Insight MDCAT

Cell Wall BTB

 The outermost boundary in most of plant cells, prokaryotes and  The outer part of
fungi. primary wall of
 Cell wall is absent in animal cells due to their locomotor mode of plant is
life. impregnated with
 Call walls of prokaryotes and plants differ due to their chemical cutin and waxes,
composition and structure. forming a
permeability
# Organism Chemical composition barrier known as
1. Prokaryotes  Peptidoglycan or murein plant cuticle.
 As a whole sacculus  The
 (Proteins + carbohydrates) cellulose
2. Fungi  Chitin (polysaccharide) microfibrils are
 Found in exoskeleton of insects held together by hy
(arthropods)  Plants
3. Plants  Cellulose (polysaccharide) communicate
with each other
 Cell wall is secreted by protoplasm of cell. through
microscopic
channels known
Layers of cell wall as plasmo-
desmata.

KPK
1. Middle lamella 2. Primary wall 3. Secondary wall  Cell wall was
Discovered by
Robert Hook in
Middle lamella 1665
 Middle lamella is present between adjacent primary walls of two
cells. Uses of cellulose in
industry
Primary wall 1) Nitrocellulose:
 Primary wall is a true wall and develops only in a newly growing Used as
cell. explosives.
 It is composed of cellulose, pectin and hemi-cellulose. 2) Rayon:
 Cellulose fibrils are arranged in a criss cross manner (right angle Used in textile
to each other) fibers.
3) Cellophane:
Secondary wall Partially
 Secondary wall is formed between primary wall and plasma permeable
membrane (on inner surface of primary wall) membrane.
4) Paper making:
 It is rigid and thick
5) Celluloids and
 It is composed of inorganic salts (Ca+2, Mg+2, K+ etc) silica, waxes,
cinematography:
cutin and lignin.
As plastic.
Functions
 Cell wall provides definite shape and it is rigid.
 Cell wall contains pores through which substances pass through

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freely and is called as freely permeable membrane. (Don't act as Thickness of
barrier) primary wall,
 Cell wall maintains cell shape provides protection and mechanical secondary wall and
support. middle lamella
 Middle lamella:
PTB 1 µm
 Middle lamella is the first layer to be formed between the primary  Primary cell
walls of neighbouring cells. wall:
1 – 3 µm
FTB  Secondary wall:
 The primary cell wall is present inner to middle lamella. 5 – 10 µm
 Primary wall is thin and flexible.
 Primary wall stretches plastically i.e., irreversibly.
 Secondary wall is dead and is found in sclerenchyma cells.
 Secondary wall develops only when cell reached its maximum
size. (growth is complete)
 Lignin in secondary wall is responsible for rigidness and anchors
cellulose microfibrils.
 Middle lamella is composed of calcium and magnesium salts of
pectic acid and pectin (protein)
 Middle lamella is cementing material or substance.
 Both primary and secondary walls are crystalline and optically
active.
 Cell wall prevents over- expansion.

Pectin Pectic Acid

1. Polymer of around 200
galacturonic acid molecules
2. Less hydrophilic
3. More methylated
4. Soluble in hot H2O
1. Polymer of around 100
galacturonic acid molecules
2. Very hydrophilic
3. Less methylated
4. Insoluble gel

Cell Membrane BTB

 Cell membrane or plasma membrane is the  Plasma
 Outermost boundary of protoplasm in animal cell. membrane is
living boundary.
 In plants, it is covered by cell wall. (outside)
 Phospholipid is
most abundant
Fluid mosaic model (most acceptable model)
lipid in plasma
 According to this model, cell membrane is composed of a lipid
membrane and
bilayer.
give basic
 Proteins are not continuous and not confined to cell surface. structure.
 Membrane proteins are embedded in lipid bilayer in a mosaic  Fluid mosaic
manner like ice barges float in sea randomly. model is given by
 Proteins are embedded wholly or partially. J. Singer and G.
Nicolson in 1972.
 There are two

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kinds of
membrane
Chemical composition of cell membrane
protein:
2. Intrinsic or
embedded
Protein (e.g.,
Proteins 60 – 80 Lipids 20 – 40% Carbohydrates permease)
(small amount) 3. Extrinsic or
surface
protein (e.g.,
receptors)
Functions of cell membrane
 One of the most important function of cell- membrane is to control
KPK
transport of material across it.
 Lipid bilayer
 Cell membrane allows only selective substances to pass through it;
makes the layer
therefore, it is known as selectively or differentially permeable
differentially
membrane.
permeable.
 Non-polar or neutral substances can easily across the membrane
 It allows only
e.g. gas molecule, water, glucose etc.
selective material
to pass through it.
 Two layers of lipid
Transport molecule
Suggested by
Garter and
Passive Active
Grendel in 1925.
 Unit membrane
No use of
Use of ATP Bulk transport model was given
ATP.
From lower to by Robertson in
Downhill
movement.
higher concentration 1959.
Uphill movement Endocytosis Exocytosis
 Plasma
Transport through
Facilitated Na+ - K+ pump membrane is
Osmosis
transport
Taking in Taking out
dynamic structure.
substances in substances in  Membrane
the form of the form of
Movement from vesicles vesicles. carbohydrate
higher to lower responsible for
concentration Membrane
through a semi- surface area is pinocytosis
permeable decreased
membrane.
Phagocytosis Pinocytosis phagocytosis are
(cell surface
marker)
Taking in solid Taking in liquid
substances substances

PTB
Unit membrane model:
 According to this model, lipid bilayer is sandwiched in between
inner and outer layers of proteins.
 This basic earlier model is present in all cellular organelles.
 Modern technology rejected this model.
 Cell membrane also contains charge pores through which
movement of material takes place both by active and passive

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transport.
 It regulates the flow of material and ions to maintain definite
gradient.
 Small molecules can easily cross the membrane.
 Ions being charged particle have difficulty in crossing.
 Many substances which are not needed constantly enters the cell
by passive transport while others are taken up by active transport
 Cell membrane helps to take material by enfolding in the form of
vacuoles.
 In nerve cell (neuron), the cell membrane transmits nerve impulses
from one part of body to other to keep co-ordination.

FTB
 Carbohydrates are in the form of conjugated glycolipids,
glycoproteins in cell membrane.
 Glycoproteins and glycolipids are cell surface markers which help
to recognize, stick and connect two cell together.

Other names for cell

membrane

Cell Cell
Plasma Biological Cell surface
Plasmalemma membrane of membrane of
membrane membrane membrane
muscle neuron

Sarcolemma Neurolemma

 Cell membrane is found in all living prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

 It gives shape & mechanical support to cell.
 The pattern of distribution of protein can vary from membrane to
membrane and also vary both surfaces of membrane.
 The membrane is about 7nm thick (wide)
 Hydrophobic ends of phospholipids are inward and face to each
other.
 Hydrophobic ends are appeared outside the surface.
 Cholesterol molecules are embedded in phospholipid bilayer at
some intervals.
 Cholesterol molecules helps to stabilize the phospholipid at body
temperature but it helps to keep the membrane fluid at low
temperature.
 Fluidity of membrane is due to lipid component of membrane
including:
(i) Phospholipid (ii) Glycolipid
(iii) Cholesterol (iv) Sphingolipid
 When the concentration of unsaturated fatty acid in phospholipid
becomes greater, the bilayer becomes more fluid that makes cell-
membrane more pliable. i.e., flexible
 Proteins of cell membrane may act as:
1. Channel protein: It allows particular molecules or ion to

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cross the plasma membrane freely

2. Carrier protein: It selectively interacts the specific molecule
or ion, so that it can cross the plasma membrane.
3. Enzyme: For example, the membrane protein
4. Cyclase: Catalyses the transformation of ATP to cyclic AMP
(2nd messenger)
5. Receptor: For example, hormone circulates in blood but
bind to specific target cell called receptor.
6. Antigen: Foreign antigen can be recognize and attacked by
immune system. Use in body defence system.

Transport across membrane

occurs to

Maintain suitable pH Generate ionic

Excrete waste Secrete useful and ionic gradient essential for
Obtain nutrient concentration for nervous and
substances substances
enzymatic activity muscular activity

Cytoplasm
 The living contents of the eukaryotic cell are divided into nucleus and
cytoplasm, the two collectively called protoplasm.
 Cytoplasm is the region between nuclear membrane and plasma
membrane.

Functions BTB
1. Store house of vital chemicals:  The word
 Useful substances used in various cellular activities. e.g. cytoplasm literally
means living gel

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glycogen of cell
 Waste compounds are removed out of the cell time to time.  Cytoplasm
2. Metabolic activities: contains both
 Many important metabolic reactions take place in cytoplasm organic and
e.g., glycolysis, glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis etc. inorganic
substances.
 Cytoplasm of
Nucleus
Cellular eukaryotes
Eukaryotic cell organelles maintains shape
Cytoplasm Insoluble of cell by
wastes organelle like
Cellular
inclusions cytoskeleton
Storage present inside it.
products
 Soluble part of cytoplasm cytosol forms the ground of cytoplasm and
is 90% water.
 Cytosol contains all the fundamental molecules of life.
Sugar, amino Non-viscous
True solution
acids, vitamins
Sol
Cytosol
Central
Colloidal
Proteins
solution
Viscous
Gel
Peripheral

 Cytoplasmic streaming movement, active mass movement,

amoeboid movement or cyclosis is due contractile activity of
microfilaments
 For example, free-floating organelles like mitochondria move about
in the cytoplasm due to cytoplasmic streaming movement.

FTB
 Cytoplasm is the common component of both prokaryotes and
eukaryotes.
 The major difference between cytoplasm of these two types of cells
is presence of cytoskeleton or absence of cytoskeleton and
membrane bound organelles.
 These structures are absent in prokaryotic cells.
 Metabolic reactions take place in cytosol.
 Storage of compounds take place in cytogel part of cytoplasm.
 Cyclosis is responsible for distribution of cell contents in cytoplasm.

Ribosome
 Tiny granular structures in the cell called ribosomes.
 Ribosomes were first studied by Palade in 1955.
 Ribosomes are made up of equal amount of RNA and Protein known
as ribonucleoprotein. BTB
 Ribosomes in exist in two forms:  Engine of cell or

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a) Attached to RER. factory for protein

b) Freely dispersed in cytoplasm. synthesis.
 Ribosome consists of two ribosomal subunits called Svedberg units  Ribosomes are
 Svedberg is used in ultra-centrifugation technique. absent in
 One is larger other is smaller subunit. mammalian
 Prokaryotes ribosome is 70 S, in which larger subunit is 50 S and RBCs.
smaller is 30 S.  Smallest organelle
 Eukaryote's ribosome is 80S, in which larger subunit is 60 S and also called
smaller is 40 S. organelle within
 The attachment of both subunits is controlled by the presence of an organelle.
Mg+2 ions: a) Prokaryotic
 Ribosomes are attached to mRNA through smaller ribosomal ribosome:
Subunit. rRNA 60%,
Single mRNA + Many ribosomes = Polysome (polyribosome) protein 40%
 Ribosomes are involved in protein synthesis (polypeptide) this b) Eukaryotic
process called translation starts from 5'end of mRNA and ends at ribosome:
3'end. . rRNA 40%,
 Ribosomes are synthesized from nucleolus (factory of ribosome) protein: 60%
where they are they are transported outside in cytoplasm through  Ribosomes are
nuclear pores. also attached to
outer surface of
nuclear
PTB
membrane.
 Ribosome contains RNA called ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
 About half a
million ribosomes
are found in
eukaryotic cells.
 Svedberg unit is a
unit of time equal
to 10-13 seconds.
 Mitochondrial
ribosomes are
produced from
mitochondrial
genes.
 Translation in
ribosomes is
facilitated by all
FTB three Kinds of
 Ribosome is dense, spherical, non-membranous organelle. RNA and under
 Common organelle present both in eukaryotic prokaryotic cells the instructions of
 Diameter of ribosome is 20 – 24 nm. DNA.
 Ribosomes are also found in matrix of mitochondria and stroma of
chloroplast but these ribosomes are of prokaryotic nature (70 S). KPK
 Attachment of ribosomal subunits is also controlled by forming salt  Due to small size
bonds between phosphate group of RNA and amino group of amino (20nm diameter),
acid. ribosomes are the
 In polysome, several copies of same polypeptide chain are produced last organelle to
in very less time. be sedimented

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requiring a force
Endoplasmic Reticulum of 150,000 times
 Interconnected channel of cisternae channel that extended from gravity for 3
nuclear membrane to plasma membrane. hours.
Extra point:
 Materials in these channels separated fem cytoplasmic content
through cisternae membranes.  Attached
ribosomes:
 Two forms of ER:
Synthesize protein
that is transported
SER RER outside the cell.
1. Ribosomes are not attached on 1. Ribosomes are attached on  Free ribosomes:
outer surface outer surface Synthesize protein
2. Also known sarcoplasmic 2. Involved in protein synthesis that is utilized.
reticulum in muscle cells.

 SER is involved in:

i) Detoxification of drugs.
ii) Elimination of harmful chemicals and substances. BTB
iii) Metabolism of carbohydrates and lipids.  Cisternae: These
iv) Transmission of impulse. are long flattened
 Both SER and RER provides mechanical support. and unbranched
units arranged in
PTB stacks.
 SER helps in transport of materials.  Vesicles: These
are oval
membrane
bounded
structures.
 Tubules: These
are irregular often
branched tubes
bounded by
membrane. They
may be free or
connected with
cisternae.
 If many ribosomes
are attached on
the small parallel
cisternae of RER
SER RER then it is called
1. Less stable structure. 1. Most stable structure. ergastoplasm
2. Mainly composed of tubules. 2. Mainly composed of cisternae In nerve cell,
and vesicles. ergastoplasm
known as Nissl's
3. Abundantly occurs in cells, 3. Abundantly occurs in cells which
body.
concerned with glycogen and are actively engaged in protein
lipid metabolism such as synthesis and secretion such as Cholesterol and
adipose tissue, muscles, liver in liver, pancreas and goblet phospholipid
cells and also remove toxins. cells. metabolism is

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done by SER
FTB  Cellular
 RER faces the cytoplasm. metabolism: The
 SER stores the Ca+2 ions for the transmission of impulse. membrane of ER
 Products formed are on RER are passed through SER. increases surface
area for metabolic
activities, also
Lysosome contains some
 Lyso means splitting and soma means "body". enzymes like
 Lysosome is some membranous sac (vesicles) sucrase, glucose-
 Lysosomes contain digestive or hydrolytic enzymes like acid 6-phosphatase,
phosphatase. NAD- Bi-
 These enzymes are synthesized by ribosomes on RER, and are phosphatase etc.
further processed in Golgi apparatus.  Formation of
 After modification, these enzymes are released in the form of nuclear
vesicles and are known as primary lysosomes. membrane:
 Vesicles before performing their functions are called primary Fragmented
lysosomes elements of
 Lysosomal enzymes work in acidic medium. disintegrated
nuclear
membrane and
ER arranged
around
chromosome to
form nuclear
membrane during
cell division.
 All membranous
organelles except
chloroplast and
mitochondria are
formed by ER.

KPK
 SER makes lipids
from fatty acids
and glycerol and
absorbed in gut
Functions
and passes them
 Major functions of lysosomes are: to Golgi
1. Intracellular Digestion: The ingested food of stored in apparatus.
vesicles cell is called food vacuole Food vacuole combines
 Corticosteroids
with lysosome and called secondary lysosome. The
made in adrenal
digested food absorbed in cytoplasm. Remaining wastes
cortex,
containing vesicles are called contractile vacuoles.
testosterone,
2. Exocytosis: Then these vacuoles are excreted out through
estrogenic
exocytosis.
initiated in SER.
3. Autophagy: Unwanted worn out structures within the all are
engulfed by the cell itself is called autophagy and these
lysosomes are known as autophagosomes. They are also BTB

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known as secondary lysosomes. It is self-eaten process.  Lysosomes break

During exercise, larger number of mitochondria are produced macromolecules
to obtain energy. These mitochondria are again decreased by in cell.
autophagy after exercise.  They are absent
4. Autolysis: During developmental processes, when a cell is in mammalian
required to be disintegrated, a type of cell death occurs called RBCS.
"autolysis". (programmed cell death)  Lysosomes are
less in number in
Storage Diseases plants.
 Several lysosomal diseases are caused by accumulation of lipids  Fungi also contain
due to absence of enzyme that is involved in catabolism of certain many Lysosomes.
substance. Periplasmic space
 As a result, these substances accumulate in cell. in bacteria may
 There are about 20 such diseases. function as
 These can be hereditary and congenital. lysosome
 Glycogenesis type II disease: This disease is due to accumulation  Lysosomes also
of glycogen in cell because enzyme involved in the breakdown of contain
glycogen to glucose absent. hydrolytic
 Tay Sach's disease: This disease is due to accumulation of lipids enzymes like
in brain- because enzyme involved in catabolism of lipid of absent. carboxyhydrases,
 This disease causes mental retardation and even can be fatal. lipases, nucleases
and proteases
PTB  Lysosomes vary
in size from 0.1 -
 Digested vacuoles and auto- phagosomes are secondary lysosome
0.8 µm in
 Lysosomes were isolated for the first time by De-Duve. In 1949.
diameter.
 Lysosomes are most abundant in those animal cells which exhibit
 In phagocytic
phagocytic activity e.g., neutrophils etc.
WBC, it is largest
 During starvation, process of autophagy happens in size (0.8 – 2
 Lysosomes also release enzymes for extra cellular digestion µm).
 Storage diseases are produced by mutation that effect one of the  They are also
lysosomal enzymes. known as
polymorphic
FTB cellular organelle
 Lysosomes contain about 40 different digestive enzymes. because they
 In plants, large central vacuole may act as lysosome exist in different
 Lysosome is also called suicidal bag. morphological and
physiological
Golgi apparatus States during their
 Found in all eukaryotic call. function.
 Found by Camilo Golgi in 1898. Primary
lysosome + Food
 Set of stack, membrane bound sacs Called cisternae,
vacuole =
 Together with the vesicles it is called Golgi complex
Digestive
 Formed by the fusion of vesicles, breaking up from SER. vacuole or
 Outer surface is convex, cis, forming face. phagosome
 Inner face is concave, trans, maturing face.  Lysosome
 Cisternae break at maturing face containing
 It is the complex system around central canal. undigested matter
 Main function is secretion, found abundantly in secretary calls.

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is called residual
lysosome.
 In unicellular
organisms, they
are removed
outside by
exocytosis.
 In multicellular,
they are retained
in the cell in the
form of lipofuscin
granules.
 Autophagosomes
are also called
cytolysosomes.
 Human liver cells
recycle half of its
macromolecules
 Products are passed from: each week.
 In intracellular
Ribosomes RER SER Golgi Vesicles
Lyso- Exo - digestion, the
some cytosis
phagocytosis
process is also
 Modification (glycylation) of carbohydrates into glycoprotein and called
glycolipid also its main function. heterophagy.
 Extracellular
digestion: when
osteoclast cells of
bone dissolve
unwanted parts of
bone.
 Extracellular
digestion also
takes place in
fungi.
 Tail of human
embryo and tail of
tadpole is
removed by
autolysis.
PTB  Crinophagy :
 The whole stack consists of a number of cisternae thought to be Excess of
moving from outer to the inner face. hormones of
Endocrine gland
 Finishing and packing of products is the function of Golgi.
are digested by
 In mammals, pancreases secretes granules having digestive
lysosomes
enzymes.
 Glycogenesis
 These granules are transported out of cell through Golgi.
type - II diseases
are caused due to
FTB
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 Lysosomes, peroxisome, and glyoxysomes are derived from Golgi absence of D-

complex. glycosidase.
 During cell division in plants, during cytokinesis, phragmoplast is  GSD (Glycogen
formed from which cell wall is formed. storage Disease)
 It helps in formations of cell wall. may be treated by
 Most of its secretions are protein nature. taking meals of
Carbohydrates
Vacuole  In USA, one child
per 25000 births
 Single membranous organelle found in both plant and animal cells.
have GSD.
 In animal cells many small peripheral vacuoles are present use
 Tay Sach's
 In mature Plant cells, large central vacuole is present that is formed disease is due to
by coalescence of smaller vacuoles during plant's growth and absence of beta-
development. hexosaminidase.
 Membrane of vacuole that separates vacuole content from is called
tonoplast.
 Vacuole plays important role in maintaining turgor pressure provides
mechanical support.
BTB
 Vacuole is store house of water, chemical products or metabolic
 In plants, Golgi
intermediates.
bodies are known
as dictyosome.
 Number of
cisternae are 3 –
7 in most of
animals but up to
30 in lower
organisms.
 Forming face is
closer to nuclear
membrane.
 Maturing face is
farthest face
closer to plasma
PTB
membrane.
 In mature plants, vacuole is central and pushes remaining organelles
 Formation of
in peripheral position.
acrosome during
 Vacuoles serve the plant by expanding its cytoplasm without diluting
spermatogenesis
the cytoplasm.
 Formation of egg
 It also plays role in providing the rigidity to the leaves and younger
vitelline
parts of the plants.
membrane is also
done by Golgi
FTB apparatus.
 Vacuoles are actually the vesicles originate from ER, Golgi complex
and plasma membrane. KPK
 In animals, during intracellular digestion, food vacuoles are formed  Sometimes,
by phagocytosis. polysaccharides
 Many freshwater protists, have contractile vacuoles that pump may be
excess water out of cell and maintain suitable concentration of ions synthesized from
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 They also help in the protection of plants against herbivores by Golgi bodies.
storing compounds that are poisonous and unpleasant for animals.  Golgi apparatus
 The solution inside the central vacuole is called cell sap. add surface area
 Cell sap also contains reservoir of inorganic ions like potassium and to cell membrane.
chloride.

Centriole BTB
 Non-membranous organelle  Diameter of
 Nine triplets of microtubules are found in cylindrical arrangement at centriole is 10 nm.
right angle to each other exterior to nucleus  Centrioles were
 Found in animals and lower microorganisms slime such as protists, discovered by
slime molds. Benden in 1883
 Absent in higher plants. and Boveri in
1895.
 They become double just before cell division
 Centrioles are
 Involved in cell division and formation of cilia and flagella
self-replicating
 Whole structure of spindle fiber is known as mitotic apparatus.
units.
 Basal bodies of
cilia and flagella
are types of
centrioles.

BTB
 Microfilaments are
involved in
1. Muscle
contraction.
2. Change in cell
shape
3. Division of
cytoplasm during cell
PTB
division
 Centrioles also play role in location of furrowing.
KPK
FTB  Koltzoff in 1928
 Centrioles are about 0.15 – 0.25 µm in diameter. suggested the
 0.3 – 2 µm in length existence of
 Centrioles lie in a distinctly staining region of cytoplasm Known as Fibrous network,
centro-sphere. later on, Cohen
 Centrioles and centrosphere are together called centrosome. (1977) confirmed
 Centrioles also give rise to basal bodies or kinetosome of cilia and his views.
flagella.
BTB
Cytoskeleton  Microtubules
 Cytosol contains fiber network culled cytoskeleton. perhaps are
 It contains three types of fibers: involved in the
transport of cell
wall materials
from Golgi bodies

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to outside of cell.
Cytoskeleton
BTB
 Intermediate
Intermediate filaments also
Microfilament Microtubule plays role in
filament
attachment of
muscle cell.
Microfilament
 Made of actin protein.

PTB
 More slender, linked to the inner surface of plasma membrane.
 Involves in internal cell motion.
 Amoeboid or cyclosis movement is also due to microfilament.

FTB
 Microfilament is of 7 nm diameter.
 Four twisted chains.
 Two chains of F - actin and two chains of tropomyosin and triplets of
troponin at regular intervals.

Microtubule
 Long, unbranched, slender, tubulin protein structure.
 Plays role in assembly and disassembly of spindle structures during
cell division.
 Involved in formation of mitotic apparatus.
 Involved in formation of cilia, flagella, centriole and basal body.

FTB
 0.2 – 0.25 µm in length.
 25 nm in diameter.
 Tubulin is a dimer.

Intermediate filament
 Role in support and maintenance of cell shape.

PTB

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 Size in between microtubule and microfilament.

FTB
 8 – 10 nm in diameter.
 Contains vimentin protein.
 Vimentin contains three chains of intermediate filaments with no
hollow space and twisted around each other.

BTB
Mitochondria  Mitos means
 It is found in all eukaryotic cells. thread; chondrion
 Powerhouse of cell. means granules.
 Role in production of ATP from ADP.  Altman (1890)
 Self-replicating organelle. established
 Varies in number from cell to cell. mitochondria, and
called them
bioblast.
 The term
mitochondria is
given by C.
Benda. (1898)
 All the
mitochondria
present in a cell
called
chondriome.
 Animal cells have
greater
mitochondria than
plant cell.
 If outer membrane
of mitochondria is
removed, it is
called mitoplast.
 Cristae increase
 Two membranes: surface area for
i) Outer smooth layer. chemical reaction.
ii) Inner contain foldings called cristae.  1% of total DNA is
 Cristae consists of F₁-Fo particles. present in
mitochondria.
Other names of F1 particles
 This DNA is small,
circular and can
code the
Stalked Elementen
Fernandas - synthesis of some
Oxysome ATP synthase Moran
particle particles
particles type of proteins.
 Mitochondria also
help in
 Matrix of mitochondria consists of many coenzymes, ions and
vitellogenesis
important chemicals like DNA, RNA, and ribosome (70 S).
(yolk formation)
 Kreb's cycle and oxidation (fatty acid oxidation) of pyruvate occurs in

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mitochondria. in oocyte.
 Extracting energy from food.  It is believed that
 Site of cellular respiration. mitochondria have
 Endo-symbiont origin organelle. endosymbiotic
origin from purple
PTB sulphur bacteria.
 Membrane enfolding or cristae is made of lipoprotein.
 Under electron microscope appears as complex structure. KPK
 Mitochondria are
FTB absent in in
mature RBC of
 Outer membrane contains porin protein that it can exchange
human.
material freely and is freely permeable.
 Mitochondria were
 Inner membrane is semi-permeable.
first seen in
 Have its own metabolic machinery.
Muscle cells in
 Diameter 0.5 – 1 µm. 1850.
 Young one gets
Other names for mitochondria all its
mitochondria from
Most busy and its mother (eggs).
ATP mill in cell Cell within cell Cell furnace Storage batteries active organelle in Semi-autonomous
cell cell organelle

BTB
Plastids  Plastids are the
 Plastids are pigmented organelles found in plants. sites of
manufacture and
 Plastids are double membranous organelles.
storage of
 Plastids are of three types:
important
chemical
compounds.
Plastids
 Most plants inherit
plastids from one
parent.
 Example:
Leucoplasts Chromoplasts Chloroplasts. Angiosperms
inherit plastids
from female
 All these three types made of are their precursors called proplastids. gamete, while
many
gymnosperms
Chloroplast inherit plastids
 Membrane bound organelle with small granules. from male pollen.
 Discoid structure.  Chloroplasts are
 Self-replicating. green plastids and
 Responsible for photosynthesis. found in green
 Light reactions on thylakoid membrane and dark reactions occur in parts of plants like
stroma of chloroplast. leaves,
herbaceous
stems.
 The most

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important and
Parts of chloroplast abundant enzyme
is rubisco (about
16% of
Envelope Stroma Thylakoid chloroplast)
 Semi-autonomous
organelle.
 Thylakoids pile up to form grana and inter-grana.  Endosymbiont
 25 – 50 thylakoids form grana (green part). organelle.
 Inter-grana is non-green part.
 Membrane of the thylakoids involved in the formation of ATP. KPK
 Chloroplast is
PTB heterogeneous
 Chlorophyll molecules have Mg+2 as its central atom unlike structure.
haemoglobin.  Stroma covers
 Diameter is 4 – 6 µm. most of the
volume of
 Stroma consists of protein, ribosome (70 S) and DNA (circular)
chloroplast.
FTB
 Outer membrane has poring proteins.
BTB
 Inner membrane is rich in protein and it is semi-permeable.
 Nuclear pores are
 Inter-grana are larger than grana. also guarded by
permeases in the
form of a pore
complex which
regulate RNA,
ionic exchange.
(nucleo-
cytoplasmic traffic
between
nucleoplasm and
cytoplasm)
 Nucleolus usually
attached to
chromatin at
Chromoplasts specific site called
 They impart colour to plants other than green. nuclear
organizer region
 They are found in petals of flowers.
(NOR)
 Also found in ripened fruits.
 Chromatin
 Help in pollination and dispersal of seeds.
consists of both
histone, non-
Leucoplasts histone proteins,
 They are colourless, plastids. DNA, and little
 They are found in underground parts of plant like roots, stem etc. amount of RNA.
 They help in storage of compounds.  Chromas:
 They are triangular in shape. colour; Soma:
body.

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 Chromosome can
Elaioplast Store lipids be best studied at
metaphase stage
because size of is
Leucoplast 03 types Amyloplast Store starch the chromosome
shortest during
Proteinoplast or metaphase
Store protein  Chromosome is
Eluroplast
covered by thin
proteinaceous
Nucleus sheath called
 Discovered by Robert Brown in 1831. pellicle.

KPK
 Diameter of
nucleus = 10 µm.
 Pigeon has 80
chromosome.

 Nucleus is the central part in animal cell and in plant cell it is

peripheral.
 It may be spherical, oval elongated or irregular shape.
 It is visible only when cell is in non-dividing stage.
 In dividing cell, it disappears and chromatin material is replaced by
chromosomes.
 Generally each cell contains one nucleus but sometimes may be two
or many called mono-nucleated, di-karyotic, poly-nucleated etc.

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For example:
1. Muscle cell contains many nuclei.
2. Paramecium is dikaryotic.
3. Opalina is multinucleated.
 Nucleus is absent in some cells like:
a) In mature mammalian RBCs.
b) Mature phloem sieve tube elements in plants.
 Nucleus is self-replicating organelle.
 Nucleus consists of following structures:

Nucleus

Nuclear
Nucleoplasm Nucleolus Nuclear pores Chromatin Chromosomes Karyotype
envelope

Nuclear Envelope

Contains nuclear pores

(porin proteins)
Outer membrane
Continuous with
Membranes of nuclear endoplasmic reticulum.
envelope

Encloses nuclear
Inner membrane
content.

Nucleoplasm
 Nucleoplasm is ground substance of nucleus which is also known
as nuclear matrix or karyoplasm.
 It is transparent complex colloidal fluid contains water, proteins,
enzymes like ATPase, DNA and RNA polymerase,
endonucleases and ions like Ca++, Mg++ etc.

Nucleolus
 Nucleoplasm also contains one or more nucleoli.
 Nucleolus is non-membranous which is spherical darkly stained.
 It is only visible during interphase while disappear during cell
division.

 The main function of nucleolus is to form subunits of ribosomes.

 Factory of ribosome in cell.

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Nucleolus

85% proteins 10% RNA 5% DNA.

Nuclear pores
 Gaps between inner and outer nuclear membranes.
 Number of nuclear pores depends vary from nuclear pores cell to
cell.
 Nuclear pores control traffic of cell.

Chromatin
 Network of nucleoprotein fibers, embedded in nucleoplasm.
 Chromatin condensed to form chromosomes during cell division.

Chromosome
 Chromosomes absorbs deeply in basic dyes during staining, thus
darkly stained structure.

Karyotype
 Array of chromosomes.
 The number of chromosome is definite for each species.

Cell Chromosomes Cell Chromosomes

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Human 46 Chimpanzee 48
Onion 16 Maize 20
Pea 14 Frog 26
Sugarcane 80 Fruit fly 08
Mouse 40 Mucor 02

 Each chromosome has:

1. Two identical sister chromatids
2. Two sister chromatids connected together at a common point
called centromere. (primary constriction)
 Kinetochore protein is present at centromere, during cell division.
 Chromosomes are the vehicle of hereditary material (genes) from
parent cell to daughter cell.

PTB
 Undifferentiated cell has greater nuclear pores than differentiated
cell.
 Egg cell has 30,000 per nucleus.
 While erythrocytes 3 – 4 per nucleus.

Central fibril area rRNA & rDNA

Nucleolus
Peripheral Ribosomal
granular area subunits

 Potato has 48 chromosomes.

 Diploid cell = 2n chromosome.
 Haploid cell = n chromosome.

FTB
 Ends of chromosomes are called telomeres
 Chromosome is made of DNA and Protein.

Nucleus

Controller of
Heart of cell Brain of cell
cell

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
1. Pro: before ; karyon: nucleus 1. Eu: true; karyon: nucleus
2. Don't have distinct nucleus 2. Have distinct nucleus.

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3. Bacteria and cyanobacteria 3. Animals, plants, fungi

 Ribosome is the common organelle between prokaryotes and

eukaryotes.

Prokaryotes
4. Lacks membrane bound
organelles like cytoskeleton,
mitochondria etc.
5. 70 S ribosome (50 S + 30S)
6. Nuclear material (DNA) is
dispersed in cytoplasm.
7. Consists of small, single,
circular chromosome
8. Histone is absent
9. Plasma membrane lacks sterols
like cholesterol.
10. Divided by binary fission
11. Flagellin is part of flagella.
12. Mesosomes are present.
13. Prokaryote (bacteria) cell wall is 13. Plant cell wall is made of
made of peptidoglycan
(polysaccharide + amino acid) /
murein. (a as whole sacculus)
Eukaryotes
4. All membrane bound organelles
are present.
5. 80S ribosome (60 S + 40S)
6. Nuclear material (DNA) is within
nucleus.
7. Consists of two linear
chromosomes.
8. Histone protein is present.
9. Plasma membrane does have
sterols in it.
10. Divided by mitosis. (normal
cells) Meiosis in germ cells
11. Tubulin is part of flagella.
12. Mesosomes are absent.
cellulose. Fungi cell wall is
made of chitin.

 Cell wall is the main distinction between prokaryote and eukaryote.

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Membrane bound organelles

Double Membranes

Mitochondria Chloroplast Nucleus

Single Membrane

Vacuole Lysosome Peroxisome Glyoxisome ER Golgi body

Ribosome
Non-membranous
Centriole

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Organelles found only in plant and animal cells

Plants Animals
1. Plastid 1. Centriole
2. Central vacuole 2. Peripheral vacuole
3. Glyoxysome 3. Peroxisome

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Note
 Mitochondria, lysosome, ER, Golgi body, nucleus and ribosomes are
found in both animals and plants.

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