please note that the visual size of each part of the
pyramid is irrelevant.
The broad idea of the theory is that as humans we are motivated by our needs. Firstly, we try to satisfy our
physiological needs and, once these are met, then we are motivated to move on to meet our safety needs
(which is where attachment sits). Once these basic needs are met, we turn our attention to our psychological
needs, starting with belongingness and love, then move on to esteem, and eventually to self-actualisation.
Let’s look at this model with a critical eye.

Figure 9: Maslow’s original hierarchy of needs—pyramid

(Source: https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html)
Self Self-fulfillment
actualization: needs
achieving one’s
full potential,
including creative
activities

Esteem needs:
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prestige and feeling of accomplishment Psychological

needs
Belongingness and love needs:
intimate relationships, friends

Safety needs:
Basic
security, safety
needs
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Physiological needs:
food, water, warmth, rest

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 ACTIVITY 14: Looking critically at Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs

Reading
Read the article below about the relevance of Maslow’s hierarchy to Nigeria, and consider these questions:
1. What do you think about the author’s view of Maslow’s hierarchy in relation to Nigeria? Do you think
each area of need has to be satisfied before moving onto the next one? Or do you think humans are
motivated to work on different areas at once? Give examples to support your opinion.
2. Think about your own context. To what extent do you think Maslow’s hierarchy is relevant to the
psychosocial well-being in your community? Explain your reasons.

ARTICLE

By Ayodeji Morakinyo 2012/01/15
NIGERIA: DOES MASLOW’S THEORY
OF NEEDS APPLY HERE?
Management history has it on record that in 1954, a
year when even my father had not been born,
Professor Abraham Maslow of the Brandies
University developed a theory on human hierarchy
of needs. In the theory which has been published in
several management books since then, the
Professor stated that motivation depends on the
realisation of a certain priority of specific needs and
he classified these needs into five levels:
physiological, safety and security, belonging and
social, self-esteem and status and self-actualisation
needs. He further classified these needs into lower/
primary needs and higher/secondary needs.
According to him, human beings try to satisfy the
first level of need before considering the second
level. Then the third, fourth and fifth levels of needs
are pursued consecutively. As such, the
physiological needs (food, water, sex, etc) are what
bother human beings basically and once those are
met, they seek to satisfy their safety and security
needs (clothing, shelter, insurance, etc). When those
too are met, they aim to join clubs and religious
organisations, open a facebook or twitter account,
know the latest fashion or music albums, etc
(belonging and social needs). Next, they strive to
own luxurious properties, organise parties, aspire
for better jobs or more education, etc (self-esteem
and status needs). Finally, they aim to reach the peak
of their careers, become the richest, help the poor,
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employ them. Virtually all the religious adults in
Nigeria belong to one religious group or the other.
Even when they have not eaten and are not fasting,
they give offerings and attend vigils. Many market
women would rather pay their children’s school fees
before thinking of what they themselves would eat.
And, a lot of youths would have renewed their
blackberry subscriptions before they think of buying
lunch. On a lighter note, even certain among the
unhealthy politicians in Nigeria have evolved from
humans to extraordinary beings whose physiological
needs now include the accumulation of public funds.
So, the assertion that human needs follow Professor
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is not applicable to the
current trend in Nigeria.
He also stated that only the human needs that are
yet to be satisfied can influence people’s behaviour.
This applies to Nigeria because the reasons why
people leave the comfort of their homes every day
is to go and earn a living. But the Professor also
stated that a time would come when the triangle will
invert itself because majority of the people in a
society would have attained the lower needs (1-3)
and be yearning for self-esteem and self
actualisation (higher 4-5) needs. By implication,
lower needs in terms of clothing, food, shelter,
insurance, memberships in clubs and associations,
etc, will no longer be sought by most people since
they would be satisfied. Now, that may be true for
developed countries where electricity, food,
housing, etc are available and well-catered for by
government but it is precisely wrong in the Nigerian
context. The poor quality of governance and ethical

etc (self-actualisation/fulfilment needs). management in Nigeria and many African countries

But opposed to these thoughts are the lifestyles of
people in Nigeria. Many hungry people are now on
social networks (facebook, linkedin, twitter,
myspace) seeking to make friends with well-to-do
people who might be generous enough to help or
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has negatively influenced the continent’s
developmental status which has in turn made this
aspect of Maslow’s theory inapplicable here.
(Source: https://www.cp-africa.com/2012/01/15/nigeria-does-
maslow’s-theory-of-needs-apply-here/)

23
Critics of Maslow’s model point out that it is:
• Hard to test scientifically, in particular the area of self-fulfilment, as it is so subjective
• Based on individualistic cultures rather than those that work more collectively, and therefore may be less
relevant in some areas of the world than others
In addition, the idea of having to completely attain one level of need before you move on to the next has also
been questioned. These criticisms of the model were put to the test in a worldwide study published in 2011.
This study found that Maslow’s identification of needs is broadly accurate, but it questioned the hierarchy
aspect. Across the world people said that they were working successfully to meet their psychological and
self-actualisation needs, even when their basic needs weren’t being met. (Tay & Diener, 2011)
So, while you may want to keep thinking critically about Maslow’s hierarchy, its content is a solid basis from
which to think about the psychological well-being needs of your learners.
Let’s bring all our layers together through an activity.

ACTIVITY 15: Getting to know your learners’

psychosocial well-being

Journal
Think about a learner you know—this could be someone you are teaching or have taught, or someone
you know from your family or community.
1. Using the continuum at the beginning of this section, how would you describe their overall
psychosocial well-being?
Let’s unpack what makes you think this. Think of this learner in the same way as an onion with layers:
2. What do you notice and observe about their outer skin—their behaviour?
3. What—as best you can, using your experience and your empathy—do you think some of their
thoughts and feelings could be about themselves and the world? How do you think these relate to
their behaviour?
4. For this learner, what do you think are the circumstances and experiences in their life that impact—
positively and negatively—on their thoughts and feelings, and their behaviour?
5. Look again at Maslow’s needs (remembering that the hierarchy is not so important). To what extent
do you think this learner’s psychosocial needs are being met? Explain your reasoning.
6. What do you think your role as a teacher is to support your learners’ psychosocial well-being?

As a teacher, it’s a challenge to get to know and understand the psychosocial make-up of all the children in all
your classes. Just as your learners will rarely know what you have been doing between the end of school one
day and the start of school the next, you can’t assume you know what has been happening in their lives.
However, acknowledging the range of psychological well-being of your learners and their diverse experiences,
in combination with developing and showing empathy and understanding, will go a long way. By saying this, we
are not advocating that “anything goes” in your classroom! We will explore ways of putting this empathy and
understanding into practice within a structure of high expectations for all in Unit 4.
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 1.2.6 Disability
“Imbecile”, “retarded”, “lunatic”, “cripple”, “spastic”, “handicapped”, “educationally sub-normal” ... These are just
some of the terms that in the past were considered acceptable to describe people that, today, we refer to as
people with a disability or who have disorders, conditions, impairments or difficulties. These are terms that tend
to have their origins in medical language, but which are used more widely across society.
Language evolves continuously along with the ways people perceive themselves and how society views them.
For example, some people might prefer the phrase “person with a disability” because they define themselves
as a person first, while others might view their disability as an integral part of who they are and prefer the term
“disabled person”. Some may prefer the term “disabled” because they perceive themselves as “dis-abled” by
society, while others prefer not to be labelled at all, as they see this as a label that is put on them by society.
As a teacher you will need to be aware of and sensitive to evolving language and perceptions, the advantages
and disadvantages of labelling, and individuals’ wishes. In this unit we will use the terms “disability”, “disorder”,
“condition”, “impairment” and “difficulty” as they are still widely accepted, but we ask you to remain aware of
the problematic nature of terminology.

a. Defining disability
Defining disability has historically been a challenge and no single definition has emerged. Article 1 of the UN
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UN CRPD) describes disability as “long-term physical,
mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which, in interaction with various barriers, may hinder full and
effective participation in society on an equal basis with others”.
The 2015 South African White Paper on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (WRPD) similarly avoids a finite
definition, rather stating that:
Disability is imposed by society when a person with a physical, psychosocial, intellectual, neurological and/or
sensory impairment is denied access to full participation in all aspects of life, and when society fails to uphold
the rights and specific needs of individuals with impairments.
It is important to bear in mind that disability is the combination of an impairment with barriers that hinder full and
effective participation on an equal basis with others. It is not the impairment on its own, but rather the extent
to which the person is prevented from full participation that determines the extent of the disability.
Any attempt to marginalise, exclude or inhibit a person with disabilities from full participation is a violation of
their rights. Barriers to full participation include aspects like policy, attitude, environment and transport, and be
found at an individual, organisational or whole system level. See if you can identify what aspects of policy are
represented below.
Example 1
In the classroom, teacher confidence can be a barrier. When the extent of a learner’s difficulty is larger than
the teacher’s capacity to respond confidently, it is often assumed that the learner is disabled or needs
specialist teaching. In this way, the difficulties children experience in learning come to be defined as disabilities.
Example 2
For a learner to get support, they often need to have been identified as having a difficulty, creating a further
barrier as the learner is labelled as “different”. As we have seen previously, this labelling completes a cycle
where learner diversity is marginalised rather than considered an asset.
Example 3
There is plenty of evidence that the structure of schooling institutionally discriminates against learners who are
economically disadvantaged or speak languages other than English or Afrikaans by pre-judging their abilities.
This discrimination leads to the overrepresentation of these groups in special education, again reinforcing the
idea of diversity as a problem instead of an asset.
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b. Diversity and disability

It is crucial to recognise that children with disabilities do not themselves form one homogeneous group. There
is wide diversity in disability. Different types of disabilities and the severity of the impairment impact on the
diversity of learning needs. The term “special educational needs” covers many kinds of difficulties in learning,
and means different things to different people in different contexts. It covers an array of problems, from those
Unit 2

related to particular impairments to those related to learning and behavioural difficulties experienced by some
learners compared with other similar learners. These impairments include:

25
• Physical: ability to move or physical functioning
• Psychosocial: thinking, mood and behaviour, social and emotional state
• Cognitive: learning, reasoning, problem-solving, everyday social and practical activities
• Communication and interaction: acquisition and expression of language and speech, interaction with others
• Sensory: the use of the senses, most commonly, hearing and vision
Some of the terms you may be familiar with that are used to describe children perceived to have a disability
that impacts on their learning include:
• Albinism
• Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
• Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) or Autistic Spectrum Continuum (ASC); Asperger Syndrome
• Down Syndrome
• Dyslexia
• Foetal Alcohol Syndrome Disorder (FASD)
• Hearing impairment
• Stress, anxiety and depression
• Visual impairment
There is a series of Information Sheets in the Appendix that you can use to find out more about each of these
conditions. These are provided as a way of increasing your knowledge so that you can use what you know to
include more learners, not as a means for you to stereotype or label learners using bell-curve thinking. To go
back to our iceberg analogy, the behaviours connected with these terms are only the tip of the iceberg above
the surface of the water line; behaviour and diagnosis of a condition or disability do not define a person. Please
remember this while you are interacting with the information sheets.
How do teachers tend to talk about children with disabilities, impairments and difficulties with learning? What’s
the impact of this language?
It is important to note that not all impairments are disabilities. As we have seen above, children who experience
difficulties in learning are referred to as having “special educational needs” or SEN. The term has become an
abbreviation that teachers use to talk about all kinds of learning problems. As a result, “SEN” covers many kinds
of difficulties in learning, including those resulting from impairments and those related to learning and
behavioural difficulties.
When teachers talk about learners’ difficulties, they judge them to be experienced by some learners compared
with others. This tendency to define differences between individual learners, or groups of learners, reinforces
the idea of “most” and “some”. This idea, in turn, reinforces difference as a problem rather than an asset. In
addition, identifying particular children in this way creates labels, which—as we have seen—can lead to
marginalisation of some learners. Teachers also tend to think of this label as a characteristic of the learner
rather than a problem of teaching and learning that they can work to solve. This thinking leads to teachers
feeling unable to help the learner. We will explore this issue further in Unit 4.

c. Inclusive education and disability

Inclusive education is often incorrectly viewed as being about the education of children with disabilities. As you
will have understood by now, this is not the case. Inclusive education is about affording every child the right to
participate meaningfully in learning in order to reach their full learning potential. It recognises that children are
different and have diverse learning needs. Learners with disabilities may have specific learning needs
associated with their disability and may require additional support to participate on an equal basis with their
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

peers—this is their right.

What is important to remember is that, regardless of the cause of a pupils’ difficulty (whether that is because of an
impairment, inappropriate teaching, or a lack of opportunity to learn), there is always something the teacher can
do to support the learner.
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26
 d. The South African context
In South Africa, children with disabilities have been, and remain, the most excluded and marginalised group in
education. Currently, between 500 000 and 600 000 children with disabilities are out of school in South Africa.
• Whereas some of these children were turned away from mainstream schools in contravention of the
prohibition against unfair discrimination on the basis of disability, others were refused admission to special
schools based on their particular disability or learning needs.
• Many children with disabilities do not attend school due to a failure to provide basic reasonable
accommodation facilities such as wheelchair ramps and accessible toilets.
• Where children with disabilities do access schools, such schools often fail to reasonably accommodate
them. For example, research conducted by Section 27 reveals widespread neglect of and discrimination
against children with visual disabilities, as adequate learning materials are unavailable or teachers are not
sufficiently trained to teach children with visual disabilities (SAHRC, 2013–2017).

When we consider intersectionality, we will see how disability is one of the systems of oppression contributing
to this marginalisation.

ACTIVITY 16: Sunil and Thandkeka’s experiences

Reading
Read the case study and below and consider the following questions:
1. What are some of the barriers Thandeka experiences?
2. How differently do Sunil and Thandeka experience disability?
3. What reasons do you think account for these differences? Use the whole disability section, and your
prior learning, to put together your list of reasons.

CASE STUDY: Sunil and Thandeka

Sunil is a wheelchair user. He attends Infinity
Inclusive School. The school has wheelchair ramps
and adapted toilet facilities. The school also
provides transport for Sunil in an adapted vehicle.
He is included in, and participates fully in, all classes.
His friend Thandeka is also in a wheelchair. She
goes to Community Primary School. The Principal
was reluctant to include her as he said they do not
have training to teach children like her. He also said
the school does not have money for ramps but if her
friends are willing to carry her to her classes, some
of which are on the top floor, she can attend. Her
caregivers have to bring her to school as the school
transport is not wheelchair accessible.

Disability is often described as a “barrier to learning”. This is not strictly true, as we saw from the examples
above. Thandeka’s barrier to learning is not the fact that she is in a wheelchair, but rather the lack of access to
learning (wheelchair ramps). Similarly, a learner with intellectual disability may experience an inflexible
curriculum as a barrier to learning. When the curriculum is adapted to meet the learner’s level of access,
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

learning can take place.

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27
1.2.7 Gender identity and sexual orientation
Gender discrimination has historically played a role in the equality-in-education debate. Today the issue is still
as relevant but has become more complex and multidimensional.
The gender identity diversity in your classroom could potentially be quite broad. The LGBTIQ activism
movement has ensured that the discussion about gender identity and sexual orientation is brought into the
open and given the attention and recognition it deserves.
There is often confusion about the terms “sex”, “sexual orientation” and “gender identity”, so it is important to
define these terms. Sex is biological and refers to the sex characteristics of the human body. Scientifically,
people have been classified as either male or female at birth due to the appearance of genitalia. However,
many people are born with a range of ambiguous sex characteristics and are Intersex. Sexual orientation is
about who you are attracted to emotionally, romantically or sexually. Gender identity does not necessarily
match the sex one was assigned at birth. Your gender identity is how you identify yourself and this can include
a range of identities not limited to the binary definition of gender (male and female). For example, people can
identify as transgender, where they identify differently to their sex assigned at birth or where they do not neatly
fit into “male” or “female” boxes. It is important to respect the gender identity that a person chooses and to
recognise that sex, sexual orientation and gender identity all exist on a broad spectrum.
(GALA Queer Archive et al, 2017; Marnell & Khan, 2016)
The gender identity debate is influenced by the cultural and religious norms of the family and community where
the school and learner are situated, but the rights of people regarding their sexual orientation and gender
identity are protected by the constitution. However, it can be very difficult for a learner to openly discuss their
sexual and/or gender identity if it is considered unacceptable according to these cultural and religious norms.
As an educator, it is imperative to understand that young people can experience various forms of economic and
social marginalisation for various reasons. These challenges are often exacerbated when individuals do not
identify as heterosexual. Entrenched prejudices, conservative attitudes and persistent myths about sexual and
gender diversity all help to create an environment in which queer youth struggle to exercise their basic rights.
Things that many young people take for granted, such as attending school or having access to medical care, are
often denied to queer youth. (Queer is an umbrella term to describe people who identify as LGBTIQ). (Ibid.)

Figure 10: I am human

I AM GAY.
I AM STRAIGHT.
I AM LESBIAN.
I AM BISEXUAL.
I AM TRANSGENDERED.
I AM HUMAN
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“We are born as who we are, the gender thing is something that
is imposed on you.” Laverne Cox, transgender actress and LGBTIQ activist

Definition
Unit 2

12 LGBTIQ stands for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Intersex and Queer. These terms are used to describe a
person’s sexual orientation or gender identity.

28
 L Lesbian: A woman who is emotionally and sexually attracted to women.

G Gay: A man who is emotionally and sexually attracted to men.

B Bisexual: A person who is emotionally and sexually attracted to men and women.

T Transgender: A person whose understanding or expression of their gender is different to their physical sex. A
transgender person may choose to dress, live and act in a way that is different to what society expects of their
gender assigned at birth. Some transgender people may also choose to change their body to affirm their gender
identity through surgery or other medical treatments.

I Intersex: A general term used to describe a range of biological variations in which a person is born with a sexual
anatomy that doesn’t fit the conventional definitions of female or male. These biological variations may manifest
in different ways, some of which may be unnoticed throughout an individual’s life, may be noticeable at birth and
may only become noticeable during puberty.

Q Queer: An umbrella term used to describe anyone who is gender and sexually diverse, and does not subscribe
to heteronormativity (i.e. the belief that heterosexuality or “straight” sexualities are normal and all other sexualities
are abnormal).

A Asexual: An umbrella term used to describe people who are emotionally and psychologically/intellectually
attracted to people. Their attraction is not limited to physical sexual expression.

A Ally: A person who aligns themselves with the struggles of LGBTIQA+ people and shows support in various ways.

P Pansexual: Derived from the Greek prefix “all” and refers to a person who is attracted to people regardless of
their gender identity or sexual orientation.

Figure 11: Acrostic explaining gender and sexual diversity. (Source: Acrostic developed by Genevieve Louw, GALA)

Understanding prejudice and discrimination

As a teacher, you need to be aware of the various forms of prejudice and discrimination that is present in society
and in some school communities. Homophobia and transphobia13 are forms of discrimination, just like racism
and sexism. Discrimination impacts negatively on all members of a community, not just the targets. In your
classroom, you will have to teach a diverse group of learners with varying personal experiences and it is therefore
necessary to highlight that there is no one way that people experience discrimination. Personal experiences are
based on a number of factors, such as race, ability, class, sexual orientation and gender identity. (Ibid.)
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

Definition
Unit 2

13 Homophobia and transphobia encompass a range of negative attitudes and feelings toward people who are
homosexual and/or transgender. These negative attitudes can lead to violence and exclusion and are thus an
infringement of basic human rights.

29
 CASE STUDY:
Voices from transgender and gender non-conforming learners in SA schools
“The uniform is not there to learn, you are there to
learn. They should allow you to decide what you’re
going to wear in terms of the school uniform.”
Rowland, 17
“There was little engagement with any kind of identity
politics in the school curriculum and in things like Life
Orientation where we have Sex Ed regardless of all the
issues that they covered, like sex and contraceptives
and so forth, just in terms of the understanding of
anything beyond heterosexual sex and even within that
framework, it was about not having babies and getting
AIDS and there was no discussion around pleasure …
I got the sense that the whole education system is
scared to engage with queer issues.” David, 22
“The problem started in school, because I was not
that person to go to the toilet because I knew
there’d be a problem. In the boys’ toilet they would
say: ‘What are you doing here? Don’t you see that
you’re a woman? Go to the girls’ toilet.’ So I was that
person who didn’t use the toilet because even if I
wanted to, I didn’t know which toilet to use … I waited
until I got home.” Pretty, 23
(Source: These experiences and quotes were taken from Gender
DynamiX (2014) Young and transgender - http://bit.ly/2YnPvNa)

ACTIVITY 17: Understanding prejudice and discrimination

Reading
After reading the quotes from learners in the case study above, consider the following questions:
1. How do you think these experiences made the learners feel?
2. Does it seem like these learners feel included in their schools?
3. Have you ever encountered a learner or staff member with the same or similar experiences?
4. After reading the three quotes, what do you think are the main challenges that gender and sexual
diverse learners face in schools?

Promoting a culture of safety, inclusivity and non-discrimination in schools

There is ample available information available to reference in order to create inclusive policies for schools.
These documents include the Constitution of South Africa and the South African Schools Act, which
management bodies and educators can draw on in order to promote a culture of safety, inclusivity and non-
discrimination in schools. Let’s explore how school management teams can address bullying against sexual
and gender diverse (LGBTIQ) learners in schools, and how they can promote a culture where everyone feels
welcome and included in the school environment. (Ibid.)

ACTIVITY 18: Promoting a culture of inclusion in your school

Writing
Write a paragraph providing your own suggestions on each of the following questions:
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

1. How can a school’s management team prevent and/or respond to bullying against gender and sexual
diverse (LGBTIQ) learners?
2. What resources do you need in schools in order to make this happen?
3. Does your school comply with the Department of Education’s policy around bullying? Does it comply
with the Schools Act and the Constitution of South Africa? If not, how can your school policy improve
in order to protect the rights of gender and sexual diverse (LGBTIQ) learners?
Unit 2

Visit https://gala.co.za to find out more about the LGBTIQ culture and education in South Africa.

30
 1.2.8 Race, culture and religion
Although South Africa has come a long way from forced racial segregation in education, most schools still
comprise learners from one dominant racial group. This is largely because learners attend the school nearest
to where they live, and our social geography is still racially segregated.
Similarly, some schools are made up of learners from predominantly one religion. The risk is that this becomes
the dominant system and learners from minority religious groups are excluded. For example, a school with
predominantly Christian learners might impose Christian prayer or religious ceremonies on the whole school,
even if there are other minority religions represented at the school.
Many urban schools are made up of learners from different parts of South Africa, Africa and the world, creating
classroom environments rich in racial, cultural and religious diversity. This creates a wonderful opportunity for
learning about different cultures and experiences and how to create an accepting classroom environment.

CASE STUDY: Kai

The Northern Cape is South Africa’s largest
province. It is a mineral-rich province with many
mines. The mines attract mine workers from all
over the country. At a primary school in one such
community the learners were sharing their
weekend activities during the morning lesson.
Kai, who comes from the Namaqua district,
shared how he had been hunting rabbits with his
bow and arrow for the family to eat. The other
children laughed and teased him. The teacher
wisely saw this as an opportunity for the children
to learn about and appreciate his culture as much
as their own.
The teacher asked Kai to bring his bow and arrow to
school the next day and give the class a
demonstration. The other learners were so impressed
with his skills and were clamouring for a chance to try
it out. Kai was proud to share his heritage.

ACTIVITY 19: Dominant and minority groups at school

Journal
Think back to your time at school. To what extent was your school racially integrated? Was there an assumed
dominant culture or religion? Were you part of a minority group? Did you know anyone who was? How did you
or they feel about being in the minority? What impact did this have on your experience at school?
Think of ways that you can include local indigenous knowledge in your teaching.

1.2.9 Language
Learning is taught in home languages for the first three years of schooling with English taught as a subject, and then in
Grade 4 there is the switch to English as medium of instruction. The reality is that in Grade 4 many children are taught in
a language that is not their home language and they have insufficient knowledge of English. This can pose several
difficulties for the teacher. Added to this, with the migration of families from other African countries and further afield, in
many South African classrooms there is often more than one home language represented. Moreover, in a country with
11, soon to be 12 (the inclusion of South African Sign Language) official languages, multilingual classes are common.
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

In post-apartheid South Africa, English is viewed as the preferred language of learning by many caregivers. It is seen
as the global language of commerce and communication. Caregivers believe their children will have an advantage if
they are able to converse fluently and learn in English. As a result, many send their children to English medium
schools. Many children struggle to learn in English and the teacher must find strategies to support them.
The challenge of having learners in your class whose home language is not the language of instruction has
become a common one in South Africa. So the next part of the unit focuses on creating a language and
Unit 2

culturally inclusive classroom.

By now, you will have begun to understand the extent of diversity in the classroom. Another important aspect
of diversity is that these differences intersect, or overlap. Let’s explore this area in more detail.

31
1.3 Diversity and
intersectionality

ACTIVITY 20: My personal profile

Journal
Create your own unique personal profile. Describe how you would define yourself. You can use some of
the identities that were discussed in the previous section, such as race, religion, gender, sexual
orientation, disability.

Many learners’ education experiences are negatively impacted by several intersecting

systems of oppression. We need to understand how different social, historical
and political processes and personal, cultural and institutionalized discrimination
creates and sustains privileges for some while creating and sustaining disadvantages
for others. (Queensborough Community College http://www.qcc.cuny.edu)

It is very important in the study of inclusive education to examine not only how your learners are different from
one another, but also how some of these differences are shaped by power hierarchies in our society. More
importantly, we need to examine how these intersect or combine to increase marginalisation.
In most societies that the dominant group imposes its views, opinions, value judgements and power over the
oppressed group. However, the majority group is not always the dominant group, as we know from our South
African history, but it is often the case. The dominant power hierarchies assert that their identity, belief system
and values are considered “normal” or acceptable and differing views, opinions, beliefs or identities are
“abnormal” or unacceptable. Sometimes these differences are
tolerated but they are not given equal status. Members are privileged
purely by virtue of their being part of this dominant group, and others Rich
marginalised or excluded because they are not. This dynamic has
been clearly evident in the gender equality struggle worldwide. Even
today, gender pay gaps exist in many countries, and patriarchal
Affluent
thinking dictates policy and law-making. urban LERATO Girl
community
The concept of intersectionality takes this thinking a step further. It
examines the ways in which several of these systems of oppression
intersect or come together in one person’s life to compound
Has intellectual
marginalisation or exclusion. disability

Look at the profiles of the two learners on the right.

Figure 12:
While both children are marginalised by their gender and learning Learner profiles
differences, their experience of being girls with learning differences will
not be the same due to their different socio-economic and geographic
Poor
locations. Living in more affluent socio-economic circumstances in an
urban centre will give Lerato an educational advantage over Jane as
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

she will be able to access better schools and a wider range of specialist
services. Jane will more likely attend a poorly-resourced school, far Rural
community JANE Girl
from home and with little additional support.
Therefore, it would be incorrect to say that they share the same
experience as girls with an intellectual disability. We need to look at
Unit 2

how their other identities or locations intersect with their gender and Has intellectual
disability
disability experiences and view their situations holistically.

32
 ACTIVITY 21: Lerato and Jane

Writing
Think back to the iceberg concept. What other differences might there be between Jane and Lerato
that we have not mentioned here, which affect their outcomes?

ACTIVITY 22: Intersectionality

Audio Visual
Watch the video clip using the following link: https://youtu.be/w6dnj2IyYjE
Think about—and if possible discuss with a colleague—the following questions:
1. Greta, Fatima and Jerry have unique combinations of identities that either privilege or marginalise
them. Can you identify these for each of them?
2. Would each of them require the same support to reach their full learning potential? Why or why not?
It might help to think back to the iceberg analogy here.
We will explore different ways of offering support during Unit 4.

To summarise: An intersectional educational lens enables us to understand the ways differences can
compound to increase discrimination, marginalisation and exclusion. In understanding these ways, we can plan
to address them in order to create equitable education opportunities for all learners. Next, we explore in more
detail what we mean by equity in relation to learner diversity.

1.4 Equity to ensure

equal education for all
Often the concepts of “equality” and “equity” in education are used interchangeably. But there is an important
difference between the two. The UNESCO World Education Forum in Korea (2015) defined equity as follows:
Equity in education is the means to achieving equality. It intends to provide the best opportunities for all
students to achieve their full potential and act to address instances of disadvantage which restrict educational
achievement. It involves special treatment/action taken to reverse the historical and social disadvantages that
prevent learners from accessing and benefiting from education on equal grounds. Equity measures are not fair
per se but are implemented to ensure fairness and equality of outcome.
Here is another definition:
Equality aims to promote fairness, but it can only work if everyone starts from the same place and needs the
same aid. Equity, on the face of it, appears unfair, but it actively moves everyone closer to success by “levelling
the playing field”. It is important to recognise that not everyone starts at the same place, and not everyone has
the same needs. (Solomon-Pryce, 2015)
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

These definitions take into account that our learners are not all the same. They do not share the same
experiences, identities or characteristics. These differences impact their ability to access education and
participate meaningfully in learning.

Information in the rest of this section has been adapted from Achievement and Inclusion in
Schools (Florian et al, 2017).
Unit 2

33
Many decades of research have consistently documented that learners from poor families are less likely to do
well in school. Consequently, there is a tendency to interpret lower standards of attainment in schools that serve
these areas as poor-quality schools. Schools that serve children from different family backgrounds appear to be
good or better schools because the academic attainment of learners is generally higher. What is missing from
this comparison is an understanding of the prior experiences children bring to school. These create different
starting points in terms of both advantage and disadvantage that not only obscure achievement but influence
performance expectations. These are issues of “equity” in education.
The association between socio-economic status and attainment is so pervasive that it would be easy to
assume that there is nothing that can be done. Yet, it is also clear that schools can lessen the impact of
deprivation, even though certain factors are beyond their influence and control. Where schools are able to
build links with the communities they serve, outcomes for disadvantaged learners improve. Also, when schools
work together, rather than in competition, the capacity for improvement can be enhanced.
As we have seen, some children have been marginalised in education and others privileged. They do not
experience equality in education—of access or of opportunity. There needs to be some measure of equitable,
or fair, redress in order to level the playing field. Let’s look at an example.

CASE STUDY: Andre and Musa

Andre and Musa are two seven-year-olds who have
just started Grade 1. Andre has access to books, his
parents read him stories and taught him to write his
name, he has educational toys, and eats three
nutritious meals a day. Musa has none of this.
Andre’s first language is English, Musa’s is isiZulu.
The school is an English medium school. Andre
therefore gets a head start in his reading
comprehension, language skills, vocabulary and
many other aspects. Musa is a long way behind.
They have not started at the same place, so to
ensure equity and fairness, Musa needs a lot of
additional support to access education.

This popular image is used to demonstrate this

distinction between equality and equity. Let’s
explore it using Andre and Musa as an example. If
we give them the same, as in the left-hand picture—
the same learning tasks at the same curriculum
level—it does not mean we would be giving Musa
equality of opportunity to achieve the same
educational outcomes, even if it looks fair. In order
to achieve the same educational outcomes, Musa
needs different educational input to Andre, as in the
right-hand picture. This input may not be the same,
but it is fair because it enables equal access to the
EQUALITY EQUITY same outcomes. It is fair even if some learners
Figure 13: Equality and equity (1) require input that may cost more and require more
(Source: Interaction Institute for Social Change, Artist: Angus Maguire) skills or resources.
Providing equitable access to education is vital for all learners but is written about specifically for learners with
disabilities in order to clarify their rights. The duty to provide reasonable accommodation to learners with
disabilities can best be understood in terms of equity. Article 2 of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities defines reasonable accommodation as the “necessary and appropriate modification and adjustments
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

not imposing a disproportionate or undue burden, where needed in a particular case, to ensure to persons with
disabilities the enjoyment or exercise on an equal basis with others of all human rights and fundamental freedoms”.
With respect to the right to education, reasonable accommodation means ensuring that the specific support
needs of learners with disabilities are provided for so that they are able to equitably participate in learning
alongside their peers in ordinary schools. Failure to do so amounts to discrimination.
Unit 2

Very often teachers make the mistake of preparing lessons assuming that all the children in their class are
exactly the same. This is called a “one-size-fits-all” approach. The cartoon below clearly illustrates the difficulty
of a one-size-fits-all clothing store. Animals without legs would certainly struggle to fit into a pair of trousers!

34
 As a teacher teaching diverse learners you will need to
differentiate—or adapt—how you teach, what you
teach, and the way you assess learning, to make sure
that all children are able to reach their full learning
potential. Differentiation is for everyone. You will need
to take their diversity into account when you plan and
prepare your lessons and teaching methodology. This
does not mean you need to prepare individual lesson
plans for each learner in your classroom. It is about
thinking about meeting the needs of the diverse
learners in your classroom by extending the range of
your practice on a day-to-day basis.
Figure 14: One size fits all

Let’s go back to an extended version of the equality/equity cartoon to explain the impact of differentiation from
Musa’s perspective.

Figure 15: Equality and equity (2) (Source: Interaction Institute for Social Change, Artist: Angus Maguire)

We have seen that Musa needs different input to Andre in order for him to be able to access similar educational
outcomes—illustrated by the middle picture above. Adding differentiation into the mix is the “maximising
learning” piece of the jigsaw. By adapting what you teach, teaching the material in a variety of ways, and being
flexible in how you assess children’s learning—all based on your knowledge of your learners—you will be
offering them an element of choice. Have a look at the right-hand picture. For many children, this choice is like
removing the fence, or barrier, that stands between them and being fully engaged in, and therefore maximising,
their learning. We will explore differentiation in more depth in Unit 4.
To summarise: Adopting a one-size-fits-all approach to teaching will exclude many of your learners, and lead to
inequality of access, participation and outcomes. A focus on types of learners is problematic because of the
many differences within and among identified groups of learners. Whatever can be known about a particular
category of learners is of limited educational value. Inclusive teachers recognise, understand and value the
rich diversity in their classroom. They actively plan for diverse learning needs, and offer all their learners
equitable opportunities for achievement.
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

A socio-cultural perspective13 on learning encourages teachers to access and use knowledge about how
people learn best when supporting children experiencing barriers. This approach sees learning in terms of the
development of expertise, rather than differentiating groups of learners on the basis of perceived limitations.

Definition
Unit 2

14 A socio-cultural perspective emphasises the influence of society—language, culture, social structures, etc.—
on our learning processes.

35
While individuals are characterised by multiple overlapping and intersecting identities that produce individual
differences, learning occurs through shared activity in social contexts. Teachers should think about everybody
in the class and how they will work together, as opposed to differentiating learning for some based on
judgments about what they cannot do compared to others of similar age.
This does not mean that individual differences are unimportant. A teacher may have two learners, both
experiencing similar difficulties in learning, but differences between the learners (for example, a learner with
English as a second language and a learner on the autism spectrum), require different responses to their
particular difficulties in learning. Teachers cannot know or anticipate every type of difficulty they will encounter
in the classroom, but they can draw on knowledge about learning and ensure that diversity is treated as a
resource and an asset when planning lessons that are accessible to all. This theme is developed further in Unit 4.
By now you will have noticed that treating diversity as a resource and an asset is a recurring theme in this unit. It
typifies the attitude towards diversity of a teacher who works inclusively, but this attitude is not one that has been
traditionally held within education or wider society. We will now examine attitudes to learner diversity in more detail.

1.5 Attitudes to
learner diversity
In this section we will consider two broad attitudes to learner diversity and some of their impacts. Let’s go back
again to the Progress Primary Grade 6 case study. Go back and re-read it as a reminder. Think about Ms
Willemse’s attitude to diversity in the Grade 6 classroom. What words or pictures might you use to describe it?
What about Mrs Mbeki? What words or pictures might you use to describe her attitude to diversity?
Here are two possible ways of thinking about these teachers’ attitudes to diversity.
Firstly, Ms Willemse could be described as seeing the diversity of her Grade 6 learners as an obstacle that is
getting in the way of teaching and learning. Thapelo’s arguing, Jayendra’s activity level and Aminah’s
daydreaming are all seen as deficits.
This is in contrast to Mrs Mbeki, who sees the learners’ diversity as strengths and assets, and uses them as a
resource in the classroom. She therefore values their diversity and, by using their differences, she is affirming
for the children that their diversity is valuable.
Let’s look further into each of these attitudes in turn.

1.5.1 Learner diversity as an obstacle

In Part 1.1 we discussed the concept of bell-curve thinking in education, i.e. thinking that supports the ideas of:
• “Sorting” learners into those who are “normal” and those who are “different” or “abnormal”
• Intelligence and ability as fixed
Both these ideas encourage teachers to think about diversity as an obstacle. A concept that enables teachers
to consider the majority of learners as “normal” and a minority as “abnormal” can only promote the idea that
the minority is an obstacle to the teaching and learning of the majority. The majority is a larger group and will
be considered easier to teach because they are “normal”.
The idea of viewing intelligence and ability as fixed is known as “educational determinism14”, which will be explored
in greater depth in Unit 4. Essentially, educational determinism is based on the assumption that we are all born
biologically different, and this biological difference is what determines what we can and can’t do and learn.
What’s more, it is believed that there is little that can be done to change this situation. A similar concept to
determinist thinking is “fixed mindset”. Researcher Carol Dweck has written about this extensively. This describes
learners who believe that their intelligence is fixed and they can do little to change it. This mindset negatively
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

affects a learner’s belief in their ability to make progress and their motivation to attempt more challenging tasks.
A further concept that contributes significantly to the view of learner diversity as an obstacle is the medical model
of disability. The difference between the medical model and the social model has already been discussed in Unit 1.

Definition
Unit 2

15 Determinism: The belief that all events including human choice are completely determined by pre-existing causes.

36
 The medical model sees the person with a disability as the problem. In this model the focus is on the disability.
The social model sees attitudes, as well as social and environmental barriers, as the problem. People are
“disabled” by the world around them.
While its origins are in the discourse of disability, the medical model has a wider application and the word
“disability” could be replaced for our purposes with “difference”. In Unit 1 the medical model was described as
focusing on the “diagnosis of defects and possible interventions to ‘improve’ the learner”. The diagram below is
a helpful illustration of this approach.

Figure 16: Medical model of disability

(Source: http://ddsg.org.uk/taxi/medical-model.html)

CASE STUDY: Farouk (1)

Farouk is a learner with low vision. In Science he’s
achieving a high level, whereas in Maths his
achievement is at a low level. This seems odd given
that so much Maths is involved in Science, so the
school investigates further. They find that the
maths teacher seats Farouk at the back of the class
and makes no effort to make any special
accommodation for Farouk’s vision. When asked
about this, she says that Farouk has an impairment
and that someone either needs to fix his eyesight
or he should be moved because she doesn’t think
that the school is the right place for Farouk—he
should be in a full service or special school; he
can’t learn in this school because she can’t teach
him in the same way as the rest of the class.

As the diagram and case study show, the individual with a disability, or difference, is seen as the problem in the
medical model. The maths teacher sees Farouk as the problem—he is “impaired” and needs “fixing” in order to
fit in with others. She sees him an obstacle. He either:
• Needs to be removed to enable her to work unimpeded with those without a disability or difference: i.e. the
“normal”, or
• Needs to be cured so that he fits in with everyone else, i.e. becomes “normal”
As Farouk’s story shows, the focus of the medical model on diagnosis and treatment can encourage us to
think narrowly about people and to label them as “different” in a way that leads to stereotyping. While
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

getting a diagnosis can be helpful—for understanding what is happening for a child, for putting the right
support in place, and because in some cases it brings with it legal protection and rights—labelling as a
result of a diagnosis can also be problematic. A label can become a way of defining a person, masking their
strengths, interests and personality: people only pay attention to the above-surface part of the iceberg, not
what’s underneath. In addition, as Ho (2004) illustrates, there are other reasons to think very carefully about
labelling in schools:
Unit 2

• Some people don’t want to be labelled because of the judgmental way that society views people who are
different as “abnormal” or “inferior”, which can also lead to a lowering of expectations

37
• Caregivers worry about their children being less integrated, more lonely, more likely to be bullied and more
likely to be treated as an outsider if they have a diagnosed label
• Labels can sometimes be used by schools to move “certain children out of the regular classroom”, maintaining
a focus on the child’s label rather than on what the school should be doing to support the child’s learning

We will explore individual support through diagnosis in more detail through the SIAS (Screening,
Identification, Assessment and Support) model in Unit 3.

ACTIVITY 23: Seeing diversity as an obstacle

Journal
Think about a time when you have considered a learner’s difference to be an obstacle to the teaching
and learning in a class you have taught. Or think about somebody you have taught something to in your
family or community, whose difference you considered an obstacle to teaching and learning.
1. What were some of your beliefs about and expectations of the learner?
2. What were some of your beliefs about your ability to teach this learner?
3. What was the impact of seeing this learner’s difference as an obstacle on your teaching and
their learning?

The impacts of seeing diversity as an obstacle often lead teachers to believe that:
• Some children are able to achieve less than others
• Certain children should be removed from the classroom or school
• They don’t have the right experience or skills to teach some children
• They should focus on children who are not seen as obstacles to teaching and learning
Viewing diversity as an obstacle can therefore lead to low expectations, marginalisation and exclusion from learning.
The alternative to this view, and how to put this alternative into practice, will be the focus of the rest of this unit.

1.5.2 Valuing and affirming learner diversity: an asset-based approach

Valuing and affirming learner diversity does not simply mean an acknowledgement of the ways learners are
different from each other. It encompasses respect for our individual differences. Respect involves a
recognition and appreciation for the qualities and experiences of others that are different to our own. In other
words, these qualities and experiences are valued. When they are used as assets and resources in the
classroom, learners understand that diversity is expected and valued, diversity is affirmed. Valuing and
affirming diversity is an important element in South African schools, as this quote shows:
Our schools, public or private, must be proactive about increasing diversity. To do so is to create an enriching
educational experience that prepares pupils for a complex and diverse world. Our children need to know and
understand differences and diversity because these guide them in recognising and nurturing a person’s gifts
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

and talents, which helps us to bring out the best in the person. Panyaza Lesufi, MEC for Education in Gauteng
In order for diversity to be valued and affirmed in South African schools, there are a number of steps schools
and teachers need to take.
We have already talked about the first step earlier in this unit: developing a mindset where diversity is viewed
as “the new normality” (Davis, op. cit.) and therefore moving away from bell-curve thinking as described in the
Unit 2

previous section. This mindset sends a strong message about valuing learner difference and promotes high
expectations for all.

38
 The second step is to promote an alternative to determinist thinking about intelligence and ability—one where
these traits are seen as being able to develop and grow, rather than being fixed. As we have already seen in
section 1.1.2 recent neuroscience evidence that supports this ability. We also know that what teachers do can
alter children’s capacity to learn, as Hart and her colleagues assert: “Children’s capacity to learn can change
and be changed for the better as a result of what happens and what people do in the present” (Hart et al,
2004). Again, we will explore this transformative thinking in more detail during Unit 4. Here, you may want to
explore the related concept of growth mindset by taking a look at this introductory film (which also considers
fixed mindsets):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=75GFzikmRY0
Perhaps the most crucial step, and one that can transform school culture, is to shift from medical model
thinking to social model thinking. Where the medical model sees the person with a disability or difference as
the problem, the social model places the onus on society as the problem, as this model shows.

PREJUDICE | STEREOTYPING | DISCRIMINATION

Figure 17: Social model of disability

(Source: http://ddsg.org.uk/taxi/social-model.html)

The social model also places the responsibility on society to remove the barriers it has put in place to ensure
that every person can play an equal role in society. In a school and classroom context, it places the
responsibility on teachers and school leaders to ensure that barriers are removed to give learners equal
access to the curriculum and to learning opportunities. Learners also have their part to play, though, in terms
of taking responsibility—or exercising agency—over their learning. Let’s go back to Farouk, our learner with
low vision, and look at the social model in practice.

CASE STUDY: Farouk (2)

Unlike Farouk’s Maths teacher, his Science teacher
has worked with him quite differently. At the
beginning of the school year he spent fifteen
minutes with Farouk and his best friend, Junior, in
the Science room making sure that Farouk could
find his way round and knew where everything was.
He and Farouk agreed on the best place for Farouk
to sit, and what he would need to be able to fully
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y
• Improved his writing on the board and now uses
high contrasting colours so that Farouk can read
from the board more easily
In addition, Junior has agreed to work with Farouk
during practical experiments if there are things that
he found challenging due to his vision. Farouk is
happy with this. The teacher has emphasised to both
boys that it’s important Junior works with Farouk

participate in lessons. Since then, the teacher has: rather than doing things for him. He has stressed to
• Made sure that the room is free of any Farouk that he has high expectations of him
unusual obstacles participating as much as everyone else in the class
• Made sure Farouk sits at the front of the class and achieve highly as a result.
• Produced worksheets with enlarged text for
Farouk and agreed that it Is Farouk’s responsibility
to use his text magnifier when necessary
Unit 2

39
These arrangements are not about Farouk being a passive recipient of support, they are there to make sure he
can exercise agency—take the most active role possible in his learning. This last point is important as teacher
estimates of learners’ achievement and learners’ beliefs about their own self-efficacy both have potential to
accelerate learners’ achievement (Hattie, 2017).

ACTIVITY 24: Social model thinking

OR
Writing
Read the case study about Farouk on page 37 Think about a class you were in at school. What
and consider the following questions. were some of the steps your teacher could
1. How would you describe the Science have taken to promote social model thinking in
teacher’s beliefs about himself as a teacher, their classroom?
and about Farouk?
2. Think of the learners in a class you are
teaching at the moment, or one you have
taught recently. What are some of the
steps you could take, or could you have
taken, to promote social model thinking in
your classroom?

Let’s compare the impact of medical and social model thinking in schools. You will recognise at least some of
the areas of impact from your learning so far.

Table 2: Medical and social model thinking in schools

Medical model thinking Social model thinking

Child is faulty Child is valued

Diagnosis Strength and needs defined by self and others

Labelling Identify barrier and develop solutions

Impairment becomes focus of attention Outcomes-based programmes designed

Assessment, monitoring, programmes of therapy

Resources are made available to ordinary services
imposed

Segregation and alternative services Training for parents and professionals

LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

Ordinary needs put on hold Relationships nurtured

Re-entry if “normal” enough, or permanent exclusion Diversity welcomed, child is included

Society remains unchanged Society evolves

Unit 2

(Source: https://ukdhm.org/what-is-ukdhm/the-social-model/)

40
 ACTIVITY 25: Medical and social model thinking

Journal
Read Table 2 carefully and think through the meaning of each statement.
1. The bottom box states “Society evolves”. What does this mean? Do you agree that if social model
thinking is followed through then society will evolve? Why, or why not?
2. Think about a school you have recently worked in, or are working in now, or the school you attended.
Do you think this school’s policies and practices reflect medical model thinking, social model thinking
or some aspects of each? Note your reasons for your thinking.
3. Now think about yourself. Would you consider your thinking as more medical model or social model?
Why do you say this?

Medical and social model thinking are based on different beliefs, and therefore lead to different types of
questions being asked about learners, which result in different actions being taken. Let’s go back to Jayendra
from our Grade 6 case study to expand on this idea. Here is an example of a medical and a social model
question that could be asked about him, with answers that show what might happen as a result:

Table 3a: Social vs medical model thinking

Medical model Medical model Social model Social model

question answer question answer

How can we change Give him Ritalin or other What can we do better to Prepare a learning plan
Jayendra’s hyperactive medication. understand and support with Jayendra setting
behaviour? Jayendra’s behaviour? objectives and behaviour
management support
strategies over a six-week
period. Monitor this
plan—include regular
feedback sessions with
Jayendra.

To help you think through the implications of medical and social model thinking on learners and learning,
we’d like you to try to come up with some questions of your own about learners you might typically meet in
the classroom.

ACTIVITY 26: Medical and social model thinking

LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

Writing
Drawing on Table 3a, and the case studies about Jayendra, draw your own version of Table 3b, and
have a go at populating it.
Unit 2

41
Table 3b: Social vs medical model thinking

Description of Medical model Medical model Social model Social model

learners question answer question answer

Thabiso has a
significant hearing
impairment

Samkelo’s reading
and writing is much
weaker than his
peers

Rabia finds too

much sensory
stimulation—noise,
colour, light—
distressing and will
run off if she feels
overloaded

Louis is going
through a difficult
time at home and is
on a very short
fuse at school. He
has been getting
into some heated
arguments that
have turned
physical

To summarise: Valuing and affirming diversity involves understanding and appreciating our differences and
our interdependence. It also involves looking for ways to work together to eliminate all forms of discrimination
and ensure equitable access to quality education.
In Part 1, we explored many of these differences, along with concepts and models that influence the ways that
difference can impact on learners and learning.
We have discussed how important it is to really get to know the individual identities and personalities in your
class in order to be able to respond effectively to their differences. This will help you to know how to plan for
and accommodate diverse learner needs in your teaching.
We finish this part of the unit with a task that asks you to think about different ways in which you can get to
know your learners.
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y
Unit 2

42
 ACTIVITY 27: Getting to know your learners

Writing
Choose one learner. If you are currently on teaching practice choose a child you are working with at the
moment whom you can observe.
If you are not currently on teaching practice choose a learner in your local community whom you can
interview about their learning in school. Maybe the learner is struggling with learning or is not being
challenged enough, and is not achieving their full potential in the classroom.
How do you think you could get to know the learner? Think of some activities you could do, documents
you could review, or people you could talk to. Record your ideas.
1. Start off by recording any patterns of behaviour you notice and their impact on the learner’s ability
to learn effectively.
2. Then record the actions you take, e.g. annotate any documents you review, make notes after
conversations you have.
3. Create a learner profile for the learner you have chosen.
Reflect on what you have discovered about how to relate to the learner and how you could motivate
them to learn more effectively.

In Part 2 we will move on to exploring how teachers respond in practice to learner differences.
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y
Unit 2

43
2 Responding to learner differences

2.1 Introduction
In Part 1 of this unit, we considered many differences between learners, for example:
• The way a child acquires knowledge (cognitive)
• The way they communicate or interact
• Their social, emotional or mental health needs (psychosocial)
• Sensory and/or physical factors
• Societal factors (e.g. socio-economic, family, gender identity, sexuality, religious beliefs, culture)
It is important to remember that some aspects of difference may not be visible. You may only become aware of
them as you get to know children and by noticing the ways that learners behave. Members of staff from the
School-Based Support Team (SBST) may also let you know about children with learning differences that may
not be obvious.
As you also learned in Part 1, these differences can intersect—both with each other and with other aspects of
diversity. For example, a child with hearing loss may also live in an area where there is little or no access to
learning Sign Language; a child who is HIV positive may also be on the autistic spectrum continuum.
Some children you teach will have an official diagnosis from a professional, but many will not. You can be sure,
wherever you teach, that your diverse classroom will include learners with a range of intersecting differences.
Your job as a teacher who works inclusively is to accommodate for these differences in how you plan and
deliver learning if you wish to offer all learners an engaging, equitable education.
As we have already shown, there is not a list of disabilities, disorders and conditions that can be matched to
interventions, or a list of questions to ask children about their differences, or a list of strategies to mitigate for
these. This is because the assumption that individual differences between learners can be addressed by
matching these characteristics with interventions has not proven to be effective.
Moreover, having a lot of lists and questions can be overwhelming and counterproductive. But there are
deeper issues to be considered, too. Firstly, the “list method” would put you firmly back in the “diversity as an
obstacle to be overcome” box that we talked about in Part 1. As we have seen, this attitude works against
inclusive, equitable education rather than for it. Secondly, this approach doesn’t require you to really think
about where you fit in as someone leading learning for these children. What are your attitudes to and beliefs
about learner difference? How do these attitudes and beliefs impact on your classroom environment, your
relationships with children and your teaching of diverse learners?
While knowledge about human differences is important (a learner who is an English language learner is
different from a learner who has been diagnosed as having autism; a six-year-old is different from a 10-year-old,
and so on), in practice teachers use strategies that are matched to the purpose of the learning, and they adapt
these strategies in response to differences between learners. So yes, you need some knowledge about learner
difference. But what you do with this knowledge and how you use it are equally crucial because developing
effective inclusive practice is not only about extending teachers’ knowledge, it is also about encouraging them
to do things differently and getting them to reconsider their attitudes and beliefs: in other words, it should be
about “knowing”, “doing” and “believing”.
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y
Unit 2

44
 Here is a useful, more visual way of remembering these three areas and what they involve.

Head—Knowing

Knowing what and how to teach and assess what needs to be learned
Knowing about classroom organisation and management
Knowing about learners’ differences
Knowing who to ask for help when you need it
Understanding the law and your school’s/district’s policies in relation to
learner diversity

Hand—Knowing what and how to teach and assess what

needs to be learned

Having the confidence to try different strategies—and having the tenacity, drive
and perseverance to keep trying, even when things don’t go according to plan
Taking part in professional development that helps you practise new strategies,
not just know about them
Developing good relationships with learners and their families
Modelling learning behaviour that’s good for the classroom

Heart—Believing

Believing all children can learn and are worth educating

Believing you have the capacity to make a difference

Figure 18: Head, hand, heart (Adapted from Rouse, 2018)

In Part 1 of this unit we introduced you to some knowledge about learner diversity and asked you, through
activities, to consider a range of beliefs about diversity and learning. In Part 2 we will begin to explore the
“doing” element of inclusive practice.
It is individual teachers’ practice that collectively enables inclusive practice to develop. The extent to which
you as teachers are empowered to develop inclusive practice is linked with the policies of your school and the
education system. The more inclusive the policies and the more teachers are trusted—through healthy
relationships with senior leaders—to try out inclusive strategies, the greater the empowerment to do so.
However, teachers also have individual agency and there is a great deal you can do independently to develop
inclusive classroom practice where these ideal conditions do not exist.
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

Therefore, in this part of the unit we will ask you to think further about your beliefs—about yourself as a
teacher and about your learners—and consider the impact of these on teaching and learning in your
classroom. We will consider what it looks like in practice when teachers think about classes:
• Through a “diversity as an obstacle” lens
• Through a lens that values and affirms diversity by using learner difference as an asset and resource in
planning how everyone in the class will learn together
Unit 2

Remember the Grade 6 class taught by Ms Willemse and Mrs Mbeki in Part 1? If not, have a look back and
refresh your memory. We are going to meet this class again and use them as our focus for this part of the unit.

45
2.2 Who’s in the classroom?
Two lenses
Following her initial conversation with Mrs Mbeki, Ms Willemse went
back and asked if they could talk further about the Grade 6 class. We
are going to examine this class from each teacher’s perspective.
Mrs Mbeki asks Ms Willemse to draw and explain a picture of the
Grade 6 class showing how she thinks about them as a whole and
as groups.
Figure 19 shows what Ms Willemse draws: Figure 19: Lens 1

ACTIVITY 28: What is happening in the classroom?

Writing
Think of a school where you are teaching now or have recently taught, or a class from your own school
days. Does Ms Willemse’s grouping remind you of how you might think about of one of your classes, or
how one of your teachers thought about their learners? If so, think about some of the learners in each
of the four groups Ms Willemse talks about. Make a note of them, grouped under the headings you can
see in the diagram.
What do you notice about the learners in each group? Thinking back to the iceberg model, what’s above
the surface? What is below? Do these learners all share the same reasons for being in that group, for
example: concentration span; interests, likes and dislikes; strengths; socio-economic circumstances; or
a shared diagnosis? Or are they quite different from each other?
Do some of the learners shift into different groups at times? Are they sometimes doing well and at other
times not learning much? If so, what reasons do you think are behind their movement from group to
group? Might you, the teacher, be part of these reasons? If so, how? Don’t forget that it’s not just
children who are diverse—teachers are too!

We are not suggesting that this is the most useful way of analysing a class if you want positive change! Our
point is that it is much more likely that learners within each group are diverse, and some of them may move
from group to group depending on a number of factors over time. Therefore, we cannot use diagnoses or
labels to predict who will or will not make progress with their learning. Understanding a diagnosis or label is
useful, but other factors are just as likely to be at play; it is combination of all the pieces of information to
support the child’s learning and what you do with this that is much more important.
We will go on to show you a more useful way of thinking about grouping your learners shortly.
First, let’s return to Mrs Mbeki and Ms Willemse’s conversation.
Mrs Mbeki: OK. Can you talk me through your drawing?
Ms Willemse (takes a deep breath and begins): Well, first of all the whole class. I’ve drawn a messy line because
that’s how it feels. And there are lots of jagged edges in there too. It’s not a smooth, calm experience! The whole
class feels pretty much out of control quite a lot of the time. I thought I was coming into schools to teach English
and maths, but it seems to me that lots of the children can’t behave, some of them can’t learn and some of them
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

don’t want to learn. So I can’t teach most of them, their problems are too serious. Quite a few of the children from
this class should be in a special school where there are people who have the right skills to help them learn. Then
I could teach the ones who are right for this school.
Mrs Mbeki: And what about the groups you’ve drawn there?
Ms Willemse: That “Doing OK” one—that’s the group that wants to learn and I can teach, they are actually
making progress. They’re pretty normal and they don’t really have any problems as long as they can ignore the
Unit 2

disruption from the others. The group at the top —they try but they’re not doing much, it’s really frustrating.

46
 The group that’s doing nothing is quite small but I find them really worrying—they aren’t really learning anything.
And that just leaves the big group with another jagged edge. These are the children who are spoiling the lessons
for everyone else because they can’t behave normally. And this means they aren’t learning.

ACTIVITY 29: Ms Willemse’s beliefs

Writing
Think back to your learning in Unit 1 and in Part 1 of this unit. What do you think Ms Willemse’s beliefs
are about her learners? What theory, concepts and models might be influencing her beliefs?

Mrs Mbeki: Right. Let’s unpack this a little. What do you notice about the children? If you were to imagine a film
of the class, what would you observe?
Ms Willemse: Well, in the group who are doing OK, you’d see children who are able to follow instructions, read,
remember, write, discuss, work independently, and put their own ideas together about what they are learning. In
the group who aren’t doing anything there are a few children who seem like they don’t know what’s going on
when we’re doing anything that’s a bit abstract—they look quite confused and can’t answer questions or follow
the learning. Like Funeka, who is confused and also seems really withdrawn a lot of the time. She doesn’t seem to
have a lot of energy to participate. There are also a couple of children who get angry if they are asked to read
anything or write anything in their books—but when I think about it I realise they sometimes contribute some
good points verbally.
In the group who aren’t doing much, you’d see a lot of different things going on. Some of the children pick and
choose what they want to do, so if it’s something they enjoy or understand then they’ll try, but if it’s something
unfamiliar they just can’t seem to get organised enough to make progress and they usually give up. A couple of
them start something in their book but never finish it—they just seem really slow. And there are another few
children who are really articulate when we discuss things but just won’t write anything down. Plus, one or two—
Aminah, for example—can talk or write individually about something that interests them in a huge amount of
detail, but when you ask them to take part in a group discussion they either withdraw, or the other children get
cross with them because they feel like they aren’t getting their turn to speak. If you ask them to get involved with
a topic they don’t already know about, they just refuse or do nothing. When I ask some of the children what they
are supposed to be doing they can’t remember more than the first instruction. They can’t remember the names
of things—like verbs or nouns—even though I’ve written these loads of times on the board!
In the disruptive group there are children who are brilliant communicators but a couple of them use this skill to
question everything I ask them to do—like Thapelo. There are one or two children who sometimes refuse to
follow any instructions and can get quite aggressive, and a few who seem totally incapable of sitting in a chair
and just like to distract others all the time—for example, Jayendra. A lot of this disruptive group clearly
understand what we are doing and have fantastic creative ideas but can’t get started with written work. They
don’t ever finish anything, or they rush it so much that it’s full of mistakes. It’s really frustrating!

ACTIVITY 30: Ms Willemse’s views of strengths

and challenges
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

Writing
Ms. Willemse has talked about a number of different strengths and challenges that the children in her
Grade 6 class bring (notice the variety of learners she talks about in each group, too).
Unit 2

Go back and make a list of these strengths and challenges.

47
Mrs Mbeki: I can see you’re frustrated. But you’ve already taken the first step to change things by noticing all
those differences between the children in the class and their strengths and challenges. I’d like to show you a
different way of looking at the class using everything you’ve noticed—one that I find really helpful for planning for
their learning.
Mrs Mbeki shows Ms Willemse the following drawing:
Ms Willemse: OK, you’re definitely going to need
Communication to explain this to me! I haven’t seen anything like
skills / this before.
pragmatic17
language Mrs Mbeki: Well, I think of it in four parts. Firstly, at
Concentration, a whole class level it’s about making everyone feel
focus and Organisational
attention skills
like they are valued and that each of them is an
NB these equal member of the class. Making sure each of
groups can
them is respected and has a voice—and finding
overlap!
Receptive15 Memory opportunities for them to appreciate their
and differences—goes a long way to get a feeling of
expressive16 trust and positivity in the room. So, for example,
language Ways of
thinking and someone like Aminah, who thinks, communicates
making and interacts in quite a different way to many
meaning people in the class and could become isolated as a
result, has space to share some of her knowledge.
Figure 20: Lens 2
Some of the other children—like Funeka—find it
easier to express themselves and remember learning when it’s being led by one of their peers, so Aminah’s input
helps her. Jayendra’s need for short bursts of concentration, plus his need to move around and get people on
board with his ideas becomes part of the classroom organisation routines. And Thapelo’s unendingly curious,
questioning brain is put to good use through activities like class debates—and sometimes I ask him to write down
his questions so that we can pose them in class discussions.
I find that if they know they have a voice and an equal role in the class that appreciates them for who they are,
they are more likely to try to get better at the things they find challenging. So, for example, if Jayendra knows that
at certain points in the lesson, like when we need to get equipment out, he’s going to have a chance to get up
and have a concentration break, he’s more likely to try to focus on learning in the times in between. In this way,
thinking about the big picture of affirming diversity at a whole class level also works at an individual level. Of
course it’s never absolutely perfect—what is, in any class?—but it definitely helps with creating a supportive and
affirming environment. Does that make sense?
Ms Willemse: Yes, although it sounds like I need to do quite a lot of thinking about how I can build that kind of
thing into my teaching.
Mrs Mbeki: At first it can seem like a lot to think about, but once you get going and focus on the children’s
strengths the ideas generate themselves—and I can give you some to get started. Ready for me to move on?

We will give you some strategies to get started with building on children’s strengths in Unit 4.

Ms Willemse: Yes.
Mrs Mbeki: OK. At a group level, you’ll see I’ve put some jigsaw pieces into my classroom map. Each of the
jigsaw pieces represents a characteristic or skill that groups of children in the class share that are important for
learning—you can think of these as strengths, challenges and needs. You talked about all of these when I was
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

asking you about what you noticed about the groups you had identified. Some children will have strengths in
these areas, others will find them challenging and need support with them.

Definition
Unit 2

16 Receptive language: the ability to understand words and language.

17 Expressive language: the ability to express wants and needs—verbally and non-verbally.
18 Pragmatic language: the use of appropriate communication in social situations—knowing what to say,
how to say it, and when to say it. 48
 Do you remember the five broad areas of difference we usually talk about—communication and interaction,
cognitive, psychosocial, physical and sensory and societal? There is a relationship between these and the
characteristics and skills shown by the jigsaw pieces. It’s useful to look at how this happens.
Here, Mrs Mbeki asks Ms Willemse to do an activity. Let’s do the same thing so that we can follow her thinking.

ACTIVITY 31: Making connections

Writing
This is a substantial activity so we will break it into steps.

Step 1
On the left-hand side of a piece of paper, list the five broad areas of difference that we explored in Part 1.
On the right-hand side, list the characteristics and skills shown in the jigsaw pieces in Mrs Mbeki’s drawing.
You will end up with something like this:

Area of difference Connects to... Characteristic/skill

Communication and interaction Memory

Cognitive Communication and pragmatic language

Psychosocial Organisational skills

Physical and sensory Ways of thinking and making meaning

Societal Concentration, focus, attention

Receptive/expressive language

Step 2
What we are going to do next is work out how the areas of difference connect with characteristics and
skills, and the other way round. Read the following section and study the diagrams. We have used
Aminah as an example.
The way that Ms Willemse and Mrs Mbeki talk about Aminah suggests that she:
1. Has both strengths and challenges in the area of communication and interaction. Her ability to
communicate at length about things she knows about shows a strong memory for some topics or
ideas. Her memory also helps her to communicate her ideas.
2. Has strengths with some forms of expressive language, which also help with her communication
skills. So we would draw arrows that go both ways between “Communication and interaction” and
“Memory”, and “Communication and interaction”’ and “Receptive and expressive language”:

Area of difference Connects to... Characteristic/skill

Communication and interaction Memory

Cognitive Communication and pragmatic language

Psychosocial Organisational skills

Physical and sensory Ways of thinking and making meaning

LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

Societal Concentration, focus, attention

Receptive/expressive language

3. Aminah seems to find group work a challenge at times—this would come under the psychosocial
area as working in groups needs a particular set of social skills. Ms Willemse talks about the other
learners getting a bit fed up with Aminah because they find it difficult to have space to speak when
they are in a group with Aminah, or she doesn’t talk at all. This behaviour suggests that Aminah’s
Unit 2

social skill challenge could be connected with pragmatic language—knowing what to say, and when
and how to say it. It could also be connected with concentration, focus or attention. So we would add
lines between “Psychosocial” and “Communication and pragmatic language” and “Psychosocial” and
“Concentration, focus, attention”:

49
 Area of difference Connects to... Characteristic/skill

Communication and interaction Memory

Cognitive Communication and pragmatic language

Psychosocial Organisational skills

Physical and sensory Ways of thinking and making meaning

Societal Concentration, focus, attention

Receptive/expressive language

4. Aminah thinks about and knows a lot about a particular topic—space—but finds thinking and
learning about other topics a challenge, which falls under the “Cognitive” area. From what we know
about Aminah, we could say that her cognitive strengths and challenges have a connection with:
• Her memory (strong for some topics, not as strong for others)
• The way she communicates what she knows (articulately for things she knows about, less so for
unfamiliar topics)
• Her ability to organise her learning (it’s often easier to organise your learning for a topic you feel
comfortable with rather than something unfamiliar)
• Her ways of thinking and making meaning from learning about particular topics (for space, she
clearly finds it easy to find and make meaning, but this seems to be a challenge for other topics)
• Her level of focus (very focused on familiar topics, less so on others)
• Her ability to follow language about topics and her ability to express her thoughts about them
(strong for familiar topics, less so for unfamiliar)
So all the learning characteristics and skills on the right-hand side seem to connect with the “Cognitive”
area on the left.
The connections for Aminah would end up looking like this:

Area of difference Connects to... Characteristic/skill

Communication and interaction Memory

Cognitive Communication and pragmatic language

Psychosocial Organisational skills

Physical and sensory Ways of thinking and making meaning

Societal Concentration, focus, attention

Receptive/expressive language

And these connections are just from the little we know about Aminah—Ms Willemse and Mrs Mbeki have
only talked briefly about her, so we don’t know about the other two areas that need to be taken into
consideration for this exercise—her socio-economic circumstances, and whether she has a physical or
sensory challenge or strength.

Step 3
Now that you have seen an example, we want you to have a go at doing this exercise for three children
you know. They might be from a school where you have worked, from your family or neighbourhood,
from when you were at school—or a mixture. Go back to the table you have drawn and think about the
first child.
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

Work through each area of difference on the left-hand side. Where you think an area of difference might
have a connection with a characteristic or skill important for learning, or the other way round, draw a
two-way arrow between them. Find as many relationships between the two columns as you can.
Repeat the exercise for the other two children, using a new table for each child.

Step 4
Once you have completed the three tables, consider the following questions.
Unit 2

1. What do you notice about the number of links between the two columns on your tables?
2. Compare the tables. How, and to what extent, do they look similar? How, and to what extent, do they
look different? What do you think are the reasons for the similarities and differences?

50
 3. Think about these connections from the point of view of two individual learners who share an area of
difference. Would the connections between the area of difference and the learning characteristics/
skills be the same for each learner?
You may have an example of this in your sample of three children, but here are two sample questions in
case you don’t.
• Would the connections with learning characteristics and skills be the same for two learners with low
vision?
• Would the same socio-economic background necessarily have the same connections on the learning
characteristics and skills of two siblings living in the same house?
4. What assumptions might teachers make about the connections between areas of difference and
learning characteristics and skills? What might the impact of these assumptions be?
5. What learning are you taking from this activity?

Let’s re-join the teachers’ conversation.

Mrs Mbeki: What I like about this way of grouping is that it takes me away from concentrating on who is in the
classroom and how much they are learning—or not. Instead, it helps me to focus more on the skills and
characteristics that are needed for really effective learning. The knowledge I have about individuals is important
because I use it to help identify the learners’ strengths, challenges and needs in these skill areas. Then I can use
this information to concentrate on what I teach—using CAPS of course—and how I teach, rather than getting
stuck on which learner has this diagnosis, or that problem.
Let’s take memory as an example. You might have heard of the term “working memory”—this is the place you
store important information while you’re doing something else that uses your brain. For example, if you’re
learning how to calculate “volume” in maths to work out the volume of a container, you need to hold the method
for doing that in your working memory while you do the actual sum.
Some children find holding a method, or a formula, or any piece of key information in their working memory
difficult. This applies to lots of other pieces of information in other subjects. Jayendra, Aminah and Funeka are all
likely to have some challenges with their working memory even though they have “different differences”.
Thapelo’s working memory is one of his strengths.
So I know that when I’m planning how to teach something, I need to include ways to support the children who
have challenges with working memory to access it. Using the maths example, I might have a set of cards with the
method for finding volume written on them. I wouldn’t just choose who I think would need this, though. I would
give everyone access to the cards and make it clear that if any of the children think they need it as a reminder
they can pick up a card. Doing this supports the children who have challenges with their working memory
without making them seem different or marginalising them. If someone who might normally remember is having
an off day, or just needs to check the method, this plan also
works for them. It’s good for everyone in the class and puts
the children in charge of their own learning. It means that
everyone gets equal access to what they need to learn.
When I’m planning, I think about each of these six areas in
the same way as I’ve talked about memory. Once you get to
know the class, planning in this way isn’t about doing a whole
lot of totally new things, or having 42 individual strategies for
42 learners.
Rather think about each of the jigsaw areas in relation to what
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

you know about the class; and extend what you have been
doing to teach the “doing OK” group so that it includes and
engages more learners.
It’s never going to be as neat as the jigsaw model looks on
paper! In practice it probably looks something like this, where
all of the different characteristics/skills groups, and the
Unit 2

children in them, overlap in some way: Figure 21: Overlap

51
 ACTIVITY 32: Reflecting on Mrs Mbeki’s grouping
of learners

Writing
Think back to the same class that you thought about in Activity 27.
1. Apply Mrs Mbeki’s way of grouping learners in this class. Think about their strengths, challenges and
needs for each of the learning characteristics/skills.
2. How did thinking about the class in this way feel compared to the way that Ms Willemse grouped her
class?
3. What have you learnt about the class from doing this?
4. How might this learning impact on your teaching?
5. Next, think of a concept that you teach learners in your subject area. What could you do to extend
your normal way of teaching this concept so that it includes learners who may need more support to
learn without drawing attention to their needs?

Ms Willemse: I’m starting to understand ... but what about the individuals in your drawing? If we’re thinking more
about planning around shared characteristics then why are they there?
Mrs Mbeki: These are the children who will need support most at any one time in a class. Even when things are
flowing, and you have strategies in place that include and engage more children, these individuals will always be
there. There’s no magic dust you can sprinkle to get everyone learning in exactly the way you would ideally like
them to, even if you plan well! Who these children are and what they need might change, but the fact that there
will always be individuals who need extra from you won’t. We can use what we learn about these children
through SIAS and from what we notice about them in the classroom to remove as many barriers to their learning
as possible, but we will always need to respond on the spot for some individuals. At the moment, I think I have
more time and headspace to respond to these children than you do—it’s a big class, so it’s not perfect, but it
sounds better than the situation you’re in at the moment.
Ms Willemse: So, by planning with those group characteristics and skills in mind, you manage to get the
majority of the class engaged as much as possible, which gives you more time and space to work out who’s
really stuck and needs your help?
Mrs Mbeki: That’s the idea. It is always going to be challenging with so many children and such a variety of
needs. I find that planning to get as many of them able to access the learning independently means that I can be
more responsive in the classroom. And I find it less stressful this way, too.
Ms Willemse: I like the sound of less stress! That just leaves the bigger person in your diagram. Is that you?
Mrs Mbeki: Yes. I’ve put myself there. How I am in the classroom has a big effect on what happens there. What I
believe really matters as this has an impact on what I say and what I do. And what I say and what I do obviously
have a big impact on the children.
Ms Willemse: So what do you believe?
Mrs Mbeki: My beliefs have changed over the years, but here’s the short version:
• I’ve been teaching for fifteen years now and I’ve seen enough children to understand that a whole variety of
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

difference in a classroom is just how it is. And, although this can sometimes make teaching challenging, I
prefer this broader idea of normal—the whole world as it really is comes into your classroom and that’s the
reality. I find it a much richer experience and I try to pass this on to the children by finding ways to get them to
notice it and use their differences positively.
• I’ve come to understand that I can make a difference to all the children—as long as I work to get to know
them, support them and put the right strategies in place they can all learn and make progress. I don’t have to
Unit 2

be an expert in every difference in the world. Some knowledge has been really useful, but knowing my

52
 learners—what goes on under the surface—and having a good range of strategies for teaching and learning is
just as important. This helps me put the most helpful strategies in place.
• For me, supporting the children doesn’t just mean learning strategies. I believe an integral part of my role is to
build good relationships with children so that they feel safe and secure, and supported emotionally. If I do this I
find that they’re happier, more confident and willing to take risks with their learning, and so make better
progress. And it definitely improves everyone’s enjoyment of learning, too.
• I think that it’s my job to make the learning and the emotional support happen for all the children. Not just to
teach what the bell curve identifies as “normal” children, but to make sure that—to the best of my ability—
everyone can get engaged in what and how we learn. This means I really need to get to know them, not
stopping at what I see on the surface but trying to understand what’s going on underneath so that I know
what will work for each of them.
• I think of myself as an agent of change for the future. If I can model some of the values we agree we’d like to
see in the world, things like respect, democracy and equity, and teach the children in my classes through
these, then I hope that in some small way I’m adding positively to the way society evolves in the future. That
might sound idealistic, but it does help me understand why I do this job—especially when I’m having a bad day.
I might teach life skills and natural sciences, but mainly I teach children, and I find that important to remember.

ACTIVITY 33: Mrs Mbeki’s beliefs

Writing
Think back to your learning in Unit 1 and in Part 1 of this unit.
What theory, concepts and models might be influencing Mrs Mbeki’s beliefs?
Look back at what Mrs Mbeki says. What phrases or sentences does she use that connect what she is
saying with these theories, concepts and models? Pick out four and relate them to the theories,
concepts and models you have learnt about.

ACTIVITY 34: My beliefs

Journal
1. What are your beliefs at the moment about your learners, and about your role as a teacher?
2. Reflect back to your thoughts and beliefs about learners and learner diversity at the beginning of
this module. Have these started to change? If so, how?
3. What theory, concepts and models have influenced you? In what ways?

Mrs Mbeki: So, what do you think? Are you ready to give this way of planning a try?
Ms Willemse: I’m definitely ready to give it a try. And I’m ready to accept that no one is going to change things
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

for me, I have to do it. I’m anxious though—what if I don’t have the skills to make the difference?
Mrs Mbeki: It sounds like you feel “consciously incompetent” ...
Mrs Mbeki draws a diagram on a piece of paper:
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Figure 22: Four stages of competence

ACTIVITY 35: Learning a new skill

Reading
While you are reading the short section below, think about a time when you learned something new—it
could be riding a bike, learning a language, learning how to use a piece of technology—anything that
involved you learning a new skill.

The diagram above is commonly used to describe feelings in relation to the learning process. It is particularly
important to know about the feelings you get when you:
• First understand that you need to change something (the “aha” moment, when you realise you have
previously been unconsciously incompetent)
• Work on changing it (the shift from conscious incompetence to conscious competence)
Both these stages of learning can make you feel insecure and unsure of yourself. The “aha” moment does this
because you understand that what you have been doing before may have been wrong or caused problems—
you feel incompetent. The learning process does this because you are now aware that you are trying to learn a
new way of doing something and this process always makes us vulnerable. The more we practise something
and become competent at it, the less our feelings of insecurity.
Our point here is to remind you that these feelings are common and are to be expected when you are trying to
change your practice in the classroom. Don’t let them discourage you. It can help to work with a trusted
colleague in school or remotely if you can. Take small steps and don’t forget—getting to conscious
incompetence is progress. Becoming aware that you need to change is a great starting point.
Mrs Mbeki explains the diagram to Ms Willemse in relation to where she is with Grade 6:
Mrs Mbeki: You’ve moved from the first to the second step—you’re aware that things aren’t right and know that
you need to make some changes. That’s not a comfortable place to be for anyone. What you’re feeling now is
completely normal, and it will shift over time as you make changes and they start to work. The more you practise
them, the more they will start to become second nature. I’m not saying that you’ll be at the top step feeling like
you have everything completely sorted out all the time—we are talking about children and they always surprise us.
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

But as long as you’re prepared to try strategies out, keep reflecting on what you’re doing and keep learning, you’ll
find that you can learn the skills you need. And I’m happy to help you while you do this, if that would be useful.
Ms Willemse: That sounds like a good plan. When do we start?
Here we leave Ms Willemse and Mrs Mbeki to their plan.
To summarise: It’s not that learners differ that matters. They are always going to be different. It is how we
Unit 2

respond to the differences. What we need as teachers is the resourcefulness not to know everything, but “to
know how to know what is needed” in a given situation.
We will continue to explore how we can develop this resourcefulness in Part 3 of this unit, which focuses on
language in diverse classrooms.
54
 3 Language, culture and learning

3.1 Introduction
This module looks at how teachers, and you as prospective teachers, can build classrooms that are inclusive
and welcoming to all learners. One of the factors that hinder teachers from building this inclusivity is that
learners often come from different linguistic backgrounds, which are at times different from the teacher’s
linguistic background. For most learners in South Africa the language of learning and teaching (LoLT) is
different from their home language. This means that they may require additional support, but often this support
is not forthcoming.
This section is designed to provide you with information and ideas about how to use language as an inclusive
tool instead of a barrier. It addresses the crucial role that language plays in learning. For it is through language
that children develop ideas or concepts of the world around them. It is through language that children make
sense of the input they receive in the classroom from the teacher and written texts. And it is through language
that children express their understanding of what they have learnt from this input. But when the language used
for learning is not familiar to the learners, it becomes a barrier to learning. This barrier becomes more
impenetrable when the teacher too is not adequately proficient in the language of learning and teaching, thus
making the teacher input even more incomprehensible.
As the sociolinguist Bernard Spolsky (1977) said, “Incomprehensible education is immoral.” The use of local
languages familiar to the learners and the teacher, alongside a dominant language like English, is essential if we
want young children to be actively engaged in learning. Despite the lack of resources in local languages,
learners are able to express themselves much better in familiar languages, as research in South Africa has
shown. Teachers too own the script if they use familiar languages.
A researcher in language and education, Carol Benson (2016), gives us three useful questions to think about in
relation to language and its impact on education quality and inclusion:
• Is the learner taught and assessed in a language s/he understands and speaks well?
• Does learning and teaching draw on the learner’s prior experiences and resources to construct new
knowledge?
• Are teachers proficient in the language(s) of learning and teaching?
These are questions that guide the content for this unit and are useful for you to make a note of to aid your
reflective practice.

ACTIVITY 36: My language history and profile

Journal
In order for you as a teacher to be sensitive to learners’ language needs, you need an awareness of
your own language history and profile. Reflect on your own language history:
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

1. How many languages do you speak?

2. Which would you consider to be your main language or mother tongue?
3. Which languages do you use most, why and what for?
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55
3.2 Mother tongue
Increasingly, teachers and academics are beginning to acknowledge the role that emotions and identity play in
language learning (see, for example, the writings of Bonny Norton (2013) and Rosemary Salomone (2010) on
language and identity). Linguists have also become more interested in the social dimension of language. The
next section therefore first provides you with information before getting you to look at your own language
history/biography.
One of the terms frequently used in discussions on language policy and language histories is “mother
tongue18”. However, it is a term that people understand and use differently. We therefore thought it useful to
look at how the term has been defined by someone working in the field of language policy. The nuanced
definition developed by Skutnabb-Kangas (2000) is still very much in use today.

The terms “mother tongue”, “home language” or “local language” are often used
interchangeably in discussions on language education. We have focused on “mother tongue”
as it is the term widely used in the literature. However, we need to bear in mind that each of
these terms can actually be pluralised, as multilingual homes often have more than one mother
tongue or home language or, in the case of Tanzania, a widely-used local language like
Kiswahili. It helps if we define what we mean by the terms we use.

Table 4: Definitions of mother tongue

Criterion Definition

The language one learned first (the language one has established the first long-
Origin
lasting verbal contacts in)

Identification

a. internal a. The language one identifies with/as a native speaker

b. external b. The language one is identified with/as a native speaker of, by others

Competence The language one knows best

Function The language one uses most

(Source: Skutnabb-Kangas 2000: 106)

Skutnabb-Kangas points out that:

… defining “mother tongue(s)” is not only an academic exercise—it is necessary also for practical purposes …
[such as] (census, right to services which are given on the basis of mother tongue, assessment of linguistic
qualifications for education, jobs etc.) (2000: 105–6)
She proceeds to identify what her mother tongues are, according to the four criteria mentioned above: origin,
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

identification, competence and function. To concretise these definitions, we thought it might be useful to apply
her definitions to two local contexts, using the background of a South African learner of Indian origin, Hamida,
and a learner who is a speaker of African languages, Dumisani.

Definition
Unit 2

19 Mother tongue: The language a person learns first / identifies with as a speaker or is identified with as a
speaker by others, or the language they know best or use most.

56
 CASE STUDY 1: Hamida
Hamida’s mother tongue by origin is Konkani, a
language spoken mainly in Goa, but also in other
parts of India, such as villages and towns in the State
of Maharashtra. Her mother tongues by internal
identification are Konkani and English, but only
English by external identification. One explanation
for the difference in internal and external
identification is that, in South Africa, very few adults
and even fewer children of Indian origin can speak
an Indian language. Very few adults of Hamida’s
generation, and hardly any who are younger,
actually still speak their “languages of origin”. In
South Africa, it is assumed that “Indians” have
English as their mother tongue and in most cases,
such an assumption would be correct. With regard
to both competence and function, Hamida’s mother
tongue would be English. However, if we were to
follow Skutnabb-Kangas’s approach in the
description of her language biography, Hamida
could include Afrikaans under competence, even
though her proficiency in Afrikaans is not as good as
it is in English when it comes to productive skills
such as speaking and writing. She also has limited
competence in isiXhosa.

CASE STUDY 2: Dumisani

Dumisani lives in Soweto. Unlike Hamida, he has two
mother tongues by origin: isiZulu, which is his
mother’s first language, and Sepedi, which is his
father’s. Dumisani grew up with both these
languages being prominent in his early childhood.
He identified with both these languages in terms of
internal identification. However, his friends regarded
him as an isiZulu speaker because he used this
language more, so isiZulu was the mother tongue by
external identification. One explanation for this
difference is that, growing up, Dumisani spent more
time with his mother, so ended up using isiZulu more
often. With regard to competence, Dumisani was
more proficient in isiZulu at an informal level, but in
English when it came to the formal use of language
in domains such as education. However, when it
came to function, he uses English and isiZulu equally
regularly, albeit in different domains of use.

The criteria of competence and function are particularly important. There is usually a link between the two—
people use the language(s) they know best, most. However, when it comes to language and education in schools
in South Africa, particularly with regard to the language of teaching and learning, there is very little correlation
between the two criteria for most learners whose mother tongue (language of origin) is an African language.
When educationists and linguists make a case for mother tongue education, they are making the case with
reference to the criterion of competence—the language one knows best. For even though African languages,
like isiXhosa or Tshivenda, for example, are currently confined to limited domains (or areas) of use, they are the
languages the learners know best and use most in their daily lives.
However, Skutnabb-Kangas alerts us to the fact that the definitions of mother tongue she provides may not
always apply in multilingual contexts. In South Africa, there are many examples of children growing up with two
languages like as Dumisani, particularly in Gauteng, where the father and mother might not share a mother
tongue. Sadly, however, caregivers may choose to speak only English to the child.
According to Skutnabb-Kangas, the criterion that is most difficult to define is origin because:
… caregivers and children may not have the same mother tongue … [in] situations where the mother tongue by
origin may not be learned in infancy and may not be taught by the primary care-takers … (2000: 111)
Skutnabb-Kangas’s (2000) definitions and descriptions of mother tongue are helpful in discussions on language
in education as they concretely describe various applications of the use of the mother tongue in daily interaction.
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y
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57
 ACTIVITY 37: Mapping my language history

Journal
In order to assess your understanding of the term “mother tongue”, as well as to make you aware of your
own language biography, map your own language histories, using the four criteria applied by Skutnabb-
Kangas, namely, origin, identification (internal and external), competence and function.

ACTIVITY 38: Understanding my language practices

Journal
Write a journal entry about your current language practices, describing the contexts in which you use
different languages. In addition, describe how you feel about your own language history and experiences
in South Africa, particularly in an education setting.

3.3 Language in
South Africa
The vast majority of South Africans are multilingual19, which means they are able to understand and speak two
or more languages. There are, however, pockets in the country that are more monolingual20, particularly in
deep rural areas and particularly among older people. This section will introduce you to South African
language policy and consider some of the ways that this impacts on educational inclusion in practice. We start
by thinking about the benefits of multilingualism.

3.3.1 Multilingualism

ACTIVITY 39: Reflecting on multilingualism

Journal
Look back on your previous journal entry about your languages. Reflect on your experiences of being
multilingual. What are the benefits that you have got from being multilingual? And the challenges? How
do these affect your learning experiences and teaching practice?
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

There are many individual and collective benefits to multilingualism (Coetzee-van Rooy, 2010). A multilingual
community reflects a rich and diverse cultural society. Multilingualism can contribute to inclusive economic
development and increase individuals’ employment opportunities. There is significant evidence that multilingual
learners find it easier to learn new languages and have increased metalinguistic awareness21 compared to
their monolingual peers.

Definition
Unit 2

20 Multilingual: Able to understand and speak two or more languages.

21 Monolingual: Able to understand and speak only one language.
22 Metalinguistic awareness: Ability to discuss and reflect on language.
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 There are also cognitive development benefits: multilingual children are more creative, are better problem-
solvers and have increased critical thinking capabilities. These are cognitive skills that underpin most curricula
throughout the world.
UNESCO promotes the value of linguistic diversity and argues that sustainable development depends on
multilingualism, and that it contributes to global citizenship and peaceful co-existence. Every year on 21
February, UNESCO celebrates the benefits of multilingualism with an International Mother Language Day. The
following is a useful website to find out more about this day and gives ideas of how to celebrate the day in your
school: https://bit.ly/2BrxyBn

3.3.2 Language planning and policy

Despite these recognised benefits of multilingualism, we still see that the majority of classrooms globally are
monolingual. Why is this? To understand this, we need to look at language planning. This goes beyond
educational policy as it also relates to the choices of national languages and how they are used in different
settings—for example, law courts or hospitals.
Richard Ruiz (1984) usefully categorises three types of language planning orientations. He describes
orientation22 as “a complex of dispositions toward language and its role, and toward languages and their role
in society”.
Ruiz’ three orientations are:
1. Language as a problem: Where monolingual policies are promoted and minority languages are
marginalised from official spaces, such as schools. This can lead to assumptions that children who are not
proficient in the dominant language are less able.
2. Language as a right: Where the linguistic rights of minority communities are recognised legally but are
rarely given an equal status to dominant languages.
3. Language as a resource: Here multilingualism is seen as an asset and useful in economic and social
community development. This can be seen as the opposite of “language as a problem” since policies will
actively promote multilingualism.
This is a good reading to think more about the ways that language can be seen as a resource in South Africa:
https://bit.ly/2w7VeHe
South Africa’s “eleven official languages” policy (RSA, 1996) has been hailed as progressive by many language
activists and language practitioners. By the way, can you name the 11 languages? And can you name the many
other languages that are spoken or used in South Africa?
A closer examination of language policy in practice, however, shows that the situation in South Africa is no
different from the typical post-colonial situation, either in Africa, or elsewhere. As Desai has argued, “During
Apartheid we had two official languages, now we have 11. Simple arithmetic tells us we should adopt a ‘two plus’
approach in addressing language issues. Instead we often have a ‘two minus’ approach, gravitating towards
English monolingualism” (Desai, 2016: 346). The nine African languages continue to be used in limited domains.
Where have we gone wrong? Ironically, it is not in the policy sector, as even our language in education policy
(DoE, 1997) is progressive and allows for the use of African languages throughout our formal education. The
reality, however, is very different. In practice only English and Afrikaans mother tongue speakers are able to use
their languages as languages of learning and teaching throughout formal education.
The clamour for English in Southern Africa, but particularly South Africa, is deafening. Interestingly, at the height
of the “Fees must fall” campaign, when the call for a decolonised curriculum was very loud, very little mention
was made of using African languages as languages of learning and teaching. Instead, the demand at many
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

campuses was to stop using Afrikaans as a medium and use only English. See the Conversation piece on
multilingualism above for more information on this.

Definition
Unit 2

23 Orientation: An integrated set of attitudes and beliefs held by a person.

59
You can also read this interesting article by Rosemary Salomone about the Constitutional Court judgement to
uphold the decision of the University of the Free State to move from a parallel English and Afrikaans language
programme to only English: https://bit.ly/2JxnonE

ACTIVITY 40: Talking to a caregiver

Discussion
To begin to address this question, interview a caregiver in your community about why they want their
children to learn in English.

Why is this the case?

There are many complex reasons for such behaviour. Below are some possible explanations.
• English is seen as a global language that will open doors for its speakers. This despite the fact that for many it
remains “unassailable but unattainable” in the words of the late South African language activist, Neville Alexander.
• During apartheid, South Africans were brought up on a diet of difference. As a result, any difference is
viewed with suspicion and English is seen as an equaliser.
• There is a strong perception that African languages do not have the necessary or required technical
vocabulary to be used as languages of learning and teaching. Proponents of this belief forget that languages
develop through use and the more you use them, the more they develop.
Given such exclusionary practices and rigid views, how do we begin to give value to the African languages that
many of our learners bring to the classrooms of South Africa? How do we acknowledge their linguistic resources?
As teachers we need to create a climate in the classroom that is inclusive and welcoming. Our experience is
that the more languages we speak, the richer we are.
Have you ever noticed the reaction of someone when you thank them in their own language? A good starting
point for an inclusive classroom could be a poster with “thank you” in as many languages and scripts as possible.
Another idea could be to have children learn to sign words and phrases like “Hello”, and “How are you?”
Think of other languages you can add to the poster, e.g. South African Sign Language, isiXhosa, Setswana,
siSwati, Xitsonga, Tshivenda, Hebrew, Hindi, French, German, Portuguese, etc.

LEARNER DIVERSIT Y
Unit 2

60
 ACTIVITY 41: Colloquial language

Writing
Later in this section we refer to Professor Leketi Makalela, of the Division of Languages, Literacies and
Literatures at the University of the Witwatersrand, who believes that using colloquial expressions,
phrases and idioms can help us all to speak “South African”. Can you think of some “South African”
phrases that are understood by most (e.g. amashwang-shweng = a nice hairstyle; kasi = your
neighbourhood). Can you think of others that might enrich our society?

ACTIVITY 42: Celebrating multilingualism

Writing
We are going to look in more detail at specific multilingual strategies you can use in your teaching
practice. But first, we’d like you to think about some other general ways that you can celebrate
multilingualism in your classroom, viewing the languages that learners bring as a resource rather than a
problem. Examples include encouraging learners to know the greetings of all languages in the
classroom; celebrating UNESCO Mother Language Day; developing different multilingual resources, e.g.
glossaries, posters. Please use these as a starting point for your group discussions.

3.4 Language and

inclusive education

3.4.1 Why language is an important factor in inclusive education

We have mentioned a few times that language is an important factor for inclusive education. Why is this? This
section introduces you to the challenges that many children face and provides space for group and personal
reflection about how language relates to wider inequalities in the education system. Much of the evidence
used in this section comes from a 2016 UNICEF report about language policy and practice in East and
Southern Africa and a 2017 British Council report about English Medium Instruction (EMI) in low- and middle-
income countries:
https://uni.cf/2VDT0JO
https://bit.ly/2VH3GHG
It is widely known that children learn better when they learn in their mother language. Research from many
countries shows that learners learn faster and are able to communicate more clearly in their mother language.
This is across different groups, such as gender or ethnic background, and is seen in countries worldwide (see,
for example, the important work of Jim Cummins, 2006). South Africa’s Language in Education policy
recognises this, but in practice only implements it in Grades R to 3, after which there is a switch to English.
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

Research from South Africa and across the continent has shown that when learners transition to learning in
English, the majority do not have the English proficiency to understand subject content in the language of
learning and teaching. This is a significant barrier to children’s learning and progression throughout basic
education, particularly for learners from disadvantaged backgrounds.
Millions of children learn in English medium schools but have very low levels of English proficiency. This leads
Unit 2

to disengagement and low school achievement. In the majority of Sub-Saharan African countries with EMI,
learners switch to English at the end of year three.

61
At this point of transition, many learners are unable to write about complex issues or read textbook content
(which is rarely adapted to second language learners) in any language. They also are unlikely to have the
English proficiency to listen and fully understand what the teacher is saying or talk in group discussions in
English medium lessons.
Prof Nontokozo Mashiya at the School of Education, UKZN, has stressed that learning in a language other than
your home language tends to reinforce rote learning rather than understanding and application. So, not only
are learners being taught in English, in addition there is an emphasis on memorising English text in a short
timeframe, rather than understanding the concepts it represents, or engaging the ideas behind the words in a
way that is meaningful and rewarding to them. Apart from the unnecessary anxiety this causes in a child, this
meaningless reproduction of text alienates learners from the potentially valuable knowledge in the text.
If the focus was more on understanding, application, and the higher order thinking skills of critical and creative
innovation, then teachers would be more likely to value home languages, and the Indigenous Knowledge
Systems23 (IKS) they are linked to, as useful tools in the learning process. This shift in focus is a shift away from
skills that rely mainly on extrinsic motivation24, towards skills that require the kind of intrinsic motivation25 that
home language and IKS can nurture. If the focus is on memorisation we hide the lack of understanding behind
meaningless mechanical reproduction. Integrating home languages into our teaching is therefore essentail in
ensuring that all learners in our class are enabled to reach their full potential.
Privileging a learner’s home language in a lesson, even if it is just to explore core concepts (which is more practical
in a class with many different home languages), can have a powerful effect on the learner’s self-esteem.
Imagine a teacher who is about to discuss gender constructs in a class. The teacher begins by asking learners
to think of words, or phrases, or metaphors, or proverbs that express the ideas of masculinity and femininity in
their home languages. Learners share and compare their concepts. They are even allowed to speak in their
home languages while translating for each other (and even arguing about the translation). The lesson has
begun by enabling learners to connect with their own knowledge (and ignorance) of the topic in a form that is
meaningful to them. The teacher might continue to explore the role of initiation rituals, inviting learners to share
their knowledge of rites of passage, and what they tell us about the way cultures communicate what it means
to be a man or a woman.
The lack of value that our curriculum places on languages from Africa and knowledge from Africa entrenches
Afro-pessimism26 and subtly communicates an inferiority complex27 connected to values, beliefs, languages
and practices that come from Africa. Most curricula neglect the wealth of knowledge and practices that
originated in Africa. Our curricula often imply that the African child must leave their values, beliefs and
practices outside the school gate. How do we change this? We can address this in part by defending the
learners’ right to be taught in their mother tongue, or “home language” as the Department of Basic Education
prefers to express it.
The research evidence shows that:
• The use of mother languages can increase girls’ participation and achievement in school.
• Children in remote rural areas and children living in poor households find it very hard to learn in the medium
of English. Many of these children do not have the opportunity to read, speak or listen to English outside the
classroom. Their caregivers and the wider family may not speak English. They may not have regular access
to English media (such as TV or the radio).
• When children do not feel confident in their English, they are less likely to talk or ask questions in class. They
may feel more anxious or worried that they will not say the words correctly. This means that girls, children in
remote rural areas and those living in poor households may not be practising using English which is so
important to language development.
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Definition
24 Indigenous Knowledge Systems: The complex set of knowledge, skills and technologies existing and developed
around specific conditions of populations and communities indigenous to a particular geographic area. (Answers.com)
25 Extrinsic motivation: Behaviour that is driven by external rewards such as money, fame, grades or praise.
26 Intrinsic motivation: Doing something because it gives you satisfaction and you want to do it.
Unit 2

27 Afro-pessimism is a framework and critical idiom that describes the ongoing effects of racism, colonialism, and
historical processes of enslavement including the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, and their impact on structural
conditions as well as personal, subjective, and lived experience, and embodied reality. (Wikipedia)
28 An inferiority complex consists of a lack of self-esteem, a doubt and uncertainty about yourself, and feelings of
not measuring up to standards.
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 ACTIVITY 43: Do a language survey

Discussion
Take a look at some of the major educational inequalities in a school you are working in now, one that
you have worked in previously, or a school in your community. Collect some information (data) about
which children do well, or less well, in school. A useful way to find this out is through a short survey of a
class at the start of the year. If you can’t access a class you could possibly talk to member of a
homework club, or an after-school group. Ask the children to tell you a little about themselves and what
languages they speak regularly outside of class (in the playground, on the way to school, at home, in the
market). This will help you to understand the range of languages that may be spoken in your future
classrooms and possibly the ways that certain inequalities (e.g. gender) inter-relate with access to the
language of learning and teaching. Together with Activity 39 (why caregivers want their children to learn
in English) this may give you insight into the intersection of language and other barriers to learning.

While language is a key factor at all educational levels, it is important that we do not only focus on language.
Addressing language issues is a necessary condition for making a classroom more inclusive, but it is not
sufficient to merely improve all children’s learning. A recent thought-piece by Carol Benson (2016) has
highlighted additional equality and quality issues that need to be addressed:
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002455/245575E.pdf
In particular, Benson highlights (1) content-heavy and inappropriate curricula, (2) low levels of teacher education,
(3) lack of adequate school facilities and (4) health and safety issues, particularly for girls. Does this sound familiar?

ACTIVITY 44: Socio-economic impact on learning

Writing
Let’s take the example of socio-economic status. Think about, and if possible discuss, the ways that
poverty and language may be related for learners in your class. As a starting point, think about:
learning materials, time for study, access to language outside of the classroom. Consider the ways
that these may inter-relate with some of the issues that Carol Benson highlights.

3.4.2 Language in the classroom

While much of the literature focuses on primary schooling, there is also lots of evidence from across Sub-Saharan
Africa that language continues to be a barrier for learners in secondary and higher education. Why is this?
Firstly, policymakers and curriculum developers widely assume that post primary schooling children will be fully
proficient, if not fluent, in English. This means that no allowances are made for other languages to be used as a
resource. The level of English used in the curriculum (for example, in textbook content or for assessment) tends
to be that of a native speaker. This is often because policymakers think that learning in English is an effective
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

way to learn the language of English. However, we have already seen that many children, particularly those
from rural and lower-income communities, leave primary schooling without even basic reading, writing or
speaking skills in English.
Secondly, the curriculum demands of learners can be very high. Curricula can be overloaded with content so
learners are expected to demonstrate a wide range of knowledge. The cognitive demands can also be very
high. Do you think this is true of the South African secondary curriculum?
Unit 2

63
One recent project in Tanzania has sought to support learners and teachers who are struggling with the
cognitive and language demands of the secondary curriculum. In Tanzania, the shift to learning in English
happens at the start of secondary school, and the project’s research has found that children find it very difficult
to engage in their lessons, particularly in Science. They have found that children in rural areas are particularly
affected. The project has designed textbooks which include a range of activities that would be very useful,
particularly if you are working in secondary schools. You can find all of the project’s publications, including
chapters of the textbooks they have developed, on this website: https://lstttanzania.wordpress.com/

ACTIVITY 45: Language and inclusion

Journal
We’ve come to the end of the first half of the section. Take a moment to reflect on what you have learnt.
In your journal, try answering these questions. You can use the section content, key readings and tasks
we’ve looked at so far:
1. What are the benefits of multilingualism?
2. What do the criteria of function and competence mean in relation to mother tongue?
3. How can you promote language as a resource in your classroom?
4. What are the new things that you learnt about language and inclusion?

3.5 Classroom strategies:

a two-pronged approach
Earlier we indicated that multilingualism is all around us but classrooms still remain monolingual when it comes
to written work and assessment, even though both teachers and learners speak African languages in many
classrooms. There is a tendency to see language in education policy rather narrowly. In this section we
therefore give you some ideas on:
• How we can use learners’ mother tongues in the classroom, even if the language of learning and teaching is
English, to assist learners in accessing the curriculum and in making them feel included by being able to
demonstrate what they do know
• Some ways to develop English language proficiency in all lessons

3.5.1 Mother tongue teaching and learning

We will start off with an example from
Desai’s research (2016, op.cit.) in
Khayelitsha in the Western Cape. She gave
a writing task to Grade 4 learners based
on the picture story on the left.
Below is a snapshot of a Grade 4 learner’s
narrative writing based on the picture
story. The first example is a narrative piece
written by the pupil in the mother tongue,
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isiXhosa. The second example is the

English translation of the isiXhosa piece in
the first example and the third example is
the same learner’s narrative piece written
in English (see Desai, 2012 for more
information on this project).
Unit 2

Figure 23: A surprise (Source: Heaton, 1971)

64
 As English is officially the language of learning and teaching Figure 24: Grade 4 writing sample and example text

from Grade 4 at this school, we judge the learners on what

they are able to do on the basis of the English version. We
ignore what they can do in their mother tongue. You will
notice that the English version barely relates to the picture
story, while the isiXhosa version is clearly based on the story.
Yet we judge the child on the English version only. The study
showed that at Grade 4 level, the pupils performed
significantly better in the isiXhosa version of the narrative
task. Learner samples indicate that the isiXhosa version was
almost always much richer than the English version and truer
to the pictures in the narrative task. In fact, at Grade 4 level,
learners expressed themselves with great difficulty in English,
as is evident in the sample. The study showed that learners at
this school, which is similar to many schools catering for
African learners, are not ready to switch to English as a
medium at the beginning of Grade 4. One of the
recommendations from this study was that isiXhosa be
extended as the language of learning and teaching at least
until the end of Grade 6.
English translation of isiXhosa version
In multilingual societies people tend to use their “linguistic
repertoires” (or their range of language varieties) as There was a father (old man) who put
resources, not impediments. Educational institutions have to his box down, conversing with his
take this as their starting point, instead of ignoring the father. Then a certain young man
existing language proficiencies of learners. Languages (brother) appeared and took that old
develop through use, and creative solutions will emerge if man’s box and ran away. He was
there is a commitment to inclusive education, which chased by a child and the one blew a
accommodates linguistic diversity as a challenge rather than whistle, and the other one pointed at
a threat. him. He ran away with it and got into
the car and drove very fast. The
There is often a tendency to adopt an “all-or-nothing” others opened the box and a big
approach. This leads to the terms “medium of instruction” snake. The other was shocked by the
and “language of learning and teaching” being seen in rigid snake and his sunglasses fell down.
terms. If, for example, English is used as a medium of
instruction the assumption is that only English must be used
for all teaching and learning activities. The term can,
however, be broken up into different aspects, for example:
• Language/s used for teaching
• Language/s used in the setting of tasks, assignments and
exams
• Language/s used or allowed in the writing of assignments
and exams
• Language/s in which text material is available
• Language/s learners use in their self-directed learning
processes and activities
The question of medium of instruction then takes on a
dynamic role. What guides the teacher is how to ensure that
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learners are engaged in the learning process. Such an approach is being implemented informally in many
contexts, but it needs to happen on a more systematic basis. Two case studies from a PGCE (Postgraduate
Certificate in Education) class illustrate this very well:
Unit 2

65
 CASE STUDY 1: Use of mother tongue
In a lecture session to English Method learners, the
professor asked the class whether they would allow
their pupils/learners to use their mother tongues
during discussions in the English class. There was a
resounding NO.
That same day, the professor had some of the
English Method learners in a tutorial group where
they were working on a task. As the professor
walked around the class, she heard most of the
learners engaging in their mother tongue with their
fellow learners. She gently tapped one on the
shoulder and said, “What did you say this morning
about using mother tongues in the English class?”
The learner smiled bashfully.

There is a tendency amongst speakers of African languages to deny their own useful practices,
instead of drawing on them as a resource.

CASE STUDY 2: Use of non-linguistic tools

At times, non-linguistic tools can assist in clarifying
a concept. The same professor was teaching a
combined PGCE class on the role of language in
learning. She wanted to illustrate the point that at
times learners may have the right answer without
knowing what it means, as there is a tendency to
rote-learn (learn “off-by-heart”). The professor put
this to the test by asking the class whether they
knew what caused day and night. Several learners
promptly answered correctly, “The earth rotates on
its own axis in relation to the sun.” When the
professor asked volunteers to come forward to
demonstrate this, you saw the earth running
around the sun; the sun running around the earth
and even the earth running around the moon. No
one in the class got it right. When the professor
demonstrated it, all the learners said they would
never forget this because of the demonstration.
What this illustrates is that teachers need to be
resourceful to explain concepts to learners—mere
words are not always enough.

a. Bilingual approach
The LOITASA Project
There are numerous examples of pedagogically sound approaches being adopted in South Africa, and
elsewhere. One such example is a bilingual approach where learner workbooks were developed for
Mathematics and Natural Sciences for Grades 4–6 by the Language of Learning and Teaching in Tanzania and
South Africa (LOITASA) Project in which Desai was centrally involved.
The South African side of the project was a longitudinal study28 spreading over three years (Grades 4–6) and
involved two primary schools in urban townships in the Western Cape. At each school one class constituted
the experimental group and the other a control group. The experimental group was taught Science and
Mathematics in isiXhosa, while the control group was taught these subjects in English. The same learners were
part of the project from Grades 4–6. The project monitored the progress of learners in the two subjects,
Science and Mathematics. In addition, qualitative data29 was collected through classroom observations and
interviews with teachers, learners and caregivers. Existing learner support materials in English in the two
subject areas were translated into isiXhosa. These materials were provided free of charge to both the
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experimental and control groups. There was also a teacher-training component to the project.
Unit 2

Definition
29 A longitudinal study uses continuous or repeated methods to study individuals or groups over a prolonged period.
30 Qualitative data is non-numeric e.g. interviews, observations, focus groups.

66
 By conducting a study where the mother tongue of the learners (isiXhosa) was used as a medium of instruction
in two key subject areas in Grades 4–6, the researchers wanted to explore whether learners would learn better
through the use of this medium as opposed to an unfamiliar language (English). The study focused on the
following questions: Would this switch to the mother tongue be in the best interests of the learners for the
acquisition of knowledge in Science and Mathematics? Would it facilitate the acquisition of English? Would it be
in the interests of national development? The study hoped to throw some light on the the consequences of
continuing with English as a medium of instruction, as opposed to using a more familiar medium.
Key findings
Nomlomo (2008: 88) outlines some of the findings that emerged from the LOITASA Project in South Africa in
the Science classrooms taught in isiXhosa as follows:
Learners developed high self-esteem and better confidence as they participated in classroom activities in their
own language. They were spontaneous in responding to teachers’ questions and they could express themselves
clearly in their mother tongue (isiXhosa). Their written work made more sense than their counterparts who were
taught through the medium of English. They could elaborate on issues, making use of complex sentences, which
showed originality and better understanding of Science concepts.
See Nomlomo (2008 and 2009) for details of actual examples from learners’ scripts. Nomlomo also points to a
positive correlation between the use of isiXhosa as a medium of instruction and learners’ understanding and
academic performance in Science. For example, the pass rate in Science in Grade 5 for the isiXhosa class
ranged from 70 to 86%. Learners in the isiXhosa-medium class consistently out-performed their counterparts
who were taught in English.
Similarly, Langenhoven states that “when pupils use their mother tongue to read and talk about a topic, they
construct meaning, making sense of their world and thus generating a better understanding of scientific
concepts instead of memorising scientific facts” (2010: 135). Langenhoven illustrates the complexities involved
in assessing learners in a language that is not their first language. In other words, how do you know whether
the concept in Science is misunderstood or whether a learner is simply not able to express it in English? For
this reason Langenhoven asked learners to sketch their understanding of certain concepts. He argues that
“drawings are revealing and although mere suppositions, can generate meaningful insights into how pupils’
conceptual understanding develops” (Langenhoven, 2010: 140).
Despite important gains made by the project, as captured in the LOITASA-edited volumes (Brock-Utne et al,
2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2010; Qorro et al, 2008; Desai et al, 2010), there have been many challenges as well.
Desai outlines some of these:
Concern was expressed by the research team after classroom observations that, despite a new curriculum
which emphasized a learner-centred approach, teaching in both the experimental and control groups was
characterized by a predominantly teacher-centred approach. Children spent most of their time listening to the
teachers talking, with occasional choral responses from the students. Where questions were asked of pupils,
they were largely of an information-seeking kind. The higher-order thinking that did take place in the four
classrooms of these two schools was linked to assessment tasks in the learner support materials provided by
the project. (Desai, 2010: 209–210)
The conclusion that Desai (and other researchers in the project) have come to is that:
Mother tongue education is a necessary but not a sufficient condition to remedy such teacher-centred
approaches in the class o be encouraged. An intimacy with subject knowledge on the part of the teachers is
needed to develop a confidence and boldness in teachers which, in turn, could lead to greater pupil
involvement in learning. (Desai, 2010: 210)
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Unit 2

67
 ACTIVITY 46: Language of learning and teaching

Discussion
Given South Africa’s enabling language in education policy of 1997, there are many ways in which you
as prospective teachers can assist learners to access the curriculum if the pedagogical will is there.
Demonstrate how you can assist learners to access a difficult part of the curriculum by drawing on their
mother tongues.
So, what are some of the other ways that teachers help to support learners learning with English as the
language of learning and teaching?

b. Code-switching
The most common pedagogic strategy used to aid learning in African classrooms is code-switching30. This can
be defined as “the use of more than one language or dialect in the same conversation” (Clegg and Afitska,
2011: 62). Studies by Probyn (2006) in South Africa have shown how many teachers use code-switching
between English and languages that are more familiar in Science and Maths lessons. Code-switching can be an
effective way to check learners’ understanding and make the subject content more accessible. Teacher
code-switching has some pedagogic value in allowing for access to the curriculum and has the potential to aid
language development. However, it is often used by teachers when they themselves do not feel proficient in
the language of learning and teaching. Some teachers also allow for large parts of the lesson to be in a
language other than the language of learning and teaching.

c. Translation
Recent research in English-medium schools in Yaounde, Cameroon, has shown that the main strategy used by
multilingual learners in classrooms and at home is translation. At given moments, for example when the
teacher has turned their back to the blackboard, learners will ask each other for help in translating what the
teacher has been saying. At home, they will also use different resources, such as dictionaries, to translate
textbook content and homework. While this shows that learners are finding ways to access the curriculum,
there are clear implications for the time it takes to engage in this practice.
These approaches—code-switching and translation—may help learners and teachers to navigate the English-
medium curriculum. However, they do not systematically support English language development or draw on
learners’ multilinguistic resources like the examples above. A recent research project in Rwanda trialled an
approach called language supportive learning.

ACTIVITY 47: Rwandan language supportive textbooks

Audio Visual
Watch the video of the Rwandan case study below and discuss:
1. What is meant by language supportive learning for all?
2. How is English language developed through using the textbooks discussed?
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

3. What can you learn from this case study for your own practice?
Unit 2

Definition
31 Code-switching: The use of more than one language or dialect in the same conversation.

68
 A central aspect of this approach was helping to develop learners’ English in every lesson using set activities
and specially designed textbooks. In the section below, some examples of these activities are given. The
findings from the study are discussed in this video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XUqS_WSwEv0&t=2s
Key to this language supportive learning approach is the use of mother tongue, not only to enable learners’
access to the curriculum, but also as a resource to scaffold their English language development.
Lesson plans were designed to include activities related to listening, speaking, reading and writing. This gives
learners opportunities to:
• Gain access to the concept (for example, through initial discussion in Kinyarwanda or reading a very
simple text)
• Demonstrate their knowledge of the concept (for example, through structured written tasks)
• Practice their English (for example, through opportunities to speak in English with keywords or
translations provided)
These are very useful principles for you to think about when designing activities within your own classroom.
Perhaps you could ask learners which they would find the most useful.

d. Content and Language Integrated Learning

Another approach that is gaining a lot of support around the world is Content and Language Integrated
Learning31 (CLIL). This has been particularly popular in Spain. In CLIL, some subjects are taught entirely in a
second language (often English) but learners are fully supported to practise and develop their English within
every lesson. In this way, the approach shares some similarities with language supportive learning that we have
already looked at.
The positives of CLIL are:
• It recognises that learners are learning in a second (or often third or fourth) language. Activities are included
that develop learners’ language competencies and there are often a lot of visual aids to support
understanding.
• Lessons are coordinated by both content and English language specialist teachers as required.
• It can be adapted to the context of delivery. For example, in Spain, different regional authorities have
implemented it differently, with some giving a larger proportion of the curriculum over to CLIL than others.
This is dependent upon whether learners live in predominantly bilingual or multilingual communities.
However, it has only been used in high-income countries and so it is not known whether it would work well in
lower-income contexts. There is reason to be unsure. Some researchers, such as Anthony Bruton, are critical of
CLIL because it can discriminate against less able and socio-economically disadvantaged learners (Bruton,
2013). It is also expensive to put in place because of the dual-teaching approach. This reminds us again of the
importance of considering context when implementing language education programmes. What works well in
one place won’t necessarily work well somewhere else.

ACTIVITY 48: Use of CLIL in different classrooms

Audio Visual
This is a really good video that shows CLIL being used in different classrooms across Europe. Identify,
and if possible discuss, aspects of it that you could use in your classroom.
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

https://youtu.be/dFuCrxRobh0
Unit 2

Definition
32 Content and Language Integrated Learning is a method of learning a content-based subject such as maths or
geography through the medium of a second language, and at the same time, learning that second language by
studying the content-based subject.
69
One of the comments one often hears is that it is difficult to use African languages as languages of learning
and teaching as there are so few interesting children’s materials in them. As the sociologist and language
scholar, Kwesi Kwaa Prah, states, although Africans are among the most multilingual people in the world:
… (their) command over languages is however mainly oral, with little or hardly any bases in literacy. This
weakness means that the foundations of multilingualism in Africa are tenuous. It is a multilingualism which
suffers from all the debilities of orality as opposed to literacy. (Prah, 2009: 259)

e. Stories
Given this caveat by Prah, how then do we enable learners such as those in Khayelitsha or Nongoma to gain
real access to English?
One way of doing this is through stories. Throughout the world, young people are brought up on stories. But
often these stories are shared orally and are not written down. What prevents you, as young student teachers,
from writing a story that you know and like—in whichever language you wish to? If a particular story is not
available in your language, you can always translate it. In this way we can develop plenty of written resources
in African languages.
This is not a new idea. The African Storybook Project does precisely that, but has added an additional
component—the stories are posted online, thus developing a rich source of online material readily acceptable
to all and free of charge. Visit their website: www.africanstorybook.org to see the wealth of resources
available currently in 152 languages.

ACTIVITY 49: Write a story

Writing
Write a children’s story that you know and like. Get a fellow student to translate it into another language.
Now post it on the African Storybook website.

3.5.2 Multilingual teaching and learning activities

This section gives you some ideas for activities that will support learners in this two-pronged approach to both
access the curriculum and develop their English language. It is useful to think about these activities across
reading, writing and speaking. Some of these activities are taken from the two projects discussed in the section
above. We recommend that you use these activities as a starting point for thinking about how you will include
all learners in your classroom.

a. Reading
• It is good to check the text that learners are reading. Is it in simple language? Is there a simple sentence
structure? If not, can you adapt the text to make it easier for your learners to understand?
• Are there any new words that you may want to check they know before asking them to read the text?
• When learners are reading a text, it is important that learners know why they are reading it. To help with this,
try asking simple questions about the key thing that you want the learner to take from the text.
Read the text: What lives in soil?
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Soil is the top part of the earth.

It is a non-living thing.
There are three main types of soil: loam, sand and clay soil.
Plants grow in soil.
Unit 2

Some animals live in soil.

Figure 25: Example text

70
 b. Writing
Writing in English is very difficult for learners if they are not supported to write. It can help learners if the writing
is a follow-on to a reading activity. Here are some ways to help learners:
• Give learners the heads and tails of different sentences to make single sentences:

Soil is are some animals that live in soil

Plants grow three different types of soil

There are a non-living thing.

Insects in loam soil

• Ask learners to write the sentences in a sequence to make a paragraph.

• Matching activities between sentences and visuals can also be a useful way to support language development.

Ask learners to fill out a chart, for example:

What is it used for

Loam soil

Sand soil

Clay soil

There are 3 types of soil:

• loam soil
• sand soil
• clay soil
We use loam soil for growing
crops. We use sand soil for
building. We use clay soil for
making pots.

Figure 26: Sentence-building activity (Source: University of Bristol, Rwanda language supportive project textbook)

c. Speaking
It is good to first let learners speak in a language they are familiar with to allow them to know what they know
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

and build their base level of knowledge. From here, talking in English can be scaffolded to help to build
proficiency and confidence. Give learners all the words that they need to make sentences.
Here are two good activities to further develop their English language and confidence:
• Give a speaking frame where learners fill in the blanks. This could be adapted from the sentence-building
activity above, for example:
We use……for……
Unit 2

• Give learners the starts to sentences for them to complete in discussion with each other. For example:
We use loam soil…

71
There is a tendency among some people to look down on non-dominant languages, as if they are not real
languages with rules, etc. It is important to expose such perceptions. There are many fun activities that
teachers can be involved in to make learners aware of how different languages function.
Below are two examples of such activities.

Example 1: Comparing languages

Learners can have fun comparing how different languages work, with regard to different aspects of language.
For example, learners and teachers can compare how different languages form plurals:

Cat—cats (English)
Kat—katte (Afrikaans)
Ikati—iikati (isiXhosa)
Bili—biliya (Hindi)
Mazru—mazriya (Konkani—Hamida’s mother tongue)

Teachers can then discuss these features with learners and get them to form other plurals. They can ask
learners what they notice—in isiXhosa the plural form is created by adding something in front of the word (a
prefix) while the other languages add something at the back of the word (a suffix).

Example 2: Comparing orthography

Another example is orthography32. In English, the sentence “I love you” consists of three words. However, in
isiXhosa it consists of one word “Ndiyakuthanda”.
English has what is known as a “disjunctive orthography”—that is, the words are separated. isiXhosa has a
“conjunctive orthography”—the words are combined into one word. There are many useful things that can be
learnt by comparing languages and teachers can use such strategies to develop a metalinguistic awareness
amongst learners.
This comparative task leads us into the next section.

ACTIVITY 50: Reflecting on strategies

Journal
Think about, and if possible discuss, the activities presented here. What do you think about them?
Which do you particularly like or dislike? Why? Are there any you can imagine adapting for your own
subject/classrooms? Use some of the strategies or activities to create a learning activity in your
particular subject area. Make a note of these in your journal.
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y
Unit 2

Definition
33 Orthography: The accepted system of spelling and writing words in a language.

72
 3.6 Language, culture
and identity
Thus far, we have focused on language and learning as we think that the language of learning and teaching
plays a fundamental role in excluding learners from access to the curriculum and knowledge. However, we are
aware that language is also a carrier of culture and identity—think back to our earlier discussion of Skutnabb-
Kangas’s definitions of mother tongue.

ACTIVITY 51: Language and culture

Writing
How do you think language and culture are linked? What does it say about your identity?

It is clear that language plays a central role in the development of the child as a social being. As Halliday says,
“Language is the main channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him (sic), through which
he (sic) learns to act as a member of a ‘society’” (1978: 9). This does not, however, happen through instruction.
It happens indirectly—in the home, on the street, in the shops, on public transport, through interaction with
caregivers, brothers and sisters, neighbourhood children, school friends. In other words, there is an
interweaving of language and culture as children grow up.
We would refer to culture in such a context as “culture with a small c”, as something that has helped to shape us
and make us who we are. But when the link between language and culture is seen as an ethnic, often
chauvinistic, marker used to assert difference and divide people, we refer to culture as “culture with a capital
C”. This is what happened during apartheid when language was used to separate speakers of the different
African languages into separate “homelands”. Given this history, there is a tendency in South Africa to view the
link between language and culture with suspicion. It is in this context that the clamour for English during the
“Fees must fall” campaign needs to be seen, but not necessarily condoned.
In this regard, one needs to distinguish between the symbolic (the ethnic marker) and the communicative role
of language (language as a resource). African languages are the communicative resources of the majority of
people in South Africa. It would be foolish to deny this. As such, we need to promote their use in educational
settings and other high domains. Decolonising the curriculum inevitably has to involve the use of local
languages, which encode cultural meanings, and are also facilitative in the learning process.
There are resources that we can use in the classroom to get learners to make the connection between their
language and their identity, but also to see their language as a communicative resource. In an interesting
chapter on using a multi-literacies pedagogical approach to developing texts, Cummins (2006) explores the
use of multimedia to get pupils in a school in Canada to develop what he refers to as “identity texts”. By getting
learners to invest in their identities, they are able to develop bilingual resources. It is important that young
people are proud of their identities so that learning moves seamlessly from the familiar to the less familiar. (See
Thornwood School’s website for more information: http://thornwood.peelschools.org/Dual/)
When we think about language, culture and identity, it is also important to think about the different ways that
language is needed to more broadly include certain groups. There is a world of difference between those who are
learning an additional language voluntarily to expand their linguistic repertoire, and those who are forced to learn
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

an additional language in order to gain access to education and to participate in the wider society. You can
sub-divide the latter group into two, that is, those learning the language in an immersion context, and those
learning the additional language primarily in a school context. In the former case, there are those who are learning
that additional language, immersed in it, such as immigrant children in Norway, the United States of America or the
United Kingdom. Lily Wong Fillmore (1991: 52) sketches this situation very well in the following description:
The immigrant family is in an ideal situation for language learning since it resides in a setting that provides
Unit 2

generous exposure to the language in use. The members of the family can hear and learn the language in the
workplace, classroom, neighbourhood, and playground—wherever they come into contact with people who
speak the target language well enough to help them learn it.

73
According to her, there are three necessary ingredients for second language learning:
1. Learners who realise that they need to learn the target language (TL) and are motivated to do so
2. Speakers of the target language who know it well enough to provide the learners with access to the
language and the help they need for learning it
3. A social setting that brings learners and TL speakers into frequent enough contact to make language
learning possible (Wong Fillmore, 1991: 52–53).
In Wong Fillmore’s opinion, if any of these ingredients are dysfunctional, learners will find language learning difficult.
In the case of learners at the school in Khayelitsha referred to earlier, only the first ingredient is present. In such
a context, where people have to learn the additional language in an environment where it is not used often,
learners are likely to encounter difficulties with learning English, let alone using it as a medium of instruction. In
such a situation, mother tongue education should assume a greater role so as to facilitate learners’ learning,
but also to acknowledge their identities.

ACTIVITY 52: Learning in English

Writing
Find out some of the reasons why South African and other policymakers think the best way for learners
to learn English is by learning IN English. We have given you some ideas in the earlier sections. How
does this relate to some of the points that are being raised in this section? See the list of references for
resources to support this activity.
Are there any ways that you think you could get learners more “immersed” in the communities where
they live? How could you work with caregivers and other community members to help with this?

Before we finish this unit, we would like to take a moment to think about the language that we all use when
talking about inclusion and disability. The language we use is very powerful. It can make people feel included
or excluded as has been explored through other units in this module.

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 Suggested study unit assessments

Assessment 1
Visit the Thornwood School website (http://thornwood.peelschools.org/Dual/) referred to earlier in the
language, culture and learning section of this unit and study the school’s approach to language and
multilingualism. Now imagine you are starting a school like Thornwood in South Africa.
Develop a carefully-thought-through language policy and plan for your school. You should explain why
you are making this policy and what theories or research evidence underpin this.
The references and resources that follow will help with this.

Assessment 2
In this study unit we have looked at the richness of learner diversity, and how a teacher who works
inclusively needs to accommodate the different ways in which children learn, and draw on this diversity
in their teaching methods so that every child is learning optimally.
1. What do you think are some of the characteristics of a teacher who works inclusively?
2. Think of one of your classes at school or a class in which you have taught or observed. Describe the
diversity in that class. Describe a teacher who best accommodated this diversity. What were some of
the strategies they used?
3. Did some of the teachers simply teach in a one-size-fits-all approach? Who was excluded from
learning in that way? How could that have been addressed in order to give all the learners in the
class access to a quality education and enable them to achieve to the best of their ability?
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y
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Study unit summary and reflection
Throughout this unit we have explored learner diversity from different angles: sociocultural, learning and
language. We have examined the interplay between these different angles through intersectionality, and the
potential impact of this interplay on equity in relation to education.
We have also explored how normative thinking in education impacts on beliefs about learner ability and the
way that education is organised. As a result, normative thinking defines some learners as needing something
“different” or “special”.
We have introduced you to a different way of viewing and planning for diverse classes, moving away from the
“othering” of some learners, which can lead teachers to believe that they do not have the right skills or
knowledge to teach some of the children in their class. The evidence, as we have shown, is to the contrary.
Although it is clear that teachers do need knowledge about learners’ individual needs (and these will be
explored further in Unit 3), there is no need for an expert level of knowledge. It is more important that teachers
use this knowledge about their learners to extend what they do every day as a matter of course to make
learning accessible to more learners in the classroom.

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 Selected bibliography / Further reading
Bamgbose A (2000) Language and exclusion: the consequences of language policies in Africa. Munster-
Hamburg-London: LIT Verlag.
Banks J (1991) A curriculum for empowerment, action, and change. In Sleeter CE (ed) Empowerment through
multicultural education: 125–141. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Cummins J & Early M (2011) Identity texts: the collaborative creation of power in multilingual schools. London:
UCL IOE Press.
Desai Z (2016) Learning through the medium of English in multilingual South Africa: enabling or disabling
learners from low income contexts? Comparative Education, 52(3): 343–358.
Dudley-Marling C & Gurn A (2010) The myth of the normal curve (Vol 11). New York: Peter Lang.
Florian L & Black-Hawkins K (2011) Exploring Inclusive Pedagogy. British Educational Research Journal, 37(5):
813–828.
Florian L & Walton E (2018) Inclusive Pedagogy within the South African context. In Engelbrecht P & Green L
(eds) Responding to the challenges of inclusive education in southern Africa. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Green L & Moodley T (2018) Thinking differently about educational support. In Engelbrecht P & Green L (eds)
Responding to the challenges of inclusive education in southern Africa. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Hart S, Dixon A, Drummond MJ & McIntyre D (2004) Learning without limits. Maidenhead, Berkshire, England:
Open University Press.
Milligan LO & Tikly L (guest eds) (2016) English as a medium of instruction in postcolonial contexts: issues of
quality, equity and social justice. Comparative Education, 52(3): August 2016. https://www.researchgate.net/
publication/305272699_English_as_a_medium_of_instruction_in_postcolonial_contexts_moving_
the_debate_forward
Slee R (2018) Inclusive Education isn’t dead, it just smells funny. London: Routledge.
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y
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References
Alexander N (2000) English unassailable but unattainable: the dilemma of language policy in South African
education. PRAESA Occasional Papers No 3. Cape Town: PRAESA.
Barbarin O & Richter L (2001) Economic status, community danger and psychological problems among South
African children. Childhood, 8(1): 115–133.
Benson C (2016) Addressing language of instruction issues in education: recommendations for documenting
progress. Background paper commissioned by UNESCO for the Global Education Monitoring Report 2016.
Paris: UNESCO. Viewed 16 April 2019: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002455/245575E.pdf
Brock-Utne B, Desai Z & Qorro M (eds) (2003) Language of instruction in Tanzania and South Africa (LOITASA).
Dar es Salaam: E&D Limited.
Brock-Utne B, Desai Z & Qorro M (eds) (2004) Researching the language of instruction in Tanzania and South
Africa. Cape Town: African Minds.
Brock-Utne B, Desai Z & Qorro M (eds) (2005) LOITASA research in progress. Dar es Salaam: KAD Associates.
Brock-Utne B, Desai Z & Qorro M (eds) (2006) Focus on fresh data on the language of instruction debate in
Tanzania and South Africa. Cape Town: African Minds.
Brock-Utne B, Desai Z, Qorro M & Pitman A (eds) (2010) Language of instruction in Tanzania and South Africa:
highlights from a project. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
Bruton A (2013) CLIL: Some of the reasons why and why not. System, 41: 587–597. Viewed: 16 April 2019:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259127119_CLIL_Some_of_the_reasons_why_and_why_not
Clegg J & Afitska O (2011) Teaching and learning in two languages in African classrooms. Comparative
Education, 47(1): 61–77.
Coetzee-Van Rooy S (2010) The importance of being multilingual. Inaugural lecture 6/2010. Vaal Triangle
Occasional Papers, North-West University, Vanderbijlpark.
Cummins J (2006) Identity texts: the imaginative construction of self through multiliteracies pedagogy. In
Garcia O, Skutnabb-Kangas T & Torres-Guzman ME (eds) Imagining multilingual schools: languages in education
and globalization: 51–68. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Department of Education (1997) Language-in-education policy. Government Notice No. 383, Vol. 17997.
Pretoria: DoE.
Desai Z (2010) Reflections on the LOITASA project in South Africa: three years later. In Brock-Utne B, Desai Z,
Qorro M & Pitman A (eds) Language of instruction in Tanzania and South Africa: highlights from a project:
207–213. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
Desai Z (2012) A case for mother tongue education? Unpublished doctoral thesis. University of the Western
Cape, Bellville, South Africa.
Desai Z (2016) Learning through the medium of English in multilingual South Africa: enabling or disabling
learners from low income contexts? Comparative Education, 52(3): 343–358.
Desai Z, Qorro M & Brock-Utne B (eds) (2010) Educational challenges in multilingual societies: LOITASA Phase 2
research. Cape Town: African Minds.
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Fendler L & Muzaffar I (2008) The History of the bell curve: sorting and the idea of normal. Educational Theory,
58(1): 63–82.
Florian L & Walton E (2018) Inclusive Pedagogy within the South African context. In Engelbrecht P & Green L (eds)
Responding to the challenges of inclusive education in southern Africa. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
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 Green L & Moodley T (2018) Thinking differently about educational support. In Engelbrecht P & Green L (eds)
Responding to the challenges of inclusive education in southern Africa. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Hall K & Richter L (2018) Introduction: children, families and the state. In Hall K, Richter L & Lake L (eds) Child
Gauge South Africa 2018. Cape Town: University of Cape Town. Viewed 22 February 2019: http://www.ci.uct.
ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/367/Child_Gauge/South_African_Child_Gauge_2018/
Chapters/introduction%20-%20children%2C%20families%20and%20the%20state.pdf
Halliday MAK (1978) Language as social semiotic. London: Edward Arnold.
Hart S, Dixon A, Drummond MJ & McIntyre D (2004) Learning without limits. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Hattie J (2017) Visible learning plus: 250+ influences on student learning. Viewed 17 December 2018: https://
visible-learning.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/VLPLUS-252-Influences-Hattie-ranking-DEC-2017.pdf
Heaton JB (1971) Practice through pictures. London: Longman.
Ho A (2004) To label or not to label: that is the question. British Journal of Learning Disabilities, 32: 86–92.
Jamieson L, Mathews S & Rohrs S (2018) Stopping family violence: integrated approaches to address violence
against women and children. In Hall K, Richter L & Lake L (eds) Child Gauge South Africa 2018. Cape Town:
University of Cape Town. Viewed 22 February 2019: http://www.ci.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/
images/367/Child_Gauge/South_African_Child_Gauge_2018/Chapters/Stopping%20family%20
violence%20-%20integrated%20approaches%20to%20violence%20against%20women%20and%20
children.pdf
Jordan B (2017) The difference between sexual orientation and gender identity. Viewed 9 January 2019:
https://www.cbsnews.com/news/the-difference-between-sexual-orientation-and-gender-identity/
Kershner R (2003) Teaching strategies for pupils with special educational needs. Unpublished briefing paper.
University of Cambridge.
Langenhoven KR (2010) Mother tongue instruction and understanding of natural science concepts in a South
African primary school. In Brock-Utne B, Desai Z, Qorro M & Pitman A (eds) Language of instruction in Tanzania
and South Africa: highlights from a project: 133–144. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
Lesufi P (2017) Diversity should be taught in private, public schools. Viewed 18 December 2018: https://www.
iol.co.za/sundayindependent/dispatch/diversity-should-be-taught-in-private-public-schools-10768989
Marnell J & Kahn G (2016) Creative resistance: participatory methods for engaging queer youth. Johannesburg:
GALA Queer Archive, Hivos, SAIH.
National Research Council (2000) How people learn: Brain, mind, experience and school. Expanded edition.
Washington DC: National Academy Press.
National Research Council (2018) How people learn II: Learners, contexts and cultures. Washington DC: National
Academy Press.
Nomlomo V (2008) IsiXhosa as a medium of instruction in Science teaching in primary education in South
Africa: challenges and prospects. In Qorro M, Desai Z & Brock-Utne B (eds) LOITASA: reflecting on Phase 1 and
entering Phase 2: 81–101. Dar es Salaam: E&D Vision Publishing Limited.
Nomlomo V (2009) Science teaching in English and isiXhosa: languages of instruction. VDM Verlag:
Saarbrucken.
Norton B (2013) Identity and language learning: extending the conversation. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Nussbaum MC (2004) Hiding from humanity: disgust, shame and the law. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
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Prah K (2009) A tale of two cities: trends in multilingualism in two African cities: the case of Nima-Accra and
Katatura-Windhoek. In Prah K & Brock-Utne B (eds) Multilingualism: An African advantage: 250–274. Cape Town:
CASAS Book Series No.67.
Qorro M, Desai Z & Brock-Utne B (eds) (2008) LOITASA: reflecting on Phase 1 and entering Phase 2. Dar es
Salaam: E&D Vision Publishing Limited.
Unit 2

Republic of South Africa (RSA) (1996) The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996. Act 108 of 1996.
Pretoria: Government Printers.

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Rouse M (2018) Developing inclusive practice: a role for teachers and teacher education? Education in the
North, 25(1–2). University of Aberdeen. Viewed 02.12.18: https://www.abdn.ac.uk/eitn/journal/46/
Ruiz R (1984) Orientations in language planning. NABE Journal, 8(2): 15–34.
SAHRC & UNICEF (2014) Poverty traps and social exclusion among children in South Africa. Pretoria: SAHRC.
Viewed 19 April 2019: www.sahrc.org.za/home/21/files/Poverty%20Traps%20Report.pdf
SAHRC (2017) Research brief on disability and equality. Viewed 19 April 2019:
https://www.sahrc.org.za/home/21/files/RESEARCH%20BRIEF%20ON%20DISABILITY%20AND%20
EQUALITY%20IN%20SOUTH%20AFRICA%202013%20to%202017.pdf
Salomone RC (2010) True American: language identity, and the education of immigrant children. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Singh GD & Steyn GM (2013) Strategies to address learner aggression in rural South African secondary schools.
Koers—Bulletin for Christian Scholarship, 78(3): Art. No. 457, 8 pages. Viewed 22 February 2019: http://dx.doi.
org/10.4102/ koers.v78i3.457
Skutnabb-Kangas T (2000) Linguistic genocide in education—or worldwide diversity and human rights? New
Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Slee R (2018) Inclusive Education isn’t dead, it just smells funny. London: Routledge.
Solomon-Pryce C (2015) Is equity the same as equality? Viewed 09.01.18: http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/
equityDiversityInclusion/2015/12/is-equity-the-same-as-equality/
Spolsky B (1977) The establishment of language in education policy in multilingual societies. In Spolsky B &
Cooper R (eds) Frontiers of bilingual education. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Tay L & Diener E (2011) Needs and subjective well-being around the world. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 101(2): 354–365.
Wong Fillmore L (1991) When learning a second language means losing the first. Early Childhood Research
Quarterly, 6(3): 323–346.

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 Appendix:
Information sheets on
learner differences
Please note: These information sheets are provided to increase
your knowledge of specific conditions so that you can more
effectively include learners experiencing barriers, not as a
means for you to stereotype or label learners. Do not assume
that everyone who displays some of the listed behaviours has
that condition, or that all the behaviours apply to everyone
who has that condition. Also, people can have more than one
condition and other facets of diversity will intersect.

Information Sheet 1: Albinism

Information Sheet 2: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Information Sheet 3: Autistic Spectrum Continuum
Information Sheet 4: Down syndrome
Information Sheet 5: Dyslexia (and other dys- differences)
Information Sheet 6: Foetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder
Information Sheet 7: Gifted and talented—or highly-able—learners
Information Sheet 8: Hearing impairment
Information Sheet 9: Stress, anxiety and depression
Information Sheet 10: Visual impairment
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y
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Information Sheet 1: Albinism
Albinism is a rare, non-contagious, genetically inherited difference present at birth. A person born with albinism is
unable to produce normal colouring of the skin, hair and eyes. This lack of pigmentation (melanin) makes them
vulnerable to the sun and bright light. As a result, almost all people with albinism are visually impaired and are
prone to developing skin cancer. There is no cure for the absence of melanin that is central to albinism.
In almost all types of albinism, both parents must carry the gene for it to be passed on, even if they do not have
albinism themselves. The condition is found in both sexes regardless of ethnicity and in all countries of the world.
It is estimated that in North America and Europe 1 in every 17 000 to 20 000 people have some form of
albinism. The condition is much more prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa, with estimates of 1 in 1 400 people
being affected in Tanzania, with prevalence as high as 1 in 1 000 reported for select populations in Zimbabwe
and for other specific ethnic groups in Southern Africa.
People with albinism face multiple forms of discrimination worldwide. Albinism is still profoundly misunderstood,
socially and medically. The physical appearance of people with albinism is often the object of mistaken beliefs
and myths influenced by superstition, which lead to various forms of stigma, discrimination and social
exclusion. (http://www.albinism.org.za)
Children with albinism may have difficulties functioning in class due to their visual impairments. Teachers can
make adjustments to the classroom environment to assist children with albinism:
• A seat near the front of the classroom
• Handouts of the content written on boards or overhead screens
• High-contrast printed documents, such as black type on white paper rather than coloured print or paper
• Large-print textbooks
Children with albinism may feel socially isolated from their peers, and may be experiencing bullying. Teachers
can support learners by:
• Creating a positive and safe school environment all learners feel welcome and appreciated
• Being aware of signs of stress, anxiety or depression, and if necessary referring the learner for counselling.
(Source: psyc.jmu.edu/school/documents/AlbinismFactSheet.pdf)

For more information visit the

Albinism Society of South Africa at
http://www.albinism.org.za

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 Information Sheet 2:
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

ACTIVITY 53: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Audio Visual
If you are interested in finding out more about what is happening in the brain of someone with ADHD,
you might choose to watch this short film:
Child/Adolescent ADHD and the brain
https://adhd-institute.com/burden-of-adhd/aetiology/neurobiology/

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is characterised by inattention, hyperactivity and

impulsiveness. ADHD runs in families and studies now show that there are brain differences between people
with ADHD and without ADHD that account for its most dominant characteristics.
Someone with ADHD can be:
• Predominately inattentive but with few or no signs of impulsivity or hyperactivity
• Predominantly impulsive and hyperactive with little or no attention difficulties
• A mixture of distractible, hyperactive and impulsive
(Source: http://www.adhasa.co.za: South African support group for people with ADHD)
In South Africa it is estimated that approximately 1 in 10 children have ADHD. This means that in a class of 30
learners, teachers could expect around three children to have ADHD. Teachers often estimate much higher
numbers. This is because of a lack of real understanding about ADHD and a tendency to jump to conclusions
or label children. Here’s a short film to watch that helps explain why this misunderstanding happens:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hl7Ro1PUJmE
Sometimes, children might display what teachers think are characteristics of ADHD because they: are unable to
access the curriculum; have another less-visible difference that shares characteristics with ADHD; are
emotionally affected by something going on in their lives. There is no test for ADHD so it can be difficult to say
definitively whether someone has it or not.
Medication—most commonly a drug called Ritalin—is only indicated in 7–10% all children with ADHD, and yet
South Africa is ranked one of the highest countries in the world for prescribing Ritalin! Ritalin works to slow
down the re-absorption of a chemical called dopamine, which is important for movement, attention, motivation
and reward. It is thought that children with ADHD re-absorb dopamine more quickly than people without ADHD.
Some people question the extent to which Ritalin is prescribed; the arguments surrounding the drug are
rehearsed neatly in this article: http://www.childmag.co.za/content/rethinking-ritalin#.XBTj6i2cY0o.
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Some of the characteristics you might spot in learners with ADHD are:

Possible strengths Possible classroom challenges

• Curiosity • Sustained attention and/or sustained mental effort

• Friendliness • Distractibility
• Sensitivity • Impulsivity
• Intuition • Hyperactivity
• Organisation—of learning, of equipment (often loses things)
• Forgetful
• Often does not follow through on instructions
• Finishing tasks
• Often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly
• Need to move or fidget
• Often runs or climbs when inappropriate
• Noise level
• Excessive talking, interrupting, answering questions before they are finished
• Social skills, e.g. turn-taking

Watch this film:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wFCKa9CVzGU

What are some of the other possible strengths shared by people with ADHD mentioned in this film? Make a list to
add to the qualities already mentioned above.

OPTIONAL: Follow some of the links in the text below the film to find out more about the possible benefits of ADHD.

Often, we focus on the possible challenges that ADHD can bring and it is therefore easy to see a child with ADHD
as problematic, or naughty. Learners with ADHD can therefore suffer from low self-worth as they are often:
• In trouble
• Sent out of class
• Frustrated because they are not doing well in school
• Labelled as stupid and/or naughty
• Struggling socially
• Bullied or are bullies themselves
• Excluded from learning and from social activities

Children with ADHD are also more likely to have Oppositional Defiance Disorder (ODD).
Children with ODD show “an ongoing pattern of anger-guided disobedience, hostility, and
defiant behaviour towards authority figures that goes beyond the bounds of normal
childhood behaviour. SADAG
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

For more information visit the South African

Depression and Anxiety Group (SADAG) at
www.sadag.org
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 Information Sheet 3:
Autistic Spectrum Continuum
The first thing to address here is the terminology. People commonly refer to this spectrum as a disorder, but
there is a growing movement that would prefer it to be referred to as Autistic Spectrum Continuum (ASC). The
autism community also refers to it as a “condition”. This is because of the view (referred to in Part 1) that being
on the autistic spectrum is not a disorder, it is one of a huge number of naturally-occurring variances in the
way the brain works. We will return to this view later in Part 3. We have opted to use to Autistic Spectrum
Continuum as our terminology.

Executive function, which you see on this

image, refers to working memory (our ability to
hold on to new information), flexible thinking
and self control.

(Source: https://the-art-of-autism.com/wp-content/
uploads/2017/11/UnderstandtheSpectrum.pdf)

So, what is the Autistic Spectrum Continuum?

People who have traits associated with the Autistic Spectrum Continuum communicate, interact and behave in
different ways to people who are considered “neurotypical”. Signs are often present from early childhood and
should be observed across multiple contexts, for example, at home and at school before a diagnosis is made.
People with autism can be affected to a different extent in a number of different areas. The image below
indicates these areas.
The circular spectrum replaces the idea of a linear one with “high-functioning” at one end and “low-functioning”
at the other. There has been a move away from this language and from the linear spectrum because:
• The language suggests a value hierarchy between “high” and “low” functioning
• The linear spectrum is not an accurate way of portraying the diversity of people with autism
• By looking at the circular spectrum you can see that the combinations of difference between people with
autism are endless.
Read the following document carefully. It explains the autistic spectrum in more detail, using the same comic-strip
imaging as above: https://the-art-of-autism.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/UnderstandtheSpectrum.pdf
Asperger syndrome
You may also come across the term Asperger syndrome in relation to autism. This syndrome is included as part
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

of the autistic spectrum but often referred to in its own right. Here is a short definition:
People with Asperger syndrome are of average or above average intelligence. They don’t have the learning
disabilities that many autistic people have, but they may have specific learning difficulties. They have fewer problems
with speech but may still have difficulties with understanding and processing language. (www.autism.org.uk)
While it is clear that learners on the autistic spectrum are incredibly diverse, there are some common
characteristics you might notice in the classroom.
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 ACTIVITY 54: Autistic Spectrum Continuum 1

Audio Visual
Watch this short film about autism. While you are watching it, look at the table of characteristics below
and see how many of them you can see in the film: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6fy7gUIp8Ms

Possible strengths Possible classroom challenges

• Attention to detail • Social relationships—difficulty in understanding

• Problem-solving skills non-verbal signals and/or pragmatic (social) language

• Visual skills • Communication—may speak fluently but unable to

engage in others’ reactions; may talk on even though
• Language skills, verbally articulate
others have lost interest
• See the world in a different way so bring
• Sounds over-precise or over-literal
new insights
• Takes things literally, e.g. “pull up your socks”.
• Memory for facts and figures
• Obsessive hobbies or interests, often involving
• Working within routines and rules
organisable facts and/or figures
• Level of motivation to learn about subjects
• Repetitive patterns of behaviour
of interest
• Finds change upsetting e.g. change to timetable
• Ability to focus for extended time on subjects
of interest • Understanding social norms and skills—can appear
ill-mannered e.g. going to the front of the queue,
• Passion and enthusiasm for hobbies and
interrupting
interests—wish to share this with others
• Appears clumsy and ill-coordinated
• Creative skills/talents eg. art, music
• Oversensitive to light, sound, and/or noise
• Accurate
• Efficient
• Honest
• Non-judgmental
• Resilient

ACTIVITY 55: Autistic Spectrum Continuum 2

Reading
Read the following article, and answer the questions below.
https://www.ecr.co.za/news/news/special-report-education-out-of-reach-for-kzn-boy-with-autism/
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

1. Why do you think the school told Sboniso’s mother that he “wasn’t a child who should be learning
with others”?
2. What messages do you think Sboniso and his family would like to give teachers about children
with autism?
Unit 2

For more information visit Autism South Africa

at http://aut2know.co.za

86
 Information Sheet 4: Down syndrome
Down syndrome is a relatively common chromosomal disorder occurring at the time of conception. Most
children with Down syndrome have an extra copy of chromosome 21, known as Trisomy 21 and this causes
some delays in physical and intellectual development. There are other less common forms of Down syndrome,
such as Mosaic Down Syndrome and Robertsonian Translocation. Not all children with Down syndrome
experience the same extent of developmental delay. A wide range of learning potential is evident.

ACTIVITY 56: Down syndrome 1

Reading
Read the following article, and answer the questions below:
https://library.down-syndrome.org/en-gb/news-update/06/1/inclusive-education-individuals-down-syndrome/
1. What were some of the main benefits to inclusion shown by the research? Think back to the video
clip where Erica’s mom speaks about similar benefits Erica has experienced in being included in an
ordinary school.
2. From this article can you identify some of the strengths and challenges of a typical learner with
Down syndrome?
3. Name some of the strategies mentioned to support a learner with Down syndrome who could be
included in a mainstream class?

Possible strengths Possible classroom challenges

• Strong visual learners • Speech and language skills

• Strong social learners (observation and imitation)
• Respond well to praise and reward
• Short-term auditory memory (listening)
• Ability to follow complex verbal instructions or stories
• Shorter concentration span
• Ability to consolidate and retain knowledge can fluctuate
• Poor response to punishment

Some strategies to support learners with Down
syndrome:
• Model behaviour and demonstrate activities
• Use group work and encourage peer learning
• Avoid reliance on workbooks and textbooks
• Use practical activities
• Use computer assisted technology.
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• Encourage learner to speak aloud / read in class
• Provide additional listening activities/games
• Limit number of verbal instructions
• Offer short, focused and clearly defined tasks
• Reinforce abstract concepts with visual and
concrete materials
• Provide visual support flash cards, key words,

• Use simple and familiar language in short and picture cues

simple sentences • Encourage and support opportunities to form
• Emphasise key words friendships that extend beyond the class

For more information visit Down Syndrome South Africa

at http://www.downsyndrome.org.za.
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Information Sheet 5:
Dyslexia (and other dys- differences)
“Dyslexia” is a Greek word. The English translation is “difficulty with words”.
Approximately 20% of people have dyslexia, obviously varying degrees of severity and different types. This means
that in a classroom of 40 children approximately eight will be impacted to a greater or lesser degree by dyslexia.
Dyslexia is hereditary and runs in families. In a single family, different children can experience different types of
dyslexia as well as different severity levels.
The type and severity of the dyslexia will influence the impact of the dyslexia on the child’s ability to read, write
and comprehend what is being read, as well as the types of accommodations that could be recommended.
The International Dyslexia Association (2002) defines dyslexia as follows:
Dyslexia is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and
decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language
that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom
instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading
experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge.
Let’s unpack this definition:
“Dyslexia is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor
spelling and decoding abilities.”
Children with dyslexia struggle to recognise words, even ones they seen often before. Decoding is the ability to
recognise and sound out words using letter-sound relationships, letter patterns and blending of sounds.
“These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often
unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction.”

The “phonological component of language” described in the definition consists of phonemes.

A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound which is significant in a language (e.g. b, d, p, t)
https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/phoneme

Many theories have been put forward about the causes of dyslexia. The most popular one in recent years is
the Phonological Deficit Theory, which is supported by the IDA definition. This theory proposes that someone
with dyslexia has difficulty with the system in the brain that processes phonemes; the IDA describe this as
having a “phonological deficit”.

ACTIVITY 57: Dyslexia 1

Audio Visual
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If you do not have dyslexia, click on the following link to find out what it can be like when you try to read
if you do have dyslexia: http://geon.github.io/programming/2016/03/03/dsxyliea.
Now consider the following questions:
What was it like trying to read? What did you notice yourself doing? How did you feel? How do you think
your learners with dyslexia might feel in the classroom?
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If you do have dyslexia:

What do you wish teachers knew about what it is like to have dyslexia in the classroom? Turn these into
tips for teachers and share them with your colleagues.

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 As success in a significant amount of school-based learning is reliant on success in reading, it is critically
important to identify learners with dyslexia as early as possible. Children will have dyslexia their whole lives; they
need to learn the skills and receive the right support to achieve success in academic learning and beyond.
Learners may exhibit different signs of dyslexia at different stages of learning and development. Below are
some common characteristics:

Possible strengths Possible classroom challenges

• Creativity and imagination • Learning/forming the letters of the alphabet (and numbers)

• Ability to see the holistic ‘bigger picture’ • Associating sounds with letters and letters with sounds

• Abstract thinking • Breaking down words into individual sounds

• Ability to think spatially and in 3D • Blending individual sounds into a word. For example th–i–ng
= thing
• Ability to think laterally—“outside the box”
• Identifying words that begin with the same sound
• Critical thinking and problem-solving
• Reading aloud, grouping words and phrases
• Spotting patterns and relationships
together appropriately
• Good memory for stories/examples—
• Keeping their place when reading
“narrative memory”
• Reversing words when reading or spelling e.g. bat/tab
• Verbal, conversational skills
• Sequencing letters when spelling
• Analytical skills
• Missing out letters in words or words in sentences
• Empathy, sensitivity
• Rhyming
• Achieving well in areas of the curriculum
that are not related to spelling and word • Sequencing (e.g. days of the week)
formation
• Mismatch between spoken and written responses
• Writing if the focus is on content,
• Multi-tasking
not spelling
• Taking longer to complete tasks than peers
• High level of motivation
• Organisation
• Perseverance
• Short-term working memory e.g. forgets long,
• Resilience
complicated instructions

• Cognitive fatigue

This three-minute film brings the table above to life: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=11r7CFlK2sc

Other dys- differences commonly confused with dyslexia
Some less-visible differences share similar features, which can lead to confusion – so let’s make them really
clear. Here are some short descriptions of other cognitive differences often mixed up with dyslexia:
Dyscalculia: difficulty with reading, writing, remembering and processing numbers and mathematical
concepts. Dyscalculia is quite likely to co-occur with dyslexia.
Dysgraphia: difficulty with writing. Children with dyslexia can have trouble with spelling and writing, but
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children with dysgraphia struggle wit h the mechanics of writing. For example, they might struggle with holding
a pen or pencil, spacing of letters and words and forming letters (e.g. mixing cases), as well as spelling and
finishing words when writing.
Dyspraxia: difficulty with movement. Children with dyspraxia can find it difficult to plan sequences of
movement for both gross motor skills (e.g. walking, balance) and fine motor skills (e.g. cutting with scissors,
handwriting). They can therefore appear clumsy and forgetful. Some children may also have heightened
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sensitivity to touch; others may have problems with speaking and pronunciation.

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 Learners with dyscalculia, dysgraphia and dyspraxia can share the same strengths as those
with dyslexia.

Together with dyslexia, dyscalculia, dysgraphia and dyspraxia are often referred to as “specific learning difficulties”.

ACTIVITY 58: Dyslexia 2

Audio Visual
Watch this film about dyslexic learners: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=303uulbfR3I
Consider the following questions and note your answers:
1. 100% of families surveyed in the film believed teachers were not adequately equipped to properly
teach learners with dyslexia. Do you think the situation is the same in South Africa? Note the reasons
for your answer.
2. As this film suggests, learners with dyslexia suffer emotional or psychological difficulties at school.
This is also true of children with dyscalculia, dysgraphia and dyspraxia. Having found out a little
about these conditions now, why do you think this is? Think about and note your reasons.
3. All the children interviewed wanted their teachers to understand that they were really trying hard,
but they struggled to do what comes easily to others. How will it help you as a new teacher to
appreciate that these children learn differently?

For more information about

dyslexia visit Dyslexia SA
at https://dyslexiasa.org

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 Information Sheet 6:
Foetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder
FASD is caused when a foetus (unborn baby) is prenatally (pre-birth) exposed to alcohol due to the mother
drinking alcohol during pregnancy. It is therefore, theoretically, 100% preventable, but due to a high
prevalence of unplanned pregnancies and lack of knowledge about the harmful effects of alcohol, it is not so
easy to prevent. It is the leading cause of intellectual disability in the world. The prevalence rates in South
Africa range from 26/1000 (2,6%) to 282/1000 (28%), which is approximately 14 times higher than the
global rate of 15/1000 (1,5%). Therefore it is highly likely that you will have at least one learner in your class
who is affected by FASD.
When managing individuals with FASD it is essential to remember that it is a life-long condition with a severe
impact on the family. Due to resource constraints, it is usually difficult to get a proper diagnosis, guidance
and services for those in need. Ignorance and wrong information often lead to stigmatisation of the
individual and his/her family.

ACTIVITY 59: Foetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder

Reading
Read the following article: https://www.groundup.org.za/article/high-level-foetal-alcohol-syndrome-
found-saldhana-bay/
From this article, what do you understand about FASD?

FASD is a spectrum of disorders, the most severe form being Foetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS). The diagnostic
procedures for FASD include (1) a medical examination and anthropometric (growth) measurements by a
trained medical specialist, (2) psychological/neurodevelopmental testing by a psychometrist (or
psychologist), and (3) an in-depth maternal interview by a counsellor. The results of these three separate
examinations are used to diagnose the different conditions in the spectrum, such as FAS, partial FAS,
Alcohol-Related Birth Defects (ARBD), Alcohol-Related Neurodevelopmental Disorders (ARND), etc. There are
no biological markers (e.g. blood or other tests), and the common symptom across the spectrum of
disorders is permanent and irreversible brain damage. Individuals with FASD might also have organ damage.
Currently, less emphasis is placed on the so-called “characteristic facial features” as fewer than 30% of
people with FASD present with facial features. These facial features can also be misleading and result in
labelling or incorrect diagnoses by lay people.
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FASD can present in many different ways, but the following might be present in learners affected by FASD:

Possible strengths Possible classroom challenges

• Caring • Short attention span

• Friendly and sociable • Impulsivity

• Verbally articulate • Hyperactivity

• Creative • Oppositional behaviour

• Skilled with animals • Fine motor skills

• Skilled in natural environment • Working memory

• Literacy and numeracy skills

• Visual and/or hearing loss

• Language—understanding and expressing

• Abstract concepts and reasoning

• Cause and effect thinking (i.e. not learning from mistakes)

• Cognitive fatigue33

For more information about FASD visit the

Foundation for Alcohol Related Research (FARR)
at https://www.farrsa.org.za

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Definition
34 Cognitive fatigue simply means the brain gets tired because it has to work harder to maintain focus
and concentration.

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 Information Sheet 7: Gifted and talented—or
highly-able—learners
Francoys Gagne is a Canadian academic who coined the term “gifted and talented”. As Gagne’s model below shows,
he proposes six domains (shown on the left-hand side of the diagram) in which a person might have a natural ability,
i.e. a gift. He identifies people with these gifts as being in the top 10% of the population in this domain.
Don’t worry about the alphabetical letter coding on the diagram below—focusing on the words is enough for
our purposes.

Some people prefer to use the term “highly-able” rather than “gifted and talented” as they
believe it is less stigmatising as a label.

CHANCE (C)
ENVIRONMENTAL (E)
NATURAL ABILITIES COMPETENCIES
GIFTS (G) = top 10% MILIEU (EM) TALENTS (T) = top 10%

INVESTMENT (EI)
DOMAINS FIELDS
PROVISIONS (EP)
CATALYSTS

ACADEMIC (TC)
INTRAPERSONAL (I)
INTELLECTUAL (GI)
PHYSICAL (IF) TECHNICAL (TT)
TRAITS
MENTAL

CREATIVE (GC) MENTAL (IP) SCIENCE &

TECHNOLOGY (TI)
AWARENESS (IW)
MANAGEMENT

SOCIAL (GS) ARTS (TA)

GOAL

MOTIVATION (IM)
SOCIAL SERVICE (TP)
PERCEPTUAL (GP) VOLITION (IM)
ADMINISTRATION/
SALES (TM)

DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESS (D) BUSINESS

PHYSICAL

MUSCULAR (GM)
OPERATIONS (TB)

MOTOR ACTIVITIES (DA) PROGRESS (DP) GAMES (TG)

CONTROL (GR)
SPORTS &
INVESTMENT (DI)
ATHLETICS (TS)

Figure 27: Gagne: Differentiated Model of Giftedness and Talent

(Source: http://gagnefrancoys.wixsite.com/dmgt-mddt/dmgtenglish)

According to Gagne, the gifts on the left have the potential to lead to competencies in various areas, or talents
(on the right-hand side). People identified as talented also operate within the top 10% of competency in their field.
However, following this model, whether gifts develop into talents depends on:
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• Investment—time, energy and resources

• Setting—physical, social and cultural environment, support from family and others, relevant programs to
support development
• Personal traits—physical (for example flexibility in relation to a gymnast), mental (for example perseverance,
self-belief)
• The gifted person understanding and managing their goals—why they are setting them, their awareness of
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how their strengths and weaknesses might impact on them, and much they want to reach them.

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When you come across a gifted learner in your classroom, it might be useful to come back to these factors and
explore them so that you understand your role as a teacher in more depth. Gagne’s own website is a good
place to start.
As with all learners, gifted learners are diverse. However, they do share some common characteristics.

Possible strengths Possible classroom challenges

• Advanced ability for abstract, complex and insightful • Needs constant mental stimulation
thinking
• Asks a lot of probing questions
• Learned to read early and has a good vocabulary
• Needs to explore subjects in depth
• Ability to learn and process complex information
• Is often a perfectionist
very rapidly
• Can become preoccupied with own thoughts
• Gets good marks in tests
• Finishes tasks quickly and can appear bored easily
• Explores subjects in depth and ask probing questions
• Sometimes rushes work to complete it and move on
• Excellent, often photographic, memory
to something else—so classwork and homework
• Enjoys problem solving might not reflect ability

• Idealism and sense of justice at an early age
• Longer attention span and intense concentration
• Acquires basic skills quickly and with little practice
• Has skills and talents above age level
• Helps other learners to learn and can show
sensitivity in this
• Can be at a different emotional/ physical age to their
intellectual age
• Expectations of themselves and others can be hard
to live up to
• Family attitudes may lead to “squashing” of children’s
abilities or even exploitation of them by families

• Enjoys the company of older people

ACTIVITY 60: Gifted and talented learners 1

Reading
Read the article: Including the gifted learner: perceptions of South African teachers and principals,
Marietjie Oswald and Jeanne-Marie de Villiers, South African Journal of Education, 2013, 33 (1)
http://www.sajournalofeducation.co.za/index.php/saje/article/viewFile/603/336
Consider the following questions:
1. Do you agree with the authors’ contention that gifted learners fall within the scope of inclusive
education? Why / why not?
2. Why do you think gifted learners can be marginalised in the classroom?
3. What were some of the challenges to supporting gifted learners as identified by the participants in
the study?
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4. What do you think about curriculum differentiation as a solution to including the gifted learner
in learning?
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 Joan Freeman (2013), an academic who has been working with gifted and talented children for over forty
years, says:
We do have very clear information about what the gifted and talented need by way of support towards self-
fulfilment—an education to suit their potential, opportunities to flourish and people who believe in them.
We know that getting gifted children access to the activities pitched to their particular abilities, or talents, can
be a challenge. Co-curricular tournaments or competitions can be a good way of providing this access, so here
is an activity to help you generate some ideas about these.

ACTIVITY 61: Gifted and talented learners 2

Reading
Research some different co-curricular tournaments or competitions in which you could involve learners—
locally, globally or nationally—covering different areas of ability. Aim to complete notes on at least ten.

For more information visit Gifted Children South Africa on

www.giftedchildrensouthafrica.co.za
Or contact Linda Nel 082 494 5471, admin@giftedchildrensa.co.za
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Information Sheet 8: Hearing impairment
Hearing impairment (HI) is a partial or total inability to hear in one or both ears.
Para 6.1.1.4 of the White Paper on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (approved by Cabinet 9 December
2015) states that: “Persons who are hearing impaired and/or acquire deafness, might however never utilise
SASL as their language of choice. They require access to lip readers, note-takers, loop systems, captioning and
sub-texting for access to information and communication.”
It is of the utmost importance for educators to understand the diversity in the field of hearing loss and the
human rights of all persons involved. The approach regarding deaf or hearing-impaired children/people in
education is completely different, compared with Deaf born children/people who use SL and who belong to
the Deaf Culture.
The following definitions for these two groups were approved by the South African Disability Alliance in 2017
and confirmed by the SA Disability Rights Machinery in 2017:
Deaf (lower case d)
“Deaf with a lower case ‘d’ refers to persons with total hearing loss not using SASL as a primary medium of
communication, who use various means of communication and assistive hearing technologies. These include
speech, speech/lip reading, cochlear implants, Bone Anchored Hearing Aid (BAHA) and applicable assistive
listening devices etc., or a combination thereof. This group primarily aligns with impairment, disability and the
hearing world.”
Hearing impaired
“Hearing impaired refers to persons with varying degrees of hearing loss not using SASL as a primary medium
of communication, who use various means of communication and assistive hearing technologies. These
include speech, speech/lip reading, hearing aid systems, cochlear implants, Bone Anchored Hearing Aid
(BAHA) and applicable assistive listening devices etc. or a combination thereof. This group primarily aligns with
impairment, disability and the hearing world.”
Early identification of hearing loss is critically important as hearing affects language development and
communication. Hearing tests for babies can be done after 24 hours! Unfortunately for many children, hearing
loss is often only detected once they have already started school. It’s estimated that about 7.5% of school
children in South Africa have some sort of hearing loss. (The South African Hearing Institute, which has a
helpful website if you would like further information: http://www.sahi.org.za/about_hearing_loss.html)

ACTIVITY 62: Hearing impairment 1

Audio Visual
What is hearing loss like?
If you don’t have a hearing loss, watch this short cartoon (40 seconds):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1EJ4g3J6cJM
OR
Explore the wider variety of hearing loss simulators on this website:
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

https://www.starkey.com.au/hearing-loss-simulator#!/hls
• What was it like as the hearing loss got more pronounced? What did you notice yourself doing? How
did you feel? How do you think a learner with hearing loss might feel in the classroom?
If you do have a hearing loss:
• What do you wish teachers knew about what it is like to have a hearing loss in the classroom? Turn
these into tips for teachers and share them with your colleagues.
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 General Guidelines regarding the Reasonable Accommodation of Persons with hearing loss were developed
under the mentorship of NCPD in line with the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCPD),
the White Paper on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (WPRPD) and the South African Disability Legislation,
Codes and Guidelines.
A deaf learner who uses oral language can be included in a mainstream class. At the moment, for a learner who
is deaf and who chooses to communicate and learn in South African Sign Language (SASL), placement in a
mainstream school may be less likely. South Africa has not reached a point where mainstream school teachers
are fluent in SASL. Learners who are not able to use SASL feel excluded from learning and often feel socially
isolated and unsupported.
Possible characteristics of hearing loss you might notice include:

Possible strengths Possible classroom challenges

• Visual working memory (i.e. remembering images) • Language and/or speech acquisition

• Ability to interpret non-verbal cues • Acquisition of vocabulary

• Resourcefulness • Verbal working memory (i.e. remembering words)

• Resilience • Attention span (through fatigue)

• Checking understanding before starting tasks • Processing time

• Missing incidental learning from peers

• Social skills and emotional literacy

• Self-worth

Here are some general pointers to consider when talking to someone who is deaf or hearing impaired:
“Nice to meet you!”
Wave or touch the person’s shoulder to draw his attention. You needn’t make big waving gestures—a small
movement of the hand will usually suffice. Waving in someone’s face is considered rude.
Make and keep eye contact with the person and talk to the person and not to the interpreter, lip speaker or
note taker. Breaking eye contact will indicate that the conversation is over.
If you are in a noisy environment, see if you can move to a quieter spot.
Establish a comfortable distance between you and the person you are talking with.
Ensure that you stand in a well light area. The light should shine on your face. If you stand in front of a window,
for example, the light from behind you may make it difficult for the other person to follow what you are saying.
“Sorry, I did not get that.”
Be patient when either you or the person experiencing hearing loss, have difficulty in understanding or getting
the message across.
Rephrase, rather than repeat sentences that the person does not understand, over and over again.
Keep sentences short and use proper sentence construction. Changing the subject mid-sentence can make it
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

difficult for the person with hearing loss to follow.

Speak clearly so that the person can see and read your lips. Speech reading is made more difficult if you chew
gum or something obscures your face and mouth.
Use your regular tone of voice when having a conversation, unless the person tells you otherwise.
Use facial expressions to correspond with the topic and mood of discussion. A good old pen and paper can
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also help when either of you have a hard time understanding.

97
“See you later!”
Indicate unforeseen happenings like a phone that starts to ring or dogs barking.
Do not pass between two people talking, especially if they are using a signed language. If you have to, excuse
yourself before passing through.
Use basic signs to support what you are saying, like pointing in a direction or waving goodbye.
(Source: NCPD pamphlet: Chatting with deaf or hearing-impaired friends)

ACTIVITY 63: Hearing impairment 2

Reading
Read the case study below, and answer the following questions.
1. List the signs that Busisiwe displayed in the classroom that made Mrs Kubayi suspect that she was
having difficulty hearing?
2. List the strategies that Mrs Kubayi introduced to help Busi.

CASE STUDY: Busisiwe

Busisiwe began Grade 1 when she was six. Her
birthday was in March and she turned seven but,
despite being one of the older children in the class
her speech was not as developed as her peers. She
had a limited vocabulary and mispronounced
words. She did not listen to her teacher, Mrs Kubayi,
and constantly talked while instructions were being
given. Mrs Kubayi made her sit in the “thinking chair’
but this did not seem to help. Busi’s disruptive
behaviour meant that she did not concentrate and
argued with other learners, making her unpopular.
She spent break time wandering about on her own
not playing with others.
Mrs Kubayi worried about the fact that Busi was not
grasping literacy and numeracy concepts and was
also losing out on other important learning
opportunities. She suspected that Busi was not
hearing properly. She asked Busi’s mother to take the
child to the clinic for a checkup. The auditory (hearing)
screening confirmed Mrs Kubayi’s suspicion.
Seating was rearranged in the classroom and Busi
was placed near the front of the classroom so that
she could hear better. Mrs Kubayi tried to look
directly at Busi when she was talking to her. She
also used visual aids like pictures and words on the
blackboard to support her verbal messages.
Simphiwe was appointed as Busi’s “buddy” and
began to enjoy helping her. She joked that she was
Busi’s extra set of ears! Mrs Kubayi planned a Life
Orientation lesson about disabilities and
encouraged tolerance and respect for all people.
She explained how difficult it was not to hear well
and said it was good to be patient when dealing
with those who are hard of hearing.

(Source: DBE & UNICEF (n.d.) Supporting Grade R to Grade 3 learners with chronic illnesses:
https://www.unicef.org/southafrica/SAF_resources_learnersill.pdf)

Watch the following YouTube clips on hearing impairment in the classroom:

https://youtu.be/ln8NHzVfJkQ
https://youtu.be/JwWAHyD0f4w
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https://youtu.be/jylb7TDn2Tk
https://youtu.be/ISWkl29SpwU

For more information on hearing impairment visit

https://roadtoindependence.co.za
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 Information Sheet 9:
Stress, anxiety and depression
Before we can understand depression and anxiety, we need to know a little about stress. Many of our learners
come to school stressed, due to, for example, concern about circumstances outside school, the future,
academic achievement, bullying or friendship issues.
Stress
What is stress?
At the most basic level, stress is our body’s response to pressures from a situation or life event.
When we encounter stress, our body is stimulated to produce stress hormones that trigger a “flight or fight”
response and activate our immune system. This response helps us to respond quickly to dangerous situations.
Sometimes, this stress response can be an appropriate, or even beneficial, reaction. The resulting feeling of
“pressure” can help us to push through situations that can be nerve-wracking or intense, like running a
marathon, or giving a speech to a large crowd. We can quickly return to a resting state without any negative
effects on our health if what is stressing us is short-lived, and many people are able to deal with a certain level
of stress without any lasting effects.
However, there can be times when stress becomes excessive and too much to deal with. If our stress response
is activated repeatedly, or it persists over time, the effects can result in wear and tear on the body and can
cause us to feel permanently in a state of “fight or flight”. Rather than helping us push through, this pressure
can make us feel overwhelmed or unable to cope.
Feeling this overwhelming stress for a long period of time is often called chronic, or long-term stress, and it can
impact on both physical and mental health.
Stress is a response to a threat in a situation, whereas anxiety is a reaction to the stress.
(Source: https://www.mentalhealth.org.uk/a-to-z/s/stress)
Some stress, then, can be beneficial. In relation to learning, for example, there is evidence that if we experience the
right amount of stress around the time of learning it can help with memory formation (Vogel and Schwabe, 2016).
However, we can see from the extract above that stress can be harmful. For example:
• In relation to learning, if stress comes at the wrong time it can affect our ability both to update and retrieve
memories; this makes it more difficult to build on prior learning, or to be able to remember what we have
already learnt. Stress can therefore have a direct impact on academic achievement. (ibid)
• After a significant, stressful and traumatic event—for example witnessing or being on the receiving end of
violence—a person might develop Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), which can lead to vivid flashbacks,
emotional shutdown, or a feeling of being constantly under threat.
• Chronic stress has wide-reaching health implications, one of which is to produce long-term anxiety.
Anxiety is common in the classroom, so we will explore this area further.
Anxiety
While there are a number of disorders related to anxiety, you are most likely to encounter Generalised Anxiety
Disorder (GAD) in the classroom.
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People with Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD) experience severe anxiety, which is excessive, chronic, and
typically interferes with their ability to function in normal daily activities. (SADAG)
GAD appears to put the body into longer-term ‘fight or flight’ mode by making it think it is under constant
threat. This state leads to the ongoing production of stress hormones. Sleeping and eating are commonly
affected by GAD, plus—as we have seen above—so is the ability to take in and locate memories, both of which
are essential factors in learning.
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Learners experiencing high levels of stress or anxiety may have difficulty: concentrating, completing assignments,
paying attention, participating in class, achieving at grade level, persisting with tasks, summoning or maintaining
motivation to learn. They may also be irritable, withdrawn and/or experience difficulties with social skills.

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People with GAD can also experience symptoms of depression, although this is not always the case.
Depression is also more common than we think. You will definitely encounter learners with depression during
your career, so we will explore this area next.
Depression
Depression is a complex illness with a variety of causes, including the body’s reaction to chronic stress, or to a
particularly stressful event, e.g. a bereavement; abuse. Genetics may also play a part for some people.
Depression presents differently from anxiety. If anxiety is about “fight or flight”—a constant, heightened state
of feeling threatened—depression might be described as being about ‘withdrawal’ from the world. It is different
to feeling “low”, as the following quote shows:
Life is full of emotional ups and downs and everyone experiences the “blues” from time to time. But when the
“down” times are long lasting or interfere with an individual’s ability to function at home or at school, that
person may be suffering from a common, serious illness—depression. (SADAG)
Depression is not a sign of personal weakness or a lack of motivation. A person with depression cannot get over it
by simply “pulling themselves together”. It is a serious and debilitating illness affecting mood, thoughts and body and
needs to be identified and treated. SADAG reports that depression is one of the leading causes of child suicide.

ACTIVITY 64: Stress, anxiety and depression

Reading
The following two articles highlight how South African learners are struggling with depression and
suicide, and the risks of ignoring this problem.
Read both articles:
https://www.timeslive.co.za/news/south-africa/2018-02-13-how-teens-suffer-at-the-hands-of-
depression-and-anxiety/
and
https://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Local/Maritzburg-Fever/suicide-on-the-rise-among-
the-youth-20180227
What are some of the signs of depression to watch out for? Note these in your journal.

Other differences related to stress, anxiety or depression you might notice in the classroom
Attachment disorders: When babies fail to develop an attachment with their caregiver, this is called an
attachment disorder. There are two forms: the first (and most common) is when the child has a lack of
expectation around care and comfort. The second is when the child is over-familiar, even with strangers.
Bipolar disorder: This is a depressive disorder that has phases of mania and depression. “The dramatic and
rapidly changing mood swings from highs to lows do not follow a set pattern, and depression does not always
follow manic phases. A person may also experience the same mood several times before experiencing the
opposite mood. Mood swings can happen over a period of weeks, months. The severity of the depressive and
manic phases can differ from person to person, and even in the same person at different times.” (SADAG)
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD): OCD is an anxiety-related disorder. “People with OCD are so
preoccupied with a thought, or so compelled to check and recheck, that this interferes with their normal
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

routine of the day. Obsessions are unwanted, recurrent and unpleasant thoughts that cause anxiety.
Compulsions are repetitive, ritualistic behaviours that the person feels driven to perform to decrease anxiety.
The obsessive thoughts, or acts of performing compulsive rituals, often take up many hours of each day.
Although individuals with OCD may know that their thoughts and behaviours make no sense, they are
compelled to continue them.” (SADAG)
Unit 2

For more information visit

the South African Depression and Anxiety Group
at www.sadag.org

100
 Information Sheet 10: Visual impairment
Visual impairment affects sight. It can range from no vision (blind) to low vision. The causes are varied and can
be neurological, genetic or due to illness or injury or infections. There is no direct correlation between visual
impairment and cognitive ability.
The following visual perceptual functions may be affected depending on the extent and type of the visual
impairment: size, colour, shape, distance and direction.
Read this short web page for some further succinct information about visual impairment:
https://guidedog.org.za/visual-impairment/

Persons with albinism, due to limited pigmentation in the eyes, experience some visual impairment.
They are stigmatised and victimised in many communities. For these reasons the UN Committee on
the Rights of Persons with Disabilities has said they are protected under the Convention.

Visual Impairment—Fast Facts about South Africa

The prevalence of sight disability in South Africa is the highest of all disabilities (32%).
Women make up 57% of the total number of blind and partially sighted people; 23% of visually
impaired people fall between the ages of 15–36.
Only between 5–10% of the total blind population is braille literate.
Approximately 80% of the visually impaired population in South Africa live in rural areas where the
unemployment figure can be as high as 100%.
It is estimated that 97% of all blind and partially sighted people in South Africa are unemployed.
For every one blind person there are three to four people with low vision.
(Source: South Africa National Council for the Blind, www.sancb.org.za)

ACTIVITY 65: Visual impairment

Reading
Visual impairment is a sizeable issue for young people in South Africa. Read the following article to
discover more about this issue, then consider the questions below and note your thoughts.
https://www.timeslive.co.za/news/south-africa/2017-06-16-almost-half-a-million-sa-youths-have-
problems-with-their-vision/
1. Did anything in the article surprise you? If so, what?
Re-read the final paragraph of the article, which is a quote from Lene Øverland. Do her comments
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

reflect the reality in your community, i.e.:

2. Do people with visual impairments have jobs in your community?
3. Are visually impaired people in your community ostracised, or excluded? If so, how? What would
need to happen to change this?
Unit 2

“Just because someone lacks the use of their eyes, doesn’t mean they lack vision.” Stevie Wonder

101
Over your career, you might teach children with a wide range of visual impairments. You might observe
children who: squint or close one eye when reading; narrow their eyes and blink a lot; rub their eyes often;
complain frequently of headaches or eyestrain; move or shake a book when reading it; are irritable or
inattentive when asked to read; or work too close to their book for long periods. These are all signs that a child
might have a visual impairment that needs to be followed up.

Possible strengths Possible classroom challenges

• Listening skills • Slow or hesitant reading

• Speaking skills • Reading columns and numbers

• Resourcefulness • Scanning a page / following a worksheet with a lot of writing

• Resilience • Copying from the board

• Multitasking • Sentence structures

• Organising ideas in writing tasks

• Anxiety about physical activities in classroom or being in the playground

• Spatial or environmental awareness

• Increased stress

• Fatigue

• Self-worth

We may be inclined subconsciously to have different expectations of academic achievement for learners with
visual impairment, but there is no direct correlation between visual impairment and intelligence. Most learners
with visual impairment have the same range of intelligence and abilities as their sighted peers, just with additional
barriers. More than a third will have some additional needs that may affect their learning in a number of areas,
such as the speed of working, communication skills (particularly reading or writing), environmental and spatial
awareness, and social interaction, with a reduced ability to recognise body language and facial expressions. As a
result, learners can suffer from lower self-confidence which can have a negative impact on learning.

Ideas for supporting learners with visual impairment

The classroom environment can have a significant impact on the success of teaching and learning for learners with
visual impairment. Here are some strategies you can used to make learning easier for learners with visual impairment.
Ensure that:
• The space clear and tidy to allow easier movement
• Frequently used resources are kept in the same accessible place, and labelled
• There is adequate space for any special equipment or large print resources to be stored and used
• The learners are seated closer to the board so they can see easily
• The level of lighting is right for the learners
• The writing on the board is large and clear enough for them to see easily
• The level of lighting is right for the learner to see easily
• You use real objects to support your teaching
LEARNER DIVERSIT Y

• You design activities that use all the senses, including hearing, smell, taste and touch
• Learning materials interesting enough to engage them, e.g. larger print and bolder colours
• You allow extra time for visually impaired learners to process information and complete tasks
(Adapted from: https://senmagazine.co.uk/articles/articles/senarticles/supporting-the-visually-impaired-learner)

For more information visit the

Unit 2

South African Council for the Blind

at sancb.org.za

102
 Insert
HEI logo
here

Inclusive Teaching
and Learning
for South Africa

Unit 3
Inclusive School
Communities

THIS PROJECT IS FUNDED BY THE EUROPEAN UNION

The Teaching for All project is a partnership between the
British Council, the University of South Africa, the
Departments of Basic Education and Higher Education
and Training, and MIET AFRICA, and is co-funded by the
European Union. The Teaching for All project aims to
provide teachers in South Africa with the skills, knowledge
and attitudes to teach inclusively in diverse classrooms in
diverse communities.

These educational materials are published under creative

commons license:

ISBN: 978-0-620-84393-5
Published by British Council, 2019

Every effort has been made to obtain copyright

permission for material used in this module.
Website addresses and links were correct at the time of
publication.

For more information, please contact the British Council:

PO Box 655, Parklands 2121, South Africa
Telephone: +27 (0)11 560 9300
Email: ssa.enquiries@britishcouncil.org.za
Website: www.britishcouncil.org.za

The British Council is the United Kingdom’s international

organisation for cultural relations and education. It creates
international opportunities for the people of the UK and
other countries and builds trust between them worldwide.
Contents

Overview of study unit..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2

Introduction and aim.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Specific outcomes............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Abbreviations........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
1 Building inclusive school communities....................................................................................................................................................................5
1.1 What is an inclusive school community?........................................................................................................................................................................ 6
1.2 Stakeholders in inclusive school communities.......................................................................................................................................................... 9
1.3 Enacting inclusive school communities through teacher and learner agency............................................................................... 10
1.3.1 Teacher agency in practice......................................................................................................................................................................................................10
1.3.2 Promoting learner agency.........................................................................................................................................................................................................12
2 The South African framework and tool for building inclusive schools......................................................................................15
2.1 Care and Support for Teaching and Learning—a SADC initiative............................................................................................................. 15
2.1.1 How the CSTL framework fits into the global and African agenda....................................................................................................................16
2.1.2 The CSTL approach.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................17
2.1.3 CSTL in South Africa......................................................................................................................................................................................................................19
2.2 Using the Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support process to build support into the education system... 21
2.2.1 What is the purpose of SIAS?...................................................................................................................................................................................................21
2.2.2 Principles of SIAS.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................21
2.2.3 The SIAS process........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
2.2.4 SIAS documents and role-players in individual support planning.................................................................................................................... 28
2.2.5 The teacher’s role in implementing SIAS......................................................................................................................................................................... 30
2.2.6 SNA2 and Individual Support Plan (ISP)............................................................................................................................................................................ 32
3 Practices that promote collaboration in inclusive school communities.................................................................................33
3.1 Different ways of working together................................................................................................................................................................................33
3.2 Characteristics of collaborative practices in inclusive school communities................................................................................... 37
3.2.1 Models of collaborative practice.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 37
3.2.2 Characteristics of effective collaboration....................................................................................................................................................................... 38
3.3 Benefits of collaboration........................................................................................................................................................................................................38
3.4 Collaboration among teachers...........................................................................................................................................................................................39
3.5 Enabling learner agency.........................................................................................................................................................................................................40
3.6 Building relationships with caregivers.......................................................................................................................................................................... 41
3.7 Creating an enabling environment for child-centred collaboration....................................................................................................... 42
3.7.1 Collaboration through the CSTL............................................................................................................................................................................................ 42
3.7.2 Building community relationships........................................................................................................................................................................................44
3.8 Challenges to collaboration.................................................................................................................................................................................................45
Contents

Study unit summary and reflection................................................................................................................................................................................................47

Suggested study unit assessment..................................................................................................................................................................................................48
Assessment 1................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Assessment 2................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Assessment 3................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Selected bibliography / further reading....................................................................................................................................................................................49
References...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................50

List of tables
Table 1: Getting along........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Table 2: School culture........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 8
Table 3: Teacher attitudes................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
Table 4: Three categories of collaboration........................................................................................................................................................................................... 37
Table 5: Stakeholders schools can liaise with to deliver on the 10 Priority Action Areas........................................................................................ 43

List of figures
Figure 1: Overview of study unit 3................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 2
Figure 2: Sustainable Development Goals.............................................................................................................................................................................................16
Figure 3: Bronfenbrenner’s Social-Ecological Model......................................................................................................................................................................17
Figure 4: Intersecting vulnerabilities.........................................................................................................................................................................................................17
Figure 5: The CSTL Conceptual Framework.........................................................................................................................................................................................18
Figure 6: CSTL South Africa’s 10 Priority Action Areas..................................................................................................................................................................19
Figure 7: Components of an inclusive school..................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 8: The SIAS process diagram........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 25
Figure 9: The SIAS process flowchart...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 10: Mrs Guma meeting with Misha and her parents........................................................................................................................................................ 30
Figure 11: Mrs Guma observing her class............................................................................................................................................................................................. 30
Figure 12: Mrs Guma’s progress report for Misha.............................................................................................................................................................................31

List of activities
Activity 1: The road travelled........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Activity 2: What is an inclusive school community?........................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Activity 3: Evaluate school culture and climate.................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Activity 4: Inclusivity in physical education..........................................................................................................................................................................................11
Activity 5: Encouraging learners’ participation in physical activity........................................................................................................................................12
Activity 6: What can you do to promote active learner agency?.............................................................................................................................................13
Activity 7: Examples of teacher and learner agency in practice.............................................................................................................................................13
Activity 8: Linking CSTL to other theories and philosophies......................................................................................................................................................18
Activity 9: Finding out more about the 10 Priority Areas............................................................................................................................................................ 20
Activity 10: Why learners need systemic support............................................................................................................................................................................21
Activity 11: Understanding SIAS principles........................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Activity 12: How the SIAS process works.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 26
Activity 13: Identify role-players and documentation in SIAS process................................................................................................................................ 28
Contents

Activity 14: Understanding how to use SNA1...................................................................................................................................................................................... 32

Activity 15: What does collaboration mean to you?........................................................................................................................................................................ 33
Activity 16: Evaluate ways of improving learner success............................................................................................................................................................ 34
Activity 17: Rethinking learner support.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 35
Activity 18: Medical and social model approaches......................................................................................................................................................................... 36
Activity 19: Shared values of collaboration.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 38
Activity 20: Benefits of collaboration....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 38
Activity 21: Collaboration at a school...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 39
Activity 22: Enabling learner agency....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 40
Activity 23: Establishing collaborative partnerships with caregivers................................................................................................................................... 42
Activity 24: Participation of external stakeholders..........................................................................................................................................................................44
Activity 25: Collaborative partnerships with community............................................................................................................................................................. 45
Activity 26: Finding solutions to collaboration challenges......................................................................................................................................................... 46
Overview of study unit

O T E CO M M U
R OM NI

TY
P
SCHOOL
TIC E S T H AT

CO
COMMUNITY

LL A B O R AT
Care and Screening
Support for Identification
Teaching and Assessment
Learning and Support
C
RA

IO
P

Figure 1: Overview of Study Unit 3

During Unit 1, we discussed the legislation, policy, regional and international instruments that commit us to
realising the right of all children to quality education.
In Unit 2, we deepened our understanding of learner diversity and explored what that means for us as teachers
who value equity, inclusion and social justice in our classrooms.
In this unit, Unit 3, we will think about what it means for a school to be an inclusive centre of learning, care and
support, where learner diversity is welcomed and supported by all stakeholders who work together to realise
their shared vision of quality education for all children. We look at the South African framework (Care and
Support for Teaching and Learning) and tool (Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support) for building
inclusive school communities. We discuss the roles of all stakeholders with a focus on you, the teacher.
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

Part 1 explores the concept of inclusive school communities and what this means in practice. The roles of the
various stakeholders involved in inclusive school communities are discussed, and we look at ways in which teachers
can be empowered and in turn empower their learners to play an active role in their own learning and development.
Part 2 discusses a framework through which teacher actions in building inclusive communities are guided. Care
and Support for Teaching and Learning (CSTL) is presented as the DBE’s framework for building inclusive school
communities. Within this we look at the DBE priorities for addressing education exclusion as well as the Policy on
Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support (SIAS) as a practical strategy that guides support provision.

2
 In Part 3, we explore collaboration further and how it could assist in realising the rights to education of diverse
learners. We discuss collaborative partnerships at school, community and district levels.
Part 3 reflects further on teacher and learner agency: teachers have power within their classrooms and need
to consider voices and actions of learners as active participants in school initiatives and cultivate a strong
culture of learner participation.

Introduction and aim

The main focus of this unit is on building and enacting inclusive school communities through teacher and
learner agency. Teachers are at the heart of strategies to build an inclusive education system. From a practical
perspective, we look at the South African policy framework (Care and Support for Teaching and Learning) and
tool (Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support) for the development of inclusive school communities.
We explore the question: What is your role as a teacher and how do you collaborate with other stakeholders,
both within the education system and in the broader community, to ensure that all your learners are supported
to achieve to their highest potential?

Specific outcomes
By the end of the unit, you will be able to:
• Explain the concept of an inclusive school community and how it contributes to providing quality inclusive
education for all South African learners
• Examine the role of the CSTL framework and SIAS policy in promoting inclusive classrooms
• Explore how you could implement the SIAS policy in your classroom
• Critically analyse different ways for stakeholders to work together, including collaboration, consultation and
involvement in various contexts
• Evaluate, using specific examples, ways to develop effective school-based, district-based, and community-
based collaborative partnerships to support inclusion in your context
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

3
Abbreviations

CAPS Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement

CBO Community-based organisation
CBST Circuit-Based Support Team
CSTL Care and Support for Teaching and Learning
DBE Department of Basic Education
DoE Department of Education
DBST District-Based Support Team
FBO Faith-based organisation
LSE Learning Support Educator
LTSM Learning and Teaching Support Material
NGO Non-governmental organisation
PIRLS Progress in International Reading Study
PLC Professional Learning Committee
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
RCL Representative Council of Learners
SADC Southern African Development Community
SBST School-Based Support Team
SGB School Governing Body
SIAS Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support (Policy)
SMT School Management Team
SSRC Special School Resource Centre
WHO World Health Organization

Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

4
1 Building inclusive school communities
ARTICLE
By Chiara Baumann 2018-06-30
WHAT IT’S REALLY LIKE TO BE AT
SCHOOL IN SOUTH AFRICA
Getting an education is fundamental to moving
our young people out of poverty and into
economic opportunity. So why are we struggling
to ensure children make it all the way through
school? Perhaps it’s because we fail to see what
they’re up against each and every day.
As a country we have committed to greater access
to education for all children. The importance of
early childhood education (the first five years of a
child’s life) to improve children’s capacity to learn
and thrive is now firmly on the national agenda.
Even the significance of prenatal care is making
inroads in our attempt to give children the best
start in life—right from conception. But what use
are these building blocks if we are not investing the
same amount of energy and forward-thinking into
keeping our children in school?
Studies show that over the course of primary and
secondary school, we lose 45 percent of learners—
they never make it to Grade 12, much less write a
matric exam. While it may be legal in South Africa to
exit the school system at the end of Grade 9, we
know that young people without a matric are those
who struggle most to find a job. To make matters
worse, further educational opportunities are scarce
for those who don’t matriculate—only one percent
of learners who drop out of school go on to study
at colleges.
We’ve now reached a situation where more than
half of young people are unemployed, and almost a
third of all youth are out of employment, training
and education opportunities. Such high levels of
economic exclusion lead to crime and social
instability that keeps mounting over time. Dropout is
therefore not an individual problem, it’s a challenge
that affects us all.
For many, the term “school dropout” conjures up
the image of lazy, naughty, reckless teens—learners
who choose to leave school and so are responsible
for their own misfortune. But, what if we looked at
the situation from the point of view of our learners?
Perhaps we would better understand what it’s really
like to be a learner in South Africa.
Each morning, millions of children wake up hungry
because they’ve had no supper the night before
and have to leave for school with little or no
breakfast. According to the General Household data
for 2015, 13 percent of children reported going
hungry sometimes, often or always in South
Africa—that’s 2.4 million children. For some, the
only meal they’ll receive for the rest of day is from
their school’s feeding scheme, or from a concerned
teacher who has dipped into her own pocket to buy
porridge for her class. Many children will also wake
up alone because their caregivers have had to
leave early for work, often leaving them to get their
siblings ready for school, too.
Next, they have to make the journey to school. For
many, it is difficult and unsafe—either requiring
long distances on foot (sometimes over 10
kilometres each way in rural areas), or waiting in
long queues for multiple bus and taxis rides. This is
on good days; on bad days, the weather, transport
strikes, or taxi violence will make the journey even
longer, and even more dangerous. Children on the
Cape Flats, for example, have to choose their routes
carefully in case a stray bullet comes their way.
So, by the time the first school bell rings—if
children manage to make it in time for the first
period at all—they’ve already depleted much of
their reserves. Now they are expected to sit in loud,
large classes with as many as 60 learners in one
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES
class. The walls of the school are often completely
bare, and there are bars on the windows. Add to this
the immense pressure on teachers to stick to the
curriculum, and the result is largely unimaginative
lessons that are rushed; leaving many children
behind or simply losing their interest along the way.
Sometimes children have to run the classes
themselves because their teacher is not present.
Then there’s bullying and violence to contend with.
A 2015 survey found that 48 percent of Grade 5
learners in no-fee schools in South Africa reported
being bullied weekly. Another study notes that
6
 extreme levels of sexual violence are experienced
by girls not only commuting to school, but also
during school hours—by teachers and classmates,
with little in place to hold their educators to
account. And, despite it being banned more than 20
years ago, many teachers continue to use corporal
punishment in the classroom, even for minor of
transgressions, such as being late.
Once the final bell rings for the day, learners still
have to face the long journey back home, only to
come home to an empty house, a mound of
homework, and for some, a violent home. With no
one around to help, and often with household
chores or childcare duties also to tend to,
schoolwork drops to a low priority.
When we add up these experiences, we begin to
get a more accurate picture of what it’s like to be a
learner in SA. It comes as no surprise then that by
high school our learners are running on empty, with
school dropout peaking in Grades 10 and 11. This
may seem like a picture of doom and gloom, but it’s
also a picture of immense resilience, courage, hope
and opportunity. Every day, children are showing up
at school, despite the odds. And they show up over
and over again for many years, some for 16
years—until all the things that weigh them down
finally force them to sink. Dropout is therefore less
of an active choice, and more of a culmination of
the many factors that work together to push our
children out of the school system.
But this doesn’t have to be the case. For five to
seven hours, five days a week, we have learners
within our reach. Let’s use this time wisely. Let’s
acknowledge the reality in which children live, and
hold their well-being at the centre of every decision
we make. Let’s create moments of relief for them
where they feel acknowledged, supported and safe.
Let’s be mindful of the language we use, and build
simple, loving connections within our schools. We
may not be able to change the broader and
deep-seated constraints that children and young
people are up against in the short term, but we can
protect the time we do have with them—and ensure
that schools are deliberately recognising the
obstacles they must constantly overcome just to
make it through the day. DM
(Source: Baumann, 2018, Daily Maverick: http://bit.ly/2EQyH6w)

ACTIVITY 1: The road travelled

Reading
Read the article “What it’s really like to be at school in South Africa”, and consider the following questions:
1. What is the article saying about the current education system in South Africa? Do you agree or
disagree? Support your opinion by referring to your own experience, and what you have learnt in
your course and this module so far.
2. How do the circumstances described in the article compare with your own schooling? What are the
similarities and differences? How does this affect the way you approach your role as a teacher?
3. What can you, as a teacher, commit to doing to “acknowledge the reality in which [your learners] live,
and hold their well-being at the centre of every decision [you] make”? What support might you need
to achieve this?

1.1
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

What is an inclusive
school community?

“Inclusive school communities are about creating communities of learning

where difference is welcomed.” Phasha, Mahlo & Dei, 2017

Central to inclusive education is the idea of inclusive school communities—schools as inclusive centres of
learning, care and support that are embedded within their communities. But what does this mean?
There is no agreement about what community means when it comes to schools (Watson & Bogotch, 2016).
There is the idea of “a school community” and also the idea of “school as a community”.

7
The idea of a school community refers to “the various individuals, groups, businesses, and institutions that are
invested in the welfare and vitality of a school and its community” (Great Schools Partnership, 2019). The idea
of school as a community “includes other groupings of people sharing common characteristics or interests”
(Green & Mercer, 2001: 1927).
A community has particular characteristics: its organisation, culture and climate (Dove, Zorotovich & Gregg,
2018; Stefanski, Valli & Jacobson, 2016). These characteristics describe the environmental and people factors
that determine the values, attitudes and behaviour of educators, learners and all the other stakeholders who are
part of that school community. These factors include rules governing schools and the extent to which the rules
create the feeling of belonging and shared vision that is typical of communities (Watson & Bogotch, 2016).

ACTIVITY 2: What is an inclusive school community?

Writing
Define and list the key characteristics and features of an inclusive school community. Use the above
definitions and what you learnt in Unit 1 and Unit 2 about inclusion and learner diversity. You can
present your ideas in writing, or as a mindmap or diagram.

An ideal inclusive school community is one where all the learners in the vicinity of a school attend that school,
and where all stakeholders are involved in the school and share the vision of realising quality education for
all. Stakeholders include learners, teachers, caregivers, school management and leadership teams, as well as
other local schools, government departments, businesses, faith-based, community-based and non-
governmental organisations.
In terms of culture and climate, inclusive school communities are about creating communities of learning
where difference is welcomed (Phasha et al., 2017). All forms of exclusion and marginalisation and inequalities
in access, acceptance, participation and learning outcomes should be rejected. “Differences in classrooms”
should be understood as a normal aspect of human development. This entails understanding inclusive school
communities as spaces that ensure that everyone has access to quality education and no learners are
marginalised due to pre-determined exclusionary judgements about who they are and what they can
learn (Florian, 2017: 10–11; Phasha et al., 2017). Inclusive schools adopt a social model approach within which
human rights and participation of all role-players are respected. It is essential that all relevant government
departments are involved.
Enshrined in such a community is a commitment to constitutional values and the spirit of ubuntu, which
refers to “being compassionate, welcoming, hospitable, warm and generous, willing to share, open, available, as
well as affirming others” (Phasha, 2016).

Key terms related to an inclusive school community

School as a community refers to an organisation that consists of a group of people sharing (i)
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

basic conditions of common life; (ii) a feeling of belonging together and (iii) a sense of mutual
identifications of hopes and aspirations among members themselves; and hold a collection of
normative beliefs and values that govern interaction.
School culture consists of the shared ideas, such as assumptions, values and beliefs that give
a school its identity and standard for expected behaviours. (Tableman & Herron, 2004:1)
School climate refers to the kinds of feelings, opinions and attitudes learners and the school
community express about the school, given the specific ways in which their school does things.
These opinions reflect the physical and psychological aspects of the school that are more
susceptible to change and that provide the preconditions necessary for teaching and learning
to take place. (Tableman & Herron, 2004:2)

8
 ACTIVITY 3: Evaluate school culture and climate

Writing
Think about the last school you attended.
1. Complete the three tables below.
2. What do the answers tell you about the culture and climate of the school?
3. To what extent did the school put into practice the democratic values enshrined in the Bill of Rights?
How could it do so more effectively? Explain your answer.

Table 1: Getting along

Does
In your opinion, how well did the following groups Not Fairly Very
not
get along at the school? well well well
apply
Boys and girls

Learners who speak different languages

Learners with different abilities

Learners of different races

Learners who belong to different religions

Teachers and management

Parents and teachers

Table 2: School culture

Are the following statements mostly true or mostly false Don’t

T F
about the school? Know
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

School management and teachers collaborated toward making the school run effectively.

The principal encouraged experimentation in teaching.

The principal made a point of praising teachers and learners when they did something well.

Learners cared about the school and felt proud to be there.

Parents and the community were receptive to new ideas.

9
Table 3: Teacher attitudes
Which of the following descriptors are mostly true of the
Don’t
teachers at your school and which are mostly false? T F
Know
(Mark one answer for each line)

Apathetic: Indifferent, not interested in school/classroom issues

Cohesive: Unified as members of the school community

Enthusiastic: Eager and passionate about the wellbeing of the school

Frustrated: Discouraged about being at the school

Innovative and open to change: Always thinking of new ways of teaching or dealing
with challenges; willing to try new approaches

Satisfied: Fulfilled and happy

Unappreciated: Not acknowledged for effort

Traditional: Fixed in their ideas and not willing to try new approaches

Tense: Nervous and anxious

(Source: Adapted from Welsh, Jenkins & Greene, 1998)

1.2 Stakeholders in inclusive

school communities
As we know from Unit 1, South African legislation and policy aims to develop democracy and active citizenship,
based on principles of human rights and inclusivity, where citizens take responsibility for what happens in their
communities. Full participation of the following stakeholders is essential for school communities to be inclusive
and effective.
1. The learner is at the centre of the school community, based on the principle of “Nothing about us without
us” (title of a 1998 book on disability rights by James Charlton). Learners are recognised, respected and
enabled to exercise their rights and to participate in all decisions that affect them.
2. Teachers are at the heart of the strategy to build an inclusive education system.
3. Parents and caregivers are equal partners in their children’s education.
4. School structures are functional and play their mandated roles: the School Management Team (SMT);
School-Based Support Team (SBST), the School Governing Body (SGB) and the Representative Council of
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

Learners (RCL)
5. Department of Basic Education structures support school structures: the Circuit-Based Support Team
(CBST) and the District-Based Support Team (DBST).
6. Education is everybody’s business: government departments, the private sector, faith-based organisations
(FBOs), NGOs and CBOs are all essential partners toward the realisation of quality education for all.

Policy mandates for school and government structures

The South African Schools Act 1996 sets out the roles and responsibilities of core structures in school
communities: the principal leads the school, supported by the School Management Team (SMT); the School
Governing Body (SGB) represents the caregivers and school community and the Representative Council of
Learners (RCL) represents learners. Because governance and management are closely connected and affect
the functionality of schools, these committees need to work closely together with the best interests of learners

10
 in mind. For example, while the majority of SGB members are parents, teachers and RCL members are also
represented on the SGB, along with the principal, who is automatically a member. The School-Based Support
Team (SBST) is a sub-committee of the SMT, and is mandated in Education White Paper 6 2001. The SBST’s core
function is to assist teachers and learners to identify support needs and access support from the local
community and government structures. At circuit and district level there are corresponding structures to
support the SBST: Circuit-Based Support Team (CBST) and the District-Based Support Team (DBST).
All of the above stakeholders have a role to play in building inclusive school communities. A useful way of
looking at this is through the application of Complexity Theory, which sees organisations as similar to living
organisms. This means that rather than understanding school systems as fixed and separate, we see them as
inter-connected, dynamic, continuously changing, open to their surroundings and engaging in feedback.
Feedback through communication and collaboration1 means schools continuously transform (Cunningham,
2003). Within an inclusive school community this is achieved through purpose-driven actions—e.g. teaching,
interactions among individuals and members, decision making and participation, which are all focused around
creating a climate of mutual respect and inclusivity. We will explore collaboration among stakeholders in an
inclusive school community in more depth in Part 3 of this unit.

“We should see organisations as similar to living

organisms: inter-connected, dynamic, continuously
changing, open to their surroundings and engaging
in feedback.” Cunningham, 2003

1.3 Enacting inclusive school communities

through teacher and learner agency
In Unit 1 we discussed the importance of teacher and learner agency2 in inclusive education. As we continue
with the topic of developing inclusive school communities, it is time to place teachers and learners at the
centre of these discussions in a practical way.

1.3.1 Teacher agency in practice

Teacher agency3 can be defined as the individual and collective actions taken by teachers in situations in
which they find themselves. In this sense, agency is not given but involves a negotiation of power as
constituted in the individual teachers, structures and conditions in which they find themselves. Long et al.
(2017: 10) refer to teacher agency as “critically shaping our responses to problematic situations in diverse
contexts”. They state that “agency is conditioned by past experiences and lived realities of the teachers”. This
means that we can’t take it for granted that just because someone is a professional teacher they will always
exert their power in ways that are compatible with the principles of inclusive pedagogy (see Unit 1).
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

Definition
1 Collaboration: A style of direct interaction between at least two co-equal persons who are voluntarily engaged
in shared problem-solving, shared decision making and shared resources as they work towards achieving a goal.
2 Teacher and learner agency: Their active contribution to shaping their work as teachers and learners and its
conditions—for the overall quality of education. In this way agency speaks to what teachers and learners do and
not what they have.
3 Teacher agency: The individual and collective actions taken by teachers in situations in which they find themselves.
In this sense agency is not given but involves a negotiation of power as constituted in the individual teachers,
11 structures and conditions in which they find themselves.
ACTIVITY 4: Inclusivity in physical education

Reading
Read the case study and article below and then answer the following questions:
1. In what ways might Keke’s attitude create barriers to participation and learning at the school?
2. How do views like Keke’s impact on the creation and maintenance of an inclusive school culture?
3. Keke says, “They’ll never get anywhere close to playing for a national team, or any team, so why bother?”
Comment on this in the light of the article about Ntando Nokamo, and other examples you know about.
4. How would you advise Keke to address the challenge of including the two learners in sport?

CASE STUDY: Inclusivity in Physical Education

Keke Motlotla teaches Physical Education/Human
Movement as part of the Life Skills curriculum. Read
her conversation with her colleague, Lerato Mahao:
Keke: You know Lerato, I just don’t understand why
I’m expected to involve those two learners in
wheelchairs in basketball. What does it mean to
them? I think it’s unfair that in addition to ensuring
the safety and involvement of 40 learners on the
sports field, I now have to worry about two
children in wheelchairs! They’ll never get anywhere
close to playing for a national team, or any team,
so why bother?
Lerato: Ao choma, I thought you learnt about the
importance of physical education in your B Ed
programme? Sport really helps all learners to be
able to do their school work better! In our school
community we support all learners and try to help
them become the best versions of themselves. Why
not join me at the next meeting of “Teachers who
Care”. I always find the discussions very helpful in
finding ways to meet the challenges we face as
teachers. It helps to know you are not alone.
Keke: I don’t see how a meeting will help but OK, I’ll
join you.

ARTICLE

By Mfundo Piliso - 19 August 2018 He is only 13, but Ntando Nokama sees his inclusion
NTANDO SET TO SLAM DUNK HIS in the national U23 basketball men’s wheelchair
WAY TO TOP squad as a chance to travel the world.
Nokama, the youngest wheelchair Springbok in the
Eastern Cape player only 13, but gets nod province, represents the Eastern Cape wheelchair
for SA U23 basketball team basketball men’s U23 side and is set to make it into
the main team—Buffalo City Suns—who are
campaigning in the Supersport Wheelchair
Basketball National League.
“I think young people should stop abusing drugs
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

and alcohol, and rather focus on playing sport and

on their books because that’s how I managed to get
selected to the team,” said Nokama.
The “guard man” on the court said being born in
Stutterheim in Mgwali, where opportunities for the
disabled are few and far between, prompted his
relocation to Mdantsane’s Vukuhambe Special School.
“It all began here when I met the people who
inspired me to play this sport,” he said.
(Source: DispatchLIVE © 2019 Tiso Blackstar Group (Pty) Ltd.)

12
 Let’s take a look at how physical exercise can help boost learners’ achievement in class, and think of ways you
can give learners opportunities to participate in sport and other physical exercise, both in class and after school.

How physical activity boosts learners’ achievement

Exercise for children appears to stimulate brain growth and boost cognitive performance. It helps them focus. It
may make it easier for them to learn and achieve. Studies suggest that physical exercise yields short- and long-
term benefits for achievement in the classroom, especially when combined with an element of fun (Dewar, 2019).
In 2016, 24 experts published a statement in the British Journal of Sports Medicine on the effects of physical
activity on students age 6 to 18. Among their conclusions:
• Physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness are good for children’s and young people’s brain development
and function as well as their intellect
• A session of physical activity before, during, and after school boosts academic achievement
• A single session of moderately energetic physical activity has immediate positive effects on brain function,
intellect, and academic performance (Britt, 2019)
And a 2017 review of 26 studies in the United States and 10 other countries and involving more than 10,000
children, published in the journal Pediatrics, concluded: “Physical activity improves classroom behaviours and
benefits several aspects of academic achievement, especially mathematics-related skills, reading, and
composite scores in youth.” (Ibid.)

ACTIVITY 5: Encouraging learners’ participation in

physical activity

Writing
1. Do you agree that incorporating physical activity would impact positively on the achievement of all
the learners in your class? Give evidence to support your opinion.
2. Suggest other types of physical activity, in addition to sport, that would be enjoyable and beneficial
for learners to do before, during and after lessons.
3. What could you do to involve caregivers and the local community in providing support and
opportunities for learners to participate in physical activity at school?

1.3.2 Promoting learner agency

The Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) is based on the Theory of Constructivism, which
places learners at the centre as active agents in their own development. As we saw in Unit 1, the key message
of Constructivism is that learning best takes place if learners are actively involved in the process (Donald,
Lazarus & Moolla, 2014). In other words, the acquisition of skills, knowledge and attitudes largely depends on
learner agency4, with learners playing an active role in their learning. This continuous and active involvement of
learners is referred to as active agency5, and the teacher’s key role is to encourage this in learners.
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

“Cultivating active learner agency requires education systems

to support and develop learner participation in all decisions that
affect them.” OECD Learning Framework, 2018

Definition
4 Learner agency is when learners have “the power to act”, when they take responsibility for their own learning
and don’t only rely on inputs from the teacher, the curriculum, the resources and so on.
5 Active agency, especially where learners are concerned, describes the state of being personally engaged in
one’s learning which is often indicated by the ability to initiate and take control (Donald, Lazarus & Moolla, 2014).
13
In teaching we make a clear distinction between teacher-centred and learner-centred pedagogy. Learner-
centred pedagogy is a teaching approach that develops learner autonomy and initiative by giving learners the
responsibility of actively constructing knowledge rather than teachers just transmitting knowledge (Bada,
2015). We will explore this further in Unit 4.
According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Learning Framework (2018),
cultivating active learner agency requires education systems to support and develop learner participation in all
decisions that affect them.
The CSTL framework stresses that education systems should prioritise the preparation of young people for
democratic citizenship. It states that learners “need to exercise agency in their own education and through life”
(OECD, 2018).
As we saw in Unit 1, Africa’s Agenda for Children 2040 (ACERWC, 2015) advocates a pedagogical approach that
prepares children for change and equips them to be change agents. Learners must be enabled to make full
and responsible use of information, navigate tensions, disagreements and challenges, and understand the
consequences of their actions. This in turn develops a range of aptitudes, including problem-solving, creativity
and a sense of responsibility.

ACTIVITY 6: What can you do to promote active

learner agency?

Journal
What are the implications of the constructivist view of learning for learner participation in inclusive
school communities? What can you do to promote active learner agency in your classroom practice?
Keep this in mind as you work through this unit and Unit 4.

Teacher agency specifically refers to the human power teachers have that enables them to make a difference
within given structures and cultures and to transform or reproduce them (Pantic & Florian, 2015; Pantic, 2015).

ACTIVITY 7: Examples of teacher and learner agency

in practice

Audio Visual
Click on https://youtu.be/D8lm9dfz8-8 to watch a video that portrays teachers and learners as active
agents of change. Then answer the following questions:
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

1. How is active agency of learners being promoted at this school?

2. How are teachers and learners portrayed as agents of change?
3. Are you familiar with the World Health Organization’s (WHO) concept of health promoting schools? If
not, find out from these two links and answer the questions that follow:
a. https://www.who.int/school_youth_health/gshi/hps/en/ (WHO website)
b. http://bit.ly/2EPDwNx (a report on Health Promoting Schools initiatives in South Africa)
4. In what ways are the efforts of this New Zealand school demonstrating the concepts of inclusion and
health promotion?

14
 There are many ways in which teachers can bring about change in schools and classrooms. From a
perspective that inclusion is a basic human right, teachers need to think about the extent to which the voices
of learners are heard as reflected in the examples above from New Zealand.
Embracing your own agency as teacher is crucial because teacher agency implies that every teacher
(including you) has the capacity to make schools truly inclusive. Your interactions with learners, the curriculum
and other co-actors continually impact positively on learning goals of all the learners, making classrooms and
schools inclusive.
In Part 2 we look at South Africa’s policy framework for building inclusive schools—Care and Support for
Teaching and Learning (CSTL), and tool for implementing inclusivity in the classroom—Screening, Identification,
Assessment and Support (SIAS). Information in Section 2.1 has been adapted from an article by Vanessa
Japtha, which was featured in the Inclusive Education South Africa Newsletter 2014, and updated to include new
developments in South Africa.
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

15
2 The South African framework and tool for
building inclusive schools
The Care and Support for Teaching and Learning (CSTL) framework is a home-grown tool for building inclusive
school communities. It was initially piloted in South Africa, Swaziland and Zambia, and then adopted by all
Ministers of Education in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) in 2008, including the
Department of Basic Education (DBE) in South Africa.
The DBE provides for a standardised and documented process for organising support provision within the
system, for coordinating and tracking delivery and addressing resourcing. This is outlined in the Policy on
Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support (SIAS).

In this unit, a framework refers to a set of ideas, principles, approaches, policies, activities and
indicators used to guide intentional action and to measure its impact.

2.1 Care and Support for Teaching

and Learning—a SADC initiative
Care and Support for Teaching and Learning (CSTL) is a dynamic and flexible framework that responds to the
needs of children and youth to ensure their full access, participation and achievement by creating an enabling
environment to improve their learning experiences and outcomes.
The CSTL framework grew from the recognition by Southern African Development Community (SADC) Member
States of the large numbers of children in the region made vulnerable by a host of interrelated factors such as
poverty, HIV, disability and exposure to violence and abuse. Based on the strong regional and international
mandate to ensure that all children, in particular vulnerable children, realise their right to education, the
Ministries of Education in all of the SADC Member States adopted the CSTL framework in 2008.
Several pilot projects informed the development of the framework including Schools as Centres for Care and
Support, piloted in South Africa, Zambia and Swaziland. The CSTL framework is an education-led coordinating
framework that calls for integrated action from all stakeholders in each Member State to prioritise particular
challenges facing children and youth.
Given the various and diverse types of support that are required for children to realise their constitutional
rights, it is clear that no one government agency or other stakeholder could, alone, address he needs of
vulnerable children. Rather coordinated collaboration between all stakeholders with CSTL as the over-arching
framework is the approach agreed to that will best promote learner well-being and achievement.
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

16
 2.1.1 How the CSTL framework fits into the global and African agenda
The 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a universal call to action, providing the most ambitious and
transformative framework to date for ending poverty, reducing inequalities, improving the lives of all global
citizens and preserving and protecting the environment. They came into effect in January 2016, building on the
Millennium Development Goals, and will continue to guide the United Nations and its member states until 2030.
Figure 2 shows these 17 SDGs.

Figure 2: Sustainable Development Goals

Several of the SDGs address areas of vulnerability impacting on the lives of children. These include
SDG 1—Poverty; SDG 2—Hunger; SDG 3—Health and well-being and SDG 5—Gender Equality. These echo
the challenges affecting children in the SADC region and having a profound impact on their access to and
participation in education. The CSTL Framework specifically aims to remedy these.
Of particular relevance to the CSTL framework is SDG 4—Quality education.

Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and

Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

promote lifelong learning opportunities for all

SDG 4 promotes every child’s right to inclusive and equitable, quality education. The CSTL framework
recognises that in order to achieve this the education system must acknowledge and seek to address the
impact on learning of the issues raised in SDGs 1–5.

17
In addition to being aligned to the SDGs, the CSTL framework is based on regional African and SADC policies.
SADC’s vision is of a common future, within a regional community, that will ensure for all of the people of
Southern Africa:
• Economic well-being • Social justice
• Improved standard and quality of living • Peace and security for the people
• Freedom
This vision is anchored the African Union’s (AU) Agenda 2063, where we share:
• Ubuntu • Cultural connectedness
• Common values • Human rights
• Shared histories

A wide range of national laws and policies including our Constitution and National Development Plan all support
this international and regional human rights-based approach towards children and their well-being.

2.1.2 The CSTL approach

ACROSYSTEM
M The CSTL framework applies a social-ecological

XOSYSTEM
model (Figure 3). There is a recognition of the
E influence of direct (individual beliefs and
attitudes) and indirect (socio-economic and
S O S YS T E M
ME Media public policy) factors on a child’s well-being and
Extended
Family
CR
OS YS T
E
achievement at school. These factors can work
I
together to impact a child’s vulnerability.
M

Healthcare Religious
Services Institutions
Legal

Culture
Services Social
Class
Children are made vulnerable by their
Friends
environment, community and circumstances.
They may experience:
of Family Family
School

Peers • Needs related to basic survival (food,

Welfare Neighbours healthcare, clothing, shelter)
• Lack of parental care / burden of heading
a household
Law • Educational challenges
Figure 3: Bronfenbrenner’s Social-Ecological Model • Family and community abuse and mistreatment
(Adapted from: http://bit.ly/2KqobHv

Figure 4 shows a range of vulnerabilities that can intersect and are almost always exacerbated by poverty, and
how these impact on a child’s education.
Low
Insufficient quality Lack of
schools teaching enabling
Hunger school
environ-
ment Low
War literate
parents
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

Natural
disasters HIV&AIDS

No identity
Rural home documents

Child Absent
labour parents

Customary Grief and

practices trauma

Gender
stereotypes Disability

Low enrolment
Violence High drop out Poverty
Poor performance

Figure 4: Intersecting vulnerabilities

18
 In Unit 2, intersectionality was defined as “The study of what happens when different forms of discrimination,
domination and oppression combine, overlap and intersect.” This is of direct relevance to education, as it is
important to know which children are vulnerable and therefore at risk of being educationally marginalised or
excluded. It is most often a combination of factors at many levels that create a spectrum of educational
disadvantage. In these circumstances, it is also important to consider enabling factors that can mitigate the
child’s vulnerability, such as caring supportive family or community members.
Intersectionality means that every child experiences their own unique combination of factors that either
promote advantage or are compounded to increase marginalisation. For example, the lived reality of a child
living in a poor rural community with a disability is very different to the experience of a child in a well-
resourced urban community with a disability. The fact that they both have a disability cannot be viewed in
isolation. The intersection or combination of their different identities must be considered.
The goal of the CSTL framework is to reduce vulnerability and increase wellbeing and resilience through
supportive schools and collaborating with multi-sectoral stakeholders who can reduce risk factors.

IE S DO
NC HO NO
GE ME RF
TA RT AF UN
EN NS
PO FA DE
PM A IR S R
E LO TR
D EV EX
TE
T N AG
R EN GO S CH DE
D R
PA R
FA I CU
TH HE VE OO
AL T EA
C BO RNI L M ILY LTU
HE
DY NG
RE

MA SC
NA HOO OL AM
GE L HO TE
ME SC ORT
NT PP
JU S U
N
S TI OT IO
CE HE
RC EN
T
C AT
AR AR DU
EG E RP E
IVE ST
R FO
LO PS
NG CA SA
O LG
OV O
E RN L
C I A EN
T CB
ME S O O PM
NT L
E
D EV

Figure 5: The CSTL Conceptual Framework

ACTIVITY 8: Linking CSTL to other theories

and philosophies
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

Writing
The CSTL Conceptual Framework (Figure 5) shows that it takes a village to raise a child. The variety of
concentric systems in CSTL—e.g. family, school, local government—is similar to systems of thinking
contained in other theories and approaches.
Refer back to Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory and the philosophy of ubuntu (Unit 1) and
intersectionality theory (Unit 2).
1. How does the CSTL Conceptual Framework link to each of these theories/approaches?
2. How can these systems of thinking help in building inclusive school communities?

19
2.1.3 CSTL in South Africa
The domestication6 of the CSTL Framework in South Africa took place between 2009 and 2015. The
framework fits into a strong existing mandate supporting the protection and realisation of rights for all children.
This resulted in the Department of Basic Education identifying ten priority action areas necessary to respond
to the needs of children in the country.

A
rights-based,
socially inclusive
and cohesive
school Infrastructure,
Nutritional
water and
support
sanitation

Health Psychosocial
promotion support

Education
mandate for
care and
support

Social welfare Co-curricular

services support

Safety and Material

protection support
Curriculum
Figure 6: CSTL South Africa’s support
10 Priority Action Areas

Here is a description of each of the ten areas:

A rights-based and socially inclusive and cohesive school: This priority area aims to ensure that all school
community members view education through a human rights lens—that is, they know, respect, protect and
promote all children’s rights, including their right to education and rights in education including equality,
dignity, equity and freedom from discrimination and violence. A human-rights-based approach to education is
based on the principle of ubuntu/botho—a recognition of the value of each child’s life in our community and
our obligation to care and protect them equally. Strongly linked with this are the values underpinning South
Africa’s inclusive education system, which recognises the right of every child to receive the support they need
to participate meaningfully and achieve success in education in their local community school.
Safety and protection: This encompasses both the physical and psychological safety of learners and teachers.
Schools should be free from all forms of violence, abuse, harassment and bullying. Learners should feel safe to
ask questions, enquire and learn without the fear of ridicule. Safety and protection also includes the physical
infrastructure of the school such as fencing, gates, and accessibility ramps.
Psycho-social support: Schools should meet the social and emotional needs of learners and teachers. Many
children have not learnt appropriate ways of behaving or the necessary social skills to form functioning
relationships. Some learners may also need support to deal with trauma, abuse, domestic violence or other
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

issues that affect their emotional well-being. Schools should actively teach appropriate social behaviour and
provide counselling support for learners.
Curriculum support: All teachers require the knowledge, attitude and skills to teach inclusively. This means
they should be able to adapt their teaching, classroom environment and the curriculum to meet the learning
needs of a very diverse learner population. To do this, teachers should have the resources and support to
effectively and efficiently teach ALL children in their class.

Definition
6 Domestication refers to the process of customising the framework for a specific country.

20
 Co-curricular support: Schools need to develop in-school or after-school enrichment activities to promote the
holistic development and well-being of a child. These could include opportunities for free play, participation in
sport, arts and culture, life skills and extra homework support.
Material support: This area includes assistance with school fees, uniforms and school transport. No child
should be excluded from participating in any school activity because they do not have the money to pay for
school-related costs.
Social welfare services: This area refers to the role of the school and duty-bearers in facilitating access to
child support grants, acquiring documentation (birth certificates and identity documents) and the enforcement
of childcare and protection legislation.
Nutritional support: The National School Nutrition Programme, food garden schemes and other initiatives
ensure that no child goes hungry at school.
Infrastructure, water and sanitation: This is a commitment to ensure human dignity through access to clean,
safe and habitable schools.
Health promotion: This priority area focuses on early identification and intervention in improving and
promoting the overall health and well-being of children and teachers. This is achieved through health
screening and education about health-related matters. (DBE, 2014b)
With these 10 priority areas in mind, a school as a centre for care and support should:
• Ensure availability of nutritious food through the National School Nutrition Programme
• Reduce the financial burden on poor parents by facilitating the application for exemption from school fees
• Promote parental involvement in the lives of children
• Offer skills development for parents
• Conduct regular home visits
• Provide a range of recreational activities
• Offer an aftercare programme
• Ensure school safety for learners
• Be a local network for care and support
• Engage with community stakeholders to offer support services at the school
These are all protective factors that improve a child’s well-being.

ACTIVITY 9: Finding out more about the 10 Priority Areas

Audio Visual
Read about the ten priority areas above and watch the DVD at http://y2u.be/R0CL3VcQjgQ
Then answer the following questions:
1. Why do you think these ten priority areas were prioritised?
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

2. Why it is important for schools to implement activities in all the priority areas?
3. Identify overlaps among the priority areas.
4. Look back at the article at the beginning of the unit about the challenges faced by learners. Link
these challenges to one or more of the priority areas. Think of other examples from schools you are
familiar with.
5. What do you think your role as a teacher could be in implementing the priority areas?
6. Who else should be involved?

21
Focusing on these policy-mandated priorities has been shown to effectively address barriers to learning and
participation, and improve children’s educational outcomes. Thus schools are required to implement all ten of
the CSTL areas in ways that complement related policy directives.
Because of the complexity and interrelated nature of the rights and services needed to address intersecting
challenges causing exclusion, it is important that they are delivered as a holistic and integrated package in
school communities. This involves collaboration with multiple stakeholders. We talk about this in Part 3 of this
unit. Now we are going to look at the DBE’s Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support (SIAS) process,
which enables you and other stakeholders in the school community to provide the support learners need to
achieve to their potential.

2.2 Using the Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support

process to build support into the education system

2.2.1 What is the purpose of SIAS?

ACTIVITY 10: Why learners need systemic support

Reading
South Africa was the lowest-performing country out of 50 countries in the 2016 Progress in
International Reading Study (PIRLS). Read the South African Highlights Report (http://bit.ly/2Xlb5Oz), and
answer the following questions:
1. The report analyses a number of background factors associated with achievement (pages 7–10).
Which factors are strongly associated with learners’ reading literacy?
2. Which of these factors would prevent learners from achieving their full potential and why?
3. What issues do the results of the study raise about equal access to quality education for all learners?

The PIRLS report raises issues around offering systemic support for learners in South Africa. In providing a
systemic response to identifying barriers to achievement and providing support, the SIAS policy aims to ensure
the effective inclusion and full participation of all learners within the education system. It provides standardised
procedures for supporting learners to achieve to the best of their ability. This involves screening, identification
of barriers, assessment of support needs, and provision and monitoring of support.

2.2.2 Principles of SIAS

Chapter 3 of the SIAS policy (DBE, 2014a: 15–17) offers principles and guidelines for support provision. Every
learner has the right to receive quality basic education within their local community. This means that, as far as
is practically possible and affordable, the support must be brought to the learner with little or no movement
from their local community and home. School staff, in consultation with parents/caregivers, should be involved
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

in support activities that will enable learners to participate in all learning activities. In addition, support should
not emphasise diagnosis and remediation of an individual learner’s difficulties, but should be a holistic
approach, taking into consideration the learner’s home circumstances, socio-economic status and experiences
in life. Therefore, the support programme should be designed to facilitate learning with the purpose of ensuring
that all learners succeed.

A strengths-based, holistic, social-model approach takes into consideration the learner’s home
circumstances, socio-economic status and experiences in life.

22
 Standardised procedures must be followed to assess support needs
The DBE has developed standardised procedures “to assess the level and extent of support required in
schools and in classrooms to optimise learners’ participation in the learning process”. The SIAS policy explains
how to “identify individual learner needs in relation to the home and school context, to establish the level and
extent of additional support that is needed” as well as how to get “access to and provide such support at
individual levels” (DBE, 2014a: 13).
Much depends on the way that the school, led by the SBST, responds to diversity (including attitudes and
ethos), the nature of the barriers, as well as the resources available (and effectively mobilised) in the school and
surrounding community (MIET Africa, 2016).
Support could mean a variety of things. For example, an educator planning lessons in a different way;
increased action to tackle bullying; teacher training on curriculum and assessment differentiation; building
wheelchair accessible toilets; or accessing specialist services (MIET Africa, 2016).
Collaboration and community are essential

“If you want to go fast, go alone. If you want

to go far, go together.” Zulu proverb

Support involves the wider school context as well as learners’ specific individual needs in inclusive classroom
contexts. The policy describes ways in which different stakeholders of a school community (teachers/schools,
parents, learners, school based support teams, district based support teams, health professionals etc.) come
together as a community to address concerns.
All schools are inclusive centres of learning, care and support
Education White Paper 6 describes three types of schools: ordinary, full service, and special schools (DoE, 2001).
The difference among these types of schools is that, through Departmental provisioning, some schools have
more facilities and specialised services enabling them to offer higher and more intensive levels of support.
Ordinary schools must admit all learners in their area—regardless of their difficulties—and take all possible
measures to offer reasonable accommodation to learners with additional support needs and disabilities. While
the school might not immediately be able to offer the required levels of support to every learner they admit,
the aim is to mobilise support through outreach services delivered by the DBST, full service schools and
special schools within the district. Out-placement of learners to full service schools or special schools should
be a last resort. (DoE, 2001)
Full service schools are ordinary/mainstream schools that are equipped with additional support provisioning,
so that they can respond to a broader range of learning needs. These include specialised support staff
(Learning Support Educator [LSE] and counsellor), specialised infrastructure (e.g. counselling room, disability-
friendly toilets) and specialised Learning and Teaching Support Materials (LTSM) and assistive devices (e.g.
braille typewriters and textbooks). These full-service schools also serve as hubs and share their additional
resources with neighbouring schools. (DoE, 2001)
Special schools and Special School Resource Centres (SSRCs) are ordinary schools that are equipped with
even greater support provisioning to cater for the needs of learners requiring specialised, high-intensity
support. Special schools and SSRCs are able to provide site-based, specialised programmes to learners
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

requiring high to very high levels of support, and SSRCs are also able to provide support (specialist skills and
resources) to a cluster consisting of ordinary schools and a full-service school (DoE, 2001).

23
However, regardless of what type of school they are, all schools are inclusive centres of learning, care and support.
This means that every school must provide relevant quality education for a broad range of learning needs and
should include the following minimum components:

Clean and
orderly
Has enabling Collaborative
policies, approach
practices and to service
curricula delivery

Inclusive centre Additional

Non- of learning, care support
discriminatory and support programmes
access Aims at quality, relevant and structures
(rights-based) education to meet diverse for teaching and
learner needs learning

Conducive Learners
to learning and educators
(ethos and feel safe and
environment) Good protected
governance
and
leadership
Figure 7: Components of an inclusive school
(Source: MIET Africa, 2010)

The level of support is rated and not the learner. In principle, levels of support are unrelated to the type of
school. They are determined by the frequency/intensity, scope, availability and cost of the required support.
Low-level support is generally proactive or preventative, and is covered within general departmental
programmes, policies and line budgets. Moderate-level support is usually over and above standard
programmes and provisioning, and is generally once-off, short-term or of moderate intensity. High-level
support is also over and above provisions covered by policies and provisioning for public schools, and is
generally highly specialised, expensive, high frequency and high intensity. (DoE, 2001)
Let’s do an activity to make sure we understand the principles of the SIAS policy.

ACTIVITY 11: Understanding SIAS principles

Reading
Refer to Chapter 3, pages 15–17 of the SIAS policy to help you complete this task (DBE, 2014a:
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

http://bit.ly/2X4iHVA).
Read the following statements relating to the principles of the SIAS policy, and decide if each is true
or false.
If you say a statement is “false”, rewrite it as a “true” statement.

24
 True (T) or
Statements
False (F)

1 Every child has the right to receive quality education within their local community.

2 A child can be refused access to their local school.

Support includes all activities in a school that increase its capacity to respond to diversity.
3 For example, this could include reviewing school culture, admission policies and co-
curricular programmes.

There is no need to involve parents or learners in decisions around types of support offered
4
and where to place learners.

A learner may experience a range of barriers, for example, poverty, disability or a violent
5 home situation, requiring a holistic approach to assessing needs and designing support
programmes.

In the context of the SIAS process, assessment refers to the assessment of scholastic
6
achievement.

Parents of learners experiencing a physical or mental disability should apply directly to a

7
special school for admission of their child.

8 Support is about the remediation of deficits within the learner.

The nature and extent of support needed by a learner could include addressing educator
9
or school needs.

Placement of learners in a specialised setting to access support is a last resort and should
10
not be seen as permanent.

2.2.3 The SIAS process

As a teacher you need to be able to identify any challenges preventing learners from achieving, assess their
needs, and offer and monitor support.
The SIAS process aims to ensure that:
• Every learner accesses the education system and no one is denied access
• Support, and not out-placement, is the guiding principle
• Schools provide additional support to learners and are enabled to access additional support provisioning
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

(via the SIAS process)

• Parents/caregivers and learners are involved in the decisions taken to access additional provisioning
(DBE, 2014a: 37)
The SIAS policy outlines a step-by-step process for accessing support. The process diagram is reproduced
in Figure 8.
Read Chapter 6.24 of the policy, which describes and summarises each stage of the process.
DBE, 2014a: http://bit.ly/2X4iHVA)

25
SIAS Process for Individual Learners

A: Admission, completion of vulnerability assessment and learner profile.

B: No risks or concerns identified. C: At risk learner identified.

No additional support required at this stage. Refer to SBST which recommends action to be taken.

D: Support needs not clear. E: Support needs clear.

Investigate further. Support given, monitored and reviewed.

F: Teacher observes, conducts classroom G: Support successful.

assessment, reads learner profile, screens and No additional support required at this stage
conducts learner and parent interviews to
inform planning.

H: No concerns identified. I: Barrier identified.

No additional support required at this stage.
Parent (and learner) consultations. Individual
support plan (ISP) support strategy drawn
up and implemented. May include referral to
social services, clinic etc. or requests for
assistance from the LSE counsellor.

J: Support successful. K: Support unsuccessful.

No additional support required at this stage. Teacher requests assistance from SBST.

L: SBST examines case. Recommends further assessment which is conducted and/or support
which is given, monitored and reviewed. Parent and learner liaison.

M: Support successful. N: Support unsuccessful.

No additional support required at this stage. CBST makes recommendation to DBST for
outplacement or strategic planning.
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

O: CBST reviews SBST action and draws up own action (recommends that support accessed at
institution level OR refers to DBST for implementation). Get parental consent.

P: Support successful. Q: Support unsuccessful.

No additional support required at this stage. CBST makes recommendation to DBST for
outplacement or strategic planning.

R: DBST examines, approves with conditions or recommends different support which is given,
monitored and reviewed. Parent and learner liaison..

Figure 8: The SIAS process diagram

26
 Explanation of SIAS process diagram
As soon as a learner is identified as vulnerable in the Learner Profile the SBST must be notified and this
learner would automatically go to Block C. This promotes early identification.
Support needs differ. Some learners will need low levels of support at their school—this does not mean other
support is not available. The teacher, with the SBST, can request assistance from officials, e.g. short-term input
from psychologists, assessment by speech therapists s at the circuit/district office.
Accessing additional support is a learner’s right but is not automatic. The support must be applied for
through the SBST.
Every learner must be admitted at their local school. The line on the right hand side from C straight to R at
the bottom of the page is for an “at risk” learner identified at admission in an ordinary school, who needs DBST
support. These learners take the path directly to the DBST.
Most learners will follow the route A, B, F, H, F, H, F, H throughout their school lives. This cycle is ongoing.
Even if a learner receives support, further and different support needs can develop.

ACTIVITY 12: How the SIAS process works

Reading
This activity will help you to understand how the SIAS process works. To do the activity you need the
SIAS process diagram above and the scenarios below.
1. Work through each of the four scenarios one at a time (1. Linda, 2. Dennis, 3. Portia and 4. Andy).
2. For each of the learners, read each stage and answer the questions before you go on to the next stage.
3. Use the SIAS process diagram to decide what happens next and to follow each learner’s journey.

Follow the SIAS process

1. Linda

1.1 [Start at Block A] (“Blocks” refer to the blocks on the SIAS diagram on the previous page)
Linda changed schools in the middle of the year. She was from a middle income, stable family with two
working parents. She appeared to be a secure child with good self-esteem and social skills. Reports
indicated average academic performance.
• Is Linda at risk or not?
• Do you go to Block B or C?

1.2 [Move from Block B to Block F]

Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

During the first term at her new school, her teacher discovered that Linda was struggling with maths, and
working at a slightly lower level than her peers.
• Are there any concerns? Does Linda have possible additional support needs?
• Do you go to Block H or I?

1.3 [Move to Block I]

After discussion with Linda and her parents, the teacher put in place a more intense programme with extra
homework to help Linda catch up the work she had missed due to changing school mid-year. Within two
months she had caught up with her peers in maths.
• Was the support successful or not?
• Do you go to Block J or K?
• Where do you go after that?

27
Follow the SIAS process

2. Dennis

[Start at Block A]
When Dennis applied for Grade 1, his Road to Health booklet showed he was not up to date with his
2.1 measles and polio immunisation.
• Is Dennis at risk or not?
• Do you go to Block B or C?

The teacher and SBST gave him a letter referring him to the clinic. Staff at the clinic gave him the missing
immunisation. A copy of his updated Road to Health booklet was filed in his Learner Profile.
2.2 • Was the support successful or not?
• Do you go to Block D or E?
• Where do you go next?

3. Portia

[Start at Block F]
Portia had been at her school for some time without any signs of difficulty.
During routine observation, the teacher noticed that Portia often copied words incorrectly from the board,
but that her close-up reading was fine. She moved Portia’s desk closer to the board after discussion with
3.1 Portia, and recommended that Portia visit the clinic.
• Are there any concerns?
• Does Portia have possible additional support needs?
• Do you go to Block H or I?

During the Department of Health’s planned ISHP eye screening visit shortly thereafter, it was discovered that
Portia needed glasses. With regular check-ups for changes in her eyesight, Portia no longer had difficulties
with her long-distance vision.
3.2 • Was the support successful or not?
• Do you go to Block J or K?
• Where to next?

4. Andy

[Start at Block A]
When Andy was admitted to his new school, his previous reports indicated that he was very aggressive, was
unable to control his temper, and often endangered himself and others with his impulsive and anti-social
4.1 behaviour.
• Is concern raised or not?
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

• Do you go to Block B or C?

The SBST examined Andy’s records and recommended that the support given at his previous school be
continued, because those strategies seemed to have been successful. They controlled Andy’s anti-social
behaviour and ensured that he was able to engage productively and effectively with the curriculum and all
4.2 school activities. The SBST and teacher met his parents and recommended that the same support be given,
and regularly mon itored and reviewed the situation.
• Do you go to Block D or E?

28
 Follow the SIAS process

4.3 Within two weeks, however, Andy had pushed another learner down a flight of steps, and threatened to stab
himself with his scissors if he was made to do maths. The teacher was very concerned about Andy’s
behaviour. She was worried about what might happen if she carried on with her existing strategy. She felt ill
equipped to handle Andy and urgently requested the help of the SBST.
• What now? Block G or K?

4.4 The SBST recommended that the Learning Support Educator and counsellor get involved immediately to
help the teacher and to further assess Andy to determine the cause of his aggression, and ways to handle it.
In spite of teacher training on strategies to deal with Andy and fortnightly visits from the counsellor, Andy’s
behaviour did not improve, and the situation worsened. Andy hit a child with a cricket bat then climbed onto
the roof of the school, threatening to jump off if he got into trouble.
• Support successful or not? Block M or N?
• Where to next?

(MIET Africa, 2016)

2.2.4 SIAS documents and Teacher individual

Learner Profile SNA 1 - Part 1 & 2
role-players in individual intervention plan
support planning
Screening Identification of Teacher intervention:
The process for individual support Teacher real barriers to curriculum
planning is outlined in the SIAS concerned learning/ learning differentiation,
about learner needs classroom management
policy document. The flow diagram
on the right identifies the role-
players and documents involved in SNA 1 - Part 1,2 & 3
this process.
Let’s look at a case study and Referral to SBST for
DBST support Referral to DBST
consider the documentation and intervention plan if necessary
consultative individual
support planning
role-players involved in putting an
Individual Support Plan (ISP) in
place for a Grade 3 learner, Misha. SNA 3 Form DBE 120 SNA 2

Figure 9: The SIAS process flowchart (Source: MIET Africa, 2016)

ACTIVITY 13: Identify role-players and documentation

in SIAS process
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

Reading
Read the case study about Misha and use the diagram in Figure 9 to answer these questions:
1. Make a table in which you list the role-players involved at each point in Misha’s story and specify
each of their roles in the support process. Also list the documents that each role-player was
responsible for completing. (Do you know what these documents are for? Look them up in the SIAS
policy: http://bit.ly/2X4iHVA
2. What is the purpose of the forms that needed to be completed?
3. What was the teacher’s role in the process?
4. When did the SBST become involved? What did it do?
5. When did the DBST become involved? What did it do?
6. How did collaboration contribute to the success of the process?

29
CASE STUDY: Misha

Who was What

involved? documents
What happened?
Role- did they
players use?

When Misha started school in Grade 1, her parents completed an

admission form. The school admitted her and her teacher
screened her and recorded the findings in Misha’s Learner
Profile. This was then captured in the Learner Unit Record
Tracking System. There was no obvious evidence of any barriers
to learning. The school kept copies of relevant documents like her
Road to Health Booklet in her Learner Profile.

During her foundation phase schooling, her teachers taught,

observed, assessed and got to know her, and met and interacted
with her parents. They found Misha to be a happy child and her
year-end reports showed that although she was slow to start
reading, she had made good progress, especially in Maths.

When she got to Grade 3, it became clear that Misha had some
kind of language-based learning difficulty. Her teacher, Mrs Guma,
called a meeting with Misha’s parents to discuss the issue. They
decided to consult a doctor to find out if there was a medical
reason for Misha’s difficulties. After examining her, the doctor gave
her a clean bill of health and completed Form DBE126. Mrs Guma
then completed support form, SNA1, and put an extra reading
programme in place.

After monitoring the reading programme for two months, Mrs

Guma found that Misha had made very little progress and, in
consultation with Misha’s parents, she formally requested
additional support from the SBST. Using the SNA2 form, the
teacher and SBST drew up an Individual Support Plan (ISP) with
the assistance of the district Learning Support Educator (LSE).

The LSE worked with Mrs Guma and the SBST to develop and
implement the ISP. Mrs Guma continued to offer support in
accordance with the plan but Misha’s performance remained poor
compared to the potential that she seemed to have. At an SBST
review meeting to monitor the ISP, it was decided that Misha might
require the additional assistance of a speech and language
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

therapist on a daily basis over an extended period of time.

The SBST completed DBE 120 to request support from the

district. The DBST reviewed Misha’s case and, using SNA3, drew
up a plan of action for Misha (DBE121), which recommended
providing additional support in the form of intensive speech and
language therapy for a period of two months, after which her
progress would be reviewed.

(Adapted from MIET Africa, 2016)

30
 Figure 10: Mrs Guma meeting with Misha and her parents

2.2.5 The teacher’s role in implementing SIAS

Your inclusive approach to teaching should ensure that all learners in your class are actively engaged and learning
(more about this in Unit 4). This should provide almost all your learners with the support they need. However,
sometimes you may have learners in your class with specific higher level learning needs. As you can see from the
previous activity, your role is crucial in identifying and addressing difficulties individual learners may be
experiencing in class. To do this you need to get to know them well. Here are some ways you can do this:
• Understand each learner and know about their home circumstances
• Meet their caregivers
• Talk to them about things that interest them
• Observe their behaviour and relationships with peers
• Observe their performance and how they engage with different tasks
• Observe any changes in their behaviour or performance in class
Identifying your learners’ needs is not a one-off event, but an ongoing process. You need to involve your learners
in the process and constantly monitor and assess their progress, both formally and informally. You can do this by
recording learners’ strengths, areas of concern and needs as part of the normal teaching–learning process. You
will need to create an Observation Book in which you record any concerns you have about individual learners.
Let’s look at how Mrs Guma does this.
Based on her observations in class, recorded in her Observation Book—and her interactions with Misha, Mrs
Guma wrote the following progress report on Misha in the first term of her Grade 3 year. The SBST and LSE,
together with Mrs Guma, used this information to complete the SNA1 form.
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

Figure 11: Mrs Guma observing her class

31
 PROGRESS REPORT: Misha Joseph, Grade 3G

Enabling factors
• Misha is cheerful and friendly with her peers during break.
• On the whole she achieves very well in maths.
• Her parents are attentive and supportive and the home situation seems happy.
• Misha continues to be happy and cooperative at home, except when doing homework.

Challenges
Home Language/LOLT:
Persistent reading/phonics/listening difficulties seriously affecting performance:
• Misha does not have phonic knowledge at Grade 3 level. She’s still struggling to pick up small differences
in sounds between similar sounding words. She can’t easily spot the odd word out in sound patterns.
• Doesn’t seem to realise that I am asking the class a question rather than giving information—she looks
rather blank.
• Easily loses her place when reading aloud.
• Comprehension: She’s seldom able to pick out the main idea from spoken information (even if it is only
one or two sentences).

Other areas:
Difficulties described above also evident across other areas of work:
• Some problems when teacher poses “story-sums” orally in maths (her maths performance is strong
otherwise).
• Short concentration span, easily distracted.
• Short attention span means that she sometimes distracts her partner in class, chatting (though very
quietly).
• Polite in meetings with parents, but looks anxious and withdraws noticeably when her difficulties are
discussed.
• Anxious and irritable when doing homework.

Classroom/school capacity
I am planning to put in place an extra reading programme for Misha. If there’s no positive change
by next term, I will need to consider more specialised assessment and possibly more specialised
support than I can offer.

Overall
I feel that Misha may be experiencing some form of cognitive barrier because there seem to be
some concentration and memory difficulties and issues of logical comprehension. However her
strong ability in maths must also be taken into account.
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

Figure 12: Mrs Guma’s progress report for Misha

In order to put a classroom support programme in place for Misha, Mrs Guma, together with the SBST and LSE,
needed to complete the SNA1 form. This form is in the pack of documents at the back of the SIAS policy
document. If you identify a learner in your class as being “at risk” or needing additional support, you will need
to fill in the SNA1 form to start the support process. The following task will help to familiarise you with SNA1.

32
 ACTIVITY 14: Understanding how to use SNA1

Reading
Look at the SNA1 form in the SIAS policy, page 48 (http://bit.ly/2X4iHVA) and discuss the following
questions:
1. What is the purpose of this form?
2. Who is it for?
3. When should it be completed and by whom?
4. What information does the form record? (What are the various sections?)
5. Why is this information important?
6. Who is the form submitted to?
7. When submitting this form, what related documents should be included and why?
8. What information and documentation about Misha does Mrs Guma need to submit, in addition to the
report she wrote?

2.2.6 SNA2 and Individual Support Plan (ISP)

Let’s follow Misha’s progress further. After Misha had been on the reading programme for two months, Mrs
Guma found that she had made very little progress and, in consultation with Misha’s parents, she formally
requested additional support from the SBST. Using the SNA2 form, the teacher and SBST drew up an ISP for
Misha, with the assistance of the district Learning Support Educator (LSE). The ISP provided her with goals to
be achieved and strategies on how to reach these goals.
Bear in mind that an ISP is not just used to address academic needs. It looks at the holistic needs of a learner
with a view to providing wide-ranging support for these. You might refer learners requiring other interventions
to the SBST. Examples would include assistance in applying for a social grant, inclusion on the school feeding
scheme or counselling support.
To summarise: When a learner is identified as being vulnerable or at risk, you discuss this with the SBST but
you drive and coordinate the support process in consultation with the learner and other role-players, and
document the interventions and progress. You will involve your SBST further if you need additional help. The
SBST will review the documentation and your support strategies so far. If your initial support has been
ineffective, you will work with the SBST to develop an ISP with strengthened support. If this is still not
successful, the SBST will ask the CBST or DBST for help. Further assessment may be needed and support could
take the form of assistive devices, counselling, or services attached to full service schools. Only as a last resort
will the DBST consider moving a learner from their local school to a full service or special school.
• Keeping good records is important, and you need to document the support given to a learner on the SNA
forms in the SIAS document.
• Collaboration is also important. We will explore this more in Part 3.
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

To conclude this section and prepare for Part 3, reflect on the following questions:
1. What makes collaborative activities such as this succeed or fail?
2. If the school community collaborates is learner success guaranteed? Give reasons for your answer.
3. How does the SIAS policy try to ensure a collaborative approach? Do you think this is sufficient? What do
you suggest could be added or changed in the policy?
4. What role can you as the teacher play in developing collaborative practices?
Keep these questions in mind as we work through Part 3, where we continue to deepen our understanding of
inclusive school communities by examining practices that promote collaboration.

33
3 Practices that promote collaboration in
inclusive school communities

“We regard our living together not as an unfortunate mishap warranting endless
competition among us but as a deliberate act …. to make us a community of
brothers and sisters jointly involved in the quest for a composite answer to the
varied problems of life. Hence all our action is usually joint community-oriented
action rather than individualism.” Steve Biko

In Part 1, we found that collaboration is a key part of inclusive school communities. In this section we explore
approaches and strategies for collaborating with others as equal partners.

3.1 Different ways of

working together

ACTIVITY 15: What does collaboration mean to you?

Journal
1. What does the term “collaboration” mean to you?
2. In what ways do you think collaboration could help teachers to build inclusive school communities?
3. What are some of the requirements of working collaboratively?
4. What are some of the challenges that teamwork and collaboration might present. Give examples
from your experience.

It has been suggested that inclusive school communities should be an outcome of social justice, equity and
diversity within an education system based on human rights. Inclusive school communities should be places
where everyone has access, is accepted and can fully participate. To achieve this, members of the school
community should interact and share, as co-equal partners, networks and partnerships to achieve the goal of
providing all learners with equal opportunities to achieve their full potential (Engelbrecht, 2007; Phasha et al.,
2017; Sands, Kozleski & French, 2000).
Different terms are used to describe the way in which members of school communities interact, share and
work together. The most important of these are team and group, consultation7, collaboration and
collaborative partnerships. Let’s look at the meanings of these terms:
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

• Team and group: In educational practice the terms “team” and “group” are often used interchangeably and
refer to a group of individuals with a shared identity (e.g. a group of Grade 3 teachers). It needs to be noted,
however that teams, in contrast with groups, usually share a common commitment and a goal for which they
share responsibility (Vangrieken et al., 2015).
• Consultation: This is when a professional (e.g. educational psychologist) who is regarded as having
expertise formally advises another person (e.g. a parent or teacher) who needs the benefit of that expertise
(Engelbrecht, 2004).

Definition
7 Consultation: is a specialised problem-solving process in which a professional (e.g. educational psychologist)
who is regarded as having expertise formally advises another person (e.g. a parent or teacher) who needs the
benefit of that expertise.

34
 • Collaboration: The term “collaboration” is usually used to describe the participatory and co-equal
interaction among members of school communities (Engelbrecht & Hay, 2018). Collaboration can therefore
act as an ‘adhesive’ by fostering community, a sense of belonging and participation among all the role
players within an inclusive school community. The types of resources contributed depend on the roles and
activities of the different participants; be it parents, teachers, support professionals, learners or community
members (Oswald, 2010). Learners’ interests, needs and goals become the focus of collaborative decision
making, creative problem solving and shared responsibility and accountability (Engelbrecht & Hay, 2018).
• Collaborative partnership: This is based on the recognition that all partners are equal (Engelbrecht, 2007).
This contributes to greater equality in collaborative efforts in general and professional-parent-teacher
relations specifically.
The following case study about Lerole High School will get you thinking about approaches to collaboration.

ACTIVITY 16: Evaluate ways of improving learner success

Reading
Read the case study on Lerole High School, and answer these questions:
1. Suggest two or more strategies to promote sharing of information and capacitation that you would
contribute to the subject meetings.
2. In what ways is sending learners to Seretse not aligned to principles and values of inclusion
discussed in Unit 1?
3. In what ways were Seretse’s colleagues using him as a consultant teacher as opposed to a
collaborator?
4. In your opinion, what is the difference between consultation and collaboration?

CASE STUDY: Improving learner success at Lerole High School

Mr Seretse is a Maths teacher with 12 years’
experience, who has been achieving excellent
results. He has recently been appointed Maths HOD
for FET at Lerole High School.
Lerole High School has had a very low Maths pass
rate for the past five years and everyone is hoped
that Mr Seretse would be able to turn things around
at the school.
When he joined the staff at Lerole he noticed that
his colleagues had fixed ideas about what their
learners could and could not do, and believed they
could not help learners experiencing difficulties.
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES
and with their peers. In some sessions, issues with
Maths were barely discussed.
By the end of the first term Seretse was overwhelmed
by the high volume of referrals. He had little time to
attend to his own workload, and was exhausted.
He realised the need for a strategy to involve all his
colleagues. At their monthly subject meeting, he
suggested that they could:
• Have weekly meetings to share challenges and
suggestions
• Use team-teaching and share resources and

They often complained about the lack of ideas

professional support for these learners. They saw
Seretse as a “miracle-worker” and often made
comments like, “Now that you are here Seretse,
Lerole High School will become known as a school
that produces excellent Maths results!”
Seretse’s colleagues often referred their “problem”
learners to him in the hope that he would help them
overcome their difficulties with the subject. Because
he was a good listener, the learners told him about
their personal issues, such as difficulties at home
• Investigate possibilities of additional support
through school management
Seretse approached the principal and offered to do
a presentation to the whole staff on ways the whole
school (teachers, learners and caregivers) could
work together to improve the teaching and learning.
He also suggested that a Learning Support Teacher
(LST) be appointed to run workshops for all the
staff on providing effective education support for
their learners.

35
The issues at Lerole High School are common. While the SIAS policy promotes collaboration as a way to share
skills, caring and supporting strategies, it can be difficult to achieve for various reasons, including a fixed,
medical model mind-set, insufficient teacher training and lack of resources.

The medical model sees difficulties in learning and disability as problems belonging only to the
individual concerned rather than as social, environmental and attitudinal barriers.

Lerole High’s approach reflects the traditional medical model approach to educational provision—one of
separation. Teachers have little understanding of inclusive pedagogy and expect support to be provided by
education support professionals—e.g. educational psychologists—because they believe that only
professionals can assess and define the problems and needs of their learners. Rather than collaboration5
among teachers, parents and support professionals, the relationship is one of consultation6 where the
specialist makes all the decisions. This is not a relationship among equal partners.
Separation means that learners experiencing difficulties are having lessons with specialists separately from the
rest of their peers, often missing lessons in other subjects to do so. As a result, learners experiencing
difficulties in one subject fall behind in other subjects too, resulting in a downward spiral leading to a sense of
failure, poor self-esteem and lack of motivation.

ACTIVITY 17: Rethinking learner support

Reading
Reread the previous case study about Lerole High, and the next one about Unity Secondary School’s
approach, and answer these questions:
1. Draw up a table comparing the approaches to learner support at Unity Secondary School and Lerole
High School.
2. How would you sum up the difference in these approaches?
3. Which approach do you prefer? Give reasons for your preference.

CASE STUDY: Learner support at Unity Secondary School

Feeling overwhelmed by endless requests to help
Lerole learners who were experiencing difficulties
in Maths, Seretse suggested that the school
investigate a whole-school strategy together, aimed
at supporting learners and improving results.
amount of reading we need to do quite a challenge.
As a result I tend to fall back on subjects that require
a lot of reading such as Languages and History.
Our school has a team that helps learners. It consists
of a teaching representative for every subject,
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

He invited a colleague from the DBST to talk to the
staff about ways to implement an inclusive
approach. The official brought along members of
the learner support team at a neighbouring school,
Unity Secondary School. They included an LST, an
SGB member, a local religious leader, and a Grade 9
learner who had benefited from Unity Secondary
School’s learner support interventions.
The learner shared his experiences:
I’m the third of five children in my family. Every day I
walk about three kilometres to school. It is not like
there are no taxis, but I walk so that I can save
money for things that my family can’t afford to buy
me. I do pretty well in most subjects but I find the
caregiver volunteers, a learning support teacher,
and volunteering learners who are doing well in
specific subjects. Whenever I or other learners are
experiencing difficulties the team meets and invites
our caregivers to be part of the discussions.
One of the things I enjoy a lot is that other learners
also get invited to these meetings to suggest ways
we would like to be helped. At first I was scared but
now I enjoy the meetings. It helps a lot that some of
my classmates and more senior learners are part of
these meetings as I can speak to them about things I
find difficult to discuss with teachers. Our school is
like a bigger version of my family and I really enjoy
going to school every day!

36
 While Lerole High’s practices could be described as medical model8 , Unity Secondary’s approach offers
support that is more aligned with the growth-mindset social model9. The school’s culture respects and values
contributions of all members of the school community equally, and nurtures and enhances the active agency
of learners. Collaboration takes place on multiple levels, for example: among learners, among teachers,
learners and caregivers, and between the school and members of the community.
As we saw in Unit 2, true collaboration cannot happen in schools that, consciously or not, have a medical
model mind-set and use “bell-curve thinking” about learner ability and teacher competency.
Teachers with bell-curve thinking have what can be termed a “fixed mind-set”. They believe a learner’s success
is based on their innate ability (the ability they were born with and cannot change)—how they perform now is
how they will continue to perform in the future. These teachers have little motivation to work collaboratively.
On the other hand, a teacher with a “growth mind-set” believes that learners are capable of improving and that
their capacity for learning can be developed. They believe that the teachers’ role is to facilitate learning
achievement for every child in the classroom.

ACTIVITY 18: Medical and social model approaches

Reading
Now contrast Mr Seretse’s experiences to the scenarios in the case study below.
1. Which scenario represents the medical model, and which the social model? Explain your answer.
2. What similarities and differences can you identify between the scenarios below and Mr Seretse’s
experience in the preceding case study?
3. In your view, what is the ideal approach to learners’ barriers to participation and learning? Why do
you say so?

CASE STUDY: Medical and social model scenarios

The following scenarios imagine two different
discussions between Grade 4 teacher (Ms Buthulezi)
and Ms Sono (LST):
Scenario 1
Ms Buthelezi: My learner Lindiwe has a problem. She
struggles to identify letters of the alphabet, reads
poorly, and writes backwards. Can you help her?
Ms Sono: Yes. Send her to me after lunch tomorrow.
I will do an assessment and send you a report.
Ms Buthelezi: If she has dyslexia can we arrange for
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES
Scenario 2
Ms Buthelezi: My learner Lindiwe is good at maths
but reading and writing are a challenge. She
struggles to identify letters of the alphabet, reads
poorly, and writes backwards. Can we make a time to
discuss ways to strengthen her abilities?
Ms Sono: Yes. Let’s find a time when we can assess
her together. Then we can discuss strategies to use
in class that will work for many of your learners not
just Lindiwe.
Ms Buthelezi: I will ask her parents to come and see

you to see her three times a week?

us. I am sure they have information to share.
Ms Sono: That will be fine.
Ms Sono: If we work together in the classroom and
at home, Lindiwe will soon find ways to make
progress with our support.

Definition
8 The medical model sees the person with a disability as the problem. In this model the focus is on the disability.
9 The social model sees attitudes, as well as social and environmental barriers, as the problem. People are
“disabled” by the world around them.

37
3.2 Characteristics of collaborative practices
in inclusive school communities

3.2.1 Models of collaborative practice

There are many models of collaborative practice and many reasons why people collaborate. Collaboration is
not only about addressing barriers or challenges as described in the case studies above. In Table 4 three
broad categories of collaboration are identified. Even though they are presented as separate categories, there
are overlaps, for example, a collegial digital collaboration among teachers. Identify strategies that could be
helpful in your context.

Table 4: Three categories of collaboration

Collegial collaboration Community collaboration Digital collaboration

Teachers swapping classes for a
day of two
Team-teaching a lesson or a topic
Organising school-wide projects
and working together on them
(teachers and learners)
Learners-to-learner collegiality
under the supervision and
mentorship of a teacher
Encouraging learner reflection
and evaluation of collegial
practices: what worked, what did
not work, and why?
Expanded stakeholder roles: invite
community members (e.g. Subject
Advisors, local religious leader,
parents, etc.) to serve on committees
Advisory boards: Invite experts in
the field, e.g. former teachers, to
participate in an advisory capacity
as mentors to teachers and learners
Service learning/community
engagement collaboration:
Learners participating in service
learning projects which give them
opportunities to play an active role
in bringing about the desired
change in their lives and those of
their peers
Personal and professional learning
networks established through e.g.
social media platforms (e.g. “Teachers
for Real Change”), with the purpose
of connecting and collaborating
Social media: While at times it is
frowned upon, it can also be a
powerful collaboration strategy
whereby learners and teachers can
connect/collaborate and in the
process learners receive real-time
support when they need it. A set of
guidelines communicated to
participants in social media groups
is key, so that members do not
operate outside these guidelines
Collaborative blog writing: With so
many issues that confront education,
why not start a collaborative blog
with colleagues or learners with the
purpose of reflecting on daily
struggles and achievements?

(Source: Adapted from Getting Smart, 2019)

In inclusive school communities, collaboration is a style of direct interaction among people who are engaged
in working towards achieving a shared goal. This often includes shared resources, problem-solving, and
decision making. Each person brings their own unique views, experiences and knowledge into the process.
These receive equal respect and are seen as having equal value. Every member of the group has a role and is
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

regarded as crucial to the process.

Mahlo and Condy (2016) highlight the importance of collegiality and collaboration. In their view, collegiality is
the very essence of any collaborative activity aimed at promoting inclusiveness. Through collegiality and
collaboration there will be enhanced knowledge sharing, effective management of conflict and many other
benefits.
Collegiality is built on shared values. All stakeholders feel that they belong and have an interest in the school
and its learners. There is a willingness to work together to problem solve and communicate effectively. Rituals
and celebrations build collegiality and commitment. The school is value-driven, child-centred and recognises
the value of stakeholders’ contributions (WSG & Bridge, 2016).

38
 3.2.2 Characteristics of effective collaboration
Sands et al. (2002: 121, in Engelbrecht & Hay, 2018) identified the following characteristics of effective collaboration:
a. Co-equal parties (stakeholders have equal voice and authority)
b. Voluntary participation*
c. Shared responsibility
d. Shared accountability
e. Joint decision making
f. Trusting respectful relationships
g. Mutual support and benefits
h. Converging values
*Note: Where teachers are concerned, voluntary participation is not applicable. It is a teacher’s responsibility
to be part of a team that provides on-going support to learners who need it.

ACTIVITY 19: Shared values of collaboration

Writing
Think back to Unit 1. Some of the values identified as underpinning inclusive pedagogy included:
reliability, trust, responsibility, respect, willingness to compromise, tolerance, integrity, compassion.
Suggest ways in which these values could facilitate more effective collaboration by the various
stakeholders. Relate your answers to Engelbrecht and Hay’s list of characteristics above. Support your
ideas with examples.

3.3 Benefits of
collaboration
Various researchers indicate that collaboration and meaningful collaborative partnerships—not only among
learning support professionals (inclusive of teachers), but also among school and district support teams,
caregivers, teachers, learners, and community members—have been identified as critical elements in the
development of inclusive school communities in South Africa (Engelbrecht, 2004; Engelbrecht & Hay, 2018; Nel
et al., 2013; Walton, 2011).

ACTIVITY 20: Benefits of collaboration

Journal
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

Think about what you have learnt about collaboration and collaborative partnerships. Consider the
possible benefits for:
• Teachers
• The school
• Learners
• Caregivers and the wider community

39
Research on the benefits of collaboration shows that the following aspects are important:
• At teacher level: Teachers are more motivated and experience a decreased workload; they report higher
levels of competence, better relationships with colleagues and feeling less isolated
• At school level: Benefits include supportive school cultures, a cultural shift towards an acceptance of
diversity, a wider acknowledgement within schools of the needs of learners and a more participatory
approach to school leadership
• At learner level: Improved learner performances and greater participation in decision-making
• At caregiver and community levels: Positive involvement of caregivers and other interested community
members as vital sources of information and support (Engelbrecht & Hay, 2018; Sands et al., 2000;
Vangrieken et al., 2015).

3.4 Collaboration
among teachers
Teacher–teacher collaboration is an important strategy in the development of inclusive school communities.
Informal collaborative strategies among colleagues could include: exploring opportunities and challenges in their
classrooms together, and discussing how to deal openly with conflicts. In addition, more formal collaborative
strategies could be agreed on, such as: collaborative planning and adaptation of lessons; team-teaching.

ACTIVITY 21: Collaboration at a school

Reading
Read the case study below, and answer the following questions:
1. Comment on the first paragraph in terms of the spirit and ethos of inclusion. What approach to
collaboration is the principal criticising, and what approach is he advocating?
2. Do you recall the procedures of care and support in the SIAS document? How well is this school
doing in line with the SIAS process?
3. Is there a role-player within the support system described below whose voice is missing? If so, what
do you propose should be done about this?

Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

40
 CASE STUDY: A school principal discusses collaboration at his school
Effective collaboration means co-collaborators
engage in a rigorous, measured and monitored
process, with clearly defined targets. A collaborative
meeting is not a talk shop, a place to vent, a scandal
session, or an opportunity to moan about the child’s
behaviour, where there are no notes taken, no
measures discussed. This is nothing more than a way
of abdicating responsibility.
At our school we have pastoral meetings. We look at
emotional and social issues rather than just academic
performance. Sometimes changes in academic
progress are the result of emotional or social barriers.
We have a number of Professional Learning
Committees (PLCs) a collaborative team of teachers
who meet once or twice a term.
The PLC decides the structure of these meetings
and appoints a leader to write up the task sheet,
send it out, keep to time within the meeting and
send out the minutes.
Clear criteria are set for each intervention. Teachers
monitor learners’ progress against these criteria.
Teachers come to the meeting with a list of their
learners experiencing difficulties. Each learner is
allocated a colour (either red of green) for three
separate components: academic; social; emotional.
Red means intervention is needed and green
means outcomes have been met. Our goal is to
change reds to greens. So for example, you may
have a learner who is doing well academically but is
struggling to socialise.
We assign a number from 1–10 which indicates how
complex or simple the task ahead may be. For
example, Sibongile suffers from poor vision. We can
enlarge the font size in her reader, and move her
closer to the board. We can easily get this done.
That may be allocated a 1 or a 2.
Robert is disruptive in class and finds it really
difficult to concentrate on tasks. His marks have
dropped since last year. We may need to look at
cooperative teaching and differentiation strategies,
as well as meeting with his parents to see if there
are issues at home that are affecting him. We might
allocate that a complexity level of 8 and it’s unlikely
to be solved by the next meeting. Rather, we will
discuss Robert’s progress and he will stay on the
agenda until his red turns to green.

3.5 Enabling
learner agency
Involving children in decision-making has been found to be effective from as early as the Foundation Phase
years (Grade R–3). Shaik (2016) states that involving children in their education through enabled decision-
making, improves their self-esteem and achievement because they feel their opinions are valued and acted on
by others. Including learners in support collaborations improves the likelihood of success as learners have a
sense of co-ownership of strategies.

ACTIVITY 22: Enabling learner agency

Reading
Read the case study below. Then answer the following questions:
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

1. Compare Ms Solomons’ and Ms Tshaka’s approaches. Indicate the aspects of both teachers’
approaches that you think would be “effective” and “not so effective” in empowering their learners.
Explain your opinion.
2. What aspects of their approaches would you adopt and why?

41
 CASE STUDY: Ms Solomons and Ms Tshaka
Ms Solomons and Ms Tshaka are friends and Grade
3 teachers at Ubuntu Primary School. Ms Solomons
believes strongly that a good teacher is one who
demonstrates control and has the upper hand in
everything that happens in her classroom. Her
classroom environment is very orderly with neatly
arranged rows of little tables and chairs for her
Grade 3s. The key learning for their Grade 3 year is
how follow instructions precisely and speedily. Ms
Solomons emphasises to her class the importance
of being good listeners. She doesn’t encourage her
learners to share information during lessons and
continually reminds the class that they must only
speak when asked to. Activities are highly
structured and there is very little negotiation about
who does what and when. All the learners have now
learnt that the teacher’s word in final on everything.
Ms Solomons is proud of her learners and believes
that her teaching strategies will ensure that they are
well prepared for Grade 4. She does not believe
that collaboration with other teachers would be
helpful or useful.
Ms Tshaka takes a different approach from Ms
Solomons. Displayed at the back of her class is a
slogan in large letters YOUR OPINION MATTERS. She
allows for lots of discussion time so that learners
can process their ideas and deepen their
understanding of topics. She knows what her
learners’ interests and backgrounds are and uses
this information to make lessons more relevant and
interesting for her learners. Ms Tshaka’s classroom
is a hive of activity. She encourages her learners to
express themselves creatively through art, music
and movement. She enthusiastically shares with her
colleagues that her classroom is “littered with
literacy”; from the walls to various stations she has
organised so that learners can choose from a wide
variety of activities.

3.6 Building relationships

with caregivers
Caregivers should be seen as informed partners in collaboration. They can give input on their child’s behaviour
at home, what makes them happy or unhappy, and home circumstances that may affect their school
performance. In turn, a teacher can make suggestions about how caregivers can assist their children with
homework and make the environment more conducive to learning.
A successful caregiver–teacher meeting means a sharing of ideas, drawing on the strengths and assets of the
collaborators, while building their understanding and skills as they share ideas. For every commitment a
teacher makes, the caregivers should make a counter commitment. This should result in a documented
collaboration framework with a manageable number of strategies to be tried at home, and at school, and a date
set for a follow-up meeting.
If caregivers find the school environment intimidating, or are unable to get to the school, you could make a
home visit once a term. This will enable you to see the home environment first hand which will help you to
understand your learner better.
Involving caregivers in school activities, where their views are heard, and decision-making is shared, will result
in stronger school–family partnerships, which will benefit your learners. As teacher, you play an important role
in encouraging caregiver involvement at the classroom level.
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

42
 Schools can strengthen links with caregivers by, for example:
1. Ensuring that the SGB meets regularly, and that all caregivers are invited
2. Making caregivers feel welcome when they visit the school
3. Encouraging caregivers to participate in discussions and decision-making on school policies and activities,
where their opinions are valued, and that they are kept up-to-date with news and changes
4. Setting homework exercises that require learners to involve caregivers and elicit their opinions and
experiences
5. Encouraging caregivers to discuss concerns about their children with you, and providing regular
opportunities for them to inform the school authorities about events at home or in the community
6. Hosting events that involve the learners’ families, such as inviting them to for events that showcase their
children’s work
7. Encouraging volunteering among caregivers (but not just for cooking, cleaning and gardening), for example:
listening to learners’ reading; running a homework club; coaching sports

ACTIVITY 23: Establishing collaborative partnerships

with caregivers

Writing
Look at the above ideas for strengthening links with caregivers.
1. Can you think of any more ideas? Choose three ideas that you, as a teacher, would like to implement.
2. Plan how you would put each idea into practice, including possible challenges and ways to
overcome these.

3.7 Creating an enabling environment

for child-centred collaboration

3.7.1 Collaboration through the CSTL

“The goal of the CSTL Framework is to reduce vulnerability and increase

well-being and resilience through supportive schools, collaborating with
multi-sectoral stakeholders who can reduce risk factors.” CSTL article, DBE

Given the various and diverse types of support that are required for children to realise their constitutional
rights, it is clear that no government agency or other stakeholder can, alone, address the needs of vulnerable
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

children. Rather, coordinated collaboration among all stakeholders, with CSTL as the over-arching framework, is
the approach that will best promote learner well-being and achievement.
Schools need to build and maintain close collaborative relationships with local government stakeholders by
inviting representatives from local organisations, such as the police station and the clinic, to become ad hoc
members of the SBST.
Table 5 summarises the main government and external stakeholders for each of the CSTL Priority Action Areas.

43
Table 5: Stakeholders schools can liaise with to deliver on the 10
Priority Action Areas
Priority Action Area
A Rights-based, Socially
Inclusive and Cohesive School
Nutritional Support
Health Promotion
Infrastructure, Water
and Sanitation
Social Welfare Services
Psychosocial Support
Safety and Protection
Curriculum Support
Co-curricular Support
Material Support
(Source: DBE, 2014b)
Government department
Department of Labour
Department of Home Affairs
Department of Health
Department of Social Development (DSD)
Chapter 9 Institutions
Department of Agriculture
Department of Health
Department of Health
Department of Social Development
Department of Public Works
Local Municipality
Department of Home Affairs
DSD / South African Social
Services Agency (SASSA)
Department of Social Development
Department of Health
SAPS (for alcohol and drug use)
Department of Social Development
Department of Higher Education
and Training
South African Council for Educators (SACE)
Department of Sports and Recreation
Department of Arts and Culture
Department of Social Development
Other external stakeholder
NGOs with a focus on equity, sports,
recreation activities and peer education
Local business for sponsorship
NGO with a focus on food gardens
Local business for sponsorship
NGO with a focus on HIV and AIDS
and/or other
health and wellness areas
Local business for sponsorship
NGO with a focus on child protection
NGO with a focus on counselling for
young people
FBO offering counselling for young people
NGOs with a focus on crime and
violence and
alcohol and drug use
NGOs with a focus on subject teaching
such as maths and science or reading
Tertiary institutions providing
leadership, governance and
professional development courses
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES
NGOs with a focus on sports, recreation
activities and peer education
Local business for sponsorship
Local business for sponsorship and
donations
44
 ACTIVITY 24: Participation of external stakeholders

Writing
1. On a large sheet of paper, make a mind-map to show the involvement of external stakeholders in
implementing CSTL. Copy Figure 6: CSTL South Africa’s 10 Priority Action Areas. Around the outside
of the circle, add the government departments and other external stakeholders, showing which
area/s they are responsible for.
2. Identify the government departments and external stakeholders who would need to be involved in
each of the following situations:
• A learner needs glasses
• Some learners only get school meals. They are not being fed at home.
• The school has a major problem with bullying and hasn’t been able to deal with it.
• The school has a problem with substance abuse.
• Many learners have worms.
• The school doesn’t have access to safe, clean water.
• The school does not have sporting facilities for learners in wheelchairs.
• Teachers at the school are struggling to implement inclusive pedagogy in their classrooms.
• A learner has been raped and is extremely traumatised by the experience.
3. Choose three of the above situations and discuss:
• What challenges might the various stakeholders need to overcome in order to collaborate effectively?
• What solutions can you suggest?

3.7.2 Building community relationships

All communities value education for their children and
all community role players, and stakeholders have a
role to play in helping to develop and support
inclusive school communities.
Schools can strengthen links with the local community
by, for example:
a. Using expertise in the community to support
learning (e.g. nurses could teach learners about
health issues; police officers could teach about
keeping safe; social services could give information
about applying for grants)
b. Inviting community leadership to awards Figure 13: A clinic nurse teaching learners about the importance of
washing their hands
ceremonies and acknowledging parents
c. Offering capacity-building workshops or courses from the school (e.g. adult basic education and training
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

courses, parenting courses, small-business courses)

d. Investigating businesses, institutions or individuals in the community that could help the families of the
poorest learners
e. Using public spaces like community libraries, halls and sports fields
f. Inviting community members to use the school buildings for community functions
g. Running a homework club so that children who live in homes where there is no adult who can help them with
their homework get the help they need
h. Helping families apply for grants
i. Becoming involved in community functions and events
j. Developing an asset map and network of local resources
Can you add to this list?

45
 ACTIVITY 25: Collaborative partnerships with community

Writing
1. Choose three examples from the above list that would be possible for you, as a teacher, to
implement at the classroom level.
2. Draw up a plan of action for on how to put each of these strategies into practice. Make sure that
the plan includes possible challenges and ways to overcome these.

3.8 Challenges
to collaboration
Education White Paper 6 and SIAS recommend a collaborative community-based approach among equal
partners in inclusive classrooms in South Africa. This is in keeping with the philosophy of ubuntu and
connections with family life, community and social relevance. Community teachings emphasise togetherness,
sharing and reciprocity (Phasha et al, 2017), which are all key characteristics of collaboration within inclusive
school communities.
However, collaboration is often easier to talk about than to do. Various challenges, including lack of skills, fixed
ways of doing things, teacher attitudes and power dynamics can hinder effective collaboration. As a teacher
working toward building an inclusive school community, this is something you will need to keep working at as it
forms a key part of your mandate.
Let’s look at some of the challenges to effective collaboration facing South African teachers, and explore ways
of overcoming them.
Here are some challenges to effective collaboration that have been identified:
a. Most teachers believe that they are not adequately trained and skilled enough in collaboration strategies to
play an equal participatory role in collaborating with parents and professionals (Nel et al., 2013).
b. Time constraints and work pressure prevent teachers from fully participating in collaborative partnerships
(Nel et al., 2013).
c. Some teachers have indicated that the levels of competition and individualism in schools hinder teacher
collaboration (Vangrieken et al., 2015).
d. Teachers sometimes lack clarity about the goals of collaboration.
e. Caregivers, class teachers and other support professionals have historically participated in a system that
was divided and separated, which was incompatible with the notion of shared responsibilities. As a result,
including caregivers in a support team and acknowledging their contribution can be difficult.
f. Notions of power have caused barriers to collaboration, for example where support professionals believe
that their knowledge gives them power over classroom teachers and caregivers
g. Voices missing from collaborative efforts have tended to be those of caregivers and their children (Swain &
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

Walker, 2003).
h. Unwillingness to collaborate, personality clashes, ineffective leadership and groups that are either too small
or too big can also create barriers to effective collaboration. (Vangrieken et al., 2015). Effective collaboration
needs structure but even when we agree to rational rules for dialogue, relationships with power can still
distort and limit participation.

46
 ACTIVITY 26: Finding solutions to collaboration challenges

Writing
Read the list of challenges, and consider the following questions:
1. How would each challenge impact effective collaboration? Give examples to support your opinions.
2. Bearing in mind what you have learnt in this section, what strategies would you suggest to ensure more
effective teacher collaboration, and collaborative partnerships among all community stakeholders?
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

47
Study unit summary and reflection
This unit looked at how schools can be developed as inclusive centres of learning, where learner diversity is
welcomed and supported. The unit foregrounded teacher and learner agency in this process—we looked at
ways in which teachers could be empowered and in turn empower their learners to play an active role in their
own learning and development.
We examined the approaches, tools and processes of CSTL and SIAS and analysed their potential to direct
efforts of key agents in creating caring and supportive schools that support quality learning for all learners.
We also looked at the role of collaboration and collaborative partnerships in ensuring the active participation of
the various stakeholders. This included teachers, learners, parents and caregivers, the wider community,
government departments and other external agencies.

Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

48
 Suggested study unit assessment

Assessment 1
Read the following article. Discuss the role of teachers as agents for change in developing inclusive school
communities with particular reference to social justice, inclusive pedagogy and collaboration.
Themane M & Thobejane HR (2019) Teachers as change agents in making teaching inclusive in some
selected rural schools of Limpopo Province, South Africa: implications for teacher education, Department of
Education Studies, University of Limpopo, Polokwane, South Africa. International Journal of Inclusive Education
2019, 23(4). http://bit.ly/2QQvgBG

Assessment 2
How are teacher and learner agency articulated in the CSTL Handbook (http://bit.ly/2XoOqUI) and SIAS
policy (http://bit.ly/2X4iHVA)?
1. Identify indicators of active agency of teachers and learners in these documents.
2. Are they strong enough? If not, make suggestions regarding what can be added or changed in the
documents to promote teacher and learner agency respectively.

Assessment 3
The PIRLS South African Highlights Report (http://bit.ly/2Xlb5Oz) make a number of recommendations to
improve literacy in schools. Some of these relate to teachers, either directly or indirectly, and include:
• Increasing the proportion of time spent on reading in Foundation and Intermediate Phases, as well as
encouraging extra-mural reading and reading habits
• Finding ways to increase resources such as school and classroom libraries
• Increasing effective and sustainable access to ICT at schools
• Reducing teacher and learner absenteeism
• Campaigning for greater parental involvement in school and learner activities
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

Think of ways in which collaboration and collaborative partnerships could help in implementing these
recommendations. Refer specifically to opportunities for:
• Teacher–teacher collaboration
• Developing learner agency
• Teacher–parent collaboration
• Drawing on community and local business support
Draw up a collaborative strategy for a school you know.

49
Selected bibliography / further reading
Department of Education (2001) Education White Paper 6: Special needs education: building an inclusive
education and training system. http://bit.ly/31f1B9Z
Engelbrecht P (2018) Developing inclusive schools in South Africa. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education.
DOI: 10.1093/acredfore/9780190264093.013.441
Engelbrecht P & Green L (eds) (2018) Responding to the challenges of inclusive education in Southern Africa
(2nd edition). Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Engelbrecht P & Hay JF (2018) Creating collaborative partnerships in inclusive schools. In Engelbrecht P &
Green L, Responding to challenges of inclusive education in Southern Africa: 213–228. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Green L & Moodley T (2018) Thinking differently about education support. In Engelbrecht P & Green L,
Responding to challenges of inclusive education in Southern Africa: 195–212. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Maguvhe B (2016) Moving beyond barriers. In Phasha N & Condy J, Inclusive education: an African perspective:
150–169. Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Swart E & Phasha T (2017) Family and community partnerships. In Landsberg E, Kruger D & Swart E, Addressing
barriers to learning: a Southern African perspective: 265–287. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Themane M & Thobejane HR (2019) Teachers as change agents in making teaching inclusive in some selected
rural schools of Limpopo Province, South Africa: implications for teacher education. International Journal of
Inclusive Education 23(4). http://bit.ly/2QQvgBG
Western Cape Education Department (2018) Free online module on Inclusive Education. http://bit.ly/2IodtOl

Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

50
 References
African Committee of Experts on Rights and Welfare of the Child (ACERWC) (2015) Africa’s Agenda for Children
2040. African Union. Viewed 23 March 2019: https://au.int/sites/default/files/newsevents/agendas/africas_
agenda_for_children-english.pdf
Baumann, C (2018) What it’s really like to be at school in South Africa. Daily Maverick 2018-06-25.
Viewed 20 June 2018: http://bit.ly/2EQyH6w
Blanchard K & Bowles S (1998) Gung ho! Turn on the people in any organization. New York: William Morrow
and Company.
Britt RR (2019) Why PE should be required from kindergarten to college. Viewed 5 June 2019:
http://bit.ly/2EXnroU
Cunningham R (2003) Complexity theory and school improvement: some possible connections. Paper
presented at the British Education Research Association conference, Edinburgh University, September 2003.
Viewed 23 October 2018: http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00003214.htm
Department of Basic Education and MIET Africa (2010) National Support Pack. Action Step: National Model.
Durban: MIET Africa.
Department of Basic Education (DBE) (2014a) Policy on Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support.
Pretoria. Government Printers. Viewed 7 June 2019: http://bit.ly/2X4iHVA
Department of Basic Education (DBE) (2014b) Handbook for the provision of an Integrated Package of Care and
Support for learners in South African schools. Pretoria: Department of Basic Education. Viewed 18 June 2019:
http://bit.ly/2XoOqUI
Department of Education (DoE) (2001) Education White Paper 6: Special Needs: Education, Building an inclusive
education and training system. Pretoria: Department of Education.
Department of Education (DoE) (2002) National Curriculum Statement Grades R-9 (Schools). Pretoria: Department
of Education.
Dewar, G (2019) Exercise for children: why keeping kids physically fit is good for the brain and helpful in the
classroom. Viewed 76 June 2019: http://bit.ly/2W0X3jG
Donald D, Lazarus S & Moolla N (2014) Educational Psychology in social context: ecosystemic applications in
Southern Africa. London: Oxford University Press.
Dove MK, Zorotovich J & Gregg K (2018) School Community Connectedness and Family Participation at School.
World Journal of Education, 8(1): 49–57.
Engelbrecht P (2007) Creating collaborative partnerships in inclusive schools. In Engelbrecht P & Green L (eds)
Responding to the challenges of inclusive education in Southern Africa (1st edition). Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Engelbrecht P (2004) Trans-disciplinary collaboration. In Eloff I & Ebersohn L (eds) Keys to Educational Psychology.
Cape Town: UCT Press.
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

Engelbrecht P & Hay J (2018) Creating collaborative partnerships in inclusive schools. In Engelbrecht P & Green
L (eds) Responding to the challenges of inclusive education in Southern Africa (2nd edition). Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Getting Smart (2019) Three ways to model collaboration and partnerships in schools and classrooms. Viewed
16 February 2019: http://bit.ly/2Kx2xAB
Great Schools Partnership (2019) The glossary of education reform. Viewed 7 June 2019: https://www.
edglossary.org/school-community/
Long C, Graven M, Sayed Y & Lampen E (2017) Enabling and constraining conditions of professional teacher
agency: the South African context. Contemporary Education Dialogue, 14(1): 5–21.
Lundin S & Nelson B (2010) Ubuntu! An inspiring story about an African tradition of teamwork and collaboration.
New York: Broadway Books.
Mahlo F & Condy J (2016) Learning support in inclusive education settings. In Phasha N & Condy J (eds),

51
Inclusive education: an African perspective: 171–190. Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
MIET Africa (2016) Working with the Policy on Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support (SIAS) for
educators (Participant manual). MIET Africa.
Nel M, Engelbrecht P, Nel N & Tlale D (2013) South African teachers’ views of collaboration within an inclusive
education system. International Journal of Inclusive Education. http://ds.doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2013.858779
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2018) The future of education and skills:
Education 2030 (OECD Learning Framework 2030) Discussion Paper: 4.
Pantic N (2015) A model for study of teacher agency for social justice. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and
Practice, 21(6): 759–778.
Pantic N & Florian L (2015) Developing teachers as agents of inclusion and social justice. Education Inquiry,
6(3): 333–351.
Phasha, N (2016) Inclusive education: an African perspective. Southern Africa: Oxford University Press.
Phasha N, Mahlo D & Dei GJS (2017) Inclusive schooling and education in African contexts. In Pasha N et al.
(eds) Inclusive education in African contexts. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
Sands DJ, Kozleski EB & French NK (2000) Inclusive education for the 21st century. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Shaik N (2016) Teacher beliefs about child participation in Grade R. South African Journal of Childhood
Education, 6(1). a248. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/sajce.v6i1.248
Stefanski A, Valli L & Jacobson R (2016) Beyond involvement and engagement: the role of the family in school–
community partnerships. School Community Journal, 26(2).
Swain J & Walker C (2003) Parent-professional power relations: parent and professional perspectives. Disability
and Society 18(5): 80–81.
Tableman B & Herron A (2004). School climate and learning. Best Practice Briefs. University Community
Partnerships, Michigan State University.
Vangrieken K, Dochy F, Raes E & Kyndt E (2015) Teacher collaboration: a systematic review. Educational
Research Review, 15 (2015): 17–40.
Walton, E (2011) Getting inclusion right in South Africa. Intervention in School and Clinic, 46(4) 240–245.
Watson TN & Bogotch I (2016) (Re)Imagining school as community: lessons learned from teachers. School
Community Journal, 26(1). Viewed 28 February 2019: http://www.schoolcommunitynetwork.org/SCJ.aspx
Welsh WN, Jenkins PH & Greene JR (1998) School culture, climate, and violence: safety in middle schools of the
Philadelphia Public School System, 1990–1994. Ann Arbor, Mich: Inter-university Consortium for Political and
Social Research (distributor).
Wits School of Governance (WSG) and Bridge (2016) Teachers, parents and school leaders working together to
improve learners’ education: Deep Dive Report. Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand.
Unit 3 INCLUSIVE SCHOOL COMMUNITIES

52
 Insert
HEI logo
here

Inclusive Teaching
and Learning
for South Africa

Unit 4
Inclusive Teaching
and Learning

THIS PROJECT IS FUNDED BY THE EUROPEAN UNION

The Teaching for All project is a partnership between the
British Council, the University of South Africa, the
Departments of Basic Education and Higher Education
and Training, and MIET AFRICA, and is co-funded by the
European Union. The Teaching for All project aims to
provide teachers in South Africa with the skills, knowledge
and attitudes to teach inclusively in diverse classrooms in
diverse communities.

These educational materials are published under creative

commons license:

ISBN: 978-0-620-84393-5
Published by British Council, 2019

Every effort has been made to obtain copyright

permission for material used in this module.
Website addresses and links were correct at the time of
publication.

For more information, please contact the British Council:

PO Box 655, Parklands 2121, South Africa
Telephone: +27 (0)11 560 9300
Email: ssa.enquiries@britishcouncil.org.za
Website: www.britishcouncil.org.za

The British Council is the United Kingdom’s international

organisation for cultural relations and education. It creates
international opportunities for the people of the UK and
other countries and builds trust between them worldwide.
Contents

Overview of study unit..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2

Introduction and aim.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Specific outcomes............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Abbreviations........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
1 Understanding inclusive pedagogy.............................................................................................................................................................................5
1.1 What does inclusive teaching and learning mean?................................................................................................................................................ 5
1.1.1 How is the thinking different?.................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.1.2 What does inclusive pedagogy do and not do?............................................................................................................................................................. 6
1.2 Creating an inclusive school culture................................................................................................................................................................................. 6
1.3 What does inclusive pedagogy mean for you?.......................................................................................................................................................... 8
2 Using diversity as an asset: practical strategies that support learning for all.................................................................13
2.1 Creating an inclusive classroom environment........................................................................................................................................................ 15
2.1.1 Creating and maintaining an inclusive classroom community............................................................................................................................15
a. Types of learning environment......................................................................................................................................................................................15
b. How to develop an inclusive classroom community........................................................................................................................................16
2.1.2 Planning and catering for accessibility and engagement..................................................................................................................................... 23
a. Classroom layout................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
b. Clearing clutter in the classroom................................................................................................................................................................................ 24
c. Materials provided................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 25
2.1.3 Positive discipline........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
a. What is positive discipline?.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 25
b. Implementing positive discipline................................................................................................................................................................................. 26
2.1.4 Affirming diversity.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 34
2.1.5 Allowing space for learners’ voices.................................................................................................................................................................................... 36
a. The amount of teacher talk............................................................................................................................................................................................. 36
b. Noise level................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 37
2.2 Using inclusive teaching and learning strategies................................................................................................................................................. 37
2.2.1 Scaffolding......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 37
a. What is scaffolding?............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 37
b. Implementing scaffolding strategies......................................................................................................................................................................... 38
2.2.2 Differentiated teaching and learning................................................................................................................................................................................. 39
a. What is the difference between scaffolding and differentiation?............................................................................................................ 39
b. What is differentiated teaching and learning?..................................................................................................................................................... 40
c. Implementing differentiated teaching and learning......................................................................................................................................... 42
d. Multi-level teaching and learning................................................................................................................................................................................ 50
2.2.3 Peer learning, cooperative learning and group work.............................................................................................................................................. 55
a. Peer learning........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 56
b. Cooperative learning.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 56
c. Group work............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 59
Contents

2.2.4 Starting from and linking to what learners already know....................................................................................................................................... 61

2.2.5 Multi-modal and multi-sensory approaches.................................................................................................................................................................. 62
a. Using ICT for teaching and learning.......................................................................................................................................................................... 63
b. Online open source teacher resources...................................................................................................................................................................64
2.2.6 Assessment for learning............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 65
a. Changing the way we view assessment.................................................................................................................................................................. 66
b. Why does assessment matter?..................................................................................................................................................................................... 67
c. Designing assessment for learning............................................................................................................................................................................ 68
d. Assessment for multi-level teaching and learning............................................................................................................................................ 69
2.3 Planning inclusive lessons..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 71
2.3.1 Developing clear, achievable and measurable outcomes.....................................................................................................................................71

Suggested study unit assessment..................................................................................................................................................................................................76

Study unit summary and reflection................................................................................................................................................................................................77
Selected bibliography / further reading....................................................................................................................................................................................78
References...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................79
List of tables
Table 1: Values in inclusive classrooms and schools......................................................................................................................................................................17
Table 2: Examples of teacher modelling of values through behaviour................................................................................................................................18
Table 3: Values and learners’ behaviours.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 20
Table 4: PBIS descriptions.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 28
Table 5: Helpful questions for conversations about behaviour............................................................................................................................................... 32
Table 6: Differentiating teaching and learning using a variety of elements..................................................................................................................... 45
Table 7: Examples of cooperative learning strategies................................................................................................................................................................... 58
Table 8: Examples of types of groups..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 59
Table 9: Key shifts related to assessment for learning.................................................................................................................................................................. 67
Table 10: Sharing learning objectives...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 72

List of figures
Figure 1: Overview of study unit 4................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 2
Figure 2: Three dimensions of an inclusive school............................................................................................................................................................................. 7
Figure 3: Challenges for teachers...............................................................................................................................................................................................................11
Figure 4: Four-part learning cycle..............................................................................................................................................................................................................11
Figure 5: Inclusive pedagogical strategies............................................................................................................................................................................................13
Figure 6: Four stages of competence......................................................................................................................................................................................................14
Figure 7: Manageable chunks.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................14
Figure 8: First day at school...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................16
Figure 9: Ten ways to build relationships with kids...........................................................................................................................................................................19
Figure 10: Classroom layout (1)................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 11: Classroom layout (2)................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 12: What is the problem?.................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 26
Figure 13: PBIS tiers............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 27
Contents

Figure 14: Voice levels...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 37

Figure 15: Scaffolding....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 16: Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development................................................................................................................................................................... 38
Figure 17: Tomlinson’s model of differentiation................................................................................................................................................................................. 42
Figure 18: A choice board.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 47
Figure 19: Bloom’s taxonomy....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 52
Figure 20: Assessment for learning.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 68
Figure 21: Three questions learners should ask themselves.................................................................................................................................................... 68
Figure 22: Personal qualities......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 68

List of activities
Activity 1: Think back to Unit 2........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 5
Activity 2: How can schools create an inclusive culture?............................................................................................................................................................... 6
Activity 3: Explain Booth and Ainscow’s three-dimensional model.......................................................................................................................................... 7
Activity 4: The impact of teachers’ expectations on learner achievement......................................................................................................................... 9
Activity 5: Choosing transformative pedagogical strategies.....................................................................................................................................................10
Activity 6: Five types of learning environment...................................................................................................................................................................................15
Activity 7: Ubuntu values..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................17
Activity 8: Values in an inclusive classroom community...............................................................................................................................................................18
Activity 9: How you can build relationships with your learners................................................................................................................................................19
Activity 10: Putting values into action in the classroom................................................................................................................................................................21
Activity 11: Design your classroom........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Activity 12: Explain layout choices............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 24
Activity 13: Why punishment is not effective...................................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Activity 14: Draw up norms for your grade.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Activity 15: How to promote a positive behaviour environment..............................................................................................................................................31
Activity 16: Draw up a contract................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Activity 17: The importance of affirming diversity........................................................................................................................................................................... 35
Activity 18: Affirming diversity by linking indigenous knowledge to curriculum content........................................................................................ 36
Activity 19: Think about teacher talk........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 36
Activity 20: Observe scaffolding in action............................................................................................................................................................................................ 39
Activity 21: What does differentiated teaching and learning mean for you?................................................................................................................... 40
Activity 22: Analyse Mr Singh’s differentiation strategies........................................................................................................................................................... 43
Activity 23: Varying the content................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 45
Activity 24: Introducing a skill or concept............................................................................................................................................................................................. 45
Activity 25: Other ways to introduce a skill or concept................................................................................................................................................................ 46
Activity 26: Create a choice board............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 48
Activity 27: Apply dimensions of differentiation................................................................................................................................................................................ 48
Activity 28: Watch a differentiated lesson............................................................................................................................................................................................ 50
Activity 29: Looking at progression in the curriculum...................................................................................................................................................................51
Activity 30: Evaluate Bloom’s taxonomy................................................................................................................................................................................................ 52
Activity 31: Using Bloom’s taxonomy to differentiate tasks........................................................................................................................................................ 53
Contents

Activity 32: Evaluate Mr Nthini’s lesson.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 55

Activity 33 Peer-to-peer learning strategies....................................................................................................................................................................................... 56
Activity 34: Using cooperative learning strategies......................................................................................................................................................................... 59
Activity 35: Using a multi-sensory approach...................................................................................................................................................................................... 63
Activity 36: Using mobile phones to encourage reading............................................................................................................................................................ 63
Activity 37: Find out about open source material for teachers................................................................................................................................................ 65
Activity 38: Different approaches to assessment............................................................................................................................................................................ 65
Activity 39: Evaluate assessment practices......................................................................................................................................................................................... 65
Activity 40: Analyse assessment practices in your context...................................................................................................................................................... 67
Activity 41: Assessing learner qualities.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 67
Activity 42: Differentiating by varying the process......................................................................................................................................................................... 68
Activity 43: Design a multi-level assessment task............................................................................................................................................................................ 69
Activity 44: Think about lesson planning............................................................................................................................................................................................... 70
Activity 45: Write a lesson outcome......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 72
Activity 45: Evaluate Ms Khumalo’s lesson plan................................................................................................................................................................................ 75
Overview of study unit

Understanding
inclusive
pedagogy

Using inclusive Creating

teaching an inclusive
and learning classroom
strategies environment

Planning
inclusive lessons

Figure 1: Overview of Study Unit 4

Welcome to the final unit of the module

This unit is designed to enable you to put your learning from Units 1–3 into practice. It asks you to draw on the
knowledge you now have about theory and models of inclusive practice; your understanding of diversity and
intersectionality, community and collaboration; and your beliefs about your role as a teacher working
inclusively in supporting all learners. Throughout the unit you will be encouraged to apply the concepts and
strategies you learnt about in Unit 2 to classroom practice.
The unit is separated into two parts. Part 1 clarifies what inclusive teaching and learning is, and what it does
(and doesn’t) do. It also explores what being a teacher working inclusively means for you in practice, and three
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

core elements—policy, practice and culture—of an inclusive school. Through this exploration, Part 1 briefly
examines the relationship between these three elements, and their role in enabling all children to access, and
be engaged in, quality education.
Part 2 focuses on key teaching and learning strategies that teachers working inclusively use to deliver quality
education to all children. Section 1 looks at strategies for creating an inclusive classroom environment. Section
2 explores ways of using inclusive strategies for teaching and learning, leading to Section 3, planning inclusive
lessons. The summative assessment requires you to plan a lesson suitable for your context.
Unit 4

2
 Introduction and aim
This unit describes the “how” of inclusion. It explains the principles of inclusive pedagogy as well as a number
of practical, inclusive, pedagogical approaches for you to use in your classrooms. These approaches will
support you to create rich learning experiences in a classroom environment that enables all learners to access
information and learn effectively. The unit also provides you with structures to help you put these approaches
into practice.
The unit’s main aim is that, through completing it, you will understand and be able to put into practice a variety
of inclusive pedagogical approaches that enable you to provide an equitable, engaging learning experience for
the diverse children you teach.

Specific outcomes
By the end of the unit, you will be able to:
• Explain why all learners are capable of learning and how difficulties in learning are a dilemma in teaching
rather than a problem within learners
• Demonstrate how replacing deterministic views of ability with transformative views enables quality teaching
and learning for all
• Apply inclusive teaching and learning strategies flexibly in lesson planning and delivery in your own context,
demonstrating an understanding of a range of inclusive pedagogy strategies
• Reflect on the use of inclusive teaching and learning strategies in your own context and a range of other
relevant school contexts
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

3
Abbreviations

AFL Assessment for learning

CAPS Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement
DBE Department of Basic Education
DoE Department of Education
ISP Individual Support Plan
MLT Multi-level teaching
PBIS Positive Behavioural Interventions and Supports Programme
SBST School-Based Support Team

INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Unit 4

4
1 Understanding inclusive pedagogy
This unit, with its emphasis on inclusive classroom practice, encourages you to build practically on what you
already know by taking a number of inclusive teaching and learning strategies into your context. First, think
back to Unit 2 and reflect on what you learnt there, as this needs to be at the front of your mind for this unit.

ACTIVITY 1: Think back to Unit 2

Reflection
Without revisiting the material make a list of the main points you can remember from Unit 2. You will
probably find it helpful to use the titles of the three sections as headings and make a list under each
heading. The titles were:
• Diversity, intersectionality and equity
• Responding to learner difference
• Language, culture and learning
Once you have your list, choose two learning points from each. Choose the ones that interest you most,
and that you are most curious about. Make detailed notes about these six points in your journal. Include:
1. What you remember about the learning point. (If you get stuck and want to remind yourself, refer
back to the Unit 2 material.)
2. Why you chose it. What is it about this area that interests you? In particular, how does it connect with:
• You as a learner when you were at school?
• You now, as a student teacher?
• You in the future, as you think about the teacher you would like to become?

As our starting point, let’s look at the title of this unit: Inclusive teaching and learning.

1.1 What does inclusive teaching

and learning mean?
The term “inclusive teaching and learning”, also referred to as “inclusive pedagogy”, describes a way of working
in support of inclusive education. Here is a definition of pedagogy by Robin Alexander (2004):
… what one needs to know, and the skills one needs to command, in order to make and justify the many
different kinds of decisions of which teaching is constituted.
At its most basic and fundamental level this involves:
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

• Children: their characteristics and upbringing

• Learning: how it can best be motivated, achieved, identified, assessed and built upon
• Teaching: its planning, execution and evaluation
• Curriculum: the various ways of knowing, understanding, doing, creating, investigating and making sense
which it is desirable for children to encounter, and how these are most appropriately translated and
structured for teaching.
The term inclusive pedagogy1 is used to describe research about the practices of teachers who achieve good
results with diverse groups of learners. These teachers understand that all learners differ—this is the
theoretical starting point for inclusive pedagogy.

Definition
Unit 4

1 Inclusive pedagogy: An approach to teaching that aims to raise the achievement of all learners, while safeguarding the
inclusion of those who are vulnerable to exclusion and other forms of marginalisation. (Florian & Black-Hawkins, 2011)

6
 1.1.1 How is the thinking different?
Traditionally, we have tended to think about pedagogy in terms of what works for most learners alongside
something additional or different for those who experience difficulties.
Inclusive pedagogy starts with a shift in this thinking. It offers an alternative way of thinking about pedagogy that
provides rich learning opportunities for all learners. In inclusive classrooms everyone is able to participate
equitably in learning. The concept of inclusive pedagogy was developed by Lani Florian and her colleagues
following their studies of the practices of teachers who were able to achieve good results for learners in diverse
classrooms (e.g. Florian & Kershner, 2009; Florian & Black-Hawkins, 2011; Florian, Black-Hawkins & Rouse, 2017).
Inclusive pedagogy draws from socio-cultural perspectives on learning, for example beliefs, culture, customs,
language and behaviours. These perspectives focus on how our identities, backgrounds, experiences and
connections to each other relate to learning. Remember the iceberg model from Unit 2? These are the factors
you will not see above the surface. But they are vital to our understanding because they lead us to look at
individual differences in a different way.
Rather than a “fixed mindset”, which sees differences as being permanently fixed, we can adopt a “growth mindset”,
viewing differences as a result of the interactions between different parts of our lives. What’s going on in our lives
changes, and these changes impact on the human characteristics that make us different from each other.
Inclusive pedagogy is based on the belief that the characteristics that make us different can change and grow
over time, and that quality learning experiences can facilitate this process. This “growth mindset” approach is
supported by recent findings from neuroscience research indicating that learning can alter the physical
structure of the brain (National Research Council, 2018). As teachers who work inclusively we need to be able
to notice, understand and respond to these changes in our learners to enable them to expand their potential.

1.1.2 What does inclusive pedagogy do and not do?

An inclusive pedagogy approach does not deny the individual differences between learners. It expects every
learner to be different, and that these differences will change, because this is part of being human.
Inclusive pedagogy acknowledges individual differences between learners, but does not identify some
learners as “different” or pre-judge what they are capable of. As we have seen in Unit 2, doing so can lead to
stigma and marginalisation of some learners. Instead:
The focus of inclusive education is on ensuring that everyone has access to a good-quality education in systems
that do not marginalise some through organisational and curricular structures that sift and sort learners on the
basis of pre-determined judgements about what they can and should learn. (Florian & Walton, 2018)
In this way inclusive education, through inclusive pedagogy, becomes more than a way of including learners
with disabilities. It is a way of improving learning outcomes for every learner. Inclusive pedagogy on how all
learners achieve these outcomes by taking part in the community of a classroom—the bonds, trust and sense
of belonging that grow when learners get to know and appreciate each other.
Now let’s have a brief look at how inclusive practice fits into schools.

1.2 Creating an inclusive

school culture
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Inclusive pedagogy used by teachers works in a reciprocal relationship with two other important factors in the
development of inclusive schools: policy and culture.

ACTIVITY 2: How can schools create an inclusive culture?

Writing
1. What key values and beliefs do you think should inform the school’s culture?
2. What policies could a school have to enable access for all learners?
3. Suggest ways in which the school empower teachers to teach inclusively.

7
Tony Booth and Mel Ainscow originated the Index for Inclusion: developing learning and participation in schools
in 2000, which was revised in 2011 (CSIE, 2011). The index identifies three key dimensions necessary for the
development of inclusion in a school. These are shown in the model below:
Notice that the dimension of creating inclusive cultures is placed at
the base of the triangle. Culture is often described as “the way we
do things around here”. It may also help you to think of it as “why
we do things around here this way” because culture is shaped by
our values and beliefs, which in turn inform our behaviour. Booth
and Ainscow have placed creating inclusive cultures at the base of
the triangle deliberately, as they believe that strong inclusive
cultures are an important platform for the development of inclusive
policies and practices. For example, SIAS and CSTL are policies that
create a foundation for building an inclusive culture in the South
African education system.
Within Booth and Ainscow’s model, when policymakers, including
school leaders, sincerely believe that every child can learn, and has
a right to be in the classroom and to receive a quality education,
Figure 2: Three dimensions of an inclusive school
they will:
• Create policies that enable equitable access to education for all children, i.e. make sure that they are able to
get into schools and classrooms in the first place, whatever their diverse characteristics.
• Lead by example, i.e. model the inclusive behaviours they are looking for in their teachers and learners.
• Empower teachers to practise inclusively. The policies set by school leaders and other policymakers set the
tone for how teachers practise. They also give teachers access to continuing professional development that
supports their practice, as well as knowledge about inclusive pedagogy.
When teachers are empowered to work inclusively, they become the enablers in an inclusive school. They
expect and welcome diversity in the classroom and plan in ways that ensure all children are able to participate
and learn effectively, i.e. they ensure a high level of engagement in the classroom. Their practice is not wholly
dependent on the school’s policies and prevailing culture; they have agency in their own classrooms, i.e. the
ability to put their energy and commitment into working in ways, and developing skills, they see as important.
However, inclusive practice is likely—because of increased empowerment of teachers—to be strengthened if
culture and policy are also inclusive.
Access and engagement are central to an inclusive school. They are commonly used to measure a school’s
progress in its journey to becoming inclusive. They are also interdependent. There is no point having the best
access policies if teachers are not empowered and enabled to teach inclusively. And there is no point in having
high-quality inclusive practices and curricula that fully engage learners, if children can’t get access to the
school or classroom.
Let’s reflect further on this interplay between inclusive culture, policy and practice and what it looks like in a
setting you are familiar with.

ACTIVITY 3: Explain Booth and Ainscow’s

INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

three-dimensional model

Writing
What are the connections between what you learnt from Unit 2, and Booth and Ainscow’s three
dimensions of an inclusive school? Describe these connectionsin a way that makes the most sense to
you (e.g. drawing, diagram, writing, audio).
Unit 4

8
 1.3 What does inclusive
pedagogy mean for you?
Traditional ways of responding to learner differences have been based on the argument that some children
need something “different from” or “additional to” “normal” pedagogy. Identifying and delivering what these
children are thought to need has been based on the idea that their differences are fixed and that we can match
learners’ needs to their characteristics. However, as we have seen above, part of the thinking behind inclusive
pedagogy is that our characteristics, and therefore our differences, can change over time.
This thinking means that we need an alternative response to learner difference; inclusive pedagogy offers this
alternative. Teachers who work inclusively develop a range of pedagogical strategies that offer rich learning
opportunities for all learners that enable them to participate equally in learning. They also develop and maintain
a classroom community that supports the well-being of learners—both academically and psychosocially2.
Florian and Black-Hawkins (2011) ask questions that you may find useful in understanding what inclusive
pedagogy requires from you in practice:
• What are the teaching strategies and practices that promote access?
• What are the teaching strategies and practices that reinforce or remove barriers to access?
In response to these questions, Florian and Black-Hawkins suggest that inclusive pedagogy requires us to do
the following: (1) Shift our focus from additional needs, to learning for all; (2) Reject deterministic beliefs about
ability; (3) Base our practice on transformative beliefs about ability; (4) Use a variety of grouping strategies to
support everyone’s learning; (5) Use formative assessment to support learning; (6) See difficulties in learning
not as deficits in learners but as professional challenges for us as teachers; (7) Commit to continuing
professional development as a way of developing more inclusive practices.
Let us look at these one at a time.
1. Shift our focus from individual learners who have been identified as having “additional needs”, to
learning for all.
This approach needs a focus on what is to be taught and how, rather than on who is learning. In this way it
aims to avoid the problems and stigma associated with identifying some learners as different.
2. Reject deterministic beliefs3 about ability.
Determinism is based on the belief that we are all born biologically different and that this biology determines
what we can and can’t do and learn; little can be done to change us. These beliefs—which are sometimes so
deeply rooted in our culture that we’re not even aware of them—put limitations on what teachers expect from
learners, and therefore on learners’ expectations of themselves. They also directly influence the way curricula
are designed, teaching is carried out and achievement is assessed. As teachers, we should always be willing to
change our teaching strategies to suit the way our learners learn best.
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Definition
2 Psychosocial: The close connection between our thoughts, emotions and behaviour, and our wider social
experience (e.g. our relationships, traditions and culture).
3 Deterministic belief: The belief that a learner’s ability is essentially pre-set and open to limited change or
development. http://www.dictionaryofeducation.co.uk
9
Now let’s look at an example of determinism in a school context.

CASE STUDY: Determinism in a school context

Picture the scene: It is the start of the school year.
Two teachers are sitting in the staff room during
break. This is their conversation:
Mr Majoro: I can’t believe my bad luck. This year
I have to teach Grade 9 E—the slow class with the
low ability.
Ms Esack: I have Grade 9A. At least I know they’re
all clever and they’ll do well. I had the E class last
year and, just as I predicted, most of them didn’t
pass Grade 9. I think you probably have a few of my
repeats this year. At least the really bad ones
dropped out. They weren’t going to make it to Matric
anyway, so it’s pointless to waste our time and theirs.
Mr Majoro: I agree and I heard that one of them is
already in the gangs, just like his brother and father.
It’s no surprise.
Ms Esack: I have two learners who tested really well
in their end-of-year tests. I’ve even been told they’re
gifted. I’m so glad I will have top achievers. And at
least they won’t be held back by any slow learners.

ACTIVITY 4: The impact of teachers’ expectations

on learner achievement

Discussion
Think about this conversation and consider the following questions:
1. How would you describe the teachers’ expectations of 9A and 9E?
2. What evidence are the teachers basing their expectations on? To what extent do you think these
pieces of evidence are reliable as a way of predicting learners’ academic achievement? Explain your
reasoning, linking it to your learning from Unit 2.
3. How do you think the expectations of these teachers about learner achievement will impact on the
way they teach?
4. If Mr Majoro had high expectations of his learners, i.e. taught them in a way that they knew they were
expected to do well, to what extent do you think it might change their results? Explain your reasoning.
5. What do you think about Ms Esack’s final comment about learners being held back by other “slower”
learners? Where might this view have come from? From what you have learnt so far, would it be the
view of a teacher who works inclusively? Explain the reasons for your answer.

Determinism remains deeply ingrained in education practices worldwide, despite the National Research Council
findings cited above showing that learning has the capacity to change the physical structure of the brain.
Teachers working inclusively also reject the idea that the presence of learners who are labelled “slow” or
“learning disabled” holds back the progress of others. If learning is planned to be inclusive, everybody
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

progresses at their own rate in different areas, depending on their unique combination of strengths, challenges
and needs. Therefore, there cannot be one fixed group that is “held back” by another fixed group.
3. Base our practice on transformative beliefs about ability, focusing teaching and learning on what
learners can do rather than on what they cannot do.
Teachers with transformative beliefs4:
… are willing to accept that it is not necessary or helpful to predict or predetermine individuals’ outcomes for
learning before teaching. Rather, decisions are structured around how to ensure high levels of engagement
and motivation. (Florian, 2016)

Definition
Unit 4

4 Transformative belief: The belief that ability is not pre-set and can change and develop.

10
 Let’s look at an example of transformative thinking in action.

CASE STUDY: Transformative thinking in a school context

Mr Singh, a Grade 4 English Home Language
teacher, is planning a comprehension task from a
reader on Aladdin and the Magic Lamp. In his class
he has noticed that there are some learners who
are all verbally articulate, but seem to struggle with
text-based comprehension exercises. This group
includes four learners whose home language is
isiXhosa and who are all to some extent grappling
with written English vocabulary, and one learner
who is on the Autistic Spectrum Continuum and
finds it useful to organise information visually.
Based on his knowledge of these learners, he plans
how to present the lesson. He introduces the story
through a discussion where he places the topic of
the story in context. He explains the meaning of
some of the new vocabulary the learners will
encounter and puts up the words on the board with
a picture next to each word.
This helps the isiXhosa-speaking learners’ English
vocabulary and keeps them motivated, as they can
understand the story. He gives a brief outline of the
plot and the main characters using a graphic
organiser. This helps the learner on the Autistic
Spectrum Continuum feel comfortable and engaged
with the story.

See information sheet on the Autistic Spectrum Continuum in Unit 2.

ACTIVITY 5: Choosing transformative

pedagogical strategies

Writing
What information does Mr Singh use that leads him to choose these specific strategies for these learners?
To what extent is he basing his planning on:
• What and how he is going to teach
• Who he is going to teach
It is important to remember that not all isiXhosa speakers and learners on the Autistic Spectrum Continuum
will struggle with comprehension, or respond to the particular scaffolds or visual aids used in this case
study. Children who seem to have the “same difference” often turn out to be totally different from each
other, with different strengths, challenges and needs. They will therefore respond to different strategies.
With this in mind, consider what information you need in order to make choices about which
pedagogical strategies to use.
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

4. Use a variety of grouping strategies to support everyone’s learning.

This is important because relying on ability grouping to separate “able” from “less able” learners is a way of
labelling learners, and reinforces their “weaknesses” without considering and encouraging their strengths.

Refer to Section 2.2.3 of this unit for detailed information on grouping strategies.

5. Use formative assessment to support learning.

Assessment for learning is an ongoing process through which teachers gather data before, during, and after
instruction from multiple sources to determine learners’ progress. It is the way that learners demonstrate what
they are learning, or have learnt, and how their learning will be assessed.
Assessment will be dealt with in detail in Section 2.2.6.

11
6. See difficulties in learning not as deficits in learners
but as professional challenges for teachers.
Seeing difficulties in learning as a professional challenge
rather than a deficit in learners, requires a shift in
thinking. This shift moves teachers from viewing
planning and affirmation of diversity as “extra work” to
seeing it as “the work” of the teacher. It is the teacher’s
job to develop new ways of working to ensure that all
learners are actively engaged, achieving success and
being supported in learning. It is not for learners to
somehow fit themselves into a narrowly prescriptive
“one-size-fits-all” way of learning. Figure 3: Challenges for teachers

7. Be committed to continuing professional development as a way of developing more inclusive practices.

As a teacher, it is important to continually add to your knowledge, skills and understanding of learners, learning
and inclusive strategies by, for example, discussing with colleagues, doing online research, and attending
professional development workshops and conferences.
ASSESS–PLAN–DO–REVIEW
Use the “Assess–Plan–Do–Review” cycle to constantly
review and improve your classroom practice.
ACCESS
ASSESS
Assessment relates both to your teaching and your
learners’ learning. As a teacher you should be assessing
your learners informally and getting to know them better
all the time. This will inform the way you plan your lessons.
What are you noticing about how you teach? Does your
REVIEW PLAN
teaching facilitate effective learning? What part of your
practice do you think needs attention? What do you hope
to achieve as a result of making the change?
PLAN
Consider:
• Which approach is best to help you make this change?
• What can you introduce the approach gradually so that
it will make a difference to your practice without
overloading you?
• How will you use the approach in your lesson/s—when
DO
and how will you use it, what will you need to say and
do, what resources do you need to prepare, what
Figure 4: Four-part learning cycle
organisational arrangements do you need to put in
place? You may plan to try the approach in one lesson
or in a series of lessons, depending on your context.
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

DO
Put your plan into action by trying out the approach in your lessons.
REVIEW
Reflection is key to learning. Remember, you will be moving from conscious incompetence towards conscious
competence (and eventually unconscious competence). This can be an uncomfortable journey, and mistakes
are inevitable. Reflection on your experience, though, will help you to improve. Questions you could ask are:
• What went well?
• How can I build on what went well?
• Where were the challenges?
• How did I, or could I, overcome these?
Unit 4

• To what extent did I achieve the changes that I hoped for—both in relation to my practice and to my
learners’ learning?

12
 • What could I do differently next time?
• Does reflecting on this point bring up any other areas of practice that I think might need attention next?
These final two questions take you back to the “Assess” part of the cycle.
If possible, collaborate with at least one trusted colleague. You will gain enormously from the mutual support
and exchange of ideas. You could, for example:
• Team-teach
• Plan and try out approaches at the same time (either the same approach or a different one) and build in joint
reflection time
• Observe each other trying out an approach and reflect on it together afterwards
By now, you have a solid understanding of:
• What inclusive pedagogy means
• The main concepts associated with inclusive pedagogy
• What—basically—it requires from you
The rest of this unit will focus on creating an inclusive classroom environment and practical strategies that you
can use to plan and teach inclusive lessons.
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

13
2 Using diversity as an asset: practical
strategies that support learning for all
This section contains inclusive pedagogical strategies and some guidelines about how to use them. The
strategies work together to make one integrated, inclusive system for teaching and learning. However, we do
not expect you to start using all of them at once. Remember, becoming a teacher who works more inclusively
is a journey towards including as many learners as you can for as much of the time as you can.
Here are the strategies represented as a pizza:

Figure 5: Inclusive pedagogical strategies

What the journey offers is the chance to develop an ever-growing number of strategies and experiences that
will help you to respond to your learners in an ever-widening set of circumstances. It’s about developing
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

expertise over time in your own context. Even in large, crowded classes, there is always something you can do
to work more inclusively. The journey therefore requires a level of commitment from you—using your teacher
agency—to:
• Continually add to your knowledge, skills and understanding of learners, learning and inclusive strategies
• Continuously adjust what happens in your classroom to suit your learners
Mistakes are inevitable along the way! Remember, this journey is a learning process from “conscious
incompetence” to “unconscious competence”.
Unit 4

14
 Figure 6: Four stages of competence

In Unit 2 we talked about this journey as being uncomfortable at times. You are bound to make mistakes—this
is normal—and sometimes you might feel as though you are taking two steps forward and one step back. The
important thing is that you persevere and turn these mistakes into learning opportunities—“OK, that went
wrong, what can I do differently next time?” It might be useful to remember this acronym:
First (or Further)
Attempt
In
Learning
You might find that being honest with your learners is helpful too. Try talking with them about the fact you are
trying out some new strategies. You need their help and feedback to make them work well, and it might take a
few attempts to get where you want to be. You will probably be surprised at the level of support they give you.
And you will be modelling what you would like them to do when they encounter a problem.
So, you will need a certain amount of resilience and the ability to be kind to yourself—remember, you are only
human. And remember that by getting to Conscious Incompetence you have taken a big first step.
To help you with your journey, we have made some suggestions about how to move forward. When
considering how to start using the approaches, we recommend that you:
• Start from what you already know and do—look for your strengths in relation to the approaches and build
on these.
• Build your knowledge and skills in manageable chunks. Think of the approaches as a pizza from which you
take bite-size chunks. These bites should be big enough to fill your stomach—nibbling won’t be enough to
bring about any change—but not so big that you end up with indigestion!
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Figure 7: Manageable chunks

Let’s start by thinking about how we can develop the classroom environment to enable all learners to achieve
their potential.

15
2.1 Creating an inclusive
classroom environment
An important strategy for you as an inclusive teacher is to create a safe, welcoming classroom. In a welcoming
classroom every child will be able to learn and develop in their own individual way and feel equally valued for
their contribution. This may not strike you as important, but it certainly is! The way you make your learners feel
in your class will directly impact the way they learn.

2.1.1 Creating and maintaining an inclusive classroom community

a. Types of learning environment
Thinking about the classroom as a community is a major part of creating the learning environment. The term
“learning environment” is used broadly and includes the physical space; the resources and teaching methods
used; the cultural context; and the educational approach. Here are five types of learning environment that have
been identified through research.
• Dysfunctional: characterised by constant struggle to maintain order that overshadows attention to
academic work
• Adequate: characterised by a basic level of control by the teacher, but with a continuing struggle over order;
distractions are frequent
• Orderly: characterised by effective management of academic work
• Orderly, restrictive: found in smoothly run, highly structured classrooms, with tightly managed routines and
a relatively narrow range of instructional strategies
• Orderly, enabling: found in smoothly run classrooms, with an often looser (though not loose) structure, and
a wider range of routines and instructional strategies in evidence (Educational Research Service, n.d.)
Let’s develop our thinking about these environments through an activity.

ACTIVITY 6: Five types of learning environment

Writing
Read through the description of the five types of learning environment above, then:
1. Create a short scenario that illustrates each environment. Draw on experiences of teaching and
learning. Create your scenarios in any way that makes sense for you, for example storyboard, audio,
written script, captioned pictures, etc.
2. Consider each of your scenarios in turn. What words, thoughts and feelings come into your head
when you do so? Note these.
3. Which type of environment would you aim to create as the most conducive to inclusive education?
Explain your answer.
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

We hope, with all the learning you have done so far, that identifying an orderly, enabling environment did not
require too much thought. This is the learning environment teachers who work inclusively aim for. But there’s
more to it than structure, routines and teaching approaches: developing a sense of community plays a big role
in this learning environment. But what sort of community should we be trying to build? Watkins is quite specific
about the areas we need to consider.
The benefits of community building in schools are not achieved through building any sort of community. Much
depends on the values which develop, and the best is achieved through a caring, pro-social5 , learning-
oriented approach to the relations between all parties. (Watkins 2005a, op.cit.: 52)

Definition
Unit 4

5 Pro-social: Something that benefits other people or society as a whole.

16
 Research shows that in classrooms where this sense of community is built:
• Learners are active agents and are empowered to take initiative and lead their own learning (they are
“crew” rather than “passengers”)
• An increased sense of classroom belonging develops and leads to greater participation and motivation
• Governance is shared and responsibility of all is developed
• Difference is not viewed as a problem and greater diversity of people and contributions is embraced
(Adapted from Watkins, 2005a)
These factors all support positive academic, psychosocial and ethical outcomes, or, as Watkins puts it: “Better
learning (and performance), better behaviour, better social development” (Watkins, 2005b). This type of
classroom community, then, is beneficial for learners as individuals, but also beneficial to communities as a
whole. It’s also clear that, through its embracing of diversity, it is inclusive.
Learners can achieve to their full potential in a positive learning environment where they feel happy and
relaxed. Setting up your classroom with this sense of community now will make a positive contribution to
society in the future. As well as affirming diversity, it places importance on the ubuntu belief that we are all
interdependent—“I am because you are”. The classroom becomes a family whose members hold each other
accountable—compassionately, honestly and supportively—in order to develop the adults of the future.

b. How to develop an inclusive classroom community

So, how do you go about developing this sense of classroom community?
In this section we will consider:
1. Your role as a teacher in building an inclusive classroom community
2. Classroom community values and behaviours that support, and are beneficial to, everyone
3. Activities that promote inclusive classroom communities
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Figure 8: First day at school

1. Your role as a teacher in building an inclusive classroom community

It’s likely that you can remember a time when you felt like this. As a teacher, you now have a great deal of agency
and power over how these learners feel at the end of their first lesson in your classroom, as this quote illustrates:
I have come to the frightening conclusion that I am the decisive element. It is my personal approach that
creates the climate. It is my daily mood that makes the weather. I possess tremendous power to make life
miserable or joyous. I can be a tool of torture or an instrument of inspiration, I can humiliate or humor, hurt or
heal. In all situations, it is my response that decides whether a crisis is escalated or de-escalated, and a person
is humanized or de-humanized. If we treat people as they are, we make them worse. If we treat people as they
ought to be, we help them become what they are capable of becoming. Haim Ginott, teacher and child psychologist

17
Your attitude towards the various learners in your class will rub off on them. If you laugh at or ridicule a learner,
the other children in the class will think it is acceptable to do the same. If, however, you actively model and
promote the belief that each child is valuable, and affirm each child’s individual strengths without any judgment
or bias, you will teach this accepting attitude to your whole class. Your learners will also get the message that if
they have a problem, you are a safe person to approach for help. For some, your classroom will be a vital
source of psychosocial support they might not receive at home. This support is a key aspect of being a
teacher—remember, you teach children, not subjects. As Maya Angelou said: “People will forget what you said,
people will forget what you did, but people will never forget how you made them feel.”
You are therefore a key player in developing your classroom as an inclusive, supportive community. Here are
some ways you can do this:
• Think about the values that are most important to you in developing your inclusive classroom
community. Consider some ways you can model these values through your behaviour.
The table below shows a number of values—in no particular order—that educators often refer to when they
talk about inclusive classroom communities.

Table 1: Values in inclusive classrooms and schools

Safety: emotional
Respect: for self and others Supportive relationships
and physical

Rights and responsibilities Participation Cooperation

Collaboration Non-violence Equity and fairness

Joy/Fun Love/Caring Hope/Optimism

Sustainability (maintaining the

Courage Affirmation of diversity
community over time)

A value is a concept that we think is important or useful.

Behaviours are the ways in which we put these values into action.

ACTIVITY 7: Ubuntu values

Writing
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Think about the values of ubuntu discussed in Unit 1. How do the values above relate to ubuntu? Think
of other ubuntu values and add them to the list above.
Unit 4

18
 Let’s look at some ways of putting one of those values into action in the classroom. In the following table, we
have taken the value “Respect for self and others”. In the right-hand column we have given some example
behaviours a teacher might show in a classroom that model respect for self and others.

Table 2: Examples of teacher modelling of values through behaviour

Examples of what I can do in the classroom to model this
Value
value through my behaviour

When learners ask to talk to me, I can give them the time to speak to me (even if it’s
not right at that moment). I can really listen to what they have to say and ask them
thoughtful questions.
I can talk to learners without raising my voice, even when I’m feeling frustrated and
stressed.
I can ask learners questions about their lives and treat their answers respectfully.

Respect for self and others
I can talk to learners about what respect means to them so that we have a shared
understanding in the class.
I can notice when learners are being respectful to each other and positively
reinforce this behaviour. I can notice when they aren’t showing respect and ask them
questions about our shared understanding of respect to help them understand and
change their behaviour.
I can explain to the class what I need from them in order to teach and help them
learn well.

ACTIVITY 8: Values in an inclusive classroom community

Writing
After looking at the example above, choose three other values from Table 1 and Activity 7 that you think
are important in developing an inclusive classroom community. Copy the blank table below, and for each
value, record some ways you think you could model this value through your behaviour in the classroom.

Examples of what I can do in the classroom to model this

Value
value through my behaviour
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

19
• Build relationships with learners
Positive relationships are an integral part of a classroom community. Learners feel cared about and valued,
which improves their psychosocial well-being, and the classroom runs more smoothly with a better atmosphere.
As a result, learning is more effective. Here are ten ways you can build relationships with your learners:

10 WAYS to build relationships with kids

1. Talk to them about non-school related subjects. 6. Tell amusing stories about yourself.
2. Let them teach you about their interests. 7. Share inspirational stories from your life.
3. Remember things about their lives. 8. Do crazy things.
4. Share about your own life. 9. Use their interests in your lessons and activities.
5. Engage in activities with them. 10. Apologize when you mess up.

Figure 9: Ten ways to build relationships with kids (Source: www.thepathway2success.com)

Let’s think about how these could work in practice.

ACTIVITY 9: How you can build relationships with

your learners

Writing
The questions below relate to the above list. Think through each question and note your answers.
1. How can you find out what your learners are interested in?
2. How can you encourage your learners talk to you about what they are interested in?
3. Sharing some aspects of your life reminds learners that you are human too. What would you be
happy to share about your own life? For example, think of a hilarious and/or embarrassing story
about yourself that you would be happy share you’re your learners. Think of an inspirational story
from your life that you think learners would find helpful and you could share.
4. What “crazy things” could you do with learners? Have an “odd socks” or a “funny hat” day? Show
them a new game in the play area together at break time? Whatever you do, remember to follow the
school policies so that everyone stays safe and healthy.
5. Think of three ways you could incorporate learners’ interests into your teaching.
6. Do you think it’s important to apologise to a child if you “mess up”? How would you go about this?
Can you think of more ways you could build relationships with your learners?

• Be explicit about what you are doing

This means making what you are doing clear to the class as you are doing it. If you are explicit, there can be
no confusion or doubt about your intentions and the importance you place on the values and behaviours
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

you are demonstrating. You might, for example:

• Discuss with the class what community means to them and what they want their classroom community to
be like.
• Choose a “value of the week” and talk with learners about what this means and how everyone in the class
can show it through their behaviour. Evaluate the process at the end of the week and choose the next
value together.
• Notice a learner showing a pro-social behaviour and talk about what you can see going on in a positive way
to the whole class.
• Talk with children about the pro-social behaviours they are going to learn from a particular activity or
curriculum material, and the values that are associated with it.
Unit 4

• Allow some time in the day to “check in” with learners and see how they are doing. Some teachers do this
verbally in circles; others use visuals, for example a tree, on which each learner sticks a leaf with their name
on it (high up for “feeling good”, low down for “not so good”). Talk with learners about why you are doing this
and why it’s important to know how we are feeling.
20
 Can you think of any more ways of being explicit about building community in your classroom?
By working on these three areas, you really can make a difference. While large classes in overcrowded
classrooms are challenging places, there is always something positive you can do as a teacher to develop your
inclusive classroom community.

2. Promoting values and behaviours that support, and are beneficial to, everyone
Now that you have an idea of your role, let’s turn our attention to the role of values and learners’ behaviours in
an inclusive classroom.
We have already introduced you to a number of values that are connected with inclusive communities (Table 1)
and asked you to reflect on them in relation to your role as a teacher. Let’s return to these values, but look at
them in the context of learners: What can they do to put inclusive values into action?
Let’s take one of these values and show how it could be put into action through learners’ behaviours. This time,
we have introduced a middle column so that you can be clearer with learners about the difference between
values, general behaviours connected with this value, and specific actions they can use to show this behaviour.

Table 3: Values and learners’ behaviours

Value (what Examples of

Examples of these behaviours as actions
we think is behaviours related
in the classroom
important) to the value

Safety—
Respecting personal Keep your hands, arms, legs and feet to yourself, even when you
physical and
space are angry or frustrated.
emotional

Ask people how they are doing—and really listen to their answer.
Kindness If someone is looking lonely at break time, ask them to join you and
your friends.

When others are taking risks with their learning (e.g. asking
questions, giving a presentation), imagine how you would feel and
Empathy
how you would want other people to treat you—so listen attentively,
show appreciation, ask thoughtful questions.

If you can see someone is feeling unsafe ask them if they are OK
Helpfulness
and if they need some help.

Note that we have used positive language that shows what you do want everyone to do. This is more effective
than saying what you don’t want learners to do, e.g. “no fighting”, “no put-downs”.
Have a go at thinking through this process.
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

21
 ACTIVITY 10: Putting values into action in the classroom

Writing
Choose three of the values from Table 1. You can stick to the ones you used in Activity 7, or choose
different ones.
Use Table 2 above as a guide for this activity.
Copy the blank table below, and write each value in the left-hand column (one per row).
For your first value, note down some examples of behaviours related to the value in the middle column, and
then some ways everyone in the classroom can put these behaviours into action in the right-hand column.
Then do the same for the second and third value you have chosen. You may find there is some overlap.

Examples of behaviours Examples of these behaviours

Value
related to the value as actions in the classroom

With younger children, the emphasis needs to be on teaching pro-social behaviours explicitly and using simple
language to talk about values. For older children, an effective way of putting these values, behaviours and actions
in place in your classroom is to involve the class in a similar process to the one you have just been through.
Activities that promote inclusive classroom communities
• “Getting to know you” activities that promote belonging
Often, learners spend a lot of time in the same classroom but don’t get to know each other beyond their
friendship groups. In order to promote a greater sense of belonging, try these activities:
1. Learners can work regularly in pairs or small groups and answer questions about aspects of their lives. Give
them a short time to answer each question so you keep the pace going. Swap the pairs or groups around so
learners get to know different people. Here are some questions to get you started:
-- What kind of music do you like?
-- If you could travel anywhere for free, where would you like to travel? Why?
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

-- What place that you have visited do you like the most?
-- When is your birthday?
-- Where were you born?
-- Who were you named after?
-- Where do members of your family come from?
-- What languages do they, and you, speak?
-- If you could be any animal that you wanted, what would you pick? Why?
-- If you became the principal, what is one thing you would change about this school if you could?
(Question source: https://edut.to/2W9klc5)
Unit 4

22
 2. Playing People Bingo or “Find someone who ...”
In this game, each learner has a sheet with a number of squares on it. A human characteristic is written in each
square, for example “Has a younger brother or sister”. The game is to find a learner in the class who matches
each square (a different learner for each square). They write the name or initial of that learner in the relevant
square. You can change the rules to match your class, so you might say:
1) “Find five people who match any five squares”
2) “Keep going until you complete a straight or diagonal line of squares”
3) “Fill in as many squares as you can in two (or three, or four ...) minutes”
The game finishes when a learner has completed the sheet according to the rules you set. If you are using (1)
or (2) above, the winner is the first person to finish and shout “Bingo!”. With (3) the winner (if you want one) is
the person who has filled in the most squares.
Here is the start of a bingo sheet you can use with learners. Fill in the rest of the squares, using characteristics
applicable to your context.

Knows how to
Has an older
play a musical
brother or sister
instrument

Is wearing
Knows a joke
something red

Knows how to say

hello in a language
other than English

Has lived in two,

Likes green or more, different
places

Has a younger
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Can sing a song

brother or sister

• Sharing responsibility in the classroom

Think about how you can share responsibility in the classroom for making it run smoothly, for example:
-- Giving out and collecting equipment or books
-- Taking the register
-- Monitoring noise levels
-- Moving furniture (safely!)
-- Cleaning the board
Make sure you change the learners’ tasks regularly.

23
This section has introduced you to the importance of developing classrooms and communities, and some ways
of doing so. It forms a solid foundation on which to build your inclusive practice. We leave it with a final thought,
from the Dalai Lama, to hold in your mind as you continue with this section:
I have always had this view about the modern education system: we pay attention to brain development, but
the development of warm-heartedness we take for granted. The Dalai Lama
We hope that you, as teachers for the 21st century, will work to change this.

2.1.2 Planning and catering for accessibility and engagement

This strategy refers to the environmental conditions that may need attention for individual learners to be able
to gain equitable access to learning. As a teacher, you may need to make adjustments to:
• Classroom layout, e.g. furniture, seating, seating plans
• Materials provided, e.g. presenting content and tasks through worksheets and technology, assistive technology
Remember, these adjustments are the starting point for equity. They give the learners the means to progress at
the same rate of learning as other learners, but they don’t guarantee progress; that is dependent on how learning
and teaching happen in your classroom. Consider how this relates to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in Unit 2.

a. Classroom layout
The physical environment of your classroom contributes greatly to your learners’ ability to learn. Even in a full
class with limited resources there are creative ways to arrange your classroom to ensure that your learners can
move around, interact and engage fully in all learning opportunities. Reflect on what you are trying to
accomplish and make your space work for you rather than against you. Also bear in mind that learners with
specific learning needs may require particular placement in the classroom to increase visibility, improve
access, or minimise distractions. For example, in a large class, a hearing-impaired child or one who struggles to
concentrate may find it difficult to focus in a noisy class if seated at the back of the room.
Here are some guiding questions that can be used when planning your classroom arrangement:
Visibility: Are there areas of the classroom where learners cannot easily see the board or screen? If so,
consider using these areas for small-group work or storage. Arrange your room so you can have eye contact
with all your learners, and make sure that each learner is able to see the board.
Proximity: Can you easily reach each learner in the room to provide extra instructional support? Can you
circulate round the classroom during whole-class teaching? Keep proximity between learners in mind as well.
Can learners easily move into peer groups when necessary? One way of ensuring this is to arrange the desks
in two loops—an interior and exterior loop. This arrangement gives you proximity to all learners and allows
learners to move into peer groups easily.
In a subject-specific classroom, where learners may need to share equipment and work easily in pairs or
groups, you might consider this arrangement:
Accessibility: Can learners easily reach materials
they need and all areas of the classroom, such as
interest tables, different workstations, the mat?
Consider patterns of movement in high-traffic areas,
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

for example are the waste basket and pencil

sharpener in an area of the room that is easily
accessible to everyone?
Safety: Have you consulted the school’s safety
requirements regarding fire regulations? In an
emergency can learners safely and quickly exit the
classroom? Are there items that may pose a threat
to safety (e.g. science lab equipment). If so, they
should be placed in a secure area.
Figure 10: Classroom layout (1) (Source: Frey N (2011) The effective
teacher’s guide: 50 ways to engage students and promote interactive
learning (2nd edition). New York: Guilford Press)
Unit 4

24
 The arrangement of desks will differ, depending on the
subject and grade level and also different types of
group work.
Environment: Bear in mind that, while desks arranged
in neat rows may make movement through the class
easier, this arrangement may not help to create a warm,
friendly environment. Many teachers find that using a
semicircle or cluster to arrange the desks in their
classrooms encourages cooperative learning, builds a
sense of community, and makes the best use of the
space. Ideal desk arrangements are an important
aspect of inclusive classrooms because they create
opportunities for learners to be actively engaged in
learning and to work cooperatively when appropriate.
Display: You can use walls and vertical space for Whiteboard Interactive Whiteboard
displaying learners’ work and learning enrichment
Figure 11: Classroom layout (2) (Source: Frey, 2011)
materials. However, remember not to over-clutter.
How you arrange your room depends on what furniture you have at your disposal. It is unlikely you will have
exactly what you would like, so an important question is “If I don’t have exactly what I want, how can I improvise?”

ACTIVITY 11: Design your classroom

Writing
Visualise a typical classroom you have been in, or are likely to teach in. Determine the grade and
subject (if applicable).
Draw the layout you think will work best to meet the following requirements:
• All learners can see you and the board
• Learners can easily move into groups for group work
• Activity or workstations are included
• Materials and resources are easily accessible
• Wall space is utilised well
• Individual learners are seated in ways that best support their learning

ACTIVITY 12: Explain layout choices

Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Writing
Write a paragraph explaining why you have made the layout choices you have made and how they meet
the criteria.

b. Clearing clutter in the classroom

The overarching aim for teachers who work inclusively is to have enough stimuli in the classroom to enable all
learners to engage enthusiastically in, and make meaning from, a learning task—but not so much that it
detracts from learning.

25
In the classroom, clutter is anything that overwhelms learners and detracts from learning. It could be
connected to:
The physical space: e.g. furniture in walkways, books and paper not put away, too many displays or displays
too “busy”. Distractibility decreases with age, so for younger children in particular, too many and/or very
colourful displays can negatively affect learning. If you are a teacher of five- to seven-year-olds, you might like
to learn more about this area of research here: http://bit.ly/2JTQAVh
Materials: Sometimes materials—for example posters, worksheets, signage, presentations (either on chalk
board or using technology)—can be too “busy” with text, pictures, colour, or a combination of these. Material
that distracts or leads to sensory overload can negatively impact learning. If you follow this style guide, which
has been designed for people with dyslexia, you will be ensuring that the largest number of learners in your
class can access your materials: http://bit.ly/2HIUpKn

c. Materials provided
We refer here to the materials your learners use that make it possible for them to access learning equitably.
Some learners may also require assistive devices and/or technology that enable them to have equitable
access to learning. These devices range from low-tech (such as pencil grips, glasses) to high-tech (such as
hearing aids, speech-to-text software). This film gives you a good idea of the range of assistive devices some
learners need: http://y2u.be/b0udSG_OyT0
Your School-Based Support Team (SBST) will be a good source of information and advice about assistive
devices, and will be able to help you adapt your teaching accordingly.

2.1.3 Positive discipline

a. What is positive discipline?
Traditional discipline practices, which are still common in South African schools, begin from a negative view of
learners’ nature (and human nature). They see behavioural problems as a problem with particular learners
rather than considering larger contextual issues, such as the curriculum and teaching methods.
The use of threats, punishments and rewards might result in learners’ temporary compliance and obedience,
but these are not effective for creating a warm, caring and respectful learning community. What is often
considered to be giving learners a choice—either comply or suffer the consequences—is in fact another way
of pressuring them into obeying teachers’ demands and requirements, and fails to teach them responsible
behaviour. Instead it teaches them how to avoid punishment or win rewards.
Alfie Kohn (1996) realised that the discipline problems he experienced with some of his own classes were not a
result of learners who were insufficiently controlled but of a curriculum that was insufficiently engaging (i.e. the
learners weren’t trying to make his life miserable, they were trying to make the time pass faster.) It occurred to
him that books on discipline almost never raise the possibility that when learners don’t do what they are told,
the problem may be with what they have been told to do or learn, rather than with the learners themselves.
Positive discipline6: is an alternative approach that promotes learners’ self-control, teaches them responsibility
and helps them make thoughtful choices. The more effective teachers are at encouraging appropriate learner
behaviour, the less time and effort they will need to spend correcting learners’ misbehaviour.
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Effective positive discipline focuses on the development of the learner and ensures that the learner’s self-
esteem and dignity are preserved. Actions that acknowledge a learner’s efforts and progress, no matter how
slow or small, are likely to encourage healthy development and positive attitudes towards schooling.
Respect for others, consideration, efficiency, pride of accomplishment, and security in knowing what, how,
when, and where to do something, are all positive characteristics of learners who learn in well-organised
classrooms. Implementing strategies that address these areas can lead to increased academic achievement
and a sense of pride and belonging.

Definition
Unit 4

6 Positive discipline: An approach to learner behaviour that promotes learners’ self-control, teaches them
responsibility and helps them make thoughtful choices.

26
 b. Implementing positive discipline
In order to implement positive discipline effectively, here are some essential things you need to know about
working with challenging behaviour.
• Understand the underlying reason for behaviour
Very few learners have clinical behavioural disorders.
There is an underlying reason for challenging behaviour in
the majority of learners, which cannot be attributed to
innate naughtiness. Use your knowledge of learners’ lives
and learning backgrounds to consider why they might be
misbehaving. Find out what is causing the behaviour and
put a plan in place to address it. Sometimes poor behaviour
is a direct result of poor teaching. If learners are frustrated,
bored or do not find the teaching relevant or interesting
they may misbehave.
Figure 12: What is the problem?
• All behaviour is learnt
Children learn how to behave and they learn how to react in certain circumstances. They learn this from their
families, friends, teachers and people around them. Second to their parents, you as teachers have the most
influence when it comes to teaching the behaviour you want to see in children. If children have not learnt
appropriate behaviour at home you will need to teach it to them. Don’t assume a learner knows how to behave
if no one has shown them.
Think about this: If Mike got a maths sum wrong you would not send him out of the class and punish him. You
would reteach the maths, show him how to do it correctly and give him more chances to practise and get it
right. Teaching behaviour is no different. Punishing inappropriate behaviour doesn’t help a learner to get it
right. You need to reteach, demonstrate and model the appropriate behaviour, and give the learner a chance
to think about, practise and learn what is expected. Much of our rational thinking and decision-making goes on
in the brain’s frontal cortex. If you want a child to change their behaviour for the long term, this is the part of
the brain that needs to be engaged in the change. Punishment does not engage the frontal cortex.
• Corporal punishment is illegal
Corporal punishment was declared illegal in South Africa in 1996:
Prohibition of corporal punishment
(1) No person may administer corporal punishment at a school to a learner.
(2) Any person who contravenes subsection (1) is guilty of an offence and liable on conviction to a sentence
which could be imposed for assault. (South African Schools Act No 84 of 1996)
Furthermore, the DBE has stated that:
Corporal Punishment has been abolished. Educators and learners have to learn the importance of mediation
and cooperation, to seek and negotiate non-violent solutions to conflict and differences and to make use of
due process of law. (Protocol to deal with incidences of corporal punishment in schools, DBE, 2017)
In spite of this legislation, research shows that corporal punishment continues to be used as a form of discipline
in many South African schools. And corporal punishment is not just an abuse of human rights. Research shows
that it is not an effective means of changing behavioural patterns for the better. In fact, punishments do little to
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

help a learner to understand why their behaviour was inappropriate, leading to real behaviour change. They
may seem to work in the short term but they actually lead to increased behaviour issues in the long term.
Instead of learning appropriate behaviour, punishment teaches avoidance, leads to aggression, humiliates
learners, forces them to take a defensive stance, and encourages an us–them mentality.

27
 ACTIVITY 13: Why punishment is not effective

Reading
Read the following articles and answer the questions below: http://bit.ly/2WXLdbg and
http://bit.ly/2QhfpMk
1. What are some of the reasons given for why punishment is not effective?
2. In your own experience at school, what was the approach to behaviour management? What were the
positive consequences? What were the negative consequences?
3. Where punishment was used, were some learners punished more than others? Did it change their
behaviour?
4. What alternatives to punishment are suggested? Can you think of any others?

• Positive behaviour reinforcement has proven to be most effective

If you actively teach, model and reinforce positive behaviours as opposed to always focusing on negative
behaviours, your learners will learn what is expected of them, feel more valued and connected, and learn more
effectively. Let’s explore one model that enables teachers to do this in practice.
The PBIS model
The Positive Behavioural Interventions and Supports Programme (PBIS) developed in the US has been
effectively implemented in countries around the world, including South Africa. This model takes into account
the essential features of effective behaviour management as discussed above, and is based on the beliefs that:
-- Behaviour expectations need to be actively taught
-- Positive reinforcement is more effective than punishment
-- Behaviour interventions need to be tiered

Go to www.pbis.org for resources to learn more about and implement a PBIS approach.

Just as you differentiate your teaching for different learning needs, you should also differentiate behaviour
interventions for learners with different behaviour support needs. The PBIS Model is based on a three-tier
system of support, as illustrated here:
Tier 1 outlines the universal, school-
wide interventions for all learners.
Approximately 80–90% of learners,
Intensive (Tier 3) once they understand the behaviour
Individual interventions for
expectations, respond to Tier 1
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

students with intensive chronic

behaviour challenges.
Targeted (Tier 2)
Specialized interventions for
learners who are at risk for
academic or social failure due
to behaviour challenges.
Universal (Tier 1)
School - wide
interventions for
all learners.
Figure 13: PBIS tiers (Source: www.pbis.org)
interventions.
Tier 2 looks at more targeted
interventions for 5–15% of the learner
population who, from the perspective of
their behaviour, might be at risk of
exclusion from learning.
Tier 3 puts more intensive interventions
in place for 1–5% of learners with
chronic behaviour problems.
These tiers are described in more detail
Unit 4

in Table 4.

28
 Table 4: PBIS descriptions

Tier Prevention description

Preventing the development of new cases (incidences) of problem behaviours.

1 Primary (Universal) How? By implementing high quality learning environments for all learners and staff and
across all settings (i.e. school-wide, classroom, and non-classroom).

Reducing the number of existing cases (prevalence) of problem behaviours that are
presenting high-risk behaviours and/or not responsive to primary intervention practices.
2 Secondary (Targeted)
How? By providing more focused, intensive, and frequent small-group-oriented
responses in situations where problem behaviour is likely.

Reducing the intensity of persistent problem behaviour that have not responded to
primary and secondary prevention efforts.
3 Tertiary (Intensive)
How? By providing individualised responses to situations where problem behaviour
is likely.

(Source: www.pbis.org)

Tier 1 and 2 classroom strategies

• Actively teach the behaviour you want to see in the classroom
Re-teach it when necessary. Teaching behaviour involves the following approach:

How to model appropriate behaviour:

• Use a polite, friendly tone to learners, as a class

Define appropriate behaviour and as individuals. Be firm when necessary.
Consistently

Model appropriate behaviour
Teach appropriate behaviour
Reinforce appropriate behaviour
Acknowledge appropriate behaviour
• Follow the classroom rules and behave as you
would like the learners to behave.
• Take time to think and calm down before you
explode with anger and criticise, belittle or
threaten a learner.
• If you lost your temper in class, reflect on what
happened and what you could do differently to
avoid it happening again.

• Use positive language

Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

“Don’t run” doesn’t tell me what to do, only what not to do. “Walk in the corridor” tells me what is expected.
Framing rules positively helps teach appropriate behaviour. For example, “Be kind”, “Use your quiet voice”.
• Develop and teach predictable classroom routines
Well-established and consistently applied routines help learners to know exactly what to do and when to do it.
Routines for transitioning from one task to another are also essential. A well-structured and efficient classroom
goes a long way towards building behaviour that is helpful for learning. Increase predictability by warning
learners of approaching change.
• Be consistent
Respond to positive and negative behaviour in a consistent way, from one situation to the next, and from one
learner to another.

29
• Give positive praise
Look for examples of good behaviour to acknowledge and reinforce.
Expect the best from all
All too often teachers spend their day saying “Don’t do this … Stop
learners
doing that … This is wrong …” and too little time saying “Well done for
… Good job on ... Thank you for ….” Build learners’ image of
themselves as trustworthy,
• Adopt fair and predictable consequences
responsible and cooperative
Consequences should not be punishments in disguise. The long-
term goal should be behavioural change, and consequences should Help learners see how their
aim at achieving that goal. For example, a detention where the actions affect others
learner must write out “I will not be bad” 500 times does not change
behaviour. However, a detention where there is a conversation
between the learner and the relevant adult that leads to an agreed plan for future improvement is meaningful.
Discussing and agreeing consequences with learners is also more effective than determining these yourself,
because if they share ownership of consequences these become meaningful rather than arbitrary.
• Negotiate a classroom behaviour code
Establishing the behaviour expectations in your classroom is an essential element of an inclusive classroom
environment. Learners need to know how they should work together and the values that underlie these
expectations, such as mutual respect.
Norms that emphasise cooperation and collaboration are best established together with your learners. This
signals to them that learning is social and done in the company of others and that the primary role of the
teacher is to foster learning rather than control and confine them.
Here are some that you could adapt and expand to meet the needs of your class and grade level:
-- Treat others as you want to be treated
-- Respect other people and their property
-- Be responsible for your own learning
-- Come to class and hand in work on time
-- Work quietly when others are working around you
A general guideline is that each norm should be brief and positively stated. Statements that begin with the
words “No” or “Don’t” are not helpful because learners are left to guess what behaviour is acceptable. Focus on
the desired behaviour, rather than the one to be avoided.
Teach these expected behaviour norms regularly. Discuss each one individually, explaining the rationale behind it.
Model them yourself, for example how learners should speak to each other in class and on the playground.

ACTIVITY 14: Draw up norms for your grade

Writing
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

1. Draw up a set of norms that might be appropriate for your grade. Consider the developmental level
and socio-cultural background of your learners and use language that is meaningful to them. Limit
the number to about five and make sure they are positively stated.
2. Discuss your draft norms with other students to get constructive feedback.
3. At the next opportunity, draw up class norms with learners—it is important to do this in partnership
with them so that they have equal ownership of them. Use ideas from Section 2.2.3 to help you think
about how this activity can be done in groups.
Unit 4

30
 • Teach and practise active listening
Listening is an important skill, for both social and educational reasons. Help learners to feel they are welcome
and trusted members of the class community by giving them your complete, undivided attention when they are
speaking. Active listening involves both verbal and nonverbal behaviours. Turn your body to the learner,
maintain eye contact, nod your head, use facial expressions (e.g. smile, look interested), and use verbal cues
(e.g. “Oh …” “That’s interesting”).
Teach your learners how to be active listeners. Talk to them about the importance of being a good listener.
When planning a listening activity or experience, always give learners a reason why they are being asked to
listen. Help them to understand what they need to listen for, not simply that they need to listen.
Prepare the class for the listening activity by ending any previous activity, getting rid of noise and distraction,
and creating a comfortable environment.
Teachers have for many years been developing ideas for promoting a positive behaviour environment that
works well in their class. Ideas for teaching and encouraging appropriate behaviour can be found on the
internet on websites and blogs, and also through discussion with teaching peers. As you grow in your own
inclusive teaching practice you will also develop strategies that work well for you. Some will work well in certain
grades and not in others; different groups of children will respond differently to strategies. It is important,
therefore, to have a wide range of ideas to choose from and to know where to find more.
Below are two examples of positive behaviour management ideas:
• Create classroom rituals
Creating classroom rituals can encourage positive feelings and help learners to bond with each other. In many
instances, classroom disruptions can be minimised if effective class rituals are in place.
For example, if a teacher has a warm-up or do-now task written on the board when learners enter the room,
this gives them a lesson-centred framework for starting the day. Learners are expected to sit in their seats and
begin working when they enter the class. While there may be times when this does not occur, just having a
warm-up ready each day means that learners have less free time to chat and become disruptive.
Rituals can also be used to at the end of the day to encourage learners to reflect on what they have learnt.
Examples of activities could include learners:
-- Drawing a picture of something they learnt that day
-- Writing a reflective paragraph in their journal
-- Writing a note to their teacher stating one thing they learnt during the day and one thing that they need to
work harder on
-- As a class, writing their own song to sing or poem to recite at the end of every day
• Have regular class meetings
Teachers can foster a supportive class culture by teaching learners problem-solving and conflict-resolution
skills. The teacher assigns a time of day when learners form a circle and work together to discuss and solve
classroom issues and problems. Meetings like this can help create a sense of belonging and trust for learners,
and also encourage learners to work together to solve problems, at the same time practising pro-social skills.
Suggested meeting items include:
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

-- Appreciation of one another: This component of a classroom meeting provides teachers with the
opportunity to teach learners how to give compliments or show appreciation to classmates, as well as
how to receive appreciation and compliments. The focus should be on qualities of the learner and things
they have accomplished (e.g. “Thank you for helping me learn my spelling words for this week”), rather
than on physical appearance.
-- Conflict resolution and problem solving: In these activities learners work together to help learners who
have identified that they have an individual problem; or the class works to solve a problem they feel they
are having as a whole (e.g. getting into trouble for littering in the school yard, or the increase in cyber
bullying in the school). Learners work together to develop a list of possible solutions, evaluate those
solutions, and the learners involved in the problem then select a solution to try. Learners also share how
previous problem-solving attempts have worked. This allows for further suggestions if the previous
solution was not successful.

31
 Conflict resolution and problem solving are important skills that have lifelong application for
learners. Some schools aim to build these through initiatives such as peer mediation (see:
http://y2u.be/epqhqg1bt44) and restorative practice. Restorative practice in schools is a way
of resolving conflict that places repairing harm and relationships at its heart in order to build
stronger communities. You are aware of South Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission,
and may be aware of the use of restorative justice within the criminal justice sector; school
restorative practices are based on the same philosophy, but tailored for use in education. If
you’re interested in finding out more, here is an excellent place to start: http://bit.ly/2I8cRft

-- Classroom encouragement activity: This is designed to give encouragement to the entire class. One
example is the classroom teacher writing personal notes to each learner thanking them for something
they did or acknowledging specific improvements in academic achievement or behaviour (Edwards &
Mullis, 2003).

ACTIVITY 15: How to promote a positive

behaviour environment

Reading
Do some research on the internet to find different ideas and tips that you think might be useful to
promote a positive behaviour environment in your class. You can also look at this guide form the
Western Cape Education Department for ideas: http://bit.ly/2HspOSi
Keep in mind that these ideas should follow the principle that it is more effective to reinforce
appropriate behaviour than it is to punish bad behaviour.
Think about ways you could adapt these to make them relevant to classes you will teach.
Copy the table below, and fill in your ideas.

Positive discipline strategy How to implement in class

INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Tier 3 classroom strategies

Tier 3 strategies are aimed at reducing the intensity of persistent problem behaviour that has not responded to
primary and secondary prevention efforts. This is done by providing individualised responses to situations
where problem behaviour is likely.
• Contracts
For some learners the general guidelines for behaviour are not sufficient, and they may need more intensive,
individualised support. A behaviour contract is a good example of a Tier 3 support strategy.
A contract is a joint agreement between learner and teacher to accomplish something specific (e.g. a desired
behaviour or an academic task). The behaviours described in the contract must be something that the learner
Unit 4

wants to change. For the contract to be effective, the learner must be committed to changing their behaviour, and
must be involved in deciding how it is going to work, e.g. what the consequences will be if the contract is broken.

32
 This is a joint agreement and you will need to be prepared to play your part in making the change happen. An
honest conversation with a learner may reveal that some of the ways you have been trying to manage their
behaviour are making things worse rather than helping. You must therefore also be committed to changing
your behaviour as necessary.
A contract is best developed through a one-to-one conversation between the teacher and the learner. A useful
principle for this conversation is “Never tell what you can ask”. It’s more effective to ask questions and really
listen to each other’s answers, rather than tell a child everything they have done wrong. If you go into “telling”
mode they are likely to switch off. Below are some helpful questions.

Table 5: Helpful questions for conversations about behaviour

Question Notes

What’s been happening? This question gives both teacher and learner an opportunity to talk about what
behaviours they think are getting in the way of learning. Be prepared as a teacher to
hear things you do that the learner is finding unhelpful, as well as what they do.

What are you thinking when
[particular behaviour]
happens?
Repeat this question for each problematic behaviour. Answer it from your point of
view too, when you find out that something you have been doing is unhelpful. For
example, “I feel really frustrated when we’re having a class discussion and you
interrupt; that’s why I raise my voice at you.” This is a great opportunity for the
learner to understand that you are also human and that you are prepared to express
emotions. Obviously, you will only share what you are comfortable with, using
appropriate language.

How is this affecting both Here’s a good opportunity to talk about how the behaviour is affecting learning—
of us? both of the learner and others in the class, your ability to teach, and your teacher–
learner relationship.

What needs to happen to
fix things? How can we
make sure we don’t end up
in this situation again?
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING
This is the place to discuss how things can get better in the future. It’s the place
where an agreement that forms the contract is negotiated. What changes need to
happen, the timescale for the contract and review arrangements are all important
here. So, too, is using the actual language the learner uses—avoid “teacher-speak”.
You may need to reframe language so that it outlines behaviours that you do want,
rather than describes them negatively, e.g. “Ask before borrowing equipment” rather
than “Don’t take other people’s equipment without asking”.
The contract is likely to include changes from both the learner and you; if they see
you are also willing to make changes they are more likely to view the contract as fair
and stick to it.
If relationships have been affected, apologies often happen at this point, but don’t
force them—an insincere apology usually makes things worse rather than better.

You can use the questions in this table with any learner when things go wrong at a minor level (for more
serious levels of harm you will need some training to keep everyone safe). As long as you use them calmly, with
an open mind, the commitment to really listen to the learner, and a willingness to accept you could be part of
the problem, you’re likely to be pleasantly surprised at the outcomes.
Here is an example of a contract between a learner, Patricia, in Grade 5, and her Natural Sciences teacher, Ms
Ntuli. The contract is the result of a conversation they had using the questions in Table 5 above.

33
CONTRACT EXAMPLE

Agreement between Patricia Esack and Ms Ntuli

Date:
I, Patricia Esack [learner], agree that during the next two days:
1. I will listen quietly to the others in the class when they are speaking.
2. If I need help, I will remember to:
• Check in my head once more that I really am stuck
• Look at the board and my book again to see if I can find the answer to my question
• Use Three Before Me
• Then put my hand up if I still need help from Ms Ntuli
3. I will ask my friends before I borrow their things.

I, Ms Ntuli [teacher], agree that during the next two days:

1. I will remind Patricia about listening through eye contact whenever possible and by putting my finger to
my lips, rather than remind her using words.
2. I will let Patricia know as soon as I have seen her hand up and give her a rough estimate of how long she
will need to wait for her turn for help.
3. I will notice when Patricia is sticking to this agreement, even when she finds it hard, and will give her a
thumbs-up and a smile.

We will review the contract together on If Patricia has been making a good
effort, Ms Ntuli will then call Patricia’s mother after the end of school to let her know.

Signed:
Learner: Teacher:

Three Before Me involves asking three peers for help before asking the teacher. It is a useful
strategy, as it promotes perseverance and independent and collaborative learning skills. It also
means, in large classes, that your attention can be focused on learners who need it most.

ACTIVITY 16: Draw up a contract

INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Writing
Think about a learner whose behaviour you have found challenging in the past.
If you’d had a chance to have a positive conversation with this learner using the questions in the table
above, what agreements do you think you might have come to? Draw up a contract you think would
have been helpful. Make sure your language stays positive—avoid “don’t” and “no”.

Contracts may be made for short periods, e.g. a class period, a school day, or a week. For example, for a
learner who has difficulty organising their time and structuring their own activities, it would not be helpful to
make a contract for the entire term—smaller chunks of time work better.
Unit 4

Consistency is vital. If you or the learner break the contract, a further reflective conversation about what
happened and how to prevent this happening again will be needed. Behaviour habits can be hard to change,
so be prepared to give learners time to practise and to make mistakes.

34
 You will see many examples of behaviour contracts that use rewards such as stickers, tokens or extra time for a
favourite activity. While these can be effective in the short term for younger children, they lose their appeal
and effectiveness as learners get older. What is more likely to be effective is positive feedback from the school
to an adult the learner respects (usually a family member). Even when things haven’t gone perfectly, if the
learner has been making a real effort you can feed this back to an adult who matters to them. This positive
feedback is likely to motivate the learner to persevere.
As with the other strategies, care must be taken to avoid marginalising the learner by the use of the contract. To
support inclusive principles, it is best to view the contract as a private agreement between you and the learner;
it may be better—unless you both agree otherwise—not to talk about it in front of other learners in class.

School-wide intervention strategies

The key to a successful positive behaviour management approach is consistency.
Be safe This means not only consistency in the way you manage behaviour in the
classroom, but also consistency in the way the whole school approaches it. The
Be responsible whole school should share the same values and promote the same behaviour in
all areas of the school at all times.
Be respectful • Choose core values and actively promote them. Clearly display them around
the school and promote them at all times.
• Always be on the lookout for good behaviour.

EXAMPLE

Pinelands North Primary School, Cape Town

“Caught in the act … of being good!*”
Throughout the school, teachers, staff and visitors
are encouraged to acknowledge good behaviour. To
facilitate this the school has “Caught in the act … .of
being good!” slips that can be filled with the
learner’s name, the details and date, and handed in
at the office. Just before break the principal reads
them out over the intercom and a note is sent home.
It has shifted the focus from constantly looking out
for bad behaviour to actively seeking out good
behaviour. It has caught on to such an extent that
even people in the community respond.
A woman was shopping at the nearby Spar
supermarket and a Pinelands North Primary learner
offered to take her grocery bags to her car. She
went to the school and filled out a “Caught in the act
…. of being good!” slip!

• As well as “Caught in the act of being good!”, try “Caught in the act of being better!” This will give a wider
scope for this positive reinforcement strategy.
• Most incidents of bullying or fighting happen outside structured classroom spaces, for example the
corridors or playground. Strategic adult supervision in these areas can help to minimise these. Peer
mediators can also help resolve everyday, more minor conflicts in these areas.
• On the first day of term include behaviour expectations as part of the orientation. Walking learners around the
school and explaining the appropriate behaviour for each area is very effective. For example, “This is how we
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

walk in these corridors, this is where you line up for tuck shop, and this is a quiet area where we only whisper.”

2.1.4 Affirming diversity

Affirming diversity means promoting diversity as a normal and positive part of everyday life in your classroom.
Doing this increases the level of understanding we have of each other—both in terms of the richness of our
differences and the things we share as human beings. If we don’t understand our differences, we can’t respect,
honour and celebrate them: “We can’t embrace what we don’t know” (Lesufi, 2017). And we won’t find out
unless we ask and then make sure everyone is listened to. Hearing, and really listening to, the voices of learners
on the receiving end of intersectional inequalities that exist as a legacy of apartheid is therefore particularly
important in terms of understanding and embracing diversity in South Africa. As Lesufi (ibid.) in his call for
diversity to be taught in schools across South Africa, puts it, “We can’t leverage the benefit of our diverse
groups if we don’t allow their voices and opinions to matter.”

35
 ACTIVITY 17: The importance of affirming diversity

Audio Visual
Watch this minute-long film based on research about the impact of teacher behaviour on learners:
http://bit.ly/2QwjJYc
When you have watched it once, go back and pause it at 31 seconds to look more carefully at specific
teacher behaviours and their impact. Make a note of these behaviours as we will refer to them again
later in the activity.
According to the research behind this film, identity-based assumptions lead to the most negative
behaviour towards learners in our classrooms. We all make assumptions and in Unit 2 we explored the
ways our assumptions can damage learning and relationships in the classroom.
1. If you feel you need to revisit your assumptions, spend a couple of minutes now asking yourself,
“What are some of the identity-based assumptions I have made about people?” Acknowledging these
is the first step towards changing them.
2. At the other end of the spectrum, cultural acknowledgment appeared to be the most helpful teacher
behaviour for positively affirming learners’ identities. Watch this example of how one teacher puts
this behaviour, and others indicated in the film, into action: http://y2u.be/I0jgcyfC2r8
3. Which of the other affirming behaviours from the previous film is the teacher showing here?
4. How do you think these behaviours, through the handshakes, affirm learners’ diversity in his
classroom? How do you think they might feel when they enter the classroom?
5. Using the affirming behaviours from the first film, think about and note down as many ways through
which you can affirm diversity in your classroom. If possible, compare and contrast these to those of
other students.
6. In particular, how can you make sure that the voices and opinions of all of your learners are heard in
your classroom?

What might affirming diversity look like in practice? Firstly, how does what you do impact on whether diversity
is affirmed or not in your classroom? Secondly, what sorts of activities can you organise that enable learners to
appreciate and affirm each other’s diversity?
Academics from the University of Bristol worked with teachers of Religious Education in the UK to research this
area called “Shared Spaces” (Jones, Willliams & Orchard, 2018). Their evidence indicates the following five
broad activity areas for the classroom:
• Interaction between learners, and between learners and the local community
• Learning about difference
• Challenging stereotypes (the teacher also plays an important role here)
• Empathising with others who are different from themselves
• Celebrating diversity
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Affirming diversity through Indigenous Knowledge Systems

In Unit 1 we talked about the importance of integrating Indigenous Knowledge Systems7 (IKS) into the
curriculum, to affirm and celebrate diversity in our classroom. We saw how the teachers in a study by Maren
Seehaver (2018) chose appropriate curriculum content from the CAPS and planned lessons that integrated IK
and curriculum knowledge. Read the section headed: Planning the integration of indigenous knowledges
(http://bit.ly/2WI03XF pages 100–104) and do the following activity.

Definition
Unit 4

7 Indigenous Knowledge Systems: The complex set of knowledge, skills and technologies existing and developed
around specific conditions of populations and communities indigenous to a particular geographic area.

36
 ACTIVITY 18: Affirming diversity by linking IKs to
curriculum content

Writing
1. Refer to the CAPS for your subject and grade level and plan a lesson integrating IK and curriculum content.
2. Think about what kind of IK to integrate into your lesson. How will you ensure maximum participation by
all your learners in the lesson?
3. List the possible benefits learners will gain from the lesson.
4. Decide what teaching and learning methods you will use and explain your choices. Use the list on page
101 as a guide.

2.1.5 Allowing space for learners’ voices

Here we are concerned with the experiences of the individuals participating in learning. Allowing appropriate
time and space for learners to make connections between learning and their own experiences, and express
these, is important for engagement and helps to make learning “stick”.
Through making space for learners’ voices, teachers can actively encourage and enable the sharing of
responsibility in the classroom and across the school. By having a voice in decision-making about classroom
and school values, behaviours, physical environments and routines, learners contribute to achieving a
productive, purposeful and harmonious working and learning atmosphere. This atmosphere supports, and is
supported by, a cooperative learning approach, which engenders pro-social skills such as empathy, respect,
and support for others’ learning and social needs. Peer learning, cooperative learning and group work will be
covered in detail in Section 2.2.3.

a. The amount of teacher talk

Teachers have a habit of talking too much or in the wrong ways! For example: talking too much; talking too fast;
too many instructions at once; unclear or complicated instructions; talking too soon after questioning so
learners don’t have enough thinking time.
The following paragraph from the Visible Learning project gives some useful information about the optimum
amount of teacher talk, and the type of teacher talk that is particularly helpful:
The target range for you to be talking is 30–50%, with the “high” range reaching from 51–79%, and “very high”
being over 80%. It’s important not to have too high a TTT percentage, because learners benefit from
opportunities to demonstrate their learning through engagement and discussion. Keep in mind though, that
quality of teacher talk is important! If you are giving personalised presentation, questioning learners, engaging
in natural conversation, or providing anecdotes/stories to promote engagement and understanding, then high
teacher talk is beneficial. Always keep the context of your class in mind. (Visible Classoom Team, 2017)
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

ACTIVITY 19: Think about teacher talk

Journal
Too much teacher talk in a classroom is extremely common. Think about your own experience as a
learner. Did you have a teacher who talked too much, or unhelpfully? How did this affect your learning?
How can teachers cut down on unnecessary teacher talk?

37
b. Noise level
Noise levels in the classroom can sometimes get too high for optimum
concentration or for learners to hear the teacher clearly, which will
Voice Levels
affect comprehension levels. Some learners who are more sensitive to

4
sensory overload may also find high noise levels very stressful. Outside Voice
Some teachers find using a chart like Figure 14 helpful to keep noise at a Playground Talk

3
good level for learning. This will be particularly important for overcrowded
classrooms with many learners and acoustics that do not help the situation: Loud Proud Voice
Classroom Talk
Through a chart like this, teachers and learners can agree on and

2
maintain noise levels that are right for activities in the classroom and Normal Voice
make sure that everyone is able to learn effectively. If, as activities Table Talk
progress, noise levels are rising, you can use the chart as a reminder.

1 Whisper Voice
During group work you can allocate a role to someone to monitor noise
(see Section 2.2.3 c. Group work). Partner Talk

0
It is also important to have a range of strategies for reducing noise
Silent Voice
levels in classes without having to raise your own voice over your
learners’ voices (which will just make the noise level rise). The following
No Talking
video shows you five ways of doing this, using both verbal and non- Figure 14: Voice levels
verbal strategies: http://y2u.be/jOthR55now0
This concludes the section on creating an inclusive classroom environment where all learners feel valued as
members of the classroom community and motivated to learn and achieve to the best of their ability.
We will now turn our attention to teaching and learning strategies that will support you in your goal of providing
quality learning opportunities for all the learners in your class.

2.2 Using inclusive teaching

and learning strategies
This section introduces you to teaching and learning strategies you can use to make your teaching more
inclusive. Once you have explored these strategies in detail, you should then be able to plan lessons that take
diverse learner needs into account and offer rich opportunities for all learners to achieve success in learning.
The first strategy we will look at is scaffolding8 .

2.2.1 Scaffolding
In construction, a scaffold is a temporary structure that is erected around an unfinished building, supporting
the structure until it is sufficiently stable to stand on its own.
a. What is scaffolding?
If you’ve learnt to ride a bike, you’ll remember that
someone probably helped you at first, by holding on to the
bike and then letting go as you became more confident.
Scaffolding in teaching is similar to this, and to the
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

scaffolding used in building construction. Instructional

scaffolds are temporary support structures teachers put in
place to help learners in mastering new tasks and
concepts they can’t master on their own. The teacher
builds supports based on what learners already know, as
new skills or concepts are introduced. As they work on
tasks, learners become less dependent on these support
structures, which can be removed gradually.
Figure 15: Scaffolding

Definition
Unit 4

8 Scaffolding: Temporary instructional support structures the teacher puts in place to help learners to master new
tasks and concepts they cannot master on their own.

38
 The responsibility for learning shifts from the teacher to the
Zone of proximal development
learner. The scaffolding process helps guide the learners through
(Learner can do with guidance)
their “zone of proximal development9”, as shown in Figure 16.
One of the main benefits of scaffolded instruction is that it
provides for a supportive learning environment. Because the
learning tasks are clear and manageable, as well as related to
learners’ experiences, they interest learners and enable them to Learner
get involved with the learning. Using scaffolds for concepts or can do
unaided
skills that learners have had difficulty with, or new material that is
potentially difficult or abstract, will help increase learners’
confidence, as well as reducing their frustration and anxiety
levels. More complex content might require a number of scaffolds
given at different times to help learners master the content. Learner cannot do
Scaffolding is not about giving learners answers. At all times the
focus is on learners finding solutions themselves. Even at the
beginning of the scaffolding process it is therefore important to Figure 16: Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development
(Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
ask questions, rather than give the answers, if a learner gets File:Zone_of_proximal_development.svg)
something wrong.

b. Implementing scaffolding strategies

A teacher using scaffolding might break down a lesson into a series of “mini-lessons”. The first mini-lessons
might contain more scaffolded support, for example:
• Building on prior knowledge and learner experience
• Modelling what the learners need to do or achieve
• Breaking down the learning into steps (often called “chunking”)
• Giving step-by-step instructions
• Providing cue cards (reminders of key information that learners need to reach the learning outcome,
including vocabulary, sentence starters, formulae, questions for discussion)
• Encouraging use of first language in discussion or thinking processes to increase understanding
• Pre-learning vocabulary needed for later in the learning
• Using graphic organisers
• Using visual cues like gestures, pictures, diagrams
• Using short excerpts of a longer text as a basis for discussion—the longer text is introduced later in the
learning process
• Verbalising the thinking process while solving a problem (sometimes called “think-alouds”)
• Giving hints—suggestions and clues, e.g. “Maybe add the water before the acid”, “How about starting that
sentence with ‘As a result …’?”
• Giving time to practise chunks of learning before moving on to new chunks
As the “mini-lessons” progress, the teacher reduces the amount of scaffolding and gradually hands over more
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

independence to the learners as their confidence grows.

Definition
9 Zone of proximal development: The difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can
do with help. The concept was developed by Soviet psychologist and social constructivist Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934).
(www.innovativelearning.com/.../zone-of-proximal-development.html)

39
 ACTIVITY 20: Observe scaffolding in action

Audio Visual
Here are two short films about scaffolding in action.
http://y2u.be/5hWDbSx_kdo (younger learners)
http://y2u.be/9gNjGD_W3dM (older learners)
Watch both—the first is at a slower pace and is a good introduction; the second moves along at a faster
pace so if it’s helpful to pause at points along the way, please do.
1. Watch the films with the list above in mind, and focus on the classroom practice. How many of these
strategies can you spot being used? Were there any others?
2. These films are both from the USA, and while they are useful for highlighting strategies, these
teachers may teach in very different contexts to yours. In your context, which scaffolding strategies
would be most useful? Why?

2.2.2 Differentiated teaching and learning

a. What is the difference between scaffolding and differentiation?
Scaffolding and differentiation are often seen as the same, but as we have seen, scaffolding is an approach
with its own definition and strategies. Very simply put, the main difference is that scaffolding is what teachers
do—they put support structures in place to help learners master new tasks and concepts that they cannot
master on their own. Differentiation is what teachers and learners do. Teachers create the conditions and
environment for learners to make their differentiated choices, so increasing their ownership of learning,
agency, decision-making and independent learning skills. The example below illustrates the difference between
scaffolding and differentiation, but also shows that scaffolding is very much a part of a differentiated approach
to teaching and learning.

CASE STUDY: Differentiation in the classroom

Ms Memela is working with Grade 4 learners on the
following learning outcome: Learning how the body
takes in oxygen and releases carbon dioxide.
In the previous lesson the class learnt about
relevant anatomy and gases so they have been
introduced to relevant vocabulary. For this lesson,
she organises the learners into mixed-ability
groups of four children in each group. The task is to
find out what happens to the lungs, ribs and
diaphragm when oxygen is taken in and carbon
• Key vocabulary cards to aid discussion and
note-taking.
• Sentence starters for each stage of the
process—she draws attention to these, makes it
clear that they are an accepted part of the
learning process, and leaves them in an
accessible place for learners to collect if they
need them. She has an idea of who might need
the sentence starters, but doesn’t want to
pre-judge. Instead, she makes sure she
monitors the groups these children are part of
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

dioxide is released.
In terms of differentiating the process of learning,
for this task some learners find information in
books. Others search the sources from the internet
that Ms Memela has printed and brought with her to
class. Others observe each other to see what
happens when they breathe in and out.
To scaffold learning, Ms Memela provides:
• A clear list of stages in the breathing process
that she wants them to focus on—each stage
has a corresponding visual image and she
provides space for note-taking for each stage.
and suggests they use them if she sees they
need them.
In the next lesson, the groups begin to produce a
presentation that demonstrates their understanding.
They can choose what product they will create as
the basis for their presentation, for example a
poster, role-play, demonstration or written summary
(these are examples of differentiation by product).
All learners use their notes from the last lesson.
Some use the key vocabulary cards, but many have
internalised the key vocabulary and no longer need
this piece of scaffolding.
Unit 4

40
 b. What is differentiated teaching and learning?

ACTIVITY 21: What does differentiated teaching and

learning mean for you?

Journal
1. What do you understand by “differentiated teaching and learning”?
2. What questions does it raise in your mind?
3. What do you think this term means for your day-to-day teaching practice?
4. What differentiation strategies do you already know about?

“Children already come to us differentiated, it just makes sense that we would

differentiate our instruction in response.” David Rose, CAST

As you saw from Figure 16, learners move through a zone of proximal development as they are learning. They
begin with knowledge, understanding and skills they are already familiar with, and move, through a guided
learning process, to master a new piece of knowledge or a new skill. Learners may encounter a range of
challenges throughout the learning process; these might arise from: curriculum content and language;
classroom organisation; teaching methodologies; pace of teaching and lack of time available to complete the
curriculum; teaching and learning support materials and assessment (DoE, 2001).
The South African National Curriculum Statement (CAPS) is quite clear that, while all schools are required to offer the
same curriculum to learners, in order to support all learners fully through the learning process they must ensure
variations in modes of delivery and assessment processes. These variations require teachers to develop strategies
for differentiating teaching and learning. These strategies are commonly referred to as “differentiation10”.
CAPS specifies the content to be taught, but it is up to teachers to plan how they will teach it to different
learners in their classroom so that all learners can access learning, i.e. how they will differentiate. The CAPS
Guidelines for responding to learner diversity in the classroom (DBE, 2011) is a tool to help teachers achieve
this. This section will expand on and explain some of the important aspects of differentiated teaching and
learning as outlined in the Guidelines.
Differentiated teaching and learning starts from the premise that “information becomes knowledge when the
learner can process and apply it” (O’Brien & Guinney, 2001: 2). Teachers therefore need to consider the
different ways learners are able to process and apply information—the way they make meaning from it—and
plan teaching and learning with these in mind. Building on this starting point Carol Tomlinson, who has written
extensively about this area, describes it as the process of “ensuring that what a student learns, how he/she
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

learns it, and how the student demonstrates what he/she has learnt is a match for that student’s readiness
level, interests, and preferred mode of learning” (Tomlinson, 2004: 88).
In relation to the curriculum, this is a way of thinking about how we teach our learners and how they learn, and
of providing instruction that meets their needs, abilities and interests (Global Education Digest, 2004).

Definition
10 Differentiation: A range of strategies used by teachers to ensure that what and how learners learn, and how they
show their learning, matches their readiness level, interests and ways of making meaning.

41
Before we go any further, we want to make a few important points. Firstly, differentiation is not about having to
create individual lesson plans for each child in your class. Nor is it about thinking about your class in a way that
separates them into groups of “all”, “most” and “some”. We have seen in Unit 2 that thinking in this way
reinforces bell-curve thinking. Teaching by “sorting” learners into “more” or “less” able groups marginalises
some members of the class and denies the reality and depth of diversity.
Inclusive pedagogy is defined not by the choice of strategy but by its use (Florian & Black-Hawkins, 2011). In
inclusive pedagogy, differentiation starts from thinking about the class as a whole: “shaking up what goes
on in the classroom, so that students have multiple options for taking in information, making sense of ideas and
expressing what they learn” (Tomlinson, 2014).
Inclusive differentiated teaching and learning involves teachers:
• Learning about practical ways of modifying, changing, adapting, extending and varying: teaching
methodologies; teaching strategies; assessment strategies; and the content of the curriculum.
• Making decisions about which of these ways will enable all learners in a particular class and particular
learning situation to access and be fully engaged in learning. In this way, teachers increase the choices they
give to learners about their learning, so increasing their ownership of learning, agency, decision-making and
independent learning skills.
The overall aim of differentiation is equity to ensure that everyone in the classroom can equally take part in,
and succeed in, learning. A strong inclusive approach for differentiation that supports equity is where everyone
works towards the same learning outcome but learners are given choices about how they respond, either
within a given medium or by being able to choose from a variety of media.
Differentiation, therefore, is not simply “a variety of activities”. It is a process that is unique to each context and
is continually developing. There is no “how to” recipe for differentiating teaching and learning. Because of our
prior experiences, we all start from different places in our understanding of it, and it can therefore be
translated into classroom practice in many ways.
However, it is possible to identify certain underlying principles and approaches to differentiation.
Firstly, as we can already see from the introduction to this section, differentiating teaching and learning is
about teachers being prepared to develop flexibility in their approaches to teaching as well as learners’
approaches to learning.
Differentiated teaching and learning requires teachers to recognise that:
• All learners are different and are capable of some achievement.
• Every class is a mixed-ability group.
• It is essential to know individual learners well in order to be responsive, i.e. so you know which strategy to
choose at which time for which learners.
• Learners with specific learning needs, like their peers, are all on a “continuum of learning”. This makes
formative assessment even more important as we cannot assume learners will always be operating at the
same level. We will return to formative assessment in-depth later in the unit.
Remember, the key point is to use differentiation strategies without calling attention to difference in a way that
stigmatises or marginalises some learners. The best way to do this is to assess the range of needs of the class
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

as a whole, and offer various options that will meet everyone’s needs.
Let’s explore how you might do this in more detail.
Unit 4

42
 c. Implementing differentiated teaching and learning
Many models of differentiation have been developed over the years, each with its unique range of strategies.
Carol Tomlinson and Tonya Moon (Tomlinson & Moon, 2013) use this diagram to explain the key elements of
effective differentiation:

Differentiation

Is a teacher’s proactive response to learner needs

shaped by mindset

and guided by general principles of differentiation

An environment Assessment Instruction Leading

that encourages Quality that informs that responds students and
and supports curiculum teaching and to student managing
learning learning variance routines

Teachers can differentiate through

Content Process Product Affect/

The information How students How students Environment
and ideas students take in and make show what they The climate
grapple with to sense of the know, understand, or tone of the
reach the content and can do classroom
learning goals

according to the student’s

Readiness Interests Learning Profile

A student’s Passions, affinties, Preferred
prodimity to specified kinships that approaches to
learning goals motivate learning learning

through a variety of instructional strategies, such as

Learning/Interest Centers | RAFTs | Graphic Organizers | Scaffolded Reading/Writing
Intelligence Preferences | Tiered Assignments | Learning Contracts | Menus | Tic-Tac-Toe
Complex Instruction | Independent Projects | Expression Options | Small-Group Instruction

Figure 17: Tomlinson’s model of differentiation (Source: Tomlinson & Moon, 2013)
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Let’s unpack this model in more detail, by looking at the following four aspects:
1. Mindset
2. Principles of differentiation
3. Readiness, interest and learning profile
4. Components of differentiation
1. Mindset
Throughout this course you have learnt that being an inclusive teacher means making sure every child in your
class is actively engaged in and achieving some success in learning. You know that every class is made up of a
diverse group of learners and that a “one-size-fits-all” approach to teaching excludes or marginalises some
learners. Tomlinson’s message is that teachers need the right mindset to view differentiation as an essential
approach to teaching that responds proactively to learner needs.

43
The mindset she is talking about stems from the teacher’s belief that learner success comes from effort and
not from a fixed ability level. With the right instruction and support all learners can achieve success in learning.
Tomlinson and Moon state:
Mindset isn’t just about believing. It’s about enacting those beliefs—living them out—hour by hour, day by day,
plan by plan. Everything else that follows about differentiation has the aim of helping us live out the belief that
every student is capable and worthy. That they can do what’s necessary for success and that we can do what’s
necessary to support that success. (Tomlinson & Moon, 2013)

“My teacher thought I was smarter than I was—so I was!” 6-year-old learner

A teacher with high expectations of every learner and with the mindset that they must do everything possible
to give each child the resources and support they need to realise their potential, is a teacher who creates an
enabling environment for learning to take place. Such a teacher differentiates their teaching to give each
learner what they need to succeed.
2. Principles of differentiation
Tomlinson believes that curriculum and assessment, instruction, and classroom leadership and management
work together to create the foundation for effective differentiation.
Curriculum and assessment: what learners need to learn and how they are progressing academically
A quality curriculum should:
• Have clear goals for what learners should know, understand and be able to do
• Result in understanding of content as opposed to mere rote learning of content (comprehension)
• Engage learners in the process of learning (be relevant, interesting and enjoyable)

ACTIVITY 22: Analyse Mr Singh’s differentiation strategies

Writing
Refer back to the case study in Section 1.3 on transformative thinking in a school context.
1. Consider the differentiation strategies used by Mr Singh by answering the following questions about
his learners:
• What would their learning goals be?
• How did Mr Singh make sure they understood the content?
• What did he do to engage them in the process of learning?
2. Can you draw out any learning from this exercise that might impact on the way you plan goals, to
ensure understanding and ways of engaging your learners?
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Instruction: how teachers teach and how learners experience learning

Tomlinson and Moon highlight the importance of instruction in differentiation by stating that “Instruction is at
the core of differentiation because the ultimate goal of differentiation is to ensure that each student has the
best possible learning experiences in order to maximize academic growth” (Tomlinson & Moon, 2013).
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44
 Classroom leadership and management: the way the classroom functions or is organised to achieve
maximum learning for all
Classroom management does not equal control! Instead, we should think about creating a classroom in which
teaching and learning can proceed predictably and productively with a balance between structure and flexibility.
3. Readiness, interests and learning profile
Tomlinson argues that teachers differentiate according to learners’ readiness, interests and learning profile.
Renzulli and Renzulli (2010) support this, saying that differentiation is about the decisions and choices teachers
make about how to differentiate the curriculum for a diverse group of learners. They state, “Differentiation
requires that teachers consider their students’ learning styles, interests, abilities, and expression styles—and
that they accept the freedom, flexibility, and creativity to implement this process in the classroom.”
Readiness: This does not refer to the learner’s ability or capacity to learn. It simply means determining where
the learner is in relation to the learning goals, i.e. what they should know, understand and be able to do. Based
on this a teacher can plan what support the learner needs in order to succeed.
Interests: Teachers should engage learners using what is appealing to them. Learners will learn best when
their passions, dreams, talents and skills are being activated and they can connect to what is being taught
through these.
Learning profile: We all have different ways of making meaning from learning shaped by our culture, gender,
environment and make-up. These differences need to be considered when differentiating for teaching and
learning.
To summarise: Differentiated teaching and learning means making learning relevant, interesting, engaging and
suited to the different ways in which children learn.
4. Components of differentiation
The four components of differentiation are:
• Content
• Process
• Product
• Classroom environment
We will now explore each of these components in turn.
• Content
Content is what we teach and what the learner is expected to know, understand and do.
The curriculum must allow for learners to discover the bridges between ideas and fields of study and the paths
to new learning. In this way, flexible, needs-based approaches are used to deliver lesson content in a manner
that fits the needs of individual learners. This is not a dilution of the content, but rather a graded process
whereby learners are taken by different routes to a similar endpoint. Some learners require an advanced level
of content, while others may be dealing with what is being taught in the grade, or previous grades.

EXAMPLE
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

In a Grade 4 lesson on multiplication the teacher
can adjust the content available to suit the skill
levels of different learners or groups in the class.
Learners could choose from content that involves
multiplying single-digit numbers or single and
double-digit numbers. Everyone is learning about
multiplication, and is therefore working towards a
common learning outcome, but the content is
differentiated. Learners can also be directed, as part
of the lesson, to differentiate their own content
using the DBE Rainbow Workbook to practise their
skills independently.
Content can be varied at three levels:
Abstraction: In any curriculum we have facts,
definitions, descriptions, patterns, relationships, key
concepts and generalisation. Depending on
learners’ readiness, they might access the content
at a concrete or abstract level.
Complexity: Many concepts and skills within the
curriculum can be complex and difficult to
understand for some learners.
Variety: To cater for learners’ levels of functioning,
their prior learning and their interests we need to
offer a variety of ways for them to access content.

45
 ACTIVITY 23: Varying the content

Writing
Read and digest the three levels above. Think about a concept or skill that learners need to learn in a
subject you will be teaching. Give an example of something you could do to help learners:
• Access learning at a concrete level
• Understand a more complex concept or skill
• Offer a variety of choice in how they access content

ACTIVITY 24: Introducing a skill or concept

Writing
Think about the same concept or skill you identified for Activity 23.
How many ways can you think of in which you could deliver an introductory activity for the skill or the
concept? Be as creative as you can.

• Process
Process is how the learner will internalise or come to master the facts, concepts and skills.
There are many ways to differentiate activities to ensure maximum involvement and participation of all learners
in the lesson. Offering the same activity to all will inevitably exclude some learners from effective participation.
Teachers can differentiate process by offering learners a variety of learning materials, activities and questions
that cater for different abilities, interests and needs. Let’s look at some examples.

Table 6: Differentiating teaching and learning using a variety of elements

Element to be
Examples
differentiated

Materials Tactile: boxes, blocks, beans, beads, counters, modelling clay, fruit and vegetables,
household objects, seashells, rocks, plants
Visual material: pictures, newspaper adverts, symbols and signs
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Text material including magazines, newspaper and online articles, books

Graphic organisers: mind maps, flow charts, graphs, tables
Audio-visual: films, music, podcasts

Presentation of task
Simplify a picture or diagram (without compromising the complexity of the
related question)
Supplement a picture or diagram with a written, film, movement-based or audio
explanation, or a written explanation with a picture, diagram, model, film, audio
Replace a picture or diagram with a real item or model, or a film
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46
 Element to be
Examples
differentiated

Activities Use a variety of individual, pair, small and whole-class groupings

Use a variety of processes and products that cover many ways of meaning making,
e.g. drama, dance, text, number, music, talk—allow learners some choice
Use a variety of settings, e.g. classroom, playground, local community, further afield

Questioning Within a supportive learning environment:

Use a mixture of closed and open questions
Plan questions that include a full range of lower and higher order thinking skills
Tailor questions to learners so they meet the right level of challenge (just beyond
their level of comprehension or experience is a good place to aim for)
Give learners time to think before you expect an answer—this may even involve you
giving them questions the day before
Scaffold questions, e.g. What did you think before? What do you think now? Can you
tell me one way that you’ve changed your mind?
Paraphrase answers from learners to the class in ways that everyone will understand
and can learn from

ACTIVITY 25: Other ways to introduce a skill or concept

Writing
Look back to your notes from Activity 24, where you thought of a number of ways of delivering an
introductory activity. Compare your notes with the suggestions above. What new ways can you think of
to deliver this introductory activity?

• Product
Product is what learners will produce in order for you to assess their learning in relation to the learning outcome.
Differentiating by product means that learners have a choice of how they demonstrate their learning to you. In
the same way that you can use a variety of ways of introducing learners to curriculum content, and taking them
through the process of learning, what they produce can also be varied, either within the same medium or
across a range of media. To reiterate, giving learners choice over what they produce for assessment is likely to
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

improve their feelings of autonomy and therefore their engagement.

One way of differentiating product is to create a choice board. It is easy and simple to design and implement in
the classroom and can help promote learning, as well as stimulate learner motivation and engagement. It is
also inexpensive to construct.
Choice boards
Choice boards are graphic organisers that help learners learn or practise a concept, while allowing them a
choice. Choice boards consist of a number of squares, each of which contains an activity to assess the
learners’ level of understanding. Learners can be instructed to choose one or more of these activities to
complete. They can progress from one activity to another, either in an organised or a random order.

47
Here is an example of a choice board for a Grade 5 reading lesson:

Choice board for Grade 5 reading lesson

Draw a picture of the main Perform a play that shows the Write a song about one of the main
character. ending of the story. events in the story or a character.

Dress up as your favourite

Write a poem about two main
events in the story.
character and make a speech
telling others who you are.
Make a poster that shows the order
OR
of events in the story.
Name and draw a person you know
who is like one of the characters in
the story.

Create a Venn diagram comparing Use a sequence cartoon or a

and contrasting three characters in timeline to describe at least six Write a new ending for the story.
the story. events in the story.

Figure 18: A choice board

Choice boards give learners the power to choose how they will demonstrate understanding of a particular
subject or concept. This freedom encourages them to be more responsible, accountable and independent in
their learning, and to discover the learning for themselves. They are also able to work on the activities at their
own pace. The boards are useful for teachers as they use learner interests and preferences to stimulate active
learning and learner engagement.

Tips for designing a choice board

Identify the core concept or academic goal that the learners need to understand and achieve.
Plan the activities so that the choice board provides learners with a variety of ways of learning the concept:
• Identify the learners’ interests, preferences and levels of readiness
• The activities can designed to be different levels of complexity and can be arranged on the board in an
increasing order of difficulty
• Additional instructions can be given for each task, including whether to complete the task individually, in
pairs or in groups
• One square can also be a “free choice”, allowing learners to create and perform an activity of their own
choice
• Include a variety of ways through which learners can make meaning—writing, drawing, talking, acting,
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

making music, making up a game, etc.

It might not be practical to have choice boards for every lesson, but giving learners at least a choice between
two or three options via a “learning menu” provides more meaningful learning opportunities for a greater
number of learners. Here is a short example of a learning menu in action: http://y2u.be/0YMafOelxsA
Unit 4

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 ACTIVITY 26: Create a choice board

Writing
Create a choice board that would be effective in your classroom context.

How you assess tasks is also key to differentiation. We will explore this in more detail in the Assessment for
learning section later in the unit.
• Classroom environment
Flexibility in the way you arrange your classroom, manage routines and facilitate learning through a learner-
centred approach is key.
You can differentiate the classroom environment by paying attention to the social, emotional and physical
factors that shape the learning environment. The impact of socio-emotional and physical aspects of the
learning environment on learners’ classroom experiences was covered in Section 2.1.
Your classroom will already be set up to accommodate different learners’ needs, but you may need to make
further changes for a particular lesson. For example, you may want to change the way desks are arranged to
accommodate different kinds of group work, or you may decide to have learners decorate the classroom to
celebrate Arbor Day.
The next activity brings together all the components of Tomlinson’s Differentiation Model.

ACTIVITY 27: Apply dimensions of differentiation

Writing
Look at the list of suggested curriculum differentiation strategies below. Complete the table by indicating
which of the dimensions of differentiation each strategy represents—Content, Process, Product,
Classroom environment. It’s likely that some of the strategies will fall into more than one category. If it
seems obvious to you that this is the case, then identify each category; if only one seems obvious, stick
with one category.
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

49
 Strategy Dimension/s
1. Place a learner who is visually impaired close to the teacher’s desk, where they can easily see
the teacher and the board.

2. Present information visually and aurally, as well as verbally.

3. Get to know your learners: find out their interests, observe behaviour, reflect on emotional
needs, and listen when they are talking to you. Keep an Observation Book to record formal
and informal observations.

4. Separate the learner from others with similar problematic behaviour.

5. Get learners to work in small, mixed-level groups to allow them to benefit from peer support
and tutoring opportunities. Change the groups regularly.

6. Use activity-based lessons, games, simulations, role-plays to facilitate participation by all learners.

7. Don’t rush a learner to prevent others from getting bored. Give additional work to faster
learners or get them to coach others.

8. As far as possible, prevent loud noises during class time. For example, glue cardboard or
carpet pieces under chair legs or get an old carpet for the floor.

9. Draw up a classroom code that defines how learners should respect each other and the
classroom space. Let every learner contribute to and sign the code. Display it in the classroom.

10. Set tasks that allow learners to express their understanding in ways other than writing, such
as telling a story; performing a song, poem or dance; making a model; drawing a poster,
cartoon, timeline or graph.

11. Be alert to “performance anxiety”; focus the learner on a less threatening aspect of the activity.

12. Provide a suggestion box in your classroom. Let learners know that they can submit names of
bullies and their victims anonymously.

13. Provide clear visual stimuli such as posters, pictures and maps, positioned carefully according
to the lesson.

14. Keep your voice clear (not loud or strident) and your manner as calm as possible.

15. Praise learners for effort spent on the process during activities rather than just reserving
praise for good end products.

16. Set aside a space such as a reading and resources corner that could be used for one-on-one
time with a teacher/assistant, or for independent work.

17. Vary the level of tasks, from simple to more complex.

18. Encourage learners to protect other learners from bullying, and to report bullying.

19. If a learner points out that you have made a mistake, thank them for the correction.

20. Praise caring behaviour in your class and let your own behaviour set the standard.
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

21. Let learners know clearly in advance what outcomes they should achieve in an activity. Then
offer clear, detailed instructions in stages throughout the task.

22. Find each learner’s strengths and build on these. Let learners who face barriers use their
strengths to give support to other learners.

23. Encourage learners to ask, not only answer, questions. If you can’t answer their questions, be
ready to help them find the answers.

24. Apply the same rules regarding behaviour to all—don’t let learners do as they please just
because they face barriers.

25. Be ready to acknowledge that a learner is genuinely bored, and take it as a learning and
Unit 4

teaching problem to solve rather than a behaviour issue.

(Source: MIET Africa, 2010)

50
 ACTIVITY 28: Watch a differentiated lesson

Audio Visual
Watch the Video Celebrating our differences: an introduction to differentiated lesson planning
https://youtu.be/1rOCZJ50AYs (MIET Africa, 2010). As you watch, tick off each of the features of
differentiated lesson planning.
1. The teacher knows her learners and knows that they are all different.
2. Her aim is to help all learners reach the correct level for their grade.
3. All learners work towards the same outcomes.
4. A variety of activities are used to address different learners’ needs. The teacher gives different tasks
to different groups so that learners of different abilities and learning styles can all participate, and
have opportunities to succeed.
5. Grouping changes, depending on the outcomes.
6. The content of the lesson includes both concrete examples and more abstract concepts.
7. Questions range from easy (lower order) to harder (higher order), so that all learners can answer at
least some questions.
8. More advanced learners are extended in interesting ways.
9. Assessment activities are differentiated.

In most classrooms there is a broad range of abilities, from a minimum of three grade levels to as many as
seven to eight in schools serving a range of socio-economic groups. Yet traditional instruction typically insists
that all learners be at “grade level”, thus ignoring the needs of a substantial number of learners functioning
both below and above that level.
In the next section we look at another differentiated teaching strategy that allows learners to be challenged at
multiple levels of ability.

d. Multi-level teaching and learning

Planning a lesson that only allows for grade-level access to the curriculum means that many learners in your
class are excluded from meaningful participation and learning. Multi-level teaching (MLT) is designing
differentiated, scaffolded teaching and learning for diverse learners that actively engages them in meaningful,
real-world activities at multiple levels of ability.
In an average class of 40–50 learners you can be sure that not all learners are accessing the curriculum at
grade level. There are generally four levels of access to the curriculum that can be identified in any class:
• Learners who have already mastered or quickly master the grade-level content. These are gifted or high-
achieving learners requiring enhanced content.
• Learners accessing the curriculum at grade level.
• Learners requiring scaffolding or support to access the curriculum at grade level.
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

• Learners who are grade straddling or accessing the curriculum at one or more grades below grade level.
We expect learners to function at a range of different levels. This means you should always plan multi-level
lessons. In this way each learner is supported and encouraged to move to their next level of competence,
without ability grouping or segregation.
Note: Learners who are grade-straddling, that is, learners who have been progressed and have not yet
achieved the previous grade’s learning outcomes, should be receiving support to learn at a grade-appropriate
level and be working through an Individual Support Plan (ISP). This will allow the teacher to formally plan work
and assessments at a lower grade level.

See Unit 3 for more information on the Individual Support Plan.

51
Understanding progression in the curriculum
In order to plan a lesson that will accommodate learners accessing the curriculum at different levels, it is
essential to understand the progression of learning in the subject you are teaching.

ACTIVITY 29: Looking at progression in the curriculum

Writing
The table below is taken from the Intermediate Phase Mathematics CAPS. It shows what learners
should know about place value* by the end of each grade. Study the table and then answer the
following questions:
1. How does the content differ from grade to grade?
2. Information on what learners should know by the end of Grade 3 has also been included in this table.
Do you think it’s important for teachers to know this? Give reasons for your answer.
3. Do you think knowing how learning progresses from grade to grade can help you to plan a multi-level
lesson? Why or why not? Explain your answer.
*Place value is the value of each digit in a number. For example, 582 is made up of 500, 80 and 2, rather than 5, 8 and 2.

Intermediate Phase overview—place value

Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6

Whole numbers—range Whole numbers—range Whole numbers—range Whole numbers—range

Decompose three-digit
numbers up to 999 into
multiples of 100, multiples
of 10 and ones/units
Identify and state the
value of each digit
Recognise the place
value of digits in whole
numbers to at least
4-digit numbers
Recognise the place
value of digits in whole
numbers to at least
6-digit numbers
Recognise the place
value of digits in whole
numbers to at least
9-digit numbers
Place value of decimal
fractions
Recognise the place
value of digits to at least
two decimal places (p17)

Calculation technique Calculation technique Calculation technique Calculation techniques

Building up and breaking Building up and breaking Building up and breaking Building up and breaking
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

down numbers down numbers down numbers down numbers

As you can see, teachers need to have a sound knowledge of:

• The curriculum for the specific grade that they teach
• What the learner should already know or where to meet the learner on lower grade levels
Assessing learners’ level of access
You will also need to gain an understanding of the level at which each child is accessing the curriculum. This is
achieved through assessment. Assessment can be formal or informal but the purpose of assessment should be
to determine progress, pace of learning, level of access—all necessary for planning teaching and learning.
A baseline assessment at the beginning of the year is particularly useful. CAPS can help with this!
Unit 4

52
 Note: MLT is not creating three or four lessons with different outcomes. Rather, it is designing one lesson with
one lesson objective but differentiating tasks, activities and assessment to match the learners’ level of
competence. The benefit of this is that all learners gain access to the grade level content and have the
opportunity of meeting the lesson objective at their own pace and level of learning.
Using Bloom’s taxonomy for setting tasks

ACTIVITY 30: Evaluate Bloom’s taxonomy

Writing
Take a critical look at the explanation and diagram of Bloom’s taxonomy below, then answer the
following questions:
1. Why do you think only Bloom’s cognitive framework is used in education today?
2. Do you think the affective and sensory frameworks would be useful in an inclusive learning
environment? Explain your answer.
3. What could be the advantages and limitations of using this taxonomy in an inclusive learning environment?
4. Suggest ways in which you can overcome the limitations in setting tasks for your learners. Give examples.

Bloom’s taxonomy was developed by Benjamin Bloom and a committee of university educators in the USA in
the late 1940s. It originally consisted of three frameworks for assessing learning outcomes in the cognitive,
affective and sensory domains. However the cognitive framework is the one that is most commonly used in
education today. It identifies six levels of cognitive outcomes, which are arranged in ascending order from
“lower order” to “higher order”. The diagram below is one example of how Bloom’s taxonomy is represented,
including suggested “task words” intended to elicit each level of thinking.
Bloom’s taxonomy is often used by teachers to set tasks to suit learners’ levels of proficiency. The teacher can
select verbs from Bloom’s Taxonomy to differentiate activities related to the content. At the lower levels,
learners are given tasks that require them to know, memorise, repeat and list information. At the higher levels,
learners are required to judge, criticise, resolve, invent and make recommendations.

Bloom’s Taxonomy
Produce new or original work
create design, assemble, construct, conjecture, develop, formulate, author, investigate

Justify a stand or decision

evaluate appraise, argue, defend, judge, select, support, value, critique, weigh

Draw connections among ideas

Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

differentiate, organize, relate, compare, contrast, distinguish,

analyse examine, experiment, question, test

Use information in new situations

execute, implement, solve, use, demonstrate, interpret,
apply operate, schedule, sketch

Explain ideas or concepts

classify, describe, discuss, explain, identify, locate,
understand recognize, report, select, translate

Recall facts and basic concepts

remember define, duplicate, list, memorize,

repeat, state

Figure 19: Bloom’s taxonomy

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 Read Roland Case’s critique of Bloom’s taxonomy: http://bit.ly/2WSUj9n

Let’s look at an example of tasks that have been differentiated using Bloom’s taxonomy.
Below, the topic “domesticated animals” at a primary school is used to show how educators can differentiate
activities at different levels:
LEVEL 1: REMEMBER (knowing isolated information)
know, list, recall, repeat, record, define, locate, memorise, restate, identify
Task: Identify the different breeds of dogs in your neighbourhood.
LEVEL 2: UNDERSTAND (understanding/making connections)
discuss, describe, explain, match, find, reword, review, translate, express, report
Task: Interview people who own pets. Make a survey of people who own pets in your street/neighbourhood.
LEVEL 3: APPLY (using the knowledge in a variety of ways)
display, simulate, apply, demonstrate, practise, compute, present, sketch, use
Task: Draw a collage about dog care and grooming.
LEVEL 4: ANALYSE (comparing and contrasting information)
analyse, compare, contrast, probe, inquire, investigate, classify, organise, examine, dissect
Task: Compare and contrast the physical and social characteristics of dogs and cats.
LEVEL 5: EVALUATE (expressing personal values)
judge, infer, evaluate, advise, conclude, consider, determine, recommend
Task: Write an editorial for your local newspaper about the advantages and disadvantages of having a pet animal.
LEVEL 6: CREATE (developing new information)
compose, invent, develop, construct, create, hypothesise, predict, speculate, role-play, generalise
Task: Develop a cartoon based on the relationship between an animal and a child.
(Source: MIET Africa, 2016)

Now you are going to use Bloom’s taxonomy to create differentiated tasks for your learners.

ACTIVITY 31: Using Bloom’s taxonomy to

differentiate tasks

Writing
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Copy the table below and fill it in. Choose a topic that is relevant to your subject and grade level. Create
differentiated tasks related to your chosen topic at each level, using appropriate verbs from the list.
Unit 4

54
 Grade: Subject: Topic:

LEVEL 1: REMEMBER (knowing isolated information)

know, list, recall, repeat, record, define, locate, memorise, restate, identify
Task:

LEVEL 2: UNDERSTAND (understanding/making connections)

discuss, describe, explain, match, find, reword, review, translate, express, report
Task:

LEVEL 3: APPLY (using the knowledge in a variety of ways)

display, simulate, apply, demonstrate, practise, compute, present, sketch, use
Task:

LEVEL 4: ANALYSE (comparing and contrasting information)

analyse, compare, contrast, probe, inquire, investigate, classify, organise, examine, dissect
Task:

LEVEL 5: EVALUATE (expressing personal values)

judge, infer, evaluate, advise, conclude, consider, determine, recommend
Task:
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

LEVEL 6: CREATE (developing new information)

compose, invent, develop, construct, create, hypothesise, predict, speculate, role-play, generalise
Task:

55
Here is an example of a Grade 5 multi-level reading lesson, in which the teacher uses Bloom’s taxonomy to
differentiate tasks:

CASE STUDY: Mr Ntini’s reading lesson

Mr Ntini is teaching Grade 5 reading. The reading
passage is about a boy who hides on a bus in King
Williamstown and travels to Johannesburg. He is
searching for his father who went to work on the
mines and has not returned.
Mr Ntini first introduces the story to the whole class.
He uses scaffolding strategies, as there are new
words and more complex themes in this book. He
introduces some new vocabulary and the main
character, the young boy.
He then splits the learners into mixed-level groups.
They read through and discuss the story together.
Learners explain to each other what they
understood and what was happening in the story.
Mr Ntini then gets learners to complete an individual
activity, which he has tiered at three levels.
He uses the following sets of questions for learners,
using Bloom’s taxonomy, to assess their knowledge
of the boy from the story. All learners must
complete Tier 1 and attempt Tier 2 and Tier 3.
Tier 1:
• How does the character look? (Remember)
• What does the character say? (Remember)
• What is the most important thing about the
character? (Understand)
Tier 2:
• What does the character do in the story? (Remember)
• What are the character’s goals? (Apply)
• What changes did the character go through in
the story? (Apply/Analyse)
Tier 3:
• What types of clues does the author give the
reader about the main character? (Analyse)
• Why do you think the author gives the reader
clues about the character? (Evaluate)
Mr Ntini ends the lesson with the whole class
together for the application stage of the lesson. He
asks questions about their own family stories and
their communities. He knows the learners in his
class and he directs different levels of questions,
again applying Bloom’s taxonomy, to learners at
different levels of learning.
Some questions he asks the class:
• Where have you travelled to in South Africa?
(Remember)
• Do all families look the same? (Understand, Apply)
• What impact do you think the apartheid regime
had on black families in South Africa? (Analyse,
Evaluate)
• In what ways do you think the situation is
different now? (Evaluate)
• If you were in charge, is there anything you would
do differently that would make a difference in your
community? (Evaluate, Create)

ACTIVITY 32: Evaluate Mr Nthini’s lesson

Writing
Look at Mr Nthini’s lesson, and consider:
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

1. Has he used Bloom’s taxonomy effectively to engage all the learners in his class at all levels of
thinking? Explain your answer.
2. What suggestions would you make to Mr Nthini on how he could make this lesson even more inclusive?

We are now going to explore how differentiated teaching and learning can be made more effective by using
cooperative learning approaches.

2.2.3 Peer learning, cooperative learning and group work

In a traditional teacher-centred approach to learning, the teacher asserts control over what learners learn and
when, where, how, and at what pace they learn it. The teacher tends to be the most active person in the room
Unit 4

and do most of the talking, while learners spend most of their time sitting in desks, listening, taking notes,
giving brief answers to questions that the teacher asks, or completing assignments and tests. Learners work
individually and competitively.

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 This approach is out-dated and has been shown to be ineffective in diverse 21st century classrooms. Instead, a
learner-centred approach is favoured. A learner-centred approach gives learners opportunities to lead
learning activities, participate more actively in discussions, design their own learning projects and explore
topics that interest them. The teacher is the facilitator of learning in the classroom (adapted from:
https://www.edglossary.org/student-centered-learning/). Thus, learning is connected to learners’ own
experience and allows space for their voices in the process.
In this section we are going to look at peer learning, cooperative learning and group work as strategies that
can be used to achieve a more effective, learner-centred classroom. The following short clip gives examples of
each of these.

ACTIVITY 33: Peer-to-peer learning strategies

Audio Visual
Watch the video clip at https://edut.to/2JHsbmJ
1. Why do you think peer-to-peer learning can be effective?
2. What do you understand by the three strategies that were explained:
• Think-Pair-Share
• Three Before Me
• Jigsaw grouping

a. Peer learning
Peer learning is where one learner leads another learner through a task or concept—that is, where learners
learn from one another, as opposed to only learning from the teacher. Peer learning benefits not only the
learner who is having something explained to them but also the peer “teacher” as teaching a concept to
someone else helps to reinforce their own learning.
Peers should take turns in the roles of learning and teaching. Peer learning promotes interpersonal skills,
collaboration, increases confidence and improves learning outcomes.
The class teacher is still responsible for facilitating learning in the classroom. You should be available to fill
knowledge gaps and give learners the skills to effectively tutor, encourage and correct their peers.

b. Cooperative learning
Cooperation is working together to accomplish shared goals. Within cooperative situations, individuals seek
outcomes that are beneficial to themselves and beneficial to all other group members (Johnson & Johnson
2009). Cooperative learning is a teaching arrangement that refers to small, heterogeneous groups11 of
students working together to achieve a common goal (Kagan, 1994). Learners work together to learn and are
responsible for their teammates’ learning as well as their own. It can be contrasted with competitive learning,
where learners work against each other to achieve a personal academic goal such as a particular percentage
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

grade. Cooperative learning requires structuring learning tasks so that learners must work together in order to
be successful. There are many ways of organising cooperative learning activities and care must be taken to
ensure they enable everyone to participate in ways that do not marginalise some.

For useful advice on using cooperative learning in your classroom, visit

https://www.kaganonline.com/free_articles/dr_spencer_kagan/

Definition
11 Heterogeneous groups are not same-level but mixed-level groups. This means a small group of learners at
different levels of learning, who bring different skills to the group.

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Not all groups are cooperative. Placing people in the same room, seating them together, and telling them they
are a group, does not mean they will cooperate effectively (Johnson & Johnson, 2009). Kagan (2011) identified
four basic elements of cooperative learning. These are captured in the acronym PIES:
• Positive interdependence: Occurs when the gains of individuals or teams are positively correlated. (Does a
gain for one learner benefit another?) Success cannot be obtained without the contribution of everyone. Do
learners feel they are on the same side? Does the task require working together? Do learners feel they need
each other?
• Individual accountability: Occurs when all learners in a group are held accountable for doing a share of the
work and for mastery of the material to be learnt.
• Equal participation: Occurs when each member of the group is afforded equal shares of responsibility and
input. Participation should be approximately equal, based on time or turns. All learners have the opportunity
to participate. Learners feel they have equal status.
• Simultaneous interaction: Occurs when class time is designed to allow many learner interactions during the
period, ensuring that most learners are overtly (visually and/or audibly) engaged at one time.
Phipps and Phipps (2003) emphasise that a very important part of cooperative learning is the ability of individuals
to function well as a group—that is, to have a basic understanding of effective group skills. Group skills include
such things as setting common goals and norms, understanding leadership roles in educational groups and
processing progress in these areas while at the same time working through the conflicts that may arise.
Every group activity must accommodate individual learners’ needs and abilities, ensuring that every learner
can make a contribution and play a role. This gives a message of inclusion and creates a sense of community
and belonging because each learner is viewed as a contributing member.
The benefits of cooperative learning include the following:
• It develops a number of social skills, including listening, taking turns, conflict resolution, empathy, leadership
and teamwork.
• Learners’ engagement, self-esteem and confidence increases.
• Learners take more responsibility for their learning. They make more choices, have more input into what and
how they study, and therefore feel more accountable to each other.
• Learners learn to understand and work with others who differ from themselves.
• It leads to increased and equal participation.
• All learners benefit from peer support and peer learning.
Consider the following when implementing cooperative learning:
• You will need to create the will to work together, and teach relevant group and social skills. You can do so
through structured tasks focused on building team and community, which give learners time to practise,
before you move on to academic tasks. Keep tasks tightly structured until you are confident about groups’
functionality. Some examples of tasks to help grow cooperative learning can be found here:
http://bit.ly/30yPswa
• Look out for signs of competition that need managing.
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

• Encourage group members to evaluate the learning experience themselves. Enabling learners to evaluate
cooperative learning is important for progress.
• Create and maintain a warm, caring classroom environment within which cooperation can flourish.
• Involve the whole class in agreeing on group norms. (See section on Setting group norms below)
There is a wide range of strategies you can use in your classroom to promote cooperative learning. The table
below outlines some starting points. You could use the Assess–Plan–Do–Review cycle (see Section 1.3) to
work out which strategy will work best for your learners for a particular piece of learning.
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 Table 7: Examples of cooperative learning strategies

Strategy Description

The teacher poses a question to the class; learners think about their response. Then
they pair with a partner to discuss their ideas. Finally, they share their ideas with the
Think–Pair–Share
class. You can also “snowball” Think–Pair–Share so that instead of moving from “pair”
to the whole class, learners move from a pair into a four, then an eight, and so on.

Learners in each group get a number from 1–4. The teacher poses a question and
the learners discuss the answer together. The teacher randomly calls a number and
Numbered Heads Together
from each team the learner with that number writes the answer on a team response
board/paper.

Each learner thinks about, or writes, or draws an answer to a question individually.

Showdown When everyone in the group is ready, the designated group leader says “Showdown”
and team members compare and discuss their answers.

Each learner has a copy of the same worksheet or questions. A cup is placed in the
centre of each team, and everyone begins with their pencils in the cup. They discuss
their answers to the first question. When all team members are ready, they take their
Teammates Consult pencils out of the cup and write their answers without talking. They repeat this process
with the remaining questions.

Learners work on problems, first in a team, then with a partner, and finally on their
Team–Pair–Solo own. Working first as a team and then with a partner, they progress to a point where
they can solve problems alone that at first they could only do with help.

This strategy is useful when children are learning about any topic that can be
separated into different areas or text that can be separated into chunks. Learners
start in jigsaw groups, where they choose (or are allocated) a chunk of learning. They
then move into “expert” groups with other learners who have chosen the same chunk
so that they can discuss it in depth—with relevant stimuli and tasks to frame their
learning. They then return to their jigsaw group and teach their peers what they have
learnt. In this way everyone develops an understanding of the whole topic or text.
If it helps your learners to have an overview of the whole chunk of learning before
they move into “expert” groups, build in some time for this to happen at the
Jigsaw learning beginning. What matters here (and in all these suggested activities) is that everyone
understands the learning, not that you have to slavishly follow a set method for a
piece of group work.
Here is a useful article, with a video at the end, that explains the origins of jigsaw learning,
how it works in more detail, and what it looks like in practice: http://bit.ly/2VWcIph.
If you prefer something more visual, try this animation: http://y2u.be/euhtXUgBEts.
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Jigsaw learning can work well with larger groups than both these films refer to, so it’s
worth exploring the approach further and thinking about how it can work in your context.
Remember, though, that in classes with learners who find sequencing a challenge, you
will need to scaffold jigsaw group work well so that they feel secure.

Learners work in small groups on a particular chunk of learning. When they are ready,
one learner from each group acts as an “envoy” and visits other groups in turn to
Envoy share the learning from their original group. Once they return to their original group,
the learners who have been visited by envoys from other groups then teach the
returning envoy what they have learnt.

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 ACTIVITY 34: Using cooperative learning strategies

Writing
Go back to Mr Ntini’s reading lesson in Activity 32. Which of these cooperative learning strategies do
you think would have suited that particular class best? What are the reasons for your thinking?
Of these strategies, which one would you feel most confident to try in your context? Design an activity
that uses this strategy.

c. Group work
Using groups flexibly, creatively and with variety will enhance the learning experience in your classroom.
Different groupings can be used for different purposes and to achieve different learning outcomes. Apart from
academic learning goals, group work also promotes the development of problem-solving, interpersonal, social
and communication skills. Group work should not completely replace individual work as it is essential for all
learners to be able to work independently. In terms of how you group learners, mixed-level groups bring
benefits for all and are more inclusive; however, there may be some occasions where same-level grouping is
more appropriate.
Below are some examples of different groupings, possible uses and points to consider. You should always vary
the types of groupings you use, not just rely on one type.

Table 8: Examples of types of groups

Type of
Possible uses Points to consider
group

Introducing new themes, units of work

and concepts through class discussions, Ensure that all learners are given the opportunity to
Whole class
enabling learners to share information/ make a contribution.
experiences.

Useful for peer tutoring, paired reading,

language learning and for those with
Pairs specific shared interest or talents. With The tutor should not always be the strong learner.
peer tutoring, the role of tutor should
be rotated.

Mixed-level (more often) or groupings of Use mixed-level groups more often than same-level
similar ability (less often). Mixed-level groups to avoid marginalising and labelling learners.
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

groups are useful for project work,

Small problem-solving, revision of skills. A
groups useful focus for same-ability groups is the
development of a specific skill or
developing deeper understanding of
content/learning processes.
In mixed-level groups give each learner a role/
responsibility consistent with their skills/abilities.
Groups can be made up of three to six learners.
Larger than six makes it hard for all learners to
participate.

Learners who share an interest, e.g. when

a choice of differentiated products is
Interest
offered. This might be a group who share Include as many subject-related skills as possible in tasks.
groups
an interest in writing newspaper articles,
or doing role-plays.
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 Setting group norms
Setting group norms and deciding how to monitor them is key to ensuring that groups function effectively.
There are different ways to set norms, but it is essential to make sure they are set cooperatively rather than
imposed. A good way of doing this is to allow about forty minutes for the whole class to set their own group
norms during the first session.
They can ask you for clarification and further explanation of examples so that everyone understands the
norms. Your role is to ensure that it is learners’ norms and not teacher’s rules that are adopted.
First, learners suggest norms, which are written up on the board. Then, the whole class must agree on them. If
anyone disagrees with a norm, it must be changed or deleted. Once everyone is happy with the norms, one of
the learners can write out the list neatly, and it can be copied and distributed to everyone.
Later, if anyone wishes to change something, it is important to involve the whole class in the change. This
process of consensus builds a sense of ownership and empower learners to take responsibility for upholding
the norms.
Once the norms are agreed, hold a discussion about everyone in the class being responsible for upholding
norms and for holding each other to account if they are broken. It can be useful to assign group roles so that
each learner’s responsibility is clear. These roles need to be rotated so everyone’s skills are developed and
learners do not get labelled as only being able to fulfil one role. Some roles that can be used in group work
include:
• Encourager: Encourages reluctant/shy learners to participate by being friendly, warm, responsive to others,
praising others and their ideas; makes sure everyone plays an equal part
• Coach: Helps with the academic content, explains concepts, checks the group’s understanding; makes sure
all learners’ questions are asked and answered
• Standard setter and keeper: States standards for the group to use when choosing its content or
procedures or when evaluating its decisions; reminds the group to avoid decisions that conflict with group
standards (and norms)
• Recorder: Writes down the group’s ideas, decisions, plans
• Reflector: Keeps group aware of progress (or lack of progress)
• Quiet captain: Monitors noise level
• Materials monitor: Makes sure that materials are put away after activities
(Source: https://www.edutopia.org/video/60-second-strategy-cooperative-learning-roles)

You can adapt and use this list to develop roles and functions that are relevant to your grade level.
Assessing group achievement
Group achievement can be assessed using peer and self-assessment. Here is an example of a rubric that
learners can use to assess their own and their group’s participation in an activity:

Rubric for self- and group assessment of group work Yes Partly No
Self-assessment
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

1. I participated fully in the activity.

2. I was able to do the task assigned to me.

Group assessment

1. Everyone in our group helped to do the activity.

2. We all shared our ideas with the rest of the group.

The most important thing I learnt from this activity was…

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2.2.4 Starting from and linking to what learners already know
We have referred several times to “chunks of learning”. This concept is useful here, as we can imagine “what is
already known” as being a chunk of knowledge that already exists. Learners add new chunks of learning by
relating them to the existing chunk.
Here’s an example, using a simple question:
“How do I get to the centre of Johannesburg from where you live?”
You will automatically start to answer by using what you already know about the transport system in South
Africa. If you haven’t been to Johannesburg you might have to find out some more information about the
details, but this learning will be related to your existing knowledge about transport. Because it’s related to what
you already know:
• This task is more likely to appear achievable—you may not know the information, but your prior knowledge
means you have at least some ideas about how to find out.
• Any new chunks of knowledge will be easily assimilated with the existing chunks.
As a teacher, you need to find out what your learners already know and think, because:
• You can use this information to design learning experiences that help them understand concepts through
concrete examples they are familiar with. This is likely to support learners’ motivation, engagement and
working memory.
• You can help them apply the same concept to different concrete examples they understand, so supporting
transfer of knowledge.
• You can use this knowledge to help learners add new chunks of learning by relating them to existing chunks.
• You will know at what level to pitch new learning; new learning will only “stick” if it’s added to existing learning.
• If you discover the first chunk of learning doesn’t exist, you will know you need to fill this gap as otherwise
the subsequent chunks won’t stick either.
• If the first chunk has been learnt wrongly, the second chunk might also become skewed. So it’s important
you pick up any misconceptions and sort these out before carrying on.

Ways of finding out what learners already know

Here are some techniques to try with one of your classes, once you start teaching:
Before you start a new topic with a class, try asking them what they already know. You could try this with
three questions:
• What do you definitely know?
• What do you think you know?
• What do you want to find out?
The answers will give you an idea of the level of learners’ existing knowledge, whether they have any
misconceptions that need addressing, and what they are interested in.
OR
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

At the start of a topic, use some provocative questions related to the topic to find out about learners’
prior knowledge. These are questions that are thought provoking and do not have a right or wrong
answer. For example: “Do you think everyone can be a leader?”
Ask learners to move into different parts of the room to show whether they agree, disagree, or aren’t sure.
Once they have moved, ask them to form pairs or groups of three to share their thoughts. Take some
feedback—this will give you some examples of the range of their current thinking and knowledge about the
topic you can build onto, and any disconnects between their experiences in the area out of and in school.

In the next section we look at multi-modal and multi-sensory approaches and their impact on learning.
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 2.2.5 Multi-modal and multi-sensory approaches
A mode is a form of communication, for example visual, speech, audio, text, movement, digital. A multi-modal
approach is one that includes more than one mode of communication in the way that:
• Information is prepared by the teacher and learnt by the learner
• Learning is presented as a product by the learner
Recent advances in technology mean that we are increasingly exposed to multi-modal forms of
communication, which have also led to shifts in communication itself, for example through emojis and gifs. As
teachers of learners who are growing up with ever-growing exposure to increasingly more sophisticated
multi-modal forms of communication, your use of multi-modal approaches in the classroom is important,
especially as a way of maintaining learners’ interest and attention. A multi-modal approach, however, can bring
other positive benefits for learners. For example, by combining modes, the range of ways in which learners can
access information is increased. In addition, complex concepts can often be explained more effectively by
using different modes of communication.
A multi-sensory approach means giving learners the opportunity to use more than one of their senses in the
learning process. Traditionally, teaching focuses on the use of two senses—sight and hearing. Learners read
text (sight) and listen to the teacher (hearing). As we have seen, not all children learn best using only these two
senses. Some learners may even experience difficulties with visual or auditory processing.
Multi-sensory teaching encourages opportunities to engage more than these two senses in learning. It gives
learners more than one way to make connections and learn concepts. If learners engage with information
using more than one sense, the information is more likely to stay with them.
Let’s look at an example of multi-modal and multi-sensory approaches in action.

EXAMPLE

Ms Sigida’s lesson
Ms Sigida is teaching a lesson about the solar
system. She starts her lesson by taking the class
outside. They stand with their eyes closed and she
lets them feel the warmth of the sun on their skin
while she explains to them about the sun and the
solar system. Next, she models the position of the
planets and their orbit around the sun, with groups
of learners becoming different planets.
They go back into class. Ms Sigida and the class talk
about and reproduce their active model visually on
the board. Then the class works in groups to
remember and note down the key points they
remember from her outdoor explanation. Ms Sigida
then gives a choice board to learners for a project
they will work on in small groups over the next few
weeks to learn more about the solar system:

Using paper maché, clay or Write the lyrics, rehearse and Do research in the library and
other available materials, build perform a rap about the solar write a report describing the
a model of the solar system. system. key features.

Choreograph a dance that Prepare an oral presentation

Design a poster showing the
shows how the different planets that tells the class about the
solar system.
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

move and rotate around the sun. solar system

(Source: Adapted from Nel & Nel, 2017: 51)

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 ACTIVITY 35: Using a multi-sensory approach

Writing
Look at the example above, and consider the following questions:
1. What different modes did the learners use in Ms Sigida’s lesson?
2. Identify the different senses that could be used in each of the activities on the choice board.
3. In what ways do you think these choices allow children with different ways of learning to be engaged
in the learning process?

If you only use one mode, or one sense, in teaching, you are not likely to meet the needs of individuals or
groups of learners in your class. Both multi-modal and multi-sensory approaches enable the use of a range of
options for learners to access and make meaning from their learning.
As with all of the approaches we are introducing you to, how you use multi-modal and multi-sensory
approaches to learning is critical for their success. Once again, knowing your learners well—both from an
academic as well as a socio-cultural perspective—will be key to you choosing the most effective modes of
communication at the right times in the right combination, or the most effective sense for a particular class and
a particular chunk of learning. Your relationship with learners is also a factor to consider; for example, if you
want them to engage with a mode or sense they feel less comfortable with, they need to trust you to be willing
to participate effectively.

a. Using ICT for teaching and learning

Mobile phones
One example of using mobile phones for educational purposes is that of the FunDza Literacy Trust. FunDza’s
mobi library—fundza.mobi—is available to people in South Africa and beyond through their mobile phones and
indeed any device that can connect to the Internet. It incorporates a mobile-optimised website (fundza.mobi), an
Android app (FunDzApp—downloadable from the Google Play store), and an app on FreeBasics.com (zero-rated
in South Africa by Cell C and available in other African countries with other partner mobile operators).
In addition, FunDza’s content can also be found on third-party platforms, such as Worldreader, Vodacom’s
Digital Classroom, and The Reach Trust’s app LevelUp. In 2017, FunDza supported the reading of more than half
a million readers during the course of the year, many for substantial periods of time.
FunDza has a growing network of beneficiary groups—under-resourced schools, libraries, youth development
groups and informal reading clubs—that reach teens and young adults in low-income communities nationwide. It
provides the groups with exciting local content that reflects the lives and issues that many young people face.

ACTIVITY 36: Using mobile phones to encourage reading

INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Reading
Read the blog below and answer the following questions:
1. Why do you think fundza.mobi has gained such popularity with young readers?
2. What differentiation strategies did the facilitator use and how effective were they?
3. Think of ways in which schools without electricity could access the site.
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 The following blog gives a taste of one of the Reading for Enjoyment sessions that FunDza runs with False Bay
College students at the Khayelitsha and Fish Hoek campuses. The campaign aims to get students excited
about reading (and writing) for pleasure. Here’s facilitator Sonja Kruse’s recounting of a session that got
students hooked on reading!

BLOG: Reading for enjoyment session

It was the last Reading for Enjoyment session at
False Bay College Khayelitsha for this term. I had to
be smart about the content because these busy
students need every encouragement to read
during the holidays!
I decided on The Village Girl by FunDza Fanz writer,
Victoria Ntuli, because it is a play the students
could select parts to read out loud, perfect for
getting them hooked!
We projected the mobi site in the class and students
volunteered to read. Some were reluctant whilst
others were fighting to play the part they wanted! It
was great. Some students decided to read from their
phones via our FunDzApp app or the fundza.mobi
site on FreeBasics. Along with doing the reading,
some cast members decided to act it out—crying
and laughing as the characters required.
One person whispered the character, Xoli’s words:
“Shh, you’re shouting, the other girls will hear you. I
know. I know you will come out of here no longer a
virgin, but it’s better than coming out of here being
a drug addict. I beg you. Behave yourself today.”
There was an intake of breath and the students
looked from the projected text to me. I could feel
them willing me to click the “next” button on the
bottom right of the screen so that they could carry
on with the play reading and find out what happens
next. But instead I ask them to focus on the
discussion question at the end of Chapter 3.
Tell us: Do you trust Xoli? Do you think Lizzy will
ever escape?
The students answered quickly with a “no” to the
first question and there was a mixture of opinions
on whether Lizzy will escape or not. But today the
students were not interested in a debate or a
discussion… they were shouting out…
“Next!”
“Next, please Ms!”
I looked at my watch. There were eight minutes left
in the session before the bell went. They continued
reading. We had four more lines to read before we
heard the shrill interruption. The students were
impatient with having to pause during the bell, but
continued as if there were no next class to run to.
They remained seated even after we reached the
cliffhanging end of Chapter 4.
“Ms, can’t we have FunDza all day?” one student asked.
Magic words! I thanked the students for their
participation, wishing them happy holidays. And I
asked them what they thought my advice to them
would be to make the best of their break.
“To read!”
This came from a student who was doing just that.
She had started reading Chapter 5 as she was
making her way to the next class.
Yes, I mumbled to myself. I think students will be
reading this holiday.

(Source: http://y2u.be/OguKZMeRrQc)

b. Online open source teacher resources

There are a number of open source resources for teachers available online. One example is the video series
for teachers: Bambanani. It consists of:
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Maths clips focusing on: Repeated addition, Mass, Equivalent fractions, Numberline, 3-d objects, Data handling,
and Mind moves
Literacy clips focusing on: Phonics, Past tense, Reading, Scriptwriting, Reading with comprehension, Poetry,
and Singular and plural
The videos are organised into four playlists, according to the language of the subtitles, as follows:
• Sesotho subtitles
• isiZulu subtitles
• isiXhosa subtitles
• English (no subtitles)
Can be viewed at: http://bit.ly/2weUSie

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 ACTIVITY 37: Find out about open source material
for teachers

Writing
1. Conduct research on open source material that is relevant to your subject and grade level. Write a
paragraph about the resource.
2. Share your findings with other students.

2.2.6 Assessment for learning

Assessment for learning (commonly shortened to AFL) is the way that learners demonstrate what they are
learning, or have learnt, and how their learning will be assessed.

ACTIVITY 38: Different approaches to assessment

Writing
What is the difference between assessment for learning and assessment of learning? Write a definition
for each in the boxes below.

1. Assessment of learning

2. Assessment for learning INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

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 Compare your definitions with the definitions below. What do you notice?
1. Assessment of learning

Assessment of learning is the traditional way of testing a learner’s knowledge. It involves an assessment,
usually by the teacher, of what the learner has learnt so far. It occurs at the end of the learning module,
week, term, year …
It is summative, which means the learner’s mark is taken as an evaluation of their learning.

2. Assessment for learning

Assessment for learning (AFL):

• Is a collaborative process between the teacher and the learners
• Involves the learner in identifying what they already know, and enables them to take an active part in:
-- Assessing their progress and what they still need to do
-- Improving against their own goals and not against the results of others
• AFL is formative and guides learners to set their own goals
• AFL is primarily concerned with supporting learning and therefore focuses more on progress than
“end” assessment (whether this is at the end of a week, term or year); however, AFL can strongly
contribute to developing skills for end assessments

a. Changing the way we view assessment

A number of shifts are needed to move assessment from an activity which is disconnected from teaching and
learning to a process that accurately reflects the curriculum and what is being taught. The table below
summarises these shifts.

Table 9: Key shifts related to assessment for learning

To achieve assessment for learning, you need to move...

From To

Assessment that is disconnected from teaching and learning Assessment that reflects the curriculum and what is taught

Flexible ways of getting the information, knowledge,

Assessment in one-size-fits-all formats
understanding and skills that show what the learner can do
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Learners are not aware of what they are being assessed on Learners know what they are expected to demonstrate

Some count towards marks and others are for formative

All assessments and assignments count towards marks
information for both teachers and learners

Learners understand assessment as part of their

Learners are passive participants in the assessment process
learning experience

Learners are not aware of what they are good at and Learners are able to identify their strengths and areas for
what they need to work on until they get their marks development and improvement

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 ACTIVITY 39: Evaluate assessment practices

Writing
Think about how assessment was done when you were at school.
Would you classify it as assessment of learning or assessment for learning? Give examples to support
your answer.
What could have been done to make assessment more inclusive?

b. Why does assessment matter?

Assessment matters because it drives almost everything we do in the classroom. If we are to implement
inclusion we need to have alignment between how we teach, how we support learning and how we assess.
Differentiated assessment will enable learners of various abilities and with varied experience to best
demonstrate what they know. It involves rethinking the traditional practice of having all learners do the same
assessment tasks at the same time, and in the same way. The goal is to meet learners where they are and to
help them progress to the next step in their learning. Thus it is a cyclical process: assessment and instruction
inform each other. (DBE, 2011)

ACTIVITY 40: Analyse assessment practices in your context

Discussion
Look at the cartoon below. Do you think it accurately reflects assessment practices in your context?
Explain your answer.

INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Figure 20: Assessment for learning

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 c. Designing assessment for learning
Here are some guiding questions you can ask yourself when you are designing assessment that is an integral
part of differentiated teaching and learning:
• What forms of evidence would enable learners to show what they have learnt? Am I excluding anybody from
being able to show what they have learnt with these forms of evidence?
• How will I collect this evidence?
• How will I evaluate this evidence?
• How will I record this evidence?
• How will I use the evidence to inform my future differentiation of teaching and learning?

One strategy is to put yourself in the shoes of your Another strategy is to consider “non-academic” factors
learners. Key questions to consider in relation to AFL that contribute to learners’ overall development, both
from their point of view are: academically and in everyday life. For example:

What am I
learning today?

Why am I
learning this?

How will I
know that I have
learned it?

Figure 21: Three questions learners should ask themselves Figure 22: Personal qualities

ACTIVITY 41: Assessing learner qualities

Writing
1. Design an activity for your class that will enable learners to demonstrate some of the above qualities.
2. How could you use your observation book to assess these qualities?

Some strategies to differentiate assessment

• Utilise technology, aids or other arrangements as necessary to enable all learners to undertake assessment tasks.
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

• Vary the form of assessment (e.g. printed text, visual or auditory representations; written tasks; oral
responses). NB Visual representations of information enable learners to use both words and pictures to make
connections and increase memory, facilitating retrieval of information.
• Encourage self-assessment: Learners gain skills to self-monitor, recognise their learning needs and answer
questions such as: What do I know? What do I want to know? Where am I now? Where am I going? How can I
close the gap?
• Use peer assessment: Learners learn from their peers who generally speak a language they can easily understand.
• Give differentiated assessment options so that learners can choose tasks at the right level for them, e.g.
incorporate a range of assessment questions that include multiple choice questions and those which require
shorter or longer, more in-depth answers; create multi-level or tiered assessments, for example, in geography,
locate provinces on the map, or locate provinces on the map and identify the main city in each province.
• Individualise the timeline for completing a task; pace learning differently for learners (increase or decrease
time allocation).

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d. Assessment for multi-level teaching and learning
Just as you tier activities you will also need to develop multi-level tiered assessment to assess progress and
understanding at learners’ levels. Tiered assignments make it possible for learners with different learning needs
to engage with the same ideas and skills but at different levels of open-endedness, challenge level, complexity
and abstraction.
The CAPS documents are a useful resource when setting tiered assignments because they clearly set out the
progression from grade to grade in terms of skills, content and concepts. Where progression is not clear the
CAPS provides clarification notes and guidelines for each concept and skill being taught. This includes specific
notes on how the skills differ from the previous grade.
Guidelines and tips for setting a tiered assignment:
• Before setting an assignment you need to decide what you want all your learners to know, understand and
be able to do.
For example: If you are planning a life orientation assignment on the topic of healthy foods, you want your
learners to:
-- Know the five food groups that are the basis of a healthy diet
-- Understand what foods belong in each food group and why they are important
-- Be able to create a food plate of their own representing a healthy meal using foods from each food group.
and discuss why each food is important for a healthy diet
• When you tier an assignment, you are essentially making an adjustment within the same lesson in order to
meet the needs of all your learners. Assignments can be adjusted in many ways: By complexity, pace,
number of steps to complete the task, time allotted, or even the level of independence that is required to
complete the task.
• When tiering assignments, bear in mind that learners who need to accomplish a higher-level activity must be
able to understand all the lower-level activities as well.
• Once you have decided what you want your learners to know, understand and be able to do, design your
differentiated assignments. Think about your most advanced learners and design an activity that will extend
them. Next, think about the learners who are at grade level and design a task for them. Lastly, think about
the learners who are below grade level and create a task that they will be able to do.
It is important to remember that when designing tasks for different ability levels. you need to make sure that no
learners are marginalised or made to feel less “able” than others. One way of ensuring this is to acknowledge
the achievement of all learners, using appropriate criteria.
In the next activity we will look at a multi-level assessment task.

ACTIVITY 42: Differentiating by varying the process

Writing
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Read the example of a Grade 5 English lesson below. Learners are being asked to write an
advertisement. In order to accommodate the different levels in her class, the teacher has consulted the
CAPS for Grades 4, 5 and 6.
Explain how she has varied the activities to accommodate diverse learner needs and abilities.
Design a rubric showing the assessment criteria the teacher will use to assess each level.
Suggest ways in which the teacher can avoid marginalising learners and making them feel less “able”.
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 Grade 5 English lesson: Writing an advertisement
Outcomes:
The teacher wants the learners to:
Know that the purpose of advertisements is to persuade people to buy something or use a service
Understand that advertisements can take a variety of forms; that they make use of slogans and
logos; that they usually have a visual, design element; that they use advertising techniques
Be able to design and create an eye-catching advertisement using a range of advertising techniques
Preparation
The class has already read and discussed advertisements in class and understands the concepts,
for example, purpose and audience, use of graphics and layout techniques, use of persuasive
techniques. The teacher used a mixture of closed and open questions and questions that included
a full range of lower- and higher-order thinking skills.
Activities
Below grade level: Learners work in pairs to create an advertisement. Together, they brainstorm
ideas using a mind map, and decide on appropriate visuals and text. Each learner produces a first
draft. They then help each other to revise, proofread and present their final drafts. The teacher will
assess them on: appropriate visuals and layout; creative use of language; and presentation of a
neat, legible final draft.
At grade level: Learners work in pairs to brainstorm advertising techniques and pre-plan their
advertisements. They then work individually to create an advertisement using appropriate visuals
and text. They revise it, proofread it and present a neat, legible final draft. The teacher will assess
them on: clear, logical expression of ideas; creative use of persuasive language, appropriate visuals
and layout; and presentation of a neat, legible final draft.
Above grade level: Learners work on their own to select appropriate advertising techniques from a
range of examples. They then create an advertisement using appropriate visuals and text, and write
an explanation of the techniques selected. The teacher will assess them on clear, logical expression
of ideas, demonstrating understanding of a wide range of advertising techniques; memorable
visuals and layout; creative use of language; and presentation of a neat, legible final draft.

ACTIVITY 43: Design a multi-level assessment task

Writing
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Select a learning outcome from CAPS relevant to your subject. Design a small multi-level assessment task
that supports the learning of all learners in the class.
How can you ensure that the learning is demonstrated in ways that acknowledge the achievement of
every learner?
What can you do to make sure that everyone can participate and no one is marginalised?

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2.3 Planning
inclusive lessons

ACTIVITY 44: Think about lesson planning

Journal
1. How have you understood lesson planning up to this point—as one lesson planned for the majority,
with additional support planned for some? Or as one lesson where information is presented and
learners are taking part in a variety of activities that are meeting the learning needs of all? Explain
your answer.
2. What are your concerns regarding lesson planning? What do you identify as challenges?

Planning lessons is an essential skill for an effective inclusive teacher. A lesson plan is a step-by-step guide to
teaching a lesson.
A lesson plan should have three basic components: outcomes of the lesson; teaching and learning activities;
and assessment to check learners’ understanding.
Your lesson plan needs to answer these questions:
• Who am I teaching?
• What am I teaching?
• How will I teach it?
• How will I know that my learners understand?
• How will I ensure that all learners have an opportunity to participate?
• How will I acknowledge the achievement of all learners?
Your lessons also need to be adaptable to allow you to respond to what you observe during the class.

2.3.1 Developing clear, achievable and measurable outcomes

In essence, learning outcomes reflect your hopes for how a lesson will go! They help you to clarify for yourself,
and communicate to learners:
• What new knowledge and skills learners will learn. Some teachers find the acronym WALT—We Are Learning
To—helpful here, e.g. “We are learning to describe ...”; “We are learning to analyse ...”; “We are learning to
characterise ...” Note the active, concrete verbs.
• The context in which they are going to learn it, e.g. the mountains; a poem called ...; fractions; celebrations
for Diwali.
• How they are going to show they have learnt it. Some teachers find the acronym WILF—What I’m Looking
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

For—helpful here, e.g. oral presentation, poster, written paragraph It must be something that the teacher is
able to observe.
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 Here’s an example:

Table 10: Sharing learning outcomes

Learning outcome Context How to show what you have learnt: success criteria

Show what happens when the body takes in oxygen and releases
carbon. You can choose to create a:
• Poster
• Role-play interview
• Practical demonstration
We are learning to • Written explanation
recognise how the body How the
takes in oxygen and lungs work Work in groups of up to four with people who want to choose the same
releases carbon dioxide. product as you.
Remember to show:
• What happens to the diaphragm
• What happens to the lungs
• What happens to the ribs
• The direction of the oxygen and carbon dioxide

Sharing learning outcomes and developing success criteria with learners can be useful, as it opens up a
discussion about learning. These discussions are significant because they:
• Build learners’ communication skills and increase clarity about what is expected. Checking for clarity gives
opportunities for teachers to help learners practise receiving and interpreting language.
• Enable outcomes to be broken down into smaller chunks, which helps concentration, focus and attention.
• Enable pathways to success criteria to be talked about, making it really clear what is needed and the
different ways of getting there. This type of discussion helps communication skills, organisational skills,
expressive language, and also extends the different ways children can make meaning from learning.
• Give learners a clear pathway to follow through the zone of proximal development, from “I can’t do this” to “I
can’t do this ... yet” to “I can do this”.

ACTIVITY 45: Write a lesson outcome

Writing
Write a lesson outcome based on the structure of the example given in Table 10. Use WALT and WILF if
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

this helps you. Remember to:

• Use concrete, active verbs—rather than “understand”, “know about” or “learn about”
• Separate the learning outcome from the context

73
The following checklist will help you to plan your lessons. As you complete each stage of your lesson plan, put
a tick in the right-hand column.

Checklist for planning an inclusive lesson

What is the topic of the lesson?

What knowledge and skills am I focusing on?

What prior knowledge do the learners need?

How will I introduce the lesson?

What is the main activity? Will it engage all learners? Will all learners be able to participate?

What adaptations are needed to include everyone?

What teaching aids will I use?

What learning materials will I need?

What outside help, e.g. parents, other teachers, will I use?

What activities will I use? Will I have a range of activities or use flexible grouping?

How will the activities be assessed?

How will I ensure that every learners’ achievement is valued and acknowledged?

How will Iearners evaluate the lesson?

Now we are going to look at an example of a lesson planned by Ms Khumalo. First, read her class profile.

CASE STUDY: Ms Khumalo’s class profile

Ms Khumalo is the Grade 4 mathematics teacher at
an urban school. She has 40 learners in the class
who come from diverse backgrounds. Over the first
term of the year, she has acquired an in-depth
knowledge of her learners. She has become aware
of the diversity amongst them in terms of language
proficiency, reading and writing competence,
interests, learning preferences, learning behaviours,
attitudes to learning, motivational levels, prior
knowledge, and levels of achievement in numeracy.
language of teaching and learning, English.
Although they are working hard, they need to be
closely supervised especially during group work,
or they become playful and don’t focus on the task
at hand.
Ms Khumalo has four learners in her class who are
highly motivated and have a special liking for,
curiosity about, and interest in mathematics. Ms
Khumalo tries her best to stimulate them and
provide them with a more enriching and expanded
INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

She has one learner, Yandiswa, who is hearing
impaired and wears a hearing aid. Yandiswa is doing
very well academically with support—particularly
emotional support—in fact, she is one of the high
achievers in mathematics.
Three learners are new to the school. From her
assessments, Ms Khumalo realises that they are
functioning below grade level in mathematics. They
have not mastered a lot of the content and skills in
the Grade 2 and 3 mathematics curriculum. They
are struggling with reading and writing skills in the
curriculum. Luyanda appears to have
developmental delays and—speaking to his
previous teachers—she learns that he has made
progress but is below grade level in most subjects.
In addition, she has Nicholas in her class, a
pleasant child who tries hard when Ms Khumalo
works with him one on one. He enjoys practical
activities and working with manipulatives but is
easily distracted. He has gaps in maths learning
and has also not mastered some of content in the
Grade 2 and 3 curriculum.
Unit 4

Ms Khumalo has planned a lesson on fractions, and has tried to put into practice what she has learnt from two
workshops she attended on curriculum differentiation and differentiated assessment.

74
 Here is her multi-level lesson plan, based on CAPS mathematics for grades 3, 4 and 5.

LESSON PLAN MATHEMATICS GRADE 4

Topic: Common fractions
Time: 1 hour 45 mins

Outcomes
We are learning to:
• Solve problems in contexts involving fractions, including grouping and equal sharing
• Describe and compare common fractions in diagram form
Background to lesson
Fractions (halves/thirds/quarters) have been introduced and illustrated by the learners with pictures, etc. Learners
placed in groups based on their classroom performance. Teacher to consider learners who are at different levels of
competence—below class level, at class level, and exceed class level.

Resources:
Paper squares, paper circles, paper rectangles, paper triangles

Learning and teaching activities

Warm-up activity
Teacher will display a set of interlocking cubes for all learners to see. There should be several cubes of several
different colours. Learners are asked to respond to the following questions:
• What fraction of the cubes is red?
• What fraction of the cubes is green?
• What fraction of the cubes is yellow?
Teacher has learners respond on paper and share responses.

Lesson development
Group 1 (learners below grade level):
1. Using paper circles (pizza) and squares (sandwich), learners in pairs work out how to share the food equally and
illustrate by folding the paper.
2. Have two pairs work out how they can share equally with four people. They can cut the parts and stack them to
see if they match.
3. Have the four learners repeat the process for sharing a pancake equally with three peers (let the circle represent
the crumpet).
4. Each learner must explain in pictures or words how they shared equally.
Group 2: (learners at grade level):
1. Using paper circles (pizza) and squares (sandwich), have learners in groups of three work out how to share the
food equally and illustrate by folding the paper.
2. Have two groups of three work out how they can share equally with six people.
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

3. Have the group of six repeat the process for sharing a birthday cake with 12 people. In each case, they can cut
the parts and stack to match. Have the group start with half a cake and divide equally for 3, 6 and 12 people.
4. Each learner must explain in pictures or words how they shared equally.

Group 3: (learners above grade level):

1. Using paper rectangles (sandwiches) and triangles (slices of pie), have learners in pairs work out how to share the
food in three different ways to get two equal parts. Have them illustrate by folding the paper.
2. Teacher gets group 3 learners to reflect on:
3. Are there other different ways to divide each shape equally?
4. How many ways are there?
5. Have the pair work out which shapes (circles, squares, rectangles, triangles) are easier to divide evenly and illustrate
why with a particular food of their choice. Each learner must explain in pictures or words how they shared equally.

75
 Assessment
Oral and practical
Informal assessment: teacher observation and recording
Assessment tools: rubric; checklist; observation book
As the learners work, the teacher will circulate among the groups and note the children’s abilities to divide materials
into equal parts, and to reorganise and check for equal parts.
She will consider the following:
• Can learners explain orally how many equal parts there are and demonstrate how they know the parts are equal?
• Can learners explain in writing or pictures how they know that the parts are equal?

After the lesson, she will reflect on the extent to which all learners were included and acknowledged for their achievements.

ACTIVITY 46: Evaluate Ms Khumalo’s lesson plan

Writing
Evaluate Ms Khumalo’s practices of curriculum differentiation and differentiated assessment. Consider:
• What strategies she is using to respond to the learning needs of all learners
• The strengths of the lesson
• The limitations of the lesson
• Strategies you would suggest to ensure that all learners are fully included, and that they are not
prejudged based on the way they are grouped

You have reached the end of the learning part of the module. Congratulations! To demonstrate what you have learnt,
you are required to do a final assignment.

INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Unit 4

76
 Suggested study unit assessment

Assessment
Using some of the strategies you have learnt about in this unit, develop an inclusive lesson plan that is
relevant to your subject and grade. Choose strategies that you think will best suit your lesson outcomes.
Start by drawing up a class profile. You could speak to the teacher of a lesson you have observed
during teaching practice and ask if you can use her class profile to help you create a lesson plan that is
appropriate to diverse learner needs.
Here are the minimum aspects that need to be covered in your lesson plan:
• A diagram showing the layout of your classroom
• Information about subject, grade, lesson duration, class’s prior learning
• Clear learning outcome with success criteria
• Inclusion of indigenous knowledge appropriate to context, class profile and subject
• Detailed notes for activities, showing clearly where and how you will use the strategies you have chosen
• Use of cooperative learning strategies and peer/group work
• Varied use of materials
• Key questions you will ask the learners
• Assessment methods
When you have completed your lesson plan, check that you have covered all the above aspects.
Explain the choices you have made by linking your lesson plan to your class profile.
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

77
Study unit summary and reflection
In Unit 4 we have explored the concept and practice of inclusive pedagogy. We considered the importance
of inclusive cultures, and the interdependent relationships between policy, practice and culture in developing
inclusive schools.
We examined the shift from deterministic thinking to transformative thinking, which sees difficulties in
learning as a dilemma for teaching rather than as a problem with learner differences, and related these
concepts to beliefs about learner difference and diversity from Unit 2.
A major focus of the unit was the introduction of inclusive pedagogical strategies that can be used to extend
your ability to create and inclusive classroom community, and design and deliver rich learning opportunities
for all learners. You were encouraged to reflect on the use of these strategies in your own context and a
range of other relevant school contexts.
We hope that, through completing this unit, you now have a thorough grasp of the concepts related to
inclusive pedagogy and to some strategies that will help you to provide an equitable, engaging learning
experience for the diverse learners you teach.

INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

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 Selected bibliography / further reading
Florian L (2014) What counts as evidence of inclusive education? European Journal of Special Needs
Education 29(3).
Florian L (2008) Inclusion: special or inclusive education: future trends. British Journal of Special Education,
2008: http://www.academia.edu/25010796/INCLUSION_Special_or_inclusive_education_future_trends
IBE-UNESCO (2017) Inclusive student assessment. Viewed 14 April 2019: nespap.unescobkk.org/wp-
content/uploads/2017/06/Inclusive-student-assessment.pdf
Kohn A (1996) Beyond discipline: from compliance to community. Harvard Educational Review (Alexandria,
VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1996/2006).
Tomlinson CA (2008) Reach every student through differentiated instruction. Ontario: Reach Every Child.
UNESCO (2004) Changing teaching practices—using curriculum differentiation to respond to students’
diversity. Viewed 14 April 2019: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000136583
Walton E (2017) Inclusive education in initial teacher education in South Africa: practical or professional
knowledge? Journal of Education Issue 67.
Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

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References
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Berghs M (2017) Practices and discourses of ubuntu: implications for an African model of disability? African
Journal of Disability, 6.
Case, R (2019) The unfortunate consequences of Bloom’s taxonomy. The Critical Thinking Consortium.
Viewed 20 May 2019: https://tc2.ca/uploads/PDFs/Critical%20Discussions/unfortunate_
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Department of Basic Education (DBE) (2011) Guidelines for responding to learner diversity in the classroom. DBE.
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Department of Education (DoE) (2001) Education White Paper 6: special needs education: building an
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Unit 4 INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

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Contextualizing inclusive education in developing countries. Bad Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt.
Centre for Studies in Inclusive Education (CSIE) (2011) Index for inclusion: developing learning and participation
in schools. Viewed 20 January 2019: http://www.csie.org.uk/resources/inclusion-index-explained.shtml
Visible Classroom Team (2017) The visible classroom: a how-to manual for teachers involved in the 2016–
2018 EEF Efficacy Trial. University of Melbourne. Viewed 20 January 2019: https://visibleclassroom.com/
wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Visible-Classroom-Manual_Phase2.pdf

INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Unit 4

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