Tourism Management 30 (2009) 298–308

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Tourism Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tourman

Understanding the relationships of quality, value, equity, satisfaction,

and behavioral intentions among golf travelers
Joe Hutchinson a, *, Fujun Lai b, Youcheng Wang c
a
Rosen College of Hospitality Management, University of Central Florida, 1200 W, International Speedway, Daytona Beach, FL 32114-2811, United States
b
College of Business, University of Southern Mississippi, 730 E, Beach Boulevard, Long Beach, MS 39560, United States
c
Rosen College of Hospitality Management, University of Central Florida, 9907 Universal Boulevard, Orlando, FL 32819-8701, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study developed and tested an integrative model to examine the relationships between golf trav-
Received 15 November 2007 elers’ perceptions of quality, value, equity, and satisfaction and to investigate the impacts of the service
Accepted 26 July 2008 evaluation variables (i.e., quality, value, and satisfaction) on their behavioral intentions (i.e., revisit
a destination, word-of-mouth referrals, and search for alternative destinations). The model was tested
Keywords: using surveyed data from 309 golf travelers. The results indicated that although service quality did not
Satisfaction
have a significant influence on value or satisfaction, it did have a significant influence on equity. As
Equity
hypothesized, equity had a significant and direct influence on both value and satisfaction, and value had
Value
Customer loyalty a significant influence on satisfaction. Regarding the behavioral intention variables, service quality did
Behavioral intention not influence any of the behavioral intention variables, while value and satisfaction had no significant
Golf traveler influence on the search for alternative variable. However, as hypothesized, both value and satisfaction
had significant influences on the intention to revisit and word-of-mouth behavioral intention variables.
Discussion and implications are provided based on the research results.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Bachman, 2002b). By better understanding the purchasing

The golf traveler market has become an important component
of the tourism industry in many travel destinations (Petrick &
Bachman, 2002a). Golf travelers spend money in a variety of ways
(e.g., travel, hotels, restaurants, golf courses, attractions, enter-
tainment, etc.), and business travelers who play golf have a greater
economic impact on local communities than non-golfing business
travelers (National Golf Foundation, 2007). As a result, there has
been intensified competition among travel destinations for the golf
traveler market, as evidenced by the ongoing development of new
golf course resorts and the refurbishment and upgrading of existing
golf courses and resorts. An increasing number of travel destina-
tions offer attractive, all-inclusive golf packages and aggressively
market to golf travelers through various information sources.
As the competition among travel destinations for the golf travel
market intensifies, it will become increasingly important for golf
managers and destination marketers to identify the variables that
assist in the attraction and/or retention of golf travelers (Petrick &
* Corresponding author. Address: Rosen College of Hospitality Management,
University of Central Florida, 1200 W. International Speedway, Daytona Beach, FL
32114-2811, United States
E-mail addresses: jhutchin@mail.ucf.edu (J. Hutchinson), fujun.lai@usm.edu
(Fujun Lai), raywang@mail.ucf.edu (Y. Wang).
behavior of golf travelers, destination marketers and managers of
tourism-related supply components (i.e., golf courses, hotels,
restaurants, attractions, etc.) will be better equipped to develop
more appropriate marketing strategies and tailor their products
and services to attract new golf travelers to their destinations, while
building a repeat business among existing clientele.
Prior research has suggested that key service-oriented
constructs (e.g., quality, value, and satisfaction) should be further
examined to better understand why tourists decide to return to
a destination and/or generate positive word-of-mouth referrals
for that destination (Baker & Crompton, 2000; Getty & Thompson,
1994; Oh, 1999; Petrick, 2004; Tam, 2000). Although theory-based
research efforts have advanced the understanding of service-
oriented constructs in hospitality and tourism settings, there
continues to be a need to refine the theories and methodologies
by introducing new variables and/or modified frameworks to
enhance the predictive power of these models (Oh & Parks, 1997).
For example, most hospitality and tourism service-oriented
research has focused on service quality as the sole antecedent to
customer satisfaction, and other variables/constructs have been
proposed and/or tested for better accuracy of prediction. For
instance, perceived value has been empirically tested as a second
proposed antecedent variable to satisfaction in recent studies
(e.g., Oh, 1999; Petrick, 2004; Tam, 2000). Although perceived

0261-5177/$ – see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2008.07.010
 J. Hutchinson et al. / Tourism Management 30 (2009) 298–308
equity has been proposed to have an important relationship to
service, value, and customer satisfaction (Hellier, Geursen, Carr, &
Richard, 2003), it has rarely been empirically tested in a tourism
context. Further, the measure for behavioral intentions may also
warrant scrutiny, since previous studies dominantly use intention
to repurchase or word-of-mouth as single behavioral intentions
constructs to examine their bivariate relationships with proposed
antecedent variables (e.g., quality, value, and satisfaction).
Although the search for alternatives construct has been cited as
an important outcome of customer satisfaction in consumer
purchase behavior (e.g., Kozak & Remington, 2000), this construct
has rarely been empirically tested in tourism research as
a measure of behavioral intentions. Since tourists are often faced
with a number of choices between travel destinations, it appears
that their search among alternative destination choices would
play an important role in their final decision to select a specific
travel destination.
Using an integrative approach, the objective of this paper was to
empirically test a proposed model to better understand golf trav-
elers’ perception judgments and the impact of those judgments on
their behavioral intentions. To achieve this research objective, the
relationships between golf travelers’ perceptions of service quality,
value, equity, and satisfaction were assessed. Simultaneously, the
effects of perceived quality, value, and satisfaction on three
behavioral intentions (i.e., intention to revisit, word-of-mouth, and
search for alternatives) also were examined.
2. Conceptual framework, model elaboration and research
hypotheses
2.1. Conceptual framework
Research concerning the nature and measurement of customer
satisfaction and service quality is prevalent in the marketing liter-
ature (Anderson & Sullivan, 1993; Andreassen, 2000; Boulding,
Karla, Staelin, & Zeithaml, 1993; Cronin & Taylor, 1994; Oliver, 1980;
Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1988, 1994). In the tourism
industry, customer perceptions of satisfaction and service quality
are important to successful destination marketing because of their
influence on the choice of a destination (Ahmed, 1991), the
consumption of goods and services at that destination, and the
decision to return to that destination (Stevens, 1992). As a result,
researchers have attempted to adapt service quality and customer
satisfaction theories and measures to hospitality and tourism
industry settings. For example, researchers have tested the
SERVQUAL framework in restaurant (e.g., Bojanic & Rosen, 1994),
lodging (e.g., Saleh & Ryan, 1992), and destination (e.g., Pizam,
Neumann, & Richel, 1978) settings. Different approaches also have
been applied to the measurement of customer satisfaction within
the tourism industry. For example, Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and
Berry’s (1985) expectation–perception gap model (Duke & Persia,
1994), Oliver’s (1980) expectancy-disconfirmation theory (Pizam &
Milman, 1993), and Pizam et al.’s (1978) performance-only model
have been used to measure customer satisfaction in the tourism
context.
Following Rust and Oliver’s (1994) call for research into the
conceptual relationships between quality, value and satisfaction,
a number of studies endeavored to model these linkages (e.g.,
Chenet, Tynan, & Mond; 1999; Fornell, Johnson, Anderson, Cha, &
Bryant, 1996; Spreng, MacKenzie, & Olshavsky, 1996; Zeithaml,
Berry, & Parasuraman, 1996). Service evaluation variables
considered to be important antecedent factors to customer
satisfaction include customer perceptions of quality (Cronin &
Taylor, 1992, 1994; Fornell et al., 1996; Hellier, Geursen, Carr,
& Richard, 2003; Parasuraman et al., 1994; Severt, Wang, Chen, &
Breiter, 2007), value (Fornell et al., 1996; Hellier et al., 2003), and
299
equity (Hellier et al., 2003; Oliver, 1993; Oliver & DeSarbo, 1988;
Oliver & Swan, 1989). The theoretical justification for the linkages
between quality, value, and satisfaction is derived from Bagozzi’s
(1992) coping framework, which suggests the initial service
evaluation (i.e., appraisal) leads to an emotional reaction that, in
turn, drives behavior (Gottlieb, Grewal, & Brown, 1994). The
adaptation of Bagozzi’s (1992) framework to a service context
suggests that the more cognitively-oriented service quality and
value appraisals precede satisfaction (e.g., Anderson, Fornell, &
Lehmann, 1994; Anderson & Sullivan, 1993; Chenet et al., 1999;
Cronin & Taylor, 1992; Gottlieb et al., 1994; Patterson & Spreng,
1997; Spreng & Mackoy, 1996; Woodruff, 1997). According to
Cronin and Taylor (1994), service quality is reflected in a cus-
tomer’s evaluative perception of a service encounter at a specific
point in time, while customer satisfaction involves both end state
and process judgments and reflect both emotional and cognitive
elements.
Rust and Oliver (1994) also called for the study of the conse-
quences of the quality, value, and satisfaction constructs. As
a result, a number of studies have been conducted that have
specified relationships between the three service evaluation vari-
ables of quality, value, and satisfaction and the proposed effects of
these variables on behavioral intentions outcomes such as
repurchase intentions and word-of-mouth communication.
However, there has been little uniformity concerning which of the
three service evaluation variables, or their combinations, have the
most significant direct influence on consumer behavioral inten-
tions. Correspondingly, several competing models emerged. The
first (Value) model is derived from the service value literature,
where value is suggested to lead directly to behavioral intentions,
with service quality and satisfaction as antecedents to value (e.g.,
Chang & Wildt, 1994; Sweeney, Soutar, & Johnson, 1999). The
second (Satisfaction) model, which emanates from the satisfaction
literature, defines customer satisfaction as the primary and direct
link to behavioral intentions, with service quality and value being
antecedents to satisfaction (e.g., Anderson & Fornell, 1994; Fornell
et al., 1996; Mohr & Bitner, 1995; Spreng et al., 1996). The third
(Quality) model is derived from service quality literature investi-
gating the relationships between service quality, satisfaction, and
behavioral intentions. Most studies investigating these relation-
ships have reported that service quality influences behavioral
intentions only indirectly through value and satisfaction (e.g.,
Anderson & Sullivan, 1993; Gottlieb et al., 1994; Patterson & Spreng,
1997).
All three competing models discussed above have illustrated
significant bivariate relationships between service quality, value,
satisfaction, and behavioral intentions, but few studies have
investigated whether any or all of these three service evaluation
variables directly influence behavioral intentions when the effects
of all three are simultaneously considered (Cronin, Brady, & Hult,
2000). Cronin et al. (2000) argued that partial examination of the
simple bivariate links between any of three service evaluation
constructs and behavioral intentions may mask or overstate their
true relationships due to omitted variable bias. To address this
issue, Cronin et al. (2000) proposed and examined a more collective
model, in which all three service evaluation variables (quality, value
and satisfaction) directly lead to behavioral intentions
simultaneously.
In recent years, researchers have proposed and empirically
tested more integrative models of quality, value, and satisfaction to
better understand the purchase decision-making process of
hospitality and tourism customers. Using a sample from the luxury
segment of the hotel industry, Oh (1999) found that perceived
service quality had a positive direct effect on both perceived
customer value and customer satisfaction, perceived customer
value had a direct and positive effect on customer satisfaction and
300 J. Hutchinson et al. / Tourism Management 30 (2009) 298–308
repurchase intentions, and customer satisfaction had a positive and
direct effect on repurchase intentions and on word-of-mouth
intentions. In a cross-cultural assessment of service quality, value,
and satisfaction between American and Latin-American fast-food
customers, Brady, Robertson, and Cronin (2001) reported that
service quality had a direct and positive relationship with value and
satisfaction in both samples. Although value had a direct, signifi-
cant and positive effect with satisfaction and behavioral intentions
only in the American sample, satisfaction had direct and positive
relationships with behavioral intentions in both samples. Finally,
service quality did not have a direct effect on behavioral intentions
in either sample.
In a study of cruise passengers, Petrick (2004) reported that
quality had both an indirect effect (through both perceived value
and satisfaction) and a direct effect on cruise passengers’ behav-
ioral intentions, with quality, value, and satisfaction all being
significant predictors of repurchase intentions. More specifically,
quality was a better predictor of repurchase intentions than
perceived value, and perceived value was a better predictor of
repurchase intentions than satisfaction. Further, repurchase
intentions was positively and significantly related to word-of-
mouth communication. Thus, cruise passengers who intended to
purchase another cruise spoke more positively about their cruise
experiences than those passengers who were less likely to
repurchase another cruise.
Based on an extensive and critical literature review and
considering the unique context of the study, our proposed model is
presented in Fig. 1. First, the proposed model simultaneously
examines the relationships of service quality, perceived value, and
satisfaction. The model suggests that service quality, perceived
value, and satisfaction all have directional relationships between
each other and also serve as antecedents to behavioral intentions
outcomes. Second, in addition to the frequently used service eval-
uation constructs of quality, value, and satisfaction, we also propose
that equity is a consequent variable to service quality and an
antecedent variable to both value and satisfaction. Third, the rela-
tionships between the three service evaluation constructs (i.e.,
service quality, value, and satisfaction) and three behavioral
intention variables (intention to revisit, word-of-mouth referrals,
and search for alternatives) are also proposed. Search for alterna-
tives as a behavioral intention outcome is included in the model
since, as articulated before, the propensity for golf travelers to
search for alternative destinations is considered an important
outcome in their decision to choose a travel destination.
Service
Quality
H 9a
4
H
H1
H 7b
H5
Equity
H3
Value
H
9b
H2
H6
7c
H
Satisfaction
Fig. 1. Conceptual model.
2.2. Model elaboration and hypotheses development
2.2.1. Service evaluation variables
There are extensive studies on the relationships between the
three service evaluation variables of quality, value, and satisfaction
(Cronin et al., 2000; Spreng et al., 1996). The majority of empirical
studies in the literature have reported the relationship between
customer perceptions of quality and value to be positive (e.g.,
Andreassen & Lindestad, 1998; Brady et al., 2001; Cronin et al.,
2000; Sweeney et al., 1999). The results of these studies have led to
a convergence of opinion that service quality is an antecedent of
value perceptions (Cronin et al., 2000; Hellier et al., 2003; Petrick,
2002a; Rust & Oliver, 1994; Zeithaml, 1988) and is generally the best
predictor of perceived value (Baker et al., 2002; Cronin et al., 2000;
Parasuraman & Grewal, 2000). Therefore, we hypothesize:
H1. Perceived service quality has a direct positive effect on
perceived value.
Although marketing literature has suggested that perceived
value is the leading predictor of behavioral intentions (Parasura-
man & Grewal, 2000; Woodruff, 1997), Petrick and Bachman
(2002b) argued that the perceived value measurement has been
given little attention by tourism researchers. Although most studies
have proposed service quality as the sole antecedent to consumer
satisfaction, empirical evidence also has shown perceived value to
be an immediate antecedent in the prediction of customer satis-
faction (Anderson et al., 1994; Cronin et al., 2000; Fornell et al.,
1996; Oh, 1999; Rust & Oliver, 1994; Spreng & Mackoy, 1996).
Therefore, we hypothesize the following:
H2. Perceived value has a direct positive effect on customer
satisfaction.
According to the satisfaction model, which is derived from the
consumer satisfaction literature, perceived service quality is an
important antecedent to customer satisfaction. A number of
empirical studies have found support for this model, and have
linked service quality as a positive and direct path in the prediction
of customer satisfaction (Anderson et al., 1994; Baker & Crompton,
2000; Cronin et al., 2000; Fornell et al., 1996; Oliver, 1993; Para-
suraman et al., 1994; Rust & Oliver, 1994; Spreng & Mackoy, 1996).
In the tourism literature, Petrick (2004) reported that quality was
an antecedent of cruise passengers’ satisfaction in the prediction of
their behavioral intentions. Also, in a study of customers of family-
style dinner house chains, Babin et al. (2005) reported that higher
H7a Intention
H to Revisit
8a
H8b Word-of-
Mouth
H 8c
Search for
H9c Alternatives
 J. Hutchinson et al. / Tourism Management 30 (2009) 298–308
service quality perceptions led to greater customer satisfaction.
Thus, we hypothesize the following:
H3. Perceived service quality has a direct positive effect on
customer satisfaction.
There has been limited integration of the perceived equity
construct with quality, value, and satisfaction in service evaluation
theoretical models. However, perceived equity has been empirically
demonstrated to be an important variable in a consumer’s service
evaluation process (Hellier et al., 2003; Oliver, 1993; Szymanski &
Henard, 2001; Takala & Uusitalo, 1996). The literature suggests that
service quality is an antecedent of perceived equity. Service quality
is reflected in a consumer’s evaluative perception of a service
encounter (Cronin & Taylor, 1994). When customers perceive that
services meet or exceed their expectations and also meet service
promises, they also perceive to have been treated fairly and
reasonably (Berry et al., 1994; Bitner, 1995; Zahorik & Rust, 1992).
Hellier et al. (2003) developed and tested a structural equation
model using a sample of insurance customers and reported that
perceived service quality had a significant influence on perceived
equity. They reported that perceived service quality influenced
respondent satisfaction, but only indirectly via perceptions of
equity and value. Therefore, we hypothesize the following:
H4. Perceived service quality has a direct positive effect on
perceived equity.
There has been limited research supporting perceived equity as
a direct antecedent of perceived value. Empirically, Goodwin and
Ross (1992) found that customer perceptions of overall fairness
were positively associated with customer perceptions of the value
of the service received. In a study of insurance customer repurchase
intentions, Hellier et al. (2003) found that perceived quality influ-
enced satisfaction only indirectly, via perceived equity and
perceived value. Thus, we hypothesize the following:
H5. Perceived equity has a direct positive effect on perceived
value.
The literature often considers equity as an important antecedent
of customer satisfaction (Oliver, 1993; Oliver & Swan, 1989; Szy-
manski & Henard, 2001; Takala & Uusitalo, 1996). Empirically,
studies have shown that customer equity perceptions influence the
level of customer satisfaction (Hellier et al., 2003; Oliver & Swan,
1989). Furthermore, dissatisfied customers are more likely to
increase their level of satisfaction when service providers
successfully recover the fairness and justice of the service
encounter (Andreassen, 2000). Research suggests that dissatisfied
customers who successfully obtain redress (procedural, distributive
and interactional justice) are likely to experience improved overall
satisfaction with the service (Andreassen, 2000; Tax, Brown, &
Chandrashekaran, 1998). Several studies have reported that
customer equity perceptions influence the level of customer satis-
faction, following a purchase transaction (Oliver & DeSarbo, 1988;
Oliver & Swan, 1989). In a study of insurance customer repurchase
intentions, Hellier et al. (2003) found that perceived quality influ-
enced satisfaction only indirectly, via perceived equity and
perceived value. Therefore, we hypothesize the following:
H6. Perceived equity has a direct positive effect on customer
satisfaction.
2.2.2. Consumer behavioral intentions
Zeithaml, Berry, and Parasuraman (1996) suggested that
favorable behavioral intentions are associated with a service pro-
vider’s ability to get its customers to: (1) say positive things about
them, (2) recommend them to other customers, (3) remain loyal to
them (i.e., repurchase from them), (4) spend more with them, and
301
(5) pay price premiums. A number of studies have used one or
more of these five proposed constructs to examine the outcomes
of quality (Baker & Crompton, 2000; Oh, 1999), value (Bojanic,
1996; Petrick & Bachman, 2002a), and satisfaction (Spreng et al.,
1996; Tam, 2000). Quality, perceived value and satisfaction all
have been shown to be good predictors of repurchase intentions.
However, little uniformity exists concerning these three service
evaluation variables, or combinations therein, when examining
their direct affect on consequent measures (see Cronin et al.,
2000).
Our theoretical model presented in Fig. 1 includes the two
frequently used behavioral intention variables: intentions to
revisit and word-of-mouth communication. However, we also
include the rarely used search for alternatives variable as a third
behavioral intention outcome, since the propensity for golf trav-
elers to search for alternative destinations is quite possible in their
decision-making process. The following section is an elaboration
of the three proposed behavioral intention constructs included in
our study and their relationships with the service evaluation
variables.
2.2.2.1. Intention to revisit. It has been argued that quality is not
only mediated by perceived value and satisfaction in the prediction
of consumer behavioral intentions, but also has a direct relation-
ship to behavioral intentions (Cronin et al., 2000). Some empirical
studies have reported that service quality has a direct effect on
behavioral intentions (e.g., Cronin et al., 2000; Mohr & Bitner, 1995;
Zeithaml et al., 1996), while others have shown that quality has an
indirect path to behavioral intentions through satisfaction
(Anderson & Sullivan, 1993; Anderson et al., 1994; Brady et al.,
2001; Cronin & Taylor, 1992; Rust & Oliver, 1994).
Research also has shown perceived value and satisfaction to be
direct antecedents of behavioral intentions (Cronin et al., 2000;
Petrick & Bachman, 2002a; Tam, 2000). In a study of restaurant
patrons, Babin et al. (2005) reported that both perceived value and
satisfaction had positive and significant effects on positive word-of-
mouth communication. Recent research has suggested that
perceived value may be a better predictor of repurchase intentions
than either satisfaction or quality (Cronin et al., 2000; Oh, 2000). In
a study using a sample of hotel guests, Hartline and Jones (1996)
reported that both perceived service quality and value had a direct
and positive effect on guests’ word-of-mouth communication, with
value having a stronger effect than quality. In a study of fine-dining
patrons’ pre- and post-experience, Oh (2000) reported value to be
a superior predictor of repurchase intentions, both before and after
their dining experience.
In the tourism literature, prior research findings suggest
a significant relationship among tourist satisfaction, intention to
return, and positive word-of-mouth communication (Beeho &
Prentice, 1997; Hallowell, 1996; Pizam, 1994; Ross, 1993). Further-
more, satisfied tourists are most likely to recommend destinations
they have visited to their friends and relatives (Beeho & Prentice,
1997; Ross, 1993). In a study of tourists visiting Mallorca, Spain,
Kozak and Remington (2000) reported that the more satisfied the
tourists were with their visits, the more likely they were to return
and recommend the destination to others. Further, satisfied tourists
were more likely to recommend holidays in Mallorca than to repeat
their visits to the destination. A significant correlation also was
found between intention to recommend and intention to revisit the
destination. Thus, tourists were more likely to recommend the
destination to others if they intended to revisit. In a study of
entertainment travelers, Petrick, Morais, and Norman (2001)
reported that perceived value and satisfaction could be used to
predict the travelers’ intention to revisit an entertainment desti-
nation. In a study using a sample of golf travelers, Petrick and
Bachman (2002b) used simple bivariate correlations to determine
302 J. Hutchinson et al. / Tourism Management 30 (2009) 298–308

that overall satisfaction was highly correlated with intentions to 2.2.2.3. Search for alternatives. Although the search for alterna-
revisit. Therefore, we propose that these three service evaluation tives construct has been cited as an important outcome of
variables positively influence intentions to revisit. customer satisfaction in consumer purchase behavior (e.g., Kozak
& Remington, 2000), this construct has rarely been reported as
H7a. Higher levels of service quality lead to greater intentions
a measure of behavioral intentions. Since golf travelers are often
to revisit.
faced with a number of choices between travel destinations, it
appears that their search among alternative destination choices
H7b. Higher levels of perceived value lead to greater intentions would play an important role in their final decision to select
to revisit. a specific travel destination. Their satisfaction or dissatisfaction
with a prior travel experience is considered critical because it may
affect decisions they make in their future travel plans (Woodruff,
H7c. Customer satisfaction has a direct positive effect on
1997).
intention to revisit.
If golf travelers are satisfied with a prior travel experience to
a destination, it has been suggested that they will perceive low
2.2.2.2. Word-of-mouth. The importance of word-of-mouth
risk with respect to their decision to revisit that destination. As
(WOM) for service firms has been well established (Mangold &
a result, they may reduce their search for alternative future travel
Miller, 1999). Although WOM can be positive and negative,
destinations. Conversely, if they are dissatisfied with a prior
marketers are more interested in promoting positive WOM, such as
travel experience, they will perceive greater risk if they decide to
recommendations to others. Service quality has been suggested to
revisit that same destination. Thus, they are more likely to
have a direct effect on word-of-mouth communication. Thus, when
increase their search for alternative future travel destinations.
customers have positive and/or beneficial service experiences, they
This suggests a negative relationship between customer satis-
should be motivated to encourage their friends and family
faction and the search for alternatives. In support of this argu-
members to have the same experience (Babin, Lee, Kim, & Griffin,
ment, Kozak and Remington (2000) found that customer
2005). In a study of hotel guests, Hartline and Jones (1996) reported
dissatisfaction with prior travel destinations led to a greater
that high quality service increased word-of-mouth intentions.
search for future alternative travel destinations. Correspondingly,
Boulding et al. (1993) empirically demonstrated that the higher the
there is empirical evidence in the tourism literature of a rela-
customers’ perceptions of a firm’s service quality, the more likely
tionship among tourist dissatisfaction and willingness to look for
they were to engage in behaviors beneficial to the strategic health
alternative destinations for future trips (Alamanza et al., 1994;
of the firm (e.g., generate positive word-of-mouth, recommend
Kozak & Rimmington, 2000; Pizam, 1994). Specific to the context
service, etc.). Thus, service quality should be positively related to
of this study, as golf travelers’ level of dissatisfaction increases
WOM praise. In a study with samples from two different industry
with respect to their experiences at a specific travel destination,
settings, Harrison-Walker (2001) reported service quality to be
they would become more willing to search for alternative
positively related to WOM praise in the veterinary industry, but not
destinations for future trips.
in the hair salon industry.
As discussed previously, satisfaction may be positively influ-
Perceived value and satisfaction also are suggested to influence
enced by service quality and value. Correspondingly, higher service
WOM directly (Brown et al., 2005; Fornell et al., 1996; Oh, 1999;
quality and perceived value should reduce the potential risk of
Ranaweera & Prabhu, 2003; Wirtz & Chew, 2002). Consumers
dissatisfaction and the subsequent search for alternatives. There-
who are satisfied with their service experiences may be motivated
fore, we propose a negative relationship between the three service
to spread positive WOM communication to encourage others to
evaluation variables and the search for alternatives:
have the same experience. Correspondingly, satisfaction has been
suggested to relate positively to WOM (Mangold & Miller, 1999). It H9a. Service quality negatively relates to search for
has been found that when WOM is more positive, consumers are alternatives.
more likely to make a purchase recommendation (Heckman &
Guskey, 1998; Mittal, Kumar, & Tsirosm, 1999; Wirtz & Chew,
H9b. Perceived value negatively relates to search for
2002).
alternatives.
In the tourism literature, prior research findings suggest
a significant relationship among tourist satisfaction, intention to
return, and positive word-of-mouth communication (Beeho & H9c. Satisfaction negatively relates to search for alternatives.
Prentice, 1997; Hallowell, 1996; Pizam, 1994; Ross, 1993). Further-
more, satisfied tourists are most likely to recommend destinations
they have visited to their friends and relatives (Beeho & Prentice,
3. Research design and methodology
1997; Ross, 1993). A similar relationship has been reported among
tourist dissatisfaction, willingness to look for other destinations for
3.1. Sampling procedure and data collection
future trips, and negative word-of-mouth communication (Ala-
manza, Jaffe, & Lin, 1994; Pizam, 1994). Therefore, we propose that
A regional golf association (‘‘the association’’) in the Gulf South
these three service evaluation variables positively influence word-
region of the U.S. was selected to provide statistically valid infor-
of-mouth communication.
mation concerning the experiences and perceptions of golf trav-
H8a. Service quality is positively related to word-of-mouth elers to the region. This association serves as the marketing arm to
referrals. the 21 member golf courses that were included in this study. Based
on a literature review and significant input from executives and
members of the association, a questionnaire was developed and
H8b. Perceived value is positively related to word-of-mouth
pilot tested among golf travelers at one of the association’s 21 golf
referrals.
courses in June 2005 for necessary revision and modification. The
association then mailed a cover letter, the questionnaire, an
H8c. Satisfaction is positively related to word-of-mouth incentive coupon for survey participation, and a self-addressed
referrals. return envelope to 1992 individuals. This sample included 216
 J. Hutchinson et al. / Tourism Management 30 (2009) 298–308
travelers who had signed up at the area golf courses to participate
in the survey and 1776 prospective destination visitors who
requested golf package quotes from the association and subse-
quently visited the destination.
The final questionnaire instrument included 37 items divided
into four sections: The first and second sections dealt with travel
information received from the destination and specific and general
attributes of the destination. The third section included various
scale items, such as overall customer satisfaction, perceived value,
service quality, perceived equity, and behavioral intentions. The
final section included demographic, golfographic, and tripographic
variables.
The respondents were requested to complete and return the
questionnaire and the incentive coupon in the self-addressed
envelope to the association headquarters. To ensure confidentiality,
the names of study participants were not requested and the asso-
ciation assured all survey respondents that their responses would
remain completely confidential and anonymous. Participation in
this study was voluntary. The completed questionnaires were for-
warded to the researchers by the association for data input and
compilation.
3.2. Measures
To enhance the content validity of the measurements,
a number of steps were taken. First, we went through an intensive
study of the literature to identify valid measurements for the
related constructs. Wherever possible, existing measures that had
been used in previous studies were adopted. Second, the golf
course managers individually reviewed the questionnaire for
suitability, readability and ambiguity (Dillman, 1999). The ques-
tionnaire was iteratively revised according to feedback received
from the managers. Third, a pilot test was conducted among golf
travelers at one of the association’s member golf courses. The
questionnaire was further revised based on the inputs provided by
the pilot test.
Service quality was measured from five aspects of service
quality, which were adapted from Hellier et al. (2003) and are
consistent with the five SERVQUAL dimensions. Overall perceived
value measures were adapted from Eggert and Ulaga (2002). The
respondents were asked to indicate the degree to which they
agreed that they paid a reasonable price for the quality of service
they received when visiting the area, and to what extent they
agreed that their visit to the area gave them a superior net value.
Customer satisfaction was conceptualized as a cumulative, global
evaluation based on experience with a destination over time
(Homberg, Koschate, & Hoyer, 2005). The measures were adapted
from Patterson and Spreng (1997), Spreng et al. (1996), Petrick and
Bachman (2002a), and Homberg et al. (2005). Perceived equity
measures the degree to which the tourists felt they had been
treated fairly and rightly. These two measures were adapted from
Hellier et al. (2003). The intention of revisit, search for alternatives,
and word-of-mouth behavioral intention measures were adapted
from Cronin et al. (2000), Eggert and Ulaga (2002), Kashyap and
Bojanic (2000), and Patterson and Spreng (1997). All the afore-
mentioned measures used 7-point Likert-type scales.
4. Data analysis and results
There were 309 usable questionnaires completed and returned
to the association headquarters, representing a 15.5% response
rate. The golf traveler to the area was 54 years of age on average
with a mean annual household income of $133,500. One-third of
the respondents had a college graduate degree, while another
27.5% had a college undergraduate degree. Respondents indicated
that they had played golf for an average of 27 years, had an
303
average golf score of 87, and played about 66 rounds of golf per
year.
Partial Least Squares (PLS) was chosen to conduct the data
analyses in this study. Unlike LISREL-type structural equation
modeling (SEM), which is based on the covariance structure of the
latent variables, PLS is a component-based approach. Meanwhile,
PLS aims to examine the significance of the relationships between
research constructs and the predictive power of the dependent
variable (Chin, 1998). Thus, PLS is suitable for predictive applica-
tions and theory building. PLS also does not place a very high
requirement of normal distribution on the source data (Chin, 1998;
Gefen & Straub, 2005) and has the ability to handle a relatively
small sample size (Barclay, Thompson, Higgins, 1995; Chin, 1998).
Because PLS considers all path coefficients simultaneously, it
allows analysis of direct, indirect, and spurious relationships. PLS
estimates multiple individual item loadings in the context of
a theoretically specified model rather than in isolation, so it also
enables researchers to avoid biased and inconsistent parameter
estimates for equations (White, Varadarajan, & Dacin, 2003).
Therefore, PLS is an appropriate choice for testing a research model
(Ko, Kirsch, & King, 2005). PLS-Graph 3.00 was specifically used in
this study.
4.1. Measurement model
To assess the constructs, we conducted confirmatory factor
analysis (CFA) using PLS. Based on the CFA results, we analyzed
convergent validity, discriminant validity, and reliability of all the
multiple-item scales, following the guidelines from previous liter-
ature (e.g., Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Gefen & Straub, 2005). The
measurement properties are reported in Tables 1 and 2.
Reliability was assessed in terms of composite reliability, which
measures the degree to which items are free from random error and
therefore yield consistent results. Composite reliabilities in our
measurement model ranged from 0.931 to 0.993 (see Table 1),
above the recommended cutoff of 0.70 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981;
Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994).
Convergent validity was assessed in terms of factor loadings and
average variance extracted. Convergent validity requires a factor
loading greater than 0.70 and an average variance extracted no less
than 0.50 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). As shown in Table 1, all items
had significant factor loadings higher than 0.70 (p < 0.01). Average
variances extracted ranged from 0.833 to 0.992, suggesting
adequate convergent validity.
Discriminant validity was assessed by comparing the average
variance extracted (AVE) of each individual construct with shared
variances between this individual construct and all the other
constructs. Higher AVE of the individual construct than shared
variances suggests discriminant validity (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).
Table 2 shows the inter-construct correlations off the diagonal of
the matrix. Comparing all the correlations and square roots of AVEs
shown on the diagonal, the results indicated adequate discriminant
validity.
4.2. Structural model
To test the proposed hypotheses, the structural model was fitted
using the full sample. Assessment of the structural model involves
estimating the path loadings and the R2 values. Path loadings
indicate the strengths of the relationships between the indepen-
dent variables and dependent variable, while R2 values measure the
predictive power of the structural models. Interpreted like multiple
regression results, the R2 indicates the amount of variance
explained by the exogenous variables. Using a bootstrapping
technique, we calculated path loadings and t-statistics for
hypothesized relationships. The results are shown in Fig. 2.
304 J. Hutchinson et al. / Tourism Management 30 (2009) 298–308

Table 1
The assessment of the measurement model

Construct Item Mean (SD) Loading Std. error T- Composite AVE

statistic reliability
1. Service quality Employees were friendly and courteous 5.86 (1.07) 0.926 0.011 82.662 0.968 0.859
Employees provided prompt service 5.68 (1.17) 0.934 0.012 80.416
Employees were always willing to help 5.71 (1.27) 0.934 0.011 84.829
Employees were knowledgeable about the products 5.50 (1.42) 0.910 0.015 60.273
and services offered
Employees were professional and gave you confidence 5.62 (1.27) 0.929 0.009 102.021

2. Equity Being treated fairly 5.95 (1.01) 0.969 0.007 134.880 0.967 0.936
Being treated right (justly and honestly) 6.02 (.94) 0.966 0.010 101.134

3. Value Received reasonable service quality 5.66 (1.12) 0.925 0.024 39.233 0.955 0.876
Paid a reasonable price 5.60 (1.09) 0.956 0.008 127.231
Received a superior net value 5.37 (1.20) 0.928 0.010 93.945

4. Satisfaction Pleased with your visit 5.88 (1.19) 0.833 0.041 20.170 0.953 0.835
Contented with your visit 5.90 (1.07) 0.935 0.015 61.270
Delighted with your visit 5.85 (1.05) 0.953 0.008 125.402
Satisfied with your trip 5.88 (1.07) 0.928 0.022 41.784

5. Intention to revisit Intention to return for next golf vacation 5.33 (1.60) 0.945 0.010 98.102 0.949 0.861
Most likely to return for next golf vacation 5.21 (1.68) 0.948 0.009 103.009
High likelihood of return for a golf vacation 5.77 (1.37) 0.890 0.015 57.947

6. Search alternatives Effort looking for alternative golf destination 4.61 (1.94) 0.958 0.012 79.955 0.931 0.871
Continuously look for alternatives to golf destination 4.94 (1.80) 0.908 0.026 34.397

7. Word-of-mouth referral Would positively recommend to other people 5.87 (1.30) 0.987 0.003 321.335 0.993 0.980
Would be glad to refer other golf travelers 5.88 (1.26) 0.992 0.002 502.446
Would recommend to those who are planning a golf vacation 5.90 (1.24) 0.990 0.002 463.560

Note: All t-statistics are significant at 0.01 level; AVE ¼ average variance extracted.

As indicated by path loadings and the associated significance and satisfaction to ‘‘intention to revisit’’ (b ¼ 0. 293 and 0.496,
levels, the influences of service quality on value (b ¼ 0.185) and p < 0.05 and 0.01, respectively) suggesting support for H7b and
satisfaction (b ¼ 0.071) were not significant at the .05 level, H7c. Consistent with our theoretical expectation, value and
suggesting the rejection of H1 and H3. However, the significant satisfaction also had significant influences on the ‘‘word-of-
path loading (b ¼ 0.740, p < 0.01) suggested the significant mouth’’ behavioral intention variable (b ¼ 0.280 and 0.639,
influence of service quality on equity, supporting H4. The path p < 0.05 and 0.01, respectively), suggesting support for H8b and
loadings from equity to value and from equity to customer H8c.
satisfaction were also significant (b ¼ 0.574 and 0.499, respec- As shown in Fig. 2, our model has a relatively good prediction
tively; p < 0.01), providing support for H5 and H6. The significant power. For the service evaluation variables, the model explained
loading from value to satisfaction (b ¼ 0.499, p < 0.01) suggested 59.1% in ‘‘customer satisfaction,’’ and 52.1% in ‘‘perceived value.’’
that value had a significant influence on satisfaction, providing The model also explained 54.7% of the variance in the ‘‘equity’’
support for H2. variable. For the behavioral intention variables, our model
Regarding the outcome variables, service quality did not explained 70.2% of the variance in ‘‘word-of-mouth’’ and 52.2% of
influence any of the behavioral intention variables (i.e., intention the variance in ‘‘intention to revisit.’’ In contrast, only 7.1% of the
to revisit, word-of-mouth, and search for alternatives), resulting variance in ‘‘search for alternatives’’ was explained.
in a rejection of H7a, H8a, and H9a. Further, both value and
satisfaction had no significant influence on the ‘‘search for 5. Discussion and conclusions
alternatives’’ outcome variable, suggesting rejection of H9b and
H9c. However, there were significant path loadings from value The current study tested an integrative model to examine the
relationships between quality, value, equity, and satisfaction and
Table 2
to investigate the extent to which tourist behavioral intentions to
Inter-construct correlations revisit a destination, search for alternative destinations, and
positive WOM were influenced by the three service evaluation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
variables of quality, value, and satisfaction. The model was
1. Service quality 0.927
empirically tested using surveyed data from 309 golf travelers. The
2. Perceived equity 0.740 0.967
3. Perceived value 0.610 0.711 0.936 implications for research and management, study limitations, and
4. Satisfaction 0.575 0.678 0.735 0.914 future research directions are discussed in the following
5. Intention to revisit 0.437 0.535 0.641 0.696 0.928 paragraphs.
6. Search alternatives 0.095* 0.134* 0.231* 0.239* 0.259* 0.933
7. Word-of-mouth 0.492 0.645 0.721 0.818 0.784 0.179* 0.990
5.1. Relationships between service evaluation variables
Note: Square root of average variance extracted (AVE) is shown on the diagonal of the
matrix; inter-construct correlation is shown off the diagonal.
*Not significant at the 0.05 significance level; correlations without * are significant at As shown in Fig. 2, our model explained 59.1% of the variance
the 0.05 significance level. in customer satisfaction and 52.1% of the variance in perceived
 J. Hutchinson et al. / Tourism Management 30 (2009) 298–308 305

Service H7a: 0.027ns Intention

Quality H to Revisit
8a :
0.0

H 9a
46 ns R2=0.522

0 **

:-
H1:0.185ns

0.1
.74

10
4: 0

ns
H
*
3
.29
:0
H3: 0.071ns H 7b
H5: 0.574** H8b: 0.280* Word-of-
Equity Value
H Mouth
9b :
R2=0.547 R2=0.521 -0. R2=0.702
16
7 ns

H2: 0.499**
H6
:0
.49

*
96 *
**

9
**
9

0.4
3
: 0.6

7c :
H 8c

H
**p<0.01; *p<0.05; Search for
ns: not significant Satisfaction
H9c: -0.179ns Alternatives
R2=0.591 R2=0.071

Fig. 2. Results of model testing.

value. This confirms the importance of using the measure of
perceived value in the prediction of customer satisfaction, as
suggested by prior researchers (e.g., Oh, 2000; Woodruff, 1997),
and supports other empirical evidence which has shown
perceived value to be an immediate antecedent in the prediction
of customer satisfaction (e.g., Anderson & Sullivan, 1993; Brady
et al., 2001; Cronin et al., 2000; Gottlieb et al., 1994; Oh, 1999;
Petrick & Bachman, 2002a; Patterson & Spreng, 1997; Tam,
2000).
The perceived equity construct included in our research
demonstrated high predictive capacity, with our collective model
explaining 54.7% of the variance in equity. Our study found that
equity is an important consequence of service quality and a critical
antecedent of both value and satisfaction. This is consistent with
the findings from other empirical studies that have included
perceived equity as a key variable in the service evaluation process
(e.g., Hellier et al., 2003; Oliver, 1993; Oliver & DeSarbo, 1988;
Oliver & Swan, 1989; Szymanski & Henard, 2001; Takala & Uusi-
talo, 1996).
Our study’s results indicated that service quality had no
direct effect on value and satisfaction, but indirectly influenced
satisfaction through equity. Further, equity had both a direct
effect on satisfaction and an indirect effect on satisfaction
through value. This supports prior research, which proposes that
when customers perceive that services received meet or exceed
their expectations, they also perceived to have been treated
fairly and reasonably (e.g., Berry et al., 1994; Bitner, 1995; Bitner,
Booms, & Mohr, 1994; Zahorik & Rust, 1992). Therefore, it
appears that the effects of service quality on satisfaction may be
mediated by first equity and then value (service quality /
equity / value / satisfaction), while the effects of equity on
satisfaction may be mediated to some extent by value (equity /
value / satisfaction), although equity also has a direct effect on
satisfaction.
5.2. Impact of service evaluation on behavioral intentions
We proposed that all three service evaluation variables (quality,
value, and satisfaction) would significantly influence consumer
behavioral intentions (i.e., intention to revisit, word-of-mouth, and
search for alternatives). Our collective model explained 70.2% of the
variance in ‘‘word-of-mouth’’ and 52.2% of the variance in ‘‘inten-
tion to revisit.’’ As hypothesized, both value and satisfaction
significantly influenced ‘‘word-of-mouth’’ and ‘‘intention to
revisit’’.
Based on the results of the current study, it appears that the
effects of service quality on intention to revisit and word-of-
mouth may be mediated by first equity, then value, and finally
satisfaction, which is an antecedent of intention to revisit and
word-of-mouth (service quality / equity / value / satisfac-
tion / intention to revisit and word-of-mouth). Further, satis-
faction had a much higher influence on word-of-mouth than on
intention to revisit. This is similar to the findings in a study by
Kozak and Remington (2000), which suggested that satisfied
tourists were more likely to positively recommend the travel
destination to others than to repeat their visits to that
destination.
Our model explained only 7.1% of the variance in the ‘‘search
for alternatives’’ behavioral intention, as none of the three
service evaluation variables (quality, value, and satisfaction) had
a significant influence on the ‘‘search for alternatives’’ outcome
variable. This implies that even though golf travelers may
perceive high levels of service quality, value, and satisfaction
with their experiences at a travel destination, they may still
search for alternative locations for future golf vacations. A better
understanding of these results will require a further examination
of other antecedent variables that may have more influence on
a traveler’s search for alternatives behavior. For example, Petrick
(2002b) reported that novelty was an important factor to
influence golf travelers post vacation assessment and Kahn
(1995) suggested that a traveler’s search for alternatives
behavior may be influenced by their level of variety-seeking
behavior.
5.3. Research contributions
The present study contributes to the literature in several ways.
First, an integrative model was tested to simultaneously analyze
the relationships between quality, value, equity, and satisfaction
and to simultaneously investigate these three service evaluation
variables in the prediction of the three behavioral intention
measures (i.e., intentions to revisit, positive word-of-mouth
communication, and search for alternatives). Although quality,
value, and satisfaction issues have dominated the service litera-
ture, few tourism studies have simultaneously analyzed their
306 J. Hutchinson et al. / Tourism Management 30 (2009) 298–308
relationships in predicting consumer behavioral intentions (Oh,
1999).
Second, although marketing literature has suggested that
perceived value is the leading predictor of customer loyalty and
repurchase intentions (Parasuraman & Grewal, 2000; Woodruff,
1997), this construct has been given little attention by tourism
researchers (Petrick & Bachman, 2002b). As shown in Fig. 2, our
model explained 52.1% of the variance in perceived value. These
results, consistent with the value disconfirmation experience,
suggest that value has a significant influence on satisfaction, which
calls for the use of perceived value in the prediction of customer
satisfaction, as recommended by prior researchers (e.g., Oh, 2000;
Woodruff, 1997).
Third, the construct of perceived equity has rarely been used in
service-oriented research, with this critical construct not even
being included in any of the three major general frameworks (i.e.,
satisfaction, value, or quality). Our findings support the critical
importance of the integration of the perceived equity construct into
these collective models. Based on the results of our research, we
recommend that perceived equity be included as a consequent
variable to quality and an antecedent variable to value and satis-
faction in future models.
Fourth, unlike most prior research, we modeled behavioral
intention variables separately. The separation of behavioral inten-
tions into three dimensions may have provided more insight into
these behaviors. For example, our model explained 70.2% of the
variance in word-of-mouth and 52.2% in intention to revisit, and
satisfaction had a much higher influence on word-of-mouth than
on intention to revisit.
5.4. Implications for management
The findings of the present study have several managerial
implications for golf course management and travel destination
marketers. First, satisfaction, which was the most significant
antecedent of golf travelers’ intentions to revisit and word-of-
mouth behavioral intentions, was significantly influenced by
perceived value. Thus, products and services offered to golf trav-
elers, including the popular all-inclusive golf packages, should be
priced competitively and appropriately. Golf travelers who perceive
to have paid reasonable prices and to have received superior net
value for their purchases are more likely to be satisfied.
Second, perceived equity had a direct and significant influence
on both value and satisfaction, which in turn affected the travelers’
intention to revisit and word-of-mouth behavioral intentions. Thus,
golf travelers’ perceptions of overall fairness were positively asso-
ciated with their perceptions of the value of the products and
services they received. This provides further support for the prior
discussion on the importance of pricing products and services
appropriately at the travel destination. This also demonstrates the
importance of golf travelers’ perceptions of being treated fairly and
honestly during their service encounters at the travel destination.
Third, service quality had a more significant influence on equity
than on either value or satisfaction. Thus, as supported by prior
research, when golf travelers’ perceived that the products or
services they received met or exceeded their expectations and met
the service promises, they also perceived to have been treated fairly
and reasonably (e.g., Berry et al., 1994; Bitner, 1995; Bitner et al.,
1994; Zahorik & Rust, 1992). This demonstrates the importance of
perceived service quality to golf travelers during their service
encounters with employees of all tourism-related organizations of
a travel destination. These organizations should provide excellent
guest services, which may be represented by the friendliness,
courtesy, promptness of service, willingness to help, profession-
alism, and knowledgeable front-line personnel.
5.5. Limitations and future research directions
Although the present study significantly contributed to the
literature, it has several limitations. First, the addition of golf travel
destinations in different geographical regions and the measure-
ment of golf travelers during all four seasons would have increased
the external validity of the results. Second, the current study
analyzed only golf travelers. Thus, future research may be con-
ducted on different recreational activities in a variety of recrea-
tional environments and settings, or among travelers who are not
participating in recreational activities. To further determine the
potential of our model, additional research also is needed to
investigate the model’s effectiveness in other industry settings.
Finally, the integrative model used in the present study should be
expanded to include additional variables that are likely to influence
tourists’ behavior in different contexts.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to express their gratitude to Mr. Kevin
Drum, Executive Director of the Mississippi Gulf Coast Golf Asso-
ciation, and the members for their assistance in the development of
the survey instrument, printing and mailing all survey materials,
and the receipt and distribution of completed surveys back to the
researchers.
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