Applications of hybrid nanofluids in

solar energy, practical limitations and

challenges_ A critical review Tayyab
Raza Shah & Hafiz Muhammad Ali
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/applications-of-hybrid-nanofluids-in-solar-energy-prac
tical-limitations-and-challenges_-a-critical-review-tayyab-raza-shah-hafiz-muhammad-
ali/
 Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Solar Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/solener

Applications of hybrid nanofluids in solar energy, practical limitations and T

challenges: A critical review
⁎
Tayyab Raza Shah, Hafiz Muhammad Ali
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Engineering and Technology, Taxila 47050, Pakistan

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Solar energy is the ultimate perceived solution of incessantly proliferating energy crisis. Diverse range of solar
Solar energy energy conversion systems has been employed to convert solar energy into desired useful form. Performance of
Solar energy storage solar energy systems is subject to the type of the working fluid that they use for solar energy conversion and
Hybrid nanofluids transportation. Application of hybrid nanofluids in solar energy systems as working fluid has turned out to be
Challenges
very gainful in terms of performance, owing to distinct thermal transportation characteristics of hybrid nano-
Industrial realization
fluids. Current article has briefly reviewed the studies discoursing the performance of hybrid nanofluid based
solar energy systems. Moreover, the performance of solar energy systems based on mono nanofluids has also
been overviewed. Considering the importance, fabrication methods and characteristics of hybrid nanofluids as
well as their implications on performance parameters of solar systems have been discussed. Reviewed studies
have reported remarkable enhancement in power output and efficiency of these systems. However, there are
several issues associated with hybrid nanofluids that have abstained the commercialization of binary nanofluid
based systems. These issues include instability, increased friction factor, rheological issues, and increased
pumping power. Subsequently, economic and ecologic gains of using binary nanofluids in solar energy systems
are presented.

1. Introduction mechanisms/systems are keenly being studied to elaborate future pro-

Horrendous population explosion has erupted sever energy crisis.
Primary resources of energy (PE) are about to be used up due to in-
cessantly increasing energy consumption. Renewable means of power
generation are gauged to fulfill the ever-mounting power demands
proficiently since they comprise almost 40 percent of total PE resources
(BP Energy Outlook, 2018). Inexhaustible solar energy is an imperative
energy resource which magnitudes 1.2 × 105 TW (Makarieva et al.,
2008). Because of eminent potential, world’s top economies are heeding
to utilize sun’s energy as much as they can (Hepbasli and Alsuhaibani,
2011). Policy formulation regarding solar energy utilization is un-
derway in many countries having potential solar sites (Solangi et al.,
2011; Asif, 2009; Zhang, 2008). Solar energy can be used in many ways
like electricity generation, food preservation, steam generation, air
conditioning, refrigeration, and heating systems (Mekhilef et al., 2011).
Apart from power generation edge, solar energy is appraised to level
positive impacts on earth’s ecology as well by minimalizing the ha-
zardous emissions from conventional power producing plants like coal
or furnace oil based power industries (Hernandez et al., 2014;
Kalogirou, 2004). Solar energy and solar energy conversion
spects and perspectives (either positive or negative) of solar energy
(Goetzberger et al., 2002).
Imperativeness of solar energy conversion mechanisms is undeni-
able for the formidable exploitation of solar energy. Solar energy is
converted into useful form by various conversion methods e.g. photo-
thermal conversion, photoelectric conversion, photochemical conver-
sion, and photothermal-photoelectric conversion via different conver-
sion systems. Photoelectric conversion is accomplished via silicon based
photovoltaic modules (Fendler, 1985), photochemical via photosynth-
esis process (Balzani et al., 2008), photothermal via solar collectors
(DASC, flat plate, and evacuated tube) (Novinger, 1979; Tyagi et al.,
2009), and photelectric-photothermal conversion via photovoltaic-
thermal system (Coventry, 2005), either concentrated or un-
concentrated (Fig. 1). Performance of these systems is chiefly linked
with the characteristics of working fluid that they use for energy con-
version or transportation (Ginley et al., 2008).
Diverse range of working fluids has been tested in solar collectors.
Conventionally, water, oil, ethylene glycol and different lubricants were
employed in an effort to cultivate the performance of solar collectors
(Minardi and Chuang, 1975; Budihardjo et al., 2007). Performance of

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: h.m.ali@uettaxila.edu.pk (H.M. Ali).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2019.03.012
Received 15 November 2018; Received in revised form 16 February 2019; Accepted 5 March 2019
0038-092X/ © 2019 International Solar Energy Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203

Nomenclature TW tera watt

Vol.% volume fraction
Abbreviations VSC volumetric solar collector
w worth factor
A area wt.% weight fraction
AR aspect ratio Gt global solar radiation (W/m2)
CNT carbon nanotube UL overall loss coefficient (W/m2 K)
cP centipoise
cp specific heat Greek letters
CR concentration Ratio
D diameter of nanoparticles α absorbance
DASC direct absorption solar collector φ concentration
DI deionized Δ difference
FR heat removal factor μ dynamic viscosity
G solar irradiance η efficiency (%)
h height of nanosheet τs shear stress
K thermal conductivity τ transmittivity
m mass λ wavelength (nm)
m.% mass fraction
Nu Nusselt number Subscripts
P power output
T temperature (K) bf base fluid
t time nf nanofluid

these systems was not impressive enough to make them commercial.
However, the invention of colloidal fluids that contained nanosized
colloidal particles carrying high heat transportation characteristics,
dispersed in conventional fluids, entirely changed the scenario. Ele-
vated heat transportation of these colloidal fluids named as nanofluids
is attributed to the high thermal characteristics of dispersed nano-
particles (Mahian et al., 2013). Nanosized metals (Al, Cu, Zn, Ag, Au,
etc.), metal-oxides (SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, ZnO, CuO, etc.) or organic par-
ticles (carbon nanotubes, graphene oxide, diamond, etc.) could be
disseminated in host fluid (water, ethylene glycol or oil/lubricant) to
make nanofluids (Park et al., 2011; Murshed et al., 2005; Amrollahi
et al., 2009).
Thermal management of these systems is another complication,
needed to repeal the development of thermal stresses due to the over-
heating of the system. Photovoltaic modules are highly vulnerable to
overheating; as the temperature of PV modules surges past 25 °C, their
efficiency declines proportionally, emphasizing that, potent cooling of
PV modules is mandatory. Different methods of PV cooling have been
practiced that include natural or forced air circulation, water circula-
tion, and nanofluid based cooling (Bashir et al., 2018; Yang and Shen,
Fig. 1. Solar energy conversion and types of systems.
2006). Ali et al. (2018) discoursed the thermal manipulation ability of
PV modules via nanofluids and extrapolated that the thermal stresses
can be relieved and efficiency can be proliferated extensively. Karami
and Rahimi (2014) circulated Boehmite nanofluid at 80 ml/min at the
rear surface of PV module and reported 53.76% mean abatement in the
temperature compared to water cooled PV module. Solar energy of
these systems can be preserved as well via phase change materials
(PCM). These materials store thermal energy and later release it when
needed (Hasan et al., 2010; Qureshi et al., 2018; Rehman, 2018). Ac-
cording to the most recent studies, hybrid nanofluids are reported to
optimize the performance of solar systems better than any other
available working fluid due to the synergistic effect of individual na-
noparticles (Minea and El-Maghlany, 2018).
Binary nanofluids exhibit distinct heat carrying characteristics
which has broadened their use in diverse applications. Nuim Labib et al.
(2013) reported remarkable enhancement in coefficient of heat transfer
(h) of CNTs-H2O nanofluid by dispersing Al2O3 nanoparticles. 22.8%
and 59.86% enhancement in convection heat transfer coefficient (h)
was observed by adding 0.6 and 1.6 vol% of Al2O3 nanoparticles in
0.05 vol% CNTs-H2O nanofluid respectively. Nimmagadda and
Venkatasubbaiah (2015) performed numerical study and observed
17–18% enhancement in h of water by disseminating 3.0 vol% Al2O3
nanoparticles. Dispersion of 3.0 vol% Ag nanoparticles resulted in
111–144% enhancement in h. Furthermore, the enhancement elevated
up to 126–148% by the inclusion of 0.6 vol% Al2O3 and 2.4 vol% Ag
nanoparticles in water. They evaluated that the reduction in size and
increment in concentration of nanoparticles improved heat transpor-
tation performance. Vafaei et al. (2017) employed ANN modeling to
predict the thermal conductivity of MgO-MWCNTs/EG hybrid nano-
fluid and compared the results with previous 36 experimental studies.
Experimental and modeling result were found to converge, in turns
proving the validity of ANN modeling. Thermal performance of oils can
also be improved by the inclusion of hybrid nanoparticles. Wei et al.
(2017) dispersed SiC-TiO2 hybrid nanoparticles in diathermic oil and
observed remarkable elevation in thermal conductivity. At 1 vol% of
hybrid nanoparticles, the increment in ratio of thermal conductivity of
diathermic oil reached up to 8.39%. Dalkılıç et al. (2018) carried out
extensive experimentation to appraise thermal conductivity of CNT-
SiO2/DI-water hybrid nanofluid. They tested three different nano-
particle concentrations and set the temperature test range 25–60 °C.

174
T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203

They recorded enhancement in thermal conductivity of the hybrid na-

nofluid up to 26.29% and on average the enhancement was observed to
be 20.13%. Likewise, many other research studies have reported
anomalous augmentation in thermal conductivity of hybrid nanofluids
– a key parameter for a working fluid to have in solar energy systems. It
is important to notice that the nanoparticles of high thermal con-
ductivity are generally of high price (such as silver) and nanofluids of
these metals show minimal stability period. Aparna et al. (2019) ap-
praised the thermal conductivity of nanofluids containing Al2O3, Ag,
and Al2O3-Ag nanoparticles. Observed thermal conductivity of hybrid
nanofluid was almost identical to the thermal conductivity of silver
nanofluid. Hybrid nanofluid was also reported to have good stability
period. These evidences greatly support the notion of using hybrid
nanofluids to overcome cost and stability complications. Besides
thermal conductivity elevation, hybrid nanofluids offer better rheolo-
gical and flow characteristics as well compared to unitary nanofluids. Fig. 2. (a) Raw MWCNTs aqueous solution, (b) Purified MWCNTs aqueous
Bahrami et al. (2016) examined the rheology of Fe-Cu/EG-H2O hybrid solution (Munkhbayar et al., 2013).
nanofluid. Temperature of the fluid was set to vary between 25 and
50 °C. They observed that increase in concentration (from 0.05 vol% to
In single step method, all the necessary actions are performed
1.5 vol%) increased the viscosity (almost 2200%) and the temperature
contemporarily in a single step to prepare a nanofluid. This method is
increment reduced the viscosity. Eshgarf and Afrand (2016) observed
specifically used for preparing physically stable and high quality na-
20,000% elevation in viscosity of f-MWCNTs-TiO2/EG-H2O nanofluid
nofluids in terms of thermal characteristic and physical specifications. It
as the concentration increased from 0 vol% to 2.0 vol%. At high con-
is a controlled approach to fabricate nanofluids that contain extremely
centration, viscosity can be more adequately manipulated by shear
small sized nanoparticles – disseminated in base fluid.
rates. Immense escalation in viscosity is expected to cause inevitable
Munkhbayar et al. (2013) prepared Ag-MWCNT/H2O binary nano-
increase in friction factor which will require more pumping power to
fluid via single step method. Because of hydrophobic nature, MWCNTs
displace the fluid. Properties of these fluids display immense implica-
were chemically treated to ensure maximum dissemination in water.
tion on the performance of the systems that employ binary nanofluids
Nitric acid and sulfuric acid were used for the purification of MWCNTs.
(Baru et al., 2016). Brief comparison analysis of rheological behavior of
After 5 h of ultrasonication, purification process yielded pure MWCNTs,
mono-nanofluids and hybrid nanofluids has been presented by
weighing 0.7 g as shown in Fig. 2. Afterwards, the size and structure of
Khodadadi et al. (2018) and Babar et al. (2019) in the most recent
pure multi-wall carbon nanotubes were evaluated via TEM images. The
review studies.
reason behind infamous dispersibility of MWCNTs in water is large
Ample use of hybrid nanofluids has been reported in the multiple
structure size. Grinding is suggested for shortening the length of carbon
systems. Sahid et al. (2017) used TiO2-ZnO/EG hybrid nanofluid as
nanotubes. MWCNTs were later ultrasonicated in aqueous solution for
coolant in a machining process and reiterated that these fluids were
40 min to obtain optimum dispersion. Binary nanofluid comprising of
suitable for ecological and economical gains. Rabiei et al. (2017) also
silver and MWCNTs dispersed in water was prepared by pulse wire
reported the binary nanofluids to eco-advocating. Binary nanofluids
evaporation method that essentially requires four components in-
were reported to be suitable for refrigeration by Kasaeipoor et al.
cluding high voltage (HV) DC-power supply, HV gap switch, capacitor
(2017). Performance of hybrid nanofluids in electronics, cutting pro-
bank and changer in which evaporation/condensation is carried out.
cess, and lubrication systems has been complimented by Selvakumar
90 mm feeding length of pulse wire was used in reaction chamber. A
and Suresh (2012), Sharma et al. (2017), and Zhang et al. (2015) re-
voltage of 300 V was passed through the wire to cause evaporation of
spectively., Furthermore, the application of these fluids in solar energy
silver pulse wire and Ag-DI water nanofluid prepared by PWE method.
systems has yielded commending results.
MWCNT’s-water mixture was later mixed with Ag nanoparticles to form
Current article in its start presents brief description of hybrid na-
a binary nanofluid containing 0.05 wt% of MWCNTs and 3 wt% of Ag in
nofluids in terms of fabrication techniques and characteristics.
basefluid i.e. DI water. Microscopic evaluations showed 100 nm size of
Subsequent section overviews the effect of mono-nanofluids on the
silver, maximum absorption of 2.506 at 264 mm wavelength and 14.5%
performance of solar energy systems. Extensive reviews of almost all
increment in thermal conductivity at 40 °C.
the available studies focusing solar energy systems that used hybrid
Aberoumand and Jafarimoghaddam (2018) prepared WO3-Ag/
nanofluid as working fluid are presented in this study. Performance
transformer Oil hybrid nanofluid using single step electrical explosion
parameters of aforementioned systems are critically analyzed and the
wire (EEW) method. They disseminated 99.9% pure WO3 (60 nm dia-
factors that influence these parameters are comprehensively illustrated.
meter) nanoparticles in transformer oil basefluid to form WO3/trans-
Concluding sections are focused on detailed description of the chal-
former oil nanofluid which was later used as basefluid in which silver
lenges that the hybrid nanofluid based solar systems are facing and the
was mixed by passing high voltage through evaporative thin wire of
recommendations for delimiting the application of hybrid nanofluids in
silver that disseminated in WO3/transformer oil basefluid upon elec-
solar energy are presented. Eventually, the economic and ecological
trical explosion thus forming WO3-Ag/transformer oil hybrid nanofluid.
advantages of aforementioned systems are discussed.
Following the analysis, thermal conductivity of binary nanofluid im-
proved by 41% at 100 °C at 4 wt%.
2. Fabrication and characteristics of hybrid nanofluids
Wagener et al. (1996) used single step sputtering method to prepare
nanofluid containing particles of silver and iron metals suspended in an
2.1. Fabrication
organic basefluid. They demonstrated the variation in nanoparticle’s
size as a function of sputtering atmosphere pressure. Increment in
Current section summarizes the methods used for the fabrication of
Argon pressure increased particle size. This method of suspending
binary nanofluids and their vital characteristics. Fabrication method is
particles has been used by Akoh et al. (1978) way back in 1978. Hung
among the key factors that determine the features and characteristics of
et al. (2017) adopted single step method to prepare hybrid nanofluid
hybrid nanofluid. There are two methods of preparing hybrid nano-
that comprised of amorphous carbon, graphene oxide (GO) and
fluids; one step method and two step method (Ranga Babu et al., 2017).

175
T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203

graphite which they further used in a cooling system. Teng et al. (2016) nanofluids as per reported in the most recent research articles.
also adopted single step method to prepare nanofluids based on nano-
carbons.
2.2.1. Thermal characteristics
Formation of nanoparticles and mixing in the basefluid is carried
It is of utmost importance for a fluid to have good thermal char-
out contemporarily, that’s why it is called single step method and this
acteristics, if it is to be used in solar energy application systems such as
method is suitable for preparing nanofluids of small quantity.
photovoltaic-thermal systems or solar collectors. Numerous studies
Controlling the magnitude of voltage and power, passing through the
addressing the evaluation of thermal conductivity or heat transfer
thin metal wire can help manipulate the size of the nanoparticles being
characteristics of hybrid nanofluids are available. Hemmat Esfe et al.
formed as a result of electrical explosion. Fig. 3 explains the single step
(2017) evaluated the thermal conductivity of SiO2-MWCNT/EG hybrid
EEW or PWE method. Since, single step method is comparatively
nanofluid as a function of temperature and concentration of nanofluid
complex therefore it is used infrequently.
both experimentally and numerically. Error analysis implied strong
Two step method of nanofluid preparation involves production of
agreement between experimental and numerical results. They varied
nanoparticles in powder form via mechanical or chemical action fol-
the temperature and concentration from 30–50 °C and 0.05–1.95 vol%
lowed by its mixing with basefluid (Fig. 4). Powdered nanoparticles are
respectively. A maximum of 22.2% enhancement in thermal con-
dispersed in the basefluid via extreme shearing action which is termed
ductivity ration TCR (i.e. ratio of thermal conductivity of nanofluid and
as ultrasonication (Sidik et al., 2016). Intensity as well as period of
basefluid) was observed at 50 °C and 1.95 vol%. Experimental results
ultrasonication exhibit vital role in the stability of nanofluid.
showed nonlinear variation in thermal conductivity of hybrid nanofluid
Suresh et al. (2011) applied a thermochemical method to prepare
as a function of concentration and temperature of nanofluid as shown in
powdered Al2O3-Cu hybrid nanoparticles by using Cu(NO3)2-3H2O and
Fig. 6. Increasing the concentration of nanofluid increased the number
Al(NO3)3-9H2O as starting materials. Aqueous solution of aforemen-
of nanoparticles which caused overwhelming increment in the thermal
tioned salts was prepared and then spray drying was done at 180 °C.
conductivity. Increase in temperature of hybrid nanofluid caused in-
Spray-drying yielded nanocomposite powder which was then heated at
creased Brownian motion of suspended nanoparticles and thus in-
about 900 °C for one hour and obtained CuO-Al2O3 powder mixture.
creased the number of collisions which increased the thermal con-
This mixture was further heated at 400 °C for one hour in an atmo-
ductivity of the hybrid nanofluid.
sphere of hydrogen and then again heated in horizontal alumina tube
Afrand (2017) evaluated the thermal conductivity of f-MWCNT-
by SiC heating elements. In order to produce metallic Cu, reduction of
MgO/EG nanofluid as a function of temperature and volume con-
CuO was carried out. Homogenous nanocomposite powder of Al2O3-Cu
centration of nanofluid. Experimental and numerical results were found
was produced by ball-milling action that lasted for an hour at a rate of
to be convergent. He found linear increment in TCR with increasing
400 rpm. Certain amount of Al2O3-Cu mixture was then dispersed in
nanoparticle concentration. Although, increasing temperature caused
deionized water using ultrasonication process at 180 W ultrasonic pulse
increase in thermal conductivity of the hybrid nanofluid but the TCR
and 40 Hz for 6 h to ascertain uniform suspension of nanoparticles in
was observed to decline slightly with increasing temperature because
the basefluid. Sodium lauryl sulphate was used as surfactant to ensure
the thermal conductivity of the EG increased more significantly with
long lasing suspension of nanoparticles in the basefluid. Amount of
temperature as compared to the hybrid nanofluid (see Fig. 6b). Rela-
composite powder being dispersed in the basefluid is set in such a way
tively greater size of MgO nanoparticles could be the reason behind
to obtain desired concentrations. This thermochemical method in-
unwanted agglomeration. Decline in TCR as a function of temperature
volved spray-drying, oxidation and subsequent reduction of powdered
was attributed to the agglomeration or clusters formation in the na-
nanoparticles.
nofluid which limited the Brownian motion of the particles and im-
Nabil et al. (2017) applied two step method to prepare TiO2-SiO2/
peded the number of collisions between the nanoparticles. 21.3% in-
H2O-EG (60:40) nanofluid to conduct rheological and thermal con-
crease in TCR was observed at 0.6 vol% and 25 °C. Testing range of
ductivity analysis. They procured TiO2-SiO2 nanoparticles (50 mm and
concentration and temperature was kept between 0–0.6 vol% and
20 nm respectively) from US Research Nanomaterials, Inc and dispersed
25–50 °C.
them in H2O-EG (60:40) basefluid with 40 wt% and 25 wt% con-
Sarbolookzadeh Harandi et al. (2016) also studied the effect of
centration. Magnetic stirring and ultrasonication was employed for
temperature and nanoparticle concentration on the thermal con-
90 min to ensure stable dispersion of particles in the basefluid. It is
ductivity ratio of hybrid nanofluid by using f-MWCNTs-Fe3O4/EG hy-
highly recommended to use pure nanoparticles to attain prolonged
brid nanofluid via experimentation as well as numerical analysis. They
stability. They observed the nanofluid to be stable even after 30 days as
used a temperature and concentration range as 0–2.3 vol% and
shown in Fig. 5. Similarly, Allahyar et al. (2016) purchased Al2O3-Ag/
H2O (97.5% Al2O3 and 2.5% Ag) hybrid nanofluid and used it as a heat
transferring fluid. Hybrid nanofluid was prepared by two step method
in which nanoparticles (80 nm) were produced by sol-gel method and
then dispersed in basefluid. They reported 48-hour stability period of
hybrid nanofluid. Many other researchers such as Asadi et al. (2018)
and Hemmat Esfe et al. (2015) have used two step method to prepare
hybrid nanofluids because of its relative simplicity and reliability. This
method is economical and supportive for producing nanofluid in bulk
extent.

2.2. Characteristics of hybrid nanofluids

A number of studies have been conducted to probe the character-

istics of hybrid nanofluids. Majority of the researchers have reported
encouraging results. Hybrid nanofluids have been found to have opti-
mized characteristics, proving them to be suitable for the solar systems
that require good thermal, optical, and rheological characteristics of
working fluid. Following section summarizes important properties such Fig. 3. Schematic of Single Step EEW or PWE Method (Aberoumand and
as optical, thermal, rheological, and morphological properties of hybrid Jafarimoghaddam, 2018).

176
T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali
Fig. 4. Depiction of Two Step Method (Ali et al., 2018).
25–50 °C. Results depicted that the maximum TCR approached up to
30% at 2.3 vol% and 50 °C. Relative increase in TCR was observed to be
higher at high temperature with increasing concentration likewise, at
high concentration the increase in TCR was higher with increasing
temperature. Since at high concentrations large number of nano-
particles are present in the nanofluid, number of collisions become
overwhelmingly greater with increasing temperature which causes a
greater augmentation in TCR as a function of increasing temperature.
Similar study was conducted by Esfahani et al. (2018) and they also
achieved optimum results at highest temperature and concentration i.e.
2 vol% and 50 °C. Toghraie et al. (2016) obtained 32% augmentation in
thermal conductivity of ZnO-TiO2/EG hybrid nanofluid at 3.5 vol% and
50 °C. They used at test range of 25–50 °C temperature and 0–3.5 vol%
nanoparticle concentration.
Leong et al. (2018) broadened the scope of their study and they also
evaluated the effect of type of surfactant, pH value of basefluid, and
sonication period along with nanoparticle weight concentration and
temperature on the thermal conductivity of Cu-TiO2/EG-water hybrid
nanofluid. Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), GA, and SDBS were used as
surfactant. PVP outperformed rest of the surfactants and optimum
thermal conductivity increment i.e. 9.8% compared to basefluid was
observed at 0.8 wt% and PVP was used as surfactant. Nanofluid per-
formed best at 7 pH value. Augmented sonication period yielded op-
timum results.
Some other parameters like Nusselt number are as important as
thermal conductivity of the thermo-fluid. Yarmand et al. (2015) re-
ported 32.7% increase in Nusselt number of Graphene nanoparticle
GNP-Ag/H2O hybrid nanofluid at 0.1 wt% and 17,500 Re. Despite of
escalated Nusselt number enhanced friction factor would cause a few
troubles like issues regarding pumping power, etc. but in the current
case the augmentation is negligible.
Thermal properties of hybrid nanofluids are experimentally de-
termined by using a properties analyzer device called KD2 Pro which is
capable to experimentally measure the thermal conductivity (see
Fig. 7), Nusselt number, and specific heat of nanofluids (Nabil et al.,
2017). Several correlations have also been developed to numerically
evaluate the thermal conductivity of hybrid nanofluid.
2.2.2. Rheological characteristics
Rheological properties of working fluid can greatly influence the
performance of solar energy application systems since uncontrolled
Fig. 5. Prepared samples of TiO2-SiO2/H2O-EG hybrid nanofluids after (a) one day and (b) 30 days (Nabil et al., 2017).
177
Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203
variation in viscosity or density will raise the frictional effects and
pumping power which will malign the overall performance of the sys-
tems. Key factors that influence the rheological characteristics of hybrid
nanofluid include temperature, nanoparticle concentration, and
shearing rate. Alirezaie et al. (2017) experimentally as well as analy-
tically explored the influence of mentioned three parameters on the
rheological properties of f-MWCNT-MgO/Engine oil hybrid nanofluid
with 10% MWCNT and 90% MgO. Dynamic viscosity of the nanofluid
briskly decreased with increasing temperature (25–50 °C) and it in-
creased with increasing concentration of nanoparticles (0.0625–1 vol
%). Increase in shear rate (50–650 RPM) was observed to increase dy-
namic viscosity as well.
Elevation in temperature causes breakdown of interatomic/inter-
molecular forces and excites the movement of particles thus reduction
in dynamic viscosity of the substance prevails accordingly. But with
addition of number of particles i.e. concentration escalation, viscosity
of the substance gets increased (Fig. 8).
Asadi and Asadi (2016) evaluate the rheological properties of ZnO-
MWCNT/engine oil nanofluid and observed similar trends of viscosity
variation as a function of temperature and concentration. Asadi et al.
(2016) conducted similar tests using MgO-MWCNT/SAE50 nanofluid
and observed a positive trend in the viscosity variation with tempera-
ture change. Maximum decrease in dynamic viscosity took place at
40 °C and the decrease became less steep past this temperature. Gra-
phical results depicted that the influence of temperature variation is
way greater than the concentration change. Newtonian behavior of the
hybrid nanofluid was observed in all the working conditions i.e. na-
nofluid followed Newton’s law.
τ = μγ (1)
In Eq. (1), “τ” is the shear stress, “μ” is the dynamic viscosity and “γ”
is the shear strain induced in the fluid due to the shear stress.
Hemmat Esfe et al. (2018) used MWCNT-ZnO/10w40 engine oil,
Moldoveanu et al. (2018) used Al2O3-SiO2/H2O and Motahari et al.
(2017) used MWCNT-SiO2/20W50 oil to evaluate the effects of con-
centration and temperature on the viscosity and their performance re-
sults and developed correlations have been discussed in Table 1.
Nanofluids that do not follow Newton’s law are termed as non-
Newtonian fluids. The formula used for such fluids is as follows.
τ = mγ̇ (2)
In Eq. (2), “m” is consistency index (Pa s n ) and “n” shows power-law
index. Whereas, the viscosity of non-Newtonian fluid is calculated by
the Eq. (3).
μ = mγ̇n − 1 (3)
Afrand et al. (2016) viewed Newtonian character of Fe3O4-Ag/EG
hybrid nanofluid at 0.0375, 0.075, 0.15 and 0.3 vol% whereas at higher
concentrations i.e. 0.6, 1.2 vol% the behavior became non-Newtonian.
In the non-Newtonian regime, the fluids follow power-law model that
explains the performance trends of such fluids. Considering the ex-
perimental results, it was deduced that shearing causes thinning in the
T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali
Fig. 6. Thermal conductivity of (a) SiO2-MWCNT/EG (Hemmat Esfe et al., 2017) (b) f-MWCNT-MgO/EG hybrid nanofluid as a function of temperature and na-
noparticle concentration (Afrand, 2017).
nanofluids and it becomes more significant with increasing temperature
since the consistency index tends to decline. Decrease in viscosity/
consistency index with increasing temperature occurs due to dimin-
ished intermolecular attraction of the nanofluid.
In order to measure the viscosity of hybrid nanofluids several
techniques are employed. Viscometers are used if the viscosity is to be
determined experimentally but if it is to be determined via numerical
methods then correlations could be used for this purpose (Table 1).
Some researchers have also used Artificial Neural Network ANN mod-
eling to determine the viscosity. Any of the mentioned methods could
be used since all the methods yield precise results (Afrand et al., 2016).
2.2.3. Optical characteristics
Performance of solar collectors heavily relies on the optical features
of working fluid. Nanofluids of different nanoparticle suspension have
absorption peaks in different regions of solar radiation i.e. some have
absorption peak in visible region while some have in near infrared (IR)
or ultraviolet (UV) region. A broadband absorption could be attained by
blending the nanoparticles of different absorption peaks (Lee et al.,
2012; Anand et al., 2013; Song et al., 2016).
Jeon et al. (2014) evaluated absorption peaks of a hybrid nanofluid
formed by gold nanorods of different size and CTAB. They observed
high and uniform extinction coefficient line against solar wavelength.
Chen et al. (2017) obtained high absorption peaks in near IR region and
visible region by blending CuO and tin-oxide doped with antimony
nanoparticles since CuO has high absorption coefficient in visible re-
gion whereas ATO has in near IR region. Optical properties are
Fig. 7. (a) Schematic and (b) laboratory setup for thermal conductivity measurement of nanofluid via KD2 Pro thermal property analyzer (Mechiri et al., 2017).
178
Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203
functioned by morphology and concentration of nanoparticles. Lee
et al. (2012) performed numerical study to explore the solar absorption
of nanofluids of different nanoparticles. Nanofluids based on nano-
shells of Au (GNS) with different concentrations and aluminum depict
different peaks of absorption coefficients against wavelength of solar
radiation. By blending the nanoparticles – having different absorption
peaks can help attain a broad-band absorptivity through all the spec-
trum ranges (as shown in Fig. 9). Aluminum had absorption peaks in UV
and IR regions whereas GNS had absorption peaks in visible region,
blend of these two nanoparticles provided uniform absorption in all the
spectrums.
Several theories are available that could be employed to numeri-
cally evaluate the optical performance parameters such as absorption
coefficient, transmittivity, extinction coefficient, and solar weighted
absorption of nanofluids (Gorji and Ranjbar, 2017).
2.2.4. Morphological characteristics
Morphology of nanofluids holds utmost importance in the char-
acterization of nanofluids. Field emission scanning electron microscopy
(FSEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and X-Ray dif-
fractometer (XRD) are used to explore the morphology of nanofluids
(Leong et al., 2017). Mentioned techniques precisely determine the
particle size, shape and structure of the nanofluid.
Size of nanoparticles is determined by using x-ray diffraction and
TEM is used to visually analyze the structure of nanoparticles.
Kannaiyan et al. (2017) employed mentioned techniques to evaluate
the shape and size Al2O3-CuO/H2O-EG hybrid nanofluid as shown in
T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203

Fig. 8. Change in dynamic viscosity with relative change in (a) temperature and concentration (b) shear rate (Alirezaie et al., 2017).

Fig. 10. TEM technique described the actual size of Al2O3 equivalent to
14–20 nm and 20 nm of CuO nanoparticles.
XRD technique is used to capture the pattern of the tested material
and the pattern is used to determine the crystal plane/structure of that
matter by comparing the observed pattern with the pre-determined
crystalline pattern. Purity of a substance could also be validated via this
technique (Sundar et al., 2016). Equation of Debye-Scherrer is sued to
calculate the crystalline size (Zadkhast et al., 2017).
D = kλ / βcosθ (4)
Here, “D”, “k”, “λ”, “β”, “θ” represent crystalline size, shape factor,
wavelength, full-width half maximum (FWHM) and diffraction angle
respectively (Kannaiyan et al., 2017). Furthermore, SEM images are
used to visualize the hybrid nanoparticle structure and more

Table 1
List of important correlations for hybrid nanofluids.
Reference Specifications Correlation

Hemmat Esfe et al. (2017) Working fluid: SiO2-MWCNT/EG Knf

= 0.905 + 0.002069φT + 0.04375φ0.09265T 0.3305 − 0.0063φ3
Temperature range: 30–50 °C Kbf
Concentration range: 0.05–1.95 vol%
Afrand (2017) Working Fluid: MgO-MWCNT/EG Knf
= 0.8341 + 1.1φ0.243T −0.289
Temperature Range: 25–50 °C Kbf
Concentration Range: 0–0.6 vol%
Sarbolookzadeh Harandi et al. (2016) Working Fluid: f-MWCNTs-Fe3O4/EG Knf
= 1 + 0.0162φ0.7038T 0.6009
Temperature Range: 25–50 °C Kbf
Concentration Range: 0–2.3 vol%
Esfahani et al. (2018) Working Fluid: ZnO-Ag/H2O Knf
= 1 + 0.0008794φ0.5899T1.345
Temperature Range: 25–50 °C Kbf
Concentration Range: 0-125-2 vol%
Toghraie et al. (2016) Working Fluid: ZnO-Ag/H2O Knf
= 1 + 0.004503φ0.8717T 0.7972
Temperature Range: 25–50 °C Kbf
Concentration Range: 0–3.5 vol%
Yarmand et al. (2015) Working Fluid: GNP + Ag/H2O NuReg = 0.0017066Re 0.9253Pr 1.29001
Reynold Number: 5000–17,500
Concentration Range: 0–0.1 vol%
Alirezaie et al. (2017) Working Fluid: f-MWCNT-MgO/Engine oil μnf = 4 × 10 4 + 145φ − 240T − 0.061γ + 1.9 × 106φ2 + 0.36T2
Concentration Range: 0.0625–1 vol%
Temperature Range: 25–50 °C
Shear Rate Range = 50–650 RPM
Asadi and Asadi (2016) Working Fluid: f-MWCNT-ZnO/Engine oil μnf = 796.8 + 76.26φ + 12.88T + 0.7695φT +
−196.9T − 16.53φT
Concentration Range: 0.125–1 vol% T −0.5

Temperature Range: 5–55 °C

Asadi et al. (2016) Working Fluid: MgO-MWCNT/SAE50 μnf = 328201 × T −2.053 × φ0.09359
Concentration Range: 0.25–2 vol%
Temperature Range:25–50 °C
Hemmat Esfe et al. (2018) Working Fluid: MWCNT-ZnO/10w40 Engine oil φe−1.023 ⎛
2.046φ
+ 0.4015φ2T ⎞
μnf T
Concentration Range: 0.05–1 vol% ⎝ ⎠
= 1.035 +
μbf T 0.8441
Temperature Range:5–55 °C
Moldoveanu et al. (2018) Working Fluid: Al2O3-SiO2/H2O For 0.5% Al2O3 + 0.5%SiO2: μnf = 0.000005T2 − 0.003T + 0.5
For 0.5% Al2O3 + 1.5%SiO2: μnf = 0.00000T2 − 0.004T + 0.571
Motahari et al. (2017;2.) Working Fluid: MWCNT-SiO2/20W50 oil μnf 2
Concentration Range: 0.05–1 vol% μbf
= 0.09422 − ⎡
⎢
⎣
()T
φ
+ 0.100556T 0.8827φ0.3148⎤ exp(72474.75Tφ3.7951)
⎥
⎦
Temperature Range: 40–100 °C

179
T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203

Fig. 9. Manifestation of absorption peaks of different nanofluids (Lee et al.,

2012).

specifically the integration of individual nanoparticles with each other.

Fig. 11 represents the structural interaction of carbon and graphene
nanoparticle.
Researchers have rigorously discussed the importance of mor-
phology of nanofluids and its implications on the heat transfer perfor-
mance parameters. Variation in size and shape of nanoparticles greatly
varies the heat transfer rate by nanofluids (Shahsavar and Bahiraei,
2017). According to most of the studies, morphology of nanoparticles
hefts the rheological, photothermal, and thermophysical features of
nanofluids (Soltani and Akbari, 2016). In Tables 1 and 2, comprehen-
sive summary of developed correlations and various characteristics of
Fig. 11. SEM images of (a) activated carbon (AC) and (b) activated carbon-
hybrid nanofluids has been presented. graphene (ACG) (Yarmand et al., 2016).

Fig. 10. (a) TEM image of Al2O3, (b) TEM image of CuO and (c) XRD image of nanoparticles (Kannaiyan et al., 2017).

180
 Table 2
Summary of various characteristics of hybrid nanofluids.
Reference
Hemmat Esfe et al. (2017)
Afrand (2017)
Sarbolookzadeh Harandi et al.
(2016)
Esfahani et al. (2018)
Toghraie et al. (2016)
Leong et al. (2018)
Yarmand et al. (2015)
Alirezaie et al. (2017)
Asadi and Asadi (2016)
181
Asadi et al. (2016)
Hemmat Esfe et al. (2018)
Moldoveanu et al. (2018)
Motahari et al. (2017;2.)
Afrand et al. (2016)
Jeon et al. (2014)
Chen et al. (2017)
Lee et al. (2012)
T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali
Nanofluid Particle size Evaluated property Findings
SiO2-MWCNT/EG SiO2: 20–30 nm average diameter Thermal conductivity 22.2% TCE was achieved at 50 °C and 1.95 vol% compared to base fluid
MWCNTs: 2–6 nm inner and 5–20 nm
external diameter
f-MWCNT-MgO/EG MgO: 40 nm average diameter Thermal conductivity 21.3% TCE was observed at 0.6 vol% and 25 °C compared to base fluid
f-MWCNT: 3–5 nm inner and 5–15 nm
outer diameter
f-MWCNTs-Fe3O4/EG Fe3O4: 20–30 nm average diameter Thermal conductivity 30% TCE was recorded at 2.3 vol% and 50 °C compared to base fluid
f-MWCNTs: 3–5 nm inner and 5–15 nm
outer diameter
ZnO-Ag/H2O ZnO: 20–30 nm diameter Thermal conductivity ∼25.5% TCE was observed at 2 vol% and 50 °C compared to base fluid
Ag: 30–50 nm diameter
ZnO-TiO2/EG TiO2: 30 nm diameter Thermal conductivity Observed 32% TCE of hybrid nanofluid at 3.5 vol% and 50 °C compared to base fluid
ZnO: 35–45 nm diameter
Cu-TiO2/EG- H2O 40–60 nm Thermal conductivity Reported 9.8% TCE as compared to basefluid at 0.8 wt%
GNP + Ag/H2O N/A Nusselt number Nusselt number increased by 32.70% at 0.1 wt% and 17,500 Re compared to base fluid. Frictional
factor was reported to increase by 1.08 times. Both parameters i.e. Nusselt number and friction
factor increased with increasing Reynold number
f-MWCNT-MgO/Engine oil f-MWCNTs: 10–30 nm diameter Dynamic viscosity Viscosity increased by 10% with shear rate escalation from 50 to 650 RPM and 75% reduction in
MgO: 40 nm diameter viscosity took place with elevation in temperature from 25 to 50 °C. 500 cP maximum viscosity
was observed at 1 vol% and 25 °C
ZnO-MWCNT/Engine oil 30 nm Dynamic viscosity 45% maximum enhancement in dynamic viscosity was observed at 1 vol% and 55°C. Dynamic
viscosity decreased by 85% with temperature increment from 5 to 55 °C. 250 cP maximum fluid
viscosity was reported at 15 °C and 1 vol%
MgO-MWCNT/SAE50 30 nm average diameter Dynamic viscosity At 40 °C and 2 vol%, a maximum of 65% increase in dynamic viscosity occurred. At 0.025%
volume concentration, the viscosity elevation did not exceed 20% for all the tested temperatures
up to 55 °C. By increasing the temperature viscosity reduction was reported 77% for all tested
concentrations. 240 cP viscosity of fluid was observed at 2 vol% and 35 °C
MWCNT-ZnO/10w40 Engine oil ZnO: 10–20 nm average diameter Dynamic viscosity Almost 77% reduction in viscosity occurred with temperature increasing from 15 °C to 55 °C. 240
MWCNTs: 2–6 nm inner and 5–20 nm cP maximum fluid viscosity was observed at 15 °C and 0.08 vol%
outer diameter
Al2O3-SiO2/H2O Al2O3: 45 nm Dynamic viscosity Nanofluids showed non-Newtonian behavior for all the test conditions, shear thinning was
SiO2: 20 nm observed for alumina and its hybrid nanofluids, and shear thickening was observed for silica
nanofluid
MWCNT-SiO2/20W50 oil SiO2: 40 nm diameter MWCNT: 20 nm Dynamic viscosity 171% augmentation in viscosity of the nanofluid occurred as compared to basefluid at 1 vol% and
diameter 100 °C. Approximately 80% viscosity reduction was reported graphically as the temperature
increased from 40 to 100 °C. 290 cP viscosity of hybrid nanofluid at 40 °C and 1.0 vol% was
reported
Fe3O4-Ag/EG Fe3O4: 20–30 nm Dynamic viscosity At 0.3 vol%, about 50% viscosity reduction was graphically reported as the temperature elevated
Ag: 30–50 nm from 25 to 50 °C. Highest viscosity of hybrid nanofluid was reported 27 cP at 25 °C and 0.3 vol%
Au nanorods of different 15.8, 15, 17 nm diameter of short, mid, Absorptivity High absorption peaks in visible, and IR regions were observed. 1.68 cm−1 absorption and
size + CTAB and long AuNR respectively 1.77 cm−1 extinction coefficient has been reported in visible region. 2.2 cm−1 maximum
extinction coefficient was observed at approximately 550 mm wavelength for hybrid nanofluid
CuO-ATO/H2O CuO: 10 nm Absorptivity Broad-band (300–1400 nm) absorption was obtained
ATO: 15 nm
Al-GNS/H2O 2.5 nm radius of Al and different GNS sizes Absorptivity Approximately 23 mm−1, absorption peak was observed at almost 800 nm wavelength in case of
proposed hybrid nanofluid
Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203
T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali
3. Applications of nanofluids in solar energy
Considering the heat transfer and solar absorption potential of na-
nofluids, a number of research studies have tested both unitary and
binary nanofluids in variety of solar systems such as photovoltaic
thermal systems (Jia et al., 2019), solar steam generation systems, solar
collectors (Nagarajan et al., 2014), solar energy storage systems, etc.
Following sections briefly review the application of mono and hybrid
nanofluids in PV/T systems and solar collectors.
3.1. Overview of application of mono-nanofluids in solar energy
3.1.1. Photovoltaic-thermal systems
Electrical power generation via PV modules is the most effective
application of solar energy but unfortunately the power generation rate
tends to decline as the intensity of solar radiation increases, resulting in
module temperature escalation. Using nanofluids for cooling cause of
PV modules is the most effective technique amongst the PV cooling
methods to eschew the temperature elevation. Considerable elevation
in power output of PV systems has been reported in the literature when
cooled by nanofluids compared to uncooled systems. Sardarabadi et al.
(2014) used SiO2/H2O nanofluid for heat capturing in PV/T system and
observed drastic exergy efficiency escalation. Exergy efficiency of the
PV/T system increased by 19.36%, 22.61% and 24.31% compared to
reference system when using water, 1 wt% nanofluid and 3 wt% na-
nofluid respectively. Michael and Iniyan (2015) used CuO/H2O nano-
fluid in PV/T system and observed 45.76% elevation in thermal effi-
ciency compared to water based PV/T system.
When using nanofluids in the collectors integrated with PV module,
several other factor such as inlet velocity of nanofluid, nanoparticle
volume fraction and type of dispersed nanoparticles in base fluid sig-
nificantly influence the system’s performance. Khanjari et al. (2016)
numerically evaluated that increasing the inlet velocity of working fluid
and particle volume fraction increased the rate of heat transfer and
thermodynamic efficiencies (1st and 2nd law) of PV/T system. Radwan
et al. (2016) tested the effect of mass flowrate and volume fraction on
the performance of low concentrated PV/T system at different con-
centration ratios. Their study reported that as the Reynold number in-
creased from 10 to 100 the PV cell’s electrical efficiency increased from
17.8% to 18.8%. Ebaid et al. (2018) concluded that the abatement in
cell temperature is the function of weight fraction of nanoparticles in
the basefluid and the flowrate of the working fluid. Expedition in
concentration of nanoparticle and flowrate of nanofluid resulted in
cell’s temperature impediment owing to higher heat transfer rates.
Using Al2O3 based nanofluid was found to have decreased the cell
temperature much greater than the TiO2 based nanofluid and water.
Whereas, TiO2 based nanofluid outperformed Al2O3 based nanofluid
and water-based system in terms of electrical efficiency of the system.
Different nanoparticle based nanofluids yield different efficiency
enhancement due to different thermophysical properties and stabilities
(Sardarabadi et al., 2014; Abd-Allah et al., 2016; Karami and Rahimi,
2014; Sardarabadi and Passandideh-Fard, 2016) (Fig. 12). Al-Waeli
et al. (2017a) comprehensively conducted an indoor comparative study
by using SiC, Al2O3 and CuO nanoparticles in water as base fluid. Ex-
perimental results revealed that the thermal conductivity improved by
1.96, 3.42 and 4.8% when using Al2O3, CuO, and SiC nanoparticle
based nanofluids respectively. These nanofluids showed considerable
stability period as well.
3.1.2. Flat plate solar collectors
Flat plate solar collectors have been used for converting solar energy
into thermal energy of working fluid. Yousefi et al. (2012) used Al2O3-
H2O nanofluid as heat absorbing medium in flat plate solar collector
exposed to direct sunlight. Major factors that affected the performance
of the collector include flowrate of fluid, volume fraction, and surfac-
tant. Efficiency of the nanofluid based collector increased with
182
Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203
increasing flowrate against large temperature difference between inlet
and outlet of the collector but relationship was observed to be inverse
between flowrate and efficiency when the temperature difference was
small. Addition of surfactant added positive impact on the performance
of the collector in terms of efficiency. Zamzamian et al. (2014) deduced
from the experimental study that the flat plat collector’s efficiency
improved with increasing fraction of Cu nanoparticles in ethylene
glycol basefluid since the value of removed energy parameter decreased
with increasing volume fraction under all the flowrates (0.5, 1 and
1.5 l/min) and energy absorbance parameter was increased. Efficiency
of the collector was observed to be greater at 1.5 l/min compared to 1 l/
min flowrate. At 1.5 l/min, efficiency reached up to 0.81 for 0.3 wt%
and later dropped down to 0.69 when the fraction of nanoparticles
decreased to 0.2 wt%. At 1.5 l/min and 0.3 wt%, the change in effi-
ciency against reduced temperature parameter found by Zamzamian
et al. (2014) is presented in the Fig. 13.
Effect of energy absorbance and removed energy parameter on the
thermal efficiency (η) of the collector is computed by Eq. (5)
(Zamzamian et al., 2014).
Ti − Ta ⎞
η = FR (τα )n − FR UL ⎛
⎜ ⎟
⎝ Gt ⎠ (5)
“(τα )n ” shows normal transmittance-absorptance and “ ( Ti − Tamb
Gt )” is the
reduced temperature parameter. Whereas, “FR ” shows heat removal
factor, “UL ” represents overall loss coefficient of solar collector, “Gt ” is
for global solar radiation, “Ti ” is the inlet temperature and “Ta ” shows
ambient temperature.
Application of nanofluid as an absorbing fluid can help control the
values of entropy generation in flat plate collectors. Said et al. (2014)
numerically analyzed the performance of flat plate solar collector using
single wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNT) based nanofluid as absorbing
fluid and they found 4.34% possible reduction in entropy generation as
well as 15.33% increment in the coefficient of heat transfer. Moghadam
et al. (2014) used CuO/H2O nanofluid of 0.4% volume fraction as ab-
sorbing fluid in flat plate solar collector and obtained 16.78% efficiency
enhancement compared to water-based system. They set the fluid to
flow at a flowrate ranging from 1 kg/min to 3 kg/min and found op-
timum performance at 1 kg/min. Michael and Iniyan (2015) found
optimum results at 0.05 vol% and 0.6 kg/min flowrate when using
CuO/H2O nanofluid as absorbing medium in a flat plate solar heater.
Expedition in flowrate and volume fraction of nanofluid has been
found to increase heat transfer coefficient, pumping power, and pres-
sure drop whereas, the exergy destruction gets reduced accordingly.
Said et al. (2015) and Faizal et al. (2015) also observed difference in
pumping power and pressure drop between nanofluid and basefluid.
Fig. 12. Performance of Nanofluid based PV/T Systems.
T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203

Use of nanofluids in volumetric solar collector is a special aspect of

nanofluids applications. Liu et al. (2018) analyzed the performance of
reduced graphene (rGO) based nanofluid in DASC for solar steam
generation. They observed remarkable enhancement in evaporation
rate leading to augmentation in efficiency of the system. The foremost
influential factor was reported to be the concentration of the nano-
particles. At low particle concentration, absorption was recorded to be
low and transmittance was high. High absorption resulted in high
evaporation/thermal efficiency and low heating efficiency of rGO based
DASC due to low penetration depth. They reported total efficiency of
nanofluid based system to be ∼66.0% and for water-based system it
was ∼36%. Thermal/evaporative efficiency of water was recorded
∼8% and for nanofluid the efficiency was recorded ∼41% at optimum
conditions. Thermal/evaporative efficiency of water was recorded
Fig. 13. Collector’s efficiency against reduced temperature parameter ∼8% and for nanofluid the efficiency was recorded ∼41.0% at op-
(Zamzamian et al., 2014). timum conditions. Wang et al. (2016) conducted similar performance
analysis of steam generation solar system employing CNT based nano-
fluid. They reported the thermal/evaporation efficiency for water-based
3.1.3. Direct absorption solar collectors (DASC)
and nanofluid system to be 7.8% and 46.8% respectively. Wang et al.
Direct absorption solar collectors were designed to forfeit the heat
(2017) conducted similar investigation with plasmonic Au nano-
losses occurring in the flat plate solar collectors. Therefore, special
particles suspended in basefluid. They reported the total efficiency (sum
characteristics of working fluid were required to meet so as to capture
of evaporative/thermal efficiency and heating efficiency) of the steam
as much solar energy as possible. Nanofluids have high light absorption
generation system to be 300% greater than the conventional fluid i.e.
or optical characteristics thus making them suitable to be used as ab-
water. Water based system was reported to reach 16% total efficiency
sorbing medium in direct absorption solar collectors (He et al., 2013;
whereas nanofluid based system approached 65% total efficiency.
Karami et al., 2016; Saidur et al., 2012). He et al. (2013) studied the
Highest efficiency was observed at 178 ppm concentration of Au na-
photothermal properties of Cu-H2O nanofluid – to be employed in the
noparticles. At this concentration, highest absorption performance has
direct absorption solar collectors as absorbing medium. Experimental
been depicted graphically (almost 3 cm−1 at ∼520 nm wavelength of
results revealed that transmittance of Cu-H2O nanofluid was very much
light). Thermal/evaporative efficiency of water was recorded ∼7.5%
less than the base fluid i.e. deionized water in the solar spectrum ran-
and for nanofluid the efficiency was recorded ∼47.5% at optimum
ging from 250 to 2500 nm wavelength. Following the results, they de-
conditions. Chen et al. (2017) also reported similar trends with over
duced that the solar absorption increased with increasing nanoparticle
65% maximum photothermal conversion efficiency of Au nanofluid
size, mass fraction, and optical depth. Temperature of nanofluid (0.1 wt
based volumetric solar collector. Nanofluid of silver presents good
%) was found to be 25.3 °C more than the basefluid at optimum con-
photothermal conversion characteristics as well. Silver nanofluid based
ditions. Karami et al. (2016) dispersed CuO nanoparticles in basefluid
DASC has been reported to approach 84.61% photothermal conversion
containing 70% distilled water and 30% ethylene glycol (EG), and
efficiency by Chen et al. (2015). They reported the efficiency of TiO2
tested its absorption in 200–2500 nm wavelength solar spectrum. They
and ZnO nanofluid based systems to reach up to a maximum of 51% and
found four times more absorption than the basefluid at 1 cm optical
64% respectively at optimum conditions. Chen et al. (2016) performed
depth of nanofluid and 0.01 vol% of dispersed nanoparticles of less than
numerical inspection of silver nanofluid performance in DASC and re-
40 nm diameter size. Saidur et al. (2012) reported almost alike findings
ported up to 90% photothermal efficiency of the system at optimum
as stated afore with slight deviation. They observed little impact of
concentration of nanoparticles.
particle size on the optical properties of aluminum based nanofluid.
Nanofluid became almost opaque to the solar light at 1.0 vol%.
Menbari et al. (2016) performed numerical as well as experimental
3.1.4. Evacuated tube solar collector (ETSC)
analysis of CuO/water nanofluid based concentrated direct absorption
Nanofluids have also been tested in evacuated tube solar collectors
parabolic trough solar collector. Their numerical and experimental
for the purpose of enhancing their performance. Sabiha et al. (2015)
analysis yielded close results that showed that the efficiency of the
dispersed single walled carbon nanotubes in water to form a nanofluid
system increased from 18% to 52% as the volume fraction of nano-
and used it as a working fluid in ETSC to analyze its performance under
particles increased from 0.002% to 0.008%. Temperature of the nano-
different volume fractions (0.005, 0.1, and 0.2 vol%) of nanoparticles
fluid increased along the receiver pipe’s length, indicating increased
and various flowrates (0.008, 0.017, and 0.025 kg/s) of nanofluid. Ex-
absorbance of solar irradiance. They found positive effect of increased
perimental results revealed that the performance of the system im-
flowrate of nanofluid through the receiver pipe since the heat losses
proved with abating flowrate and volume fractions. They obtained
contracted. Increased heat capturing causes increased entropy genera-
optimum results at maximum tested range of volume fractions and
tion as well that could be addressed by controlling several operation
flowrates i.e. 0.2 vol% and 0.025 kg/s. ETSCs can be used for the
parameters (Parvin et al., 2014). Gupta et al. (2015) observed optimal
heating of air for domestic use. One such system with compound
results at highest among the tested flowrates (1.5, 2, and 2.5 l/min) of
parabolic concentrator (CPC), evacuated tube and an open thermosy-
Al2O3/H2O nanofluid in DASC.
phon integrated into a single unit was designed for the heating of air by
Using nanofluids as heat transfer fluids in parabolic trough collec-
Liu et al. (2013). They used CuO/water nanofluid as working fluid and
tors helps them achieve reduced temperature gradient which shrinks
obtained a maximum of 170 °C temperature of air, flowing at 7.6 m3/h
the structural deformation. Increased heat removal dwindles thermal
during winter. They obtained way high temperature of air as well as
stresses in turns the life of the system is increased along with increased
efficiency (12.74%) by using open thermosyphon as compared to the
thermal efficiency of the system (Wang et al., 2016). Amount of ra-
concentric tube solar collector. Since open thermosyphon system had
diations being emitted are directly proportional to the fourth power of
annular tube inside the vapor box, it greatly increased the heat transfer
temperature of the heat transfer medium therefore maintaining high
area. Brief summary of augmentation in performance outputs of solar
flowrate of absorbing medium is necessary to halt the development of
energy systems based on mono-nanofluids is presented in Table 3.
thermal stresses in the system (Delfani et al., 2016).

183
 T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali

Table 3
Summary of applications of mono-nanofluids in solar energy.
Reference Nanofluid Concentration Nanoparticle size System type Results

Sardarabadi et al. (2014) SiO2/H2O 3 wt% 11–14 nm diameter 40 W monocrystalline silicon PV Equivalent thermal efficiency of PV system without collector, water-based collector and 3 wt%
module SiO2/H2O based collector was reported 28.9%, 66.8%, and 72.1% respectively
Electrical efficiency of water-based PV-T collector and 3 wt% nanofluid based PV-T collector was
reported to increase by 8.2% and 9.75% respectively compared to reference PV system
Michael and Iniyan CuO/H2O 0.05 vol% 75 nm diameter 37 W PV Module Electrical efficiency decrement of water-based and nanofluid based PV-T system was reported
(2015) 28.73%, 31.18% respectively with glazing and 2.3%, 15.14% without glazing
Thermal efficiency increased by 44.90% and 45.76% with and without glazing respectively,
compared to water-based PV/T system
Ebaid et al. (2018) TiO2/H2O-poly-EG mixture 0.1 wt% N/A 50 W Monocrystalline PV Module On average, 0.82% and 0.48% more electrical efficiency of PV-T system based on nanofluid and
water is reported respectively than conventional PV system. Highest observed electrical
efficiency of conventional PV was 13.2% and of nanofluid based PV-T was 14%
Al-Waeli et al. (2017a) SiC/H2O 4 vol% 45–65 nm diameter 110 W Polycrystalline PV Module Electrical efficiency increased by 42% compared to water-based PV/T system
CuO/H2O 4 vol% 35–45 nm diameter 34% increment in electrical efficiency was observed
Al2O3/H2O 4 vol% 30–60 nm diameter 15.12% enhancement in electrical efficiency was obtained
Yousefi et al. (2012) Al2O3/H2O 0.2 wt% 15 nm particle dimension Flat plate solar collector 28.3% efficiency enhancement was achieved compared to water-based system
Zamzamian et al. (2014) Cu/EG 0.3 wt% 10 nm average diameter Flat plate solar collector Collector efficiency reached up to 81% for nanofluid and for water it reached up to 50%. Overall,
60% enhancement was observed owing to the insertion of nanoparticles in base fluid
Said et al. (2014) SWCNT/H2O N/A N/A Flat plate solar collector Entropy generation in the system reduced by 4.34% and coefficient of heat transfer increased by
15.33% compared to water

184
Moghadam et al. (2014) CuO/H2O 0.4 vol% 40 nm particle dimension Flat plate solar collector 21.8% efficiency enhancement occurred for nanofluid based system compared to water-based
collector
Michael and Iniyan CuO/H2O 0.05 vol% 0.3–0.21 nm average Flat plate solar collector Collector’s efficiency approached to a maximum 52.33% with water and it approached 57.98%
(2015) crystalline size with nanofluid
Said et al. (2015) TiO2/H2O 0.1 vol% 21 nm average size Flat plate solar collector Maximum energy efficiency of the water-based and nanofluid based collector reached up to
42.1% and 76.6% respectively. Nanoparticles increased the collector’s efficiency by 81%
Exergy efficiency of system improved up to 16.9% at 0.5 kg/min flowrate
Shojaeizadeh et al. Al2O3/H2O 0.14 vol% 15 nm average diameter Flat plate solar collector A maximum of 1% exergy efficiency enhancement occurred due to the dispersion of
(2015) nanoparticles in the basefluid
Menbari et al. (2016) CuO/H2O 0.008 vol% 100 nm nominal size Concentrated parabolic trough Thermal efficiency reached up to 52%
DASC
Gupta et al. (2015) Al2O3/H2O 0.005 vol% 20 nm DASC At optimum flowrates water-based collector’s efficiency approached to ∼54% and nanofluid
based system’s efficiency approached to ∼74%
Delfani et al. (2016) SWCNT/H2O + EG 0.1 vol% 10–20 nm diameter DASC At 90 lit/h flowrate, 29% more efficiency of the collector was predicted when using nanofluid
than the basefluid. Nanofluid based collector surpassed 70% efficiency mark
Sabiha et al. (2015) SWCNT/H2O 0.2 vol% 1–2 nm average diameter ETSC 93.53% maximum efficiency of the system was found at 0.025 kg/s flowrate and at the same
flowrate water-based collector’s efficiency reached up to 54.37%
Liu et al. (2013) CuO/H2O 1.2 wt% 50 nm average diameter CPC-ETSC Nanofluid based evacuated tube collector coupled with a thermosyphon approached optimum
efficiency (56%). This system was reported 12.74% more efficient on average than the ETSC
coupled with annular tube collector
A maximum of 170 °C air temperature was obtained in case of solar collector joined with open
thermosyphon using nanofluid as working fluid in thermosyphon
Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203
T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali
3.2. Applications of hybrid nanofluids in solar energy
Hybrid nanofluids–advanced class of nanofluids engineered by
blending two kinds of nanoparticles–possess appealing thermal and
optical characteristics. Realizing the broad potential of hybrid nano-
fluids, researchers have conducted extensive experimental as well as
numeric evaluation of their performance in variety of systems. In par-
ticular, hybrid nanofluids have been reported to manifest captivating
results in solar energy systems i.e. PV-T systems, solar collectors, and
solar energy storage systems (Verma et al., 2018). Plasmonic nature of
nanoparticles in a hybrid nanofluids could be exploited to hoist the
solar conversion rate by tuning the absorption peaks along short to long
wavelength range of solar irradiation. Li et al. (2017) synthesized core
and shell Au-TiO2 nanoparticles based nanofluid and observed sig-
nificant solar absorption tunability between 414 and 499 nm wave-
length. Owing to aforementioned reason, Han et al. (2019) observed
highest merit function (MF) of hybrid nanofluid (Ag-CoSO4/water)
based PV-T system as compared to Ag/water unitary nanofluid and
conventional fluid i.e. water. Huang et al. (2017) reported greater
evaporation rate by core and shell Au-TiO2 nanofluid as compared to
TiO2 nanofluid and water in a solar desalination experiment. Core and
shell nanoparticle based nanofluid depicted high absorption peaks in
ultraviolet and visible spectrum of light which promoted photocatalysis
and photothermal reaction. Photocatalysis action can be over-
whelmingly improved by the used of core and shell Fe3O4-TiO2 hybrid
nanofluid as demonstrated by Shi et al. (2017). They observed the
hybrid nanofluid to have higher separation rate than water and mono
nanofluid of Fe3O4.
Thermal conductivity and Nusselt number are the two very im-
portant parameters in a solar energy system that significantly influence
the performance. Insertion of hybrid nanoparticles in the conventional
working fluids (water and ethylene glycol) greatly elevates the values of
both the aforementioned parameters.
Shahsavar et al. (2016) appraised the thermal conductivity en-
hancement of CNT-Fe3O4/H2O hybrid nanofluid compared to basefluid
and observed 152.95% augmentation. Similarly, Hemmat Esfe et al.
(2017), Afrand (2017), Sarbolookzadeh Harandi et al. (2016), Esfahani
et al. (2018), Toghraie et al. (2016), Leong et al. (2018), Abbasi et al.
(2013), Akilu et al. (2017), Esfe et al. (2017), Rostamian et al. (2017),
Devarajan et al. (2018), Hamid et al. (2017), Van Trinh et al. (2018),
Akhgar and Toghraie (2018), Moldoveanu et al. (2018), and Kakavandi
and Akbari (2018) reported extraordinary thermal conductivity esca-
lation as shown in Fig. 14. Considering the figure, highest thermal
conductivity enhancements are observed in the case of hybrid nano-
fluids that contain carbon nanotubes. CNTs have high thermal
Fig. 14. Thermal conductivity enhancement of hybrid-nanofluids compared to basefluid.
185
Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203
conductivity because of large specific surface area that poses high heat
transfer rate. Furthermore, detailed physical mechanism of thermal
conductivity expedition in hybrid nanofluids has been explained in a
review study by Das (2017).
Convective heat transfer of hybrid nanofluids has also been ob-
served to be very high which eventually increases the Nusselt number
in a system. Adriana (2017) carried out numerical evaluation and ob-
served 257% escalation in coefficient of convective heat transfer and
241% increase in Nusselt number of a hybrid nanofluid (2.5%
Al2O3 + 1.5% SiO2/H2O) compared to base fluid. Besides, Yarmand
et al. (2015); Syam Sundar et al. (2016), Sundar et al. (2014),
Moghadassi et al. (2015), Yarmand et al. (2017), Madhesh et al. (2014),
Madhesh and Kalaiselvam (2014), Takabi et al. (2016), and Suresh
et al. (2012) have reported good improvement in Nusselt number as
compared to base fluid (shown in Fig. 15).
Hybrid nanofluids - along with good thermal characteristics - pose
some rheological challenges as well such as escalated viscosity, high
pumping power, increased frictional losses, and enhanced pressure
drop. However, advantages are greater than the challenges.
3.2.1. PV-thermal systems
Silicon based photovoltaic modules are capable to directly convert
solar energy into electricity. These modules can absorb up to 80% of
solar radiations striking their surface but only small fraction of this
energy is converted into electricity and rest of the energy turns into
heat that in turns reduces the cell efficiency and module’s life (Shukla
et al., 2017). Due to the operational limitations, PV modules can only
yield as much as 15% electrical efficiency and this efficiency further
drops down as the module temperature arises (Soltani et al., 2017). As
the module’s temperature exceeds 25 °C the efficiency tends to drop by
0.5% with every 1 °C expedition (Oruc et al., 2016). Many cooling
methodologies of the PV modules in order to impede the temperature
elevation have been described in the literature that are reported to have
accomplished massive escalation in conversion efficiency of these
modules (Hussein, 2016; Hasanuzzaman et al., 2016). Cooling the PV
module’s surface via mono-nanofluid can reduce the temperature up to
30 °C and increase the electrical efficiency up to 28% (Al-Waeli et al.,
2017b, 2017c; Sardarabadi et al., 2017). Application of hybrid/binary
nanofluids for cooling of PV modules can further enhance the electrical
efficiency considerably.
Younis et al. (2018) inspected the effect of Al2O3-ZnO/water na-
nofluid both experimentally and computationally on PV/T efficiency.
They dispersed 0.5 wt% of Al2O3 and 0.5 wt% of ZnO in water and used
Ethylene-Glycol as surfactant. Pertaining to the conclusive results, the
increment in overall energy and exergy efficiency was found to be 4.1%
T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali
Fig. 15. Nusselt number enhancement of hybrid nanofluids compared to base fluid.
and 4.6% respectively. Sathieshkumar (2018) employed Cu-TiO2-water
nanofluid at different flowrates (0.01, 0.02, 0.03 kg/s) and observed
optimal results at 0.02 kg/s. Following the results, electrical efficiency
was obtained to be 11.309%, 12.4248% and 12.873% for uncooled
system, water-based system and nanofluid-based PV/T system respec-
tively. Whereas, thermal efficiency was found to be 18.4319% and
19.5089% for water-based and nanofluid-based PV/T system respec-
tively. Al-Waeli et al. (2017b) used nano-SiC and nano-PCM based
nanofluid to remove the heat of PV module and they used 0.175 kg/s
flowrate and 0.1% mass fraction of SiC, they reported that the electrical
efficiency of PV module was found to be 7.11% when not cooled but the
efficiency elevated up to 9.92%, 12.32% and 13.70% when the mod-
ule’s heat was removed by water, PCM and PCM + SiC-water nanofluid
respectively. Similarly, the thermal efficiency was found to be 9.51%,
10.5% and 13.8% in case of water-based, PCM based and PCM + SiC-
water based PV/T system. Hjerrild et al. (2016) filtered the solar ra-
diations by flowing Ag-SiO2 -CNT/water fluid in front of PV surface,
flowing fluid absorbed the unwanted part of radiation which elevated
the overall performance efficiency of the PV system. Core and shell Ag-
SiO2 nanoparticles absorbed the visible portion and CNT absorbed the
UV part of radiations. Electrical efficiency was found to increase by
85% as compared to unfiltered PV system when the water was used as
working fluid. Ag-SiO2 (0.001 wt%) based nanofluid elevated the
electrical efficiency by 73% as compared to unfiltered PV system. More
dilute solution yielded more electrical efficiency but the concentrated
fluids extensively absorbed radiations which resulted in lowering of
electrical efficiency whereas, the thermal efficiency was found to in-
crease. Assuming the worth factor 3 (w = 3), Ag-SiO2 based fluid with
highest concentration of 0.0126 wt% resulted in highest optical effi-
ciency of 58% and 39% increase in market value compared to unfiltered
PV module. Second best performance was observed for Ag-SiO2-CNT
having 0.006 and 0.067 wt% respectively which resulted in 51% optical
efficiency and 34% increase in market value. They also observed that
CNT based nanofluids resulted in higher merit function as compared to
the water based nanofluids containing no carbon nano-tubes. However,
the anomalous augmentation in the performance parameters was at-
tributed to the beam splitting properties of core and shell Ag-SiO2 na-
noparticles. Merit factor is expressed as (Crisostomo et al., 2015);
w ∗ Ppv + Pth
MF =
w ∗ Ppv ,nofilter (6)
Crisostomo et al. (2017) used core-shell Ag-SiO2 nanoparticle based
nanofluid as selective absorption media for optimum performance of
PV/T system. Increase in concentration of nanoparticles increased
thermal power output but decreased electrical power output. Overall
186
Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203
efficiency increased from 12.4% (for stand-alone system) to 33.2% (for
0.025 wt%, Ag-SiO2-H2O nanofluid based system) due to the applica-
tion of nanofluid of optimized optical properties that eventually lead to
maximal efficiency. Sai and Sharma (2015) used GO (graphene oxide)-
TiO2 nanocomposite for PV surface coating and observed elevated
conversion efficiency of multi crystalline silicon cells as compared to
uncoated PV cells due to the optimum photo-electromechanical features
of nanocomposite. Optimal properties of nanocomposite decreased the
reflectance of solar radiations in turns increasing the photo-conversion
of coated PV cells.
3.2.2. Solar collectors
Solar collectors are extensively used for photothermal conversion.
Solar radiations are absorbed by the working fluid and converted into
thermal energy (Fig. 16). Performance of solar collectors is subject to
optical characteristics of working fluid. Optical performance of working
fluid is studied in terms of extinction coefficient, absorptivity, trans-
mittivity, scattering coefficient, solar weighted absorption, etc. These
factors have direct impact on the efficiency and output of solar col-
lectors. Efficiency of solar collectors is calculated by the following
equation (Fang and Xuan, 2017).
mcp (Ts − Ti )
η=
AG∆t (7)
Conventional working fluids converted only specific part of solar
radiations into thermal energy because of their limited absorption
range. As shown in Fig. 17, water depicts strong absorption in ultra-
violet region but limited absorption in infrared and visible region.
Mono-nanofluids extended the absorption range from UV region to ei-
ther IR or visible region; leaving the room for further improvement.
Advanced hybrid nanofluids containing two type of nanoparticles were
then employed and they depicted uniform absorption through all the
solar spectrums. Du and Tang (2016) conducted numerical study of
unique blended nanofluid containing three different shapes (i.e. 20%
nano-ellipsoid of aspect ratio 2, 60% nanorod of AR = 5 and 20% na-
nosheet of l/h = 7) of gold. Owing to plasmonic resonance band, ex-
tending from visible to near infrared region, blended plasmon nanofluid
absorbed 82.3% portion of incident radiation whereas the mono-na-
nofluid composed of spherical gold nanoparticles could absorb only
40.5% incident radiation. Farajzadeh et al. (2018) tested mono as well
and hybrid nanofluid of Al2O3 (20 nm and 0.1 wt%) and TiO2 (15 nm
and 0.1 wt%) nanoparticles dispersed in deionized water. Experimental
results revealed 19%, 21% and 26% augmentation in thermal efficiency
in case of Al2O3 nanofluid, TiO2 nanofluid and Al2O3-TiO2/H2O nano-
fluid respectively. Nanofluids were observed to be stable even after
T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali
Fig. 16. Schematic of solar energy conversion systems: (a) PV/T (Sardarabadi et al., 2014), (b) DASC (Qin et al., 2017), (C) VSC (He et al., 2013).
30 days.
Hybrid nanofluids not only possess prolonged absorption range but
they also possess good thermal characteristics. Almost 90% research
results indicate that, hybrid nanofluids have improved thermophysical
properties as compared to their nanofluids of individual constituents
(Hamzah et al., 2017). Due to this reason, binary nanofluids are of
much importance for improving the performance of solar systems.
Bellos and Tzivanidis (2018) numerically compared the performance of
mono as well as hybrid nanofluid in parabolic trough solar collector. At
3.0 vol% concentration and 2300 Re, Al2O3/Oil and TiO2/Oil mono
187
Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203
nanofluids improved the efficiency of parabolic trough collector by
0.7% and 0.7% each. Whereas, hybrid nanofluid of TiO2 and Al2O3
nanoparticles improved the efficiency by 1.8%. Mehrali et al. (2018)
prepared hybrid nanofluid of silver decorated reduced graphene oxide
nanosheets dispersed in deionized water. Aforementioned hybrid na-
nofluid was reported to be stable for 7 days and only 16% sedimenta-
tion occurred after 1000 h. DASC based on aforementioned fluid
yielded about 77% efficiency.
Shende and Sundara (2015) tested nitrogen doped hybrid structure
of reduced graphene oxide (rGO) and multiwalled carbon nanotubes
T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali
Fig. 17. Absorption coefficient of pure water (Du and Tang, 2016).
(MWCNT) as working fluid in direct absorption solar collector. They
observed 17.7% increase in thermal conductivity at 0.02 vol% in
deionized water and 15.1% in 0.03 vol% ethylene glycol base fluid.
They found binary nanofluids to be more stable than the unitary na-
nofluids. They observed greater optical absorbance with elevating
concentration of nanoparticles, whereas, thermal transmittance de-
creased. Zeng and Xuan (2018) experimentally examined the absorp-
tivity, thermal conductivity and thermal conversion variation of hybrid
nanofluid (MWCNT, SiO2/Ag and deionized water with 0.1 vol%) as
compared to the unitary nanofluids (MWCNT/DI-water and SiO2/Ag
and deionized water) with varying time, temperature and volume
fraction. When exposed to solar irradiation for one hour, temperature of
MWCNT nanofluid, SiO2-Ag nanofluid and MWCNT-SiO2-Ag blended
nanofluid reached 59.3 °C, 56.6 °C, and 63.3 °C at 0.1 vol% respectively.
Highest thermal conversion efficiency in case of hybrid nanofluid was
reported 97.6% at 35 59.3 °C but then it dropped down to 42.7% at
70 °C. Greatest thermal efficiency of MWCNT mono-nanofluid was re-
ported 96% and for SiO2-Ag nanofluid it was 91% at 35 °C. Insertion of
SiO2/Ag nanoparticles reduced the thermal conductivity slightly, but
the solar absorptivity got increased. Lee et al. (2012) presented con-
ceptual study based on the application of Monte Carlo numerical
method and finite element analysis method to test the performance of
blended nanofluid containing four different sizes of core and shell na-
noparticles made up of silver (core) and gold (shell) dispersed in water
for DASC. Their results showed that optimum range of volume fraction
was 0.02–1.0% where efficiency of the solar system increased up to
70%. Further increase in concentration decreased the efficiency esca-
lation. Chen et al. (2017) prepared bimetallic and blended nanofluid
solution of Au and Ag nanoparticles dispersed in water. Pertaining to
experimental results, bimetallic nanofluid solution depicted 41.37%
photothermal conversion efficiency whereas, blended nanofluid
showed 31.41% photothermal efficiency. Absorbance of the bimetallic
nanofluid solution was observed to be much higher than the blended
nanofluid therefore, equilibrium temperature of bimetallic nanofluid
was observed to be 59.32 ± 0.22 °C and for the blended nanofluid it
was 54.59 ± 0.40 °C whereas for the waster it was 39.66 ± 0.42 °C.
Carrillo-Torres et al. (2016) prepared bimetallic nanofluid of Au and Ag
nanoparticle. They reported good photo-thermal properties when the
prepared solution was exposed to 808 nm laser light. Improved ex-
tinction properties caused 20 °C temperature increase within 15 min
after the solution was irradiated. Wang et al. (2018) proposed hybrid
nanofluid of hedgehog hierarchical structure ZnO and spherical Au
nanoparticles dispersed in silicon oil, following the concept presented
by Bahng et al. (2015) who prepared hedgehog particles having
anomalous dispersion and stability. Au NP’s showed absorption peak at
520 nm wavelength of solar radiation (while ZnO had absorption peak
188
Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203
in ultraviolet region) and depicted an equilibrium temperature of
∼120 °C. Solution remained stable for considerable period of time and
established 240% higher efficiency of DASC as compared to based fluid
based DASC system. Chen et al. (2016) performed both experimental
and theoretical modeling analysis of heat dissipation to calculate the
photothermal conversion efficiency of mono as well as binary nanofluid
of Au and Ag dispersed in water. Experimental results depicted that, the
solution of Au-Ag/water nanofluid yielded 30.97% photothermal con-
version efficiency which was almost equal to arithmetic sum of mono-
nanofluids of Au and Ag (19.01% and 11.90% respectively). Increasing
volume fraction of nanoparticles increased the efficiency however,
nanofluid of smaller concentration yielded higher surface absorption
rate (SAR). Xuan et al. (2014) prepared TiO2-Ag/DI-water based hybrid
nanofluid. Experimental investigation depicted that, the optimal results
were obtained when the radius (R) of the TiO2 was kept 30 nm and
TiO2/Ag was kept R1/R2 = 20/30 nm. TiO2 solely absorbed 57.89 W/
m2 of solar energy, Ag solely absorbed 390.88 W/m2 of solar energy
owing to the plasmonic resonance effect induced on the silver particles
and TiO2-Ag/DI water absorbed 484.91 W/m2 of solar energy. Photo-
thermal efficiency was found to be 16.07% for TiO2, 20.86% for Ag,
20.9% TiO2-Ag/DI and 15.52% when deionized water was used solely.
They mentioned that albeit silver-based mono-nanofluid and TiO2-Ag
based binary nanofluid yielded same photothermal efficiency, but
procurement cost of TiO2-Ag nanoparticles is lower than the TiO2 na-
noparticles to produce nanofluid of same extent. Lenert and Wang
(2012) conducted experiments and performed modeling investigation
of application of nanofluid (contained carbon coated cobalt (28 nm)
nanoparticles) in cylindrical volumetric collector. They predicted over
35% efficiency if their system was integrated with a power cycle.
System efficiency increased with fluid height.
The results of above discussed studies imply that solar efficiency is
not only affected by absorption range of working fluid, but it also de-
pends on the transmittance of the fluid as well. Another phenomenon
which is to be discussed along with absorbance and transmittance is the
scattering. Normally the effect of scattering is overlooked but if it is
manipulated well enough with the absorption, scattering impinges
positive influence on the solar efficiency. It is to be noticed that scat-
tering effects become significant in plasmonic nanofluid if the nano-
particle size is above 40 nm whereas, scatter causes no significant ef-
fects if the nanoparticle size is lesser than 16 nm (Liu et al., 2015).
Spectral absorption of the base fluid is calculated by Eq. (8) (Du and
Tang, 2016).
4πk
K α·f = (m−1)
λ (8)
Here, “K α·f ” represents the coefficient of spectral absorption of base
fluid and “k” depicts base fluid’s absorption index.
Mie theory helps for modeling and analyzing the optical properties
(absorption, scattering and extinction coefficient) of nanoparticles in
base fluid, exposed to solar radiations. This theory is limited to ana-
lyzing mono-nanofluid i.e. single type of nanoparticles dispersed in bae
fluid. Menbari and Alemrajabi (2016) developed a model for analyti-
cally examining binary nanofluid. Experimentally obtained results
converged with the theoretically calculated results. Experimental and
analytical results depicted an increment in extinction coefficient of
γ -Al2O3-CuO-Water/EG/EG-water binary nanofluid with increasing
concentration. Both experimental and analytical results showed that the
extinction coefficient reaches its maximal value in UV region and then
goes on decreasing with the wavelength. Water based binary nanofluid
was found to have higher extinction coefficient as compared to the rest
of the binary nanofluid based on EG or EG-Water base fluid. However,
the extinction coefficients of all the binary nanofluids (having different
base fluid) converged at higher wavelength (about 800 nm). Menbari
et al. (2016) investigated viscosity, extinction coefficient and stability
of γ -Al2O3-CuO-Water binary nanofluid. Rheological and optical prop-
erties of binary nanofluids were found to be improved with increasing
T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203

nanoparticle concentration. Optimum value of pH, mass concentration percentage i.e. %), “Gλ ” is spectral irradiance (W/m2), “− K eλ . fluid ” is
of surfactant and sonication time for binary nanofluid was found to be called spectral extinction coefficient or attenuation coefficient of fluid is
7.5–8.5, 1.25 and 100–120 min respectively. They observed that the the sum of absorption coefficient and spectral coefficient of the fluid
magnitude of extinction coefficient of binary nanofluid is almost equal (m−1), and “y” is penetration depth (m). To evaluate the value of
to the sum of individual component’s based nanofluid’s extinction “− K eλ . fluid ”, following equation is used.
coefficients.
τλ = e−K eλ . fluid . y (%) (10)
Another term used to evaluate the solar efficiency of the collectors is
the extinction coefficient of the working fluid. Extinction coefficient where “τλ ” is the representation of transmittance of fluid and “e” is the
simply indicates the strength of light absorption and scattering by na- depiction of extinction. This equation is known as Beer Lambert Law.
noparticles. Solar efficiency linearly varies with a change in its value. Chen et al. (2017) prepared a broad band solar absorption hybrid
Jeon et al. (2014) conducted experimental study and concluded that nanofluid by blending CuO and ATO (antimony doped tin oxide) na-
blended plasmonic nanofluid containing 0.0001% nanoparticle of gold noparticles in water. Since CuO/water nanofluid had strong absorption
with different aspect ratios depicted increased extinction coefficient in visible region and ATO/water nanofluid in near infrared region,
(1.77 cm1) in visible region. Plasmonic nanoparticles in a nanofluid are binary nanofluid of these two nanoparticles displayed broad band ab-
capable to absorb solar radiation greater than their surface area. Ra- sorption in both visible and near infrared region. Owing to augmented
diations get thermalized and they emit bulk quantity of heat to the absorption, solar weighted absorption fraction of binary nanofluid was
medium thus increasing the temperature of medium which leads to found to be 99.6% and for the individual nanofluids of CuO and ATO
efficiency improvement of DASC. Nanoparticles of specific geometry solar weighted absorption fraction was found to be 89.5% and 89.8%
have specific extinction coefficients, blending nanoparticles of various respectively. Whereas, solar thermal utilization efficiency was found to
sizes and shapes can broader the extinction coefficient along the wa- be 92.5% for blended nanofluid and 81.3% and 80.7% for CuO and ATO
velength of solar radiations (as shown in Fig. 18) which eventually nanofluids respectively. Solar scattering was assumed to be negligible
elevates the solar system’s performance. due to small size of nanoparticles. At the described working conditions,
Won and Lee (2018) numerically tested the relative effect of scat- only 3% transmittivity was observed at wavelengths between 300 nm
tering and absorption of radiation on the performance of blended and 1400 nm. Penetration depth was reported to display prominent
plasmonic nanofluid based DASC. The results obtained by the Monte
Carlo numerical method suggested that the scattering increased the
mean optical path length leading to increased absorption as well as
collector efficiency. Heat losses could also be repealed via increasing
scattering coefficient because it towers the Am (solar weighted ab-
sorption coefficient). Menbari et al. (2016) experimentally investigated
the stability and extinction coefficient of Al2O3-CuO binary nano-
particles, dispersed in EG and EG-water mixture base fluids. Pertaining
to the results, they observed extinction coefficient of binary nanofluid
to be equal to the summation of extinction coefficients of individual
nanoparticles. Optical properties varied linearly with varying nano-
particle concentration. Extinction coefficients of nanoparticles were
found to be greater when dispersed in ethylene glycol water base fluid
as compared to ethylene glycol solely working as based fluid. Menbari
et al. (2017) prepared a binary nanofluid (CuO-Al2O3/water or EG-
water). They employed this nanofluid in direct absorbing solar para-
bolic trough collector (DASPTC). CuO nanoparticles have good thermal
conductivity and absorbance whereas Al2O3 nanoparticles have good
scattering and heat capacity properties. A blend of these two nano-
particles presented good results and maximal efficiency of DASPTC was
found to be 48.03% at 0.2 vol% Al2O3–0.008 vol% CuO/Water.
Solar conversion performance of collectors can be measured in
terms of solar weighted absorption as well. The magnitude of solar
weighted absorption depends on the nanoparticle specifications (i.e.
size, shape, and crystal shape) as well as collector geometry (depth and
length of the channel). Bhalla et al. (2018) investigated the perfor-
mance characteristics of hybrid nanofluid based DASC as compared to
surface based absorption system (SAS). Pertaining to experimental re-
sults, deionized water solely working as absorption media could absorb
only 20% of incident radiation at 10 mm penetration depth, whereas,
blended nanofluid based absorption system absorbed 80% of incident
radiations for 20 mm penetration depth. Binary nanofluid based sys-
tem’s absorbed greater amount of incident radiations which caused
5.4 °C higher temperature elevation DASC as compared SAS since the
working fluid does not directly interact with solar radiations. Solar
weighted absorption can be calculated by Eq. (9) (Bhalla et al., 2018).
λ
∫0 Gλ (1 − e−Keλ .fluid. y ) dλ
Sm = λ
∫0 Gλ dλ (9)

where “Sm ” stands for solar weighted absorptivity of host fluid (it is a Fig. 18. Extinction coefficient of (a) single type nanoparticle based nanofluid
unitless quantity however it is sometimes described in the form of and, (b) blended plasmonic nanofluid (Jeon et al., 2016).

189
T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali
deviation in the performance results. If the penetration depth was ad-
justed 3 cm for CuO/water nanofluid and 5 cm for ATO/water nano-
fluid, both would have yielded 99% solar weighted absorption. But it
required only 1 cm for the hybrid nanofluid to yield 99.6% penetration
depth. Reduced penetration depth simply reduces the system geometry
and the manufacturing cost.
Geometry of system and nanoparticles also affect the solar perfor-
mance of the system. Chen et al. (2016) experimentally tested the effect
of nanoparticle size and the shape of the solar collector on the photo-
thermal efficiency. Following the experimental results, increasing size
of the nanoparticles reduced photo-thermal conversion efficiency and
collector efficiency. Likewise, flat plate DASC manifested higher ra-
diation/heat losses as compared to the cube shaped DASC thus leading
to smaller photo-thermal efficiency. This was due to the fact that cube
shaped collector had longer optical path as compared to the flat col-
lector which subsequently elevated the solar radiation absorption. In-
creased size of nanoparticles enhanced thermal conductivity and
thermal losses. Effect of particle size was observed to be smaller on cube
shaped solar collector as compared to the flat plate solar collector. Si-
milar results have also been shown by Liu et al. (2015), they concluded
from both experimental and analytical model results that, increased
height of the solar receiver (DASC) and the solar concentration in-
creased the collector efficiency. Conversely, increasing concentration of
nanoparticles (in graphene/ionic liquid nanofluid) reduced the receiver
efficiency. Rativa and Gómez-Malagón (2015) theoretically calculated
Am of plasmonic nanofluid containing gold and silver with different AR
and they found that, maximal value of Am could be achieved if optimal
geometry of nanoparticles, volume fraction and nanofluid thickness
were used. Jeon et al. (2016) prepared blended nanofluid containing
gold nanorods of three different AR (i.e. length to diameter ratio: 1.77,
2.73 and 4.17 with 16 nm average diameter) dispersed in CTAB to be
used in flat plate VSC. They tested the effects of channel depth, channel
length and mass flowrate of nanofluid on energy conversion efficiency
of solar collector. Experimental results showed that increasing mass
flowrate resulted in increased temperature gain as well as energy con-
version efficiency (from 0.003 kg/s to 0.005 kg/s). Increase in channel
depth also resulted in temperature and efficiency increment owing to
velocity elevation. Noticeably, the temperature gain increased but the
efficiency decreased with increasing channel length, since η ∝ ΔT / L ,
increase in length was greater than the increment in temperature gain.
A similar study was conducted by Qin et al. (2017), they theoretically
analyzed the effects of varying depth and length of channel, mass
flowrate, and absorption coefficient of plasmonic nanofluids on solar
system’s performance. Low absorption of solar radiations results in
lower collector efficiency that can be enhanced by increasing the mean
path length of solar radiations. It can be achieved either by increasing
the channel height or scattering. At optimum conditions, they estimated
as much as 75.5% conversion efficiency of DASC.
Successful operation of solar collectors is subject to efficient con-
version of solar radiations into thermal energy and more importantly
the transportation of this energy. Proficient transportation solely de-
pends on the thermal transportation characteristics of working fluid
and its flowrate. Akilu and Baheta (2018) experimentally analyzed the
parameters that influence the solar energy transport ability of SiO2-
CuO/C/EG-glycol hybrid nanofluid at volume concentration ranging
from 0.5 to 2.0% and temperature ranging from 303.15 to 353.15 K.
Experimental results depicted that the heat capacity of the prepared
nanofluid decreased with increasing concentration of nanoparticles in
the base fluid and increased with increasing temperature. They found
that heat capacity decreased as much as 5.7% and 21.1% at 2.0% vo-
lume concentration single component SiO2 and SiO2-CuO/C binary
nanofluids respectively at 303.15 K. They attributed the pronounced
heat capacity decrement of hybrid nanofluid to the nanolayering affect.
Increment in thermal conductivity was found to be 6.9% and 26.9% for
single component SiO2 and SiO2-CuO/C binary nanofluids respectively
at 2.0% volume concentration and 353.15 K. Viscosity reduction was
190
Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203
observed to be 4.9% and 33.5% for single-component SiO2 and SiO2-
CuO/C binary nanofluids respectively at 2.0% volume concentration.
Fang and Xuan (2017) performed experiments to observe thermo-
physical and optical properties of binary nanofluid of CuO-ZnO/water.
They prepared three different solutions: CuO/water mono-nanofluid,
CuO-ZnO/water with 0.7:0.3 stochiometric ratio and CuO-ZnO/water
with 0.5:0.5 stochiometric ratio. They varied the nanoparticle volume
fraction from 0.001% to 0.01% and observed optimal performance at
0.01% volume fraction. Increasing volume fraction increased the pho-
tothermal conversion efficiency. Optimal results were observed at
0.7:0.3 stochiometric ratio of binary nanofluid. Increasing temperature
decreased the efficiency, increasing stochiometric ratio decreased solar
weighted absorptivity. Anomalous performance was attributed to
loosen structure and small particle size. Pertaining to experimental
results, CuO-ZnO/water with 30% ZnO displays best performance with
97.35% photothermal conversion efficiency and 72.649 °C maximum
temperature attained (highest among the rest of fluids). Concentration
increase from 0.1 to 0.2 wt% resulted 3–5% efficiency enhancement.
Amongst the three tested flowrates (1.5 l/min, 2.0 l/min and 2.5 l/min)
8% and 5% efficiency increment was observed for 2.0 l/min and 2.5 l/
min flowrates as compared to 1.5 l/min flowrate. In VSC, the photo-
thermal efficiency has been observed to be highest at the initial ac-
quisition point and then it declines with increasing temperature of the
hybrid nanofluid as shown in Fig. 19. Yu and Xuan (2018) also ex-
amined the performance OF VSC using CuO and Ag based hybrid na-
nofluid. Pertaining to the experimental results, maximum photo-
thermal conversion efficiency was found to be 96.11% and 39.58% at
35 °C and 60 °C respectively. Decline in efficiency is due to increasing
convective heat losses. These heat losses could be repealed by coloring
the collector surface so as to overcome radiative and convective dis-
sipation. Khashan et al. (2017) used 10 ml Fe3O4-SiO2/H2O nanofluid
and 20 ml of kerosene oil contained in solar collector having black
colored bottom and obtained greater performance compared to a solar
receiver containing nanofluid only. They obtained better performance
of collector when using 1 mg/1 ml of nanoparticles compared to 2 mg/
1 ml concentration.
Storage of photothermal energy is the critical concern. Hybrid na-
nofluids have also been used for the cause of energy storage. Shin and
Banerjee (2015) prepared nanocomposite by blending nanoparticles of
SiO2 of ∼10–30 nm diameter with eutectic of lithium carbonate and
potassium carbonate (62:38 molar ratio) at 1 wt% concentration via
two step method, to be used in thermal energy storage system (TSE) of
concentrated solar power (CSP) applications. They observed pro-
nounced enhancement in the properties (thermal conductivity, heat
capacity and thermal diffusivity) of nanocomposite as compared to the
pure eutectic. An increment of 5–15%, 25–28% and 37–47% in specific
heat, thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity respectively was
observed. These improvements were attributed to percolations (inter-
connected nanostructures) formed in the eutectic mixture, when
Photothermal Conversion EĸĐienĐLJ (%)
95
85
75
65
55 CuO/Water NanoŇuid
45 CuO-ZnO/Water
NanoŇuid (0.7:0.3)
35
CuO-ZnO/Water
NanoŇuid (0.50:0.5)
25
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Temperature (϶C)
Fig. 19. Effect of temperature on photothermal efficiency of photothermal
conversion collector (using the data of Fang and Xuan (2017)).
T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali
combined with the nanoparticles.
Phase change materials (PCM) possess rich energy storage char-
acteristics. Therefore, PCMs containing hybrid nanofluids have been
used by several researchers to ensure maximum energy storage.
Chandran et al. (2017) used ZnO (30–45 nm) and encapsulated paraffin
wax (320–560 nm) and propylene glycol-water to prepared a hybrid
nanofluid. They experimentally examined the effect of concentration of
paraffin wax (4–16 wt%) and the concentration of ZnO (0–2%). Ex-
perimental results revealed that the thermal conductivity and heat ca-
pacity of hybrid nanofluid at optimal concentration could be elevated to
a maximum of 10.4% and 18.7% respectively as compared to the pro-
pylene glycol-water mixture (used as base fluid in the current study).
Maximum enhancement in the heat transfer coefficient of thermic fluid
was found to be 13.4% at the same concentration that resulted 18.65%
increment in the specific heat. The authors concluded that the optimum
concentration of paraffin wax was to be 10 wt% and of ZnO was to be
2 vol%. Aforementioned concentration yielded 3.5% elevation in
thermal conductivity and 5.1% increment in specific heat that lead to
15.35% improvement in overall heat transfer coefficient. Harikrishnan
et al. (2014) tested hybrid nanocomposite having CuO and TiO2 dis-
persed in paraffin to be used as phase change material. According to
experimental results, they found 1.0 m.% of hybrid nanocomposite in
base material to be optimum concentration among 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and
1.0 m.%. SEM images displayed rod shape of CuO and sphere shape of
TiO2 nanoparticles with average size of 21 nm of nanoparticles in the
base matter. Rod like shape of CuO nanoparticles offered higher heat
transfer surface area at the cost of higher viscosity leading to increased
melting and freezing time. Considering the results, improved heat
transfer characteristics reduced the melting and freezing time by 5.7,
14.2, 23.4, 29.8% and 5.9, 13.4, 21.1, 28.7% with 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and
1.0 m.% of hybrid nanoparticles in base material respectively. Zeng
et al. (2016) prepared unique nanocomposite containing Sn, SiO2 and
Ag for photothermal conversion and thermal storage in a volumetric
solar collector (VASC). Tin advocates energy storage, silica and silver
are dispersed in core and shell form with silver core to enhance ab-
sorption of light. Phase change of Sn promotes its ability to store heat.
Molten salt based nanofluids have also shown promising features
pertaining to thermal energy storage i.e. specific heat capacity and la-
tent heat. Molten salts are perceived to be the best thermal energy
storage media as compared to conventional organic substances like
fatty acid, alkalis, and oils since molten salts can operate at high tem-
peratures (up to 600 °C). Important factors associated with these fluids
include; constituent materials, preparation process, stability, etc.
Muñoz-sánchez and Nieto-maestre (2018)) have comprehensively
summarized all the associated factors with brief description of past
work. Both experimental and simultaneous research studies have been
conducted to evaluate the feasibility of molten salt based nanofluids.
Chieruzzi et al. (2017) tested molten salt based hybrid nanofluid for
thermal energy storage in concentrated solar power applications. They
used NaNO3-KNO3 solar salt with 60–40 wt% concentration as basefluid
and nanoparticles of SiO2, Al2O3 and SiO2-Al2O3 were added in the
basefluid to form a nanofluid. They kept the concentration of the na-
noparticles at 1.0 wt%. Heat capacity of the basefluid (NaNO3-KNO3) in
solid phase was observed to increase from 1.589 J/g-°C to a maximum
of 2.417 J/g-°C when SiO2-Al2O3 hybrid nanoparticles were inserted at
200 rpm screw speed for 30 min mixing period. Whereas in liquid phase
the maximum heat capacity of the same substance reached up to a
maximum of 1.936 J/g-°C from 1.632 J/g-°C. They attributed the opti-
mized results to improved morphology of the substance. The influential
factors besides nanoparticle type were reported to be preparation
parameters such as mixing period and mixing speed. Hybrid nanofluid
(SiO2-Al2O3/NaNO3-KNO3) yielded optimal results (13.5% increase in
stored energy and 52.1%, 18.6% increase in heat capacity in solid and
liquid phase respectively) compared to unitary nanofluids (SiO2/
NaNO3-KNO3: 3.0% increase in stored energy and 28.9%, 2.6% eleva-
tion in heat capacity in solid and liquid phase respectively, Al2O3/
191
Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203
NaNO3-KNO3: 45% increase in stored energy and 25.2%, 2.8% increase
in heat capacity in solid and liquid phase respectively). Chieruzzi et al.
(2013) prepared a nanofluid containing NaNO3-KNO3 solar salt (with
60–40 wt% concentration) and nanoparticles dispersed in basefluid.
They used SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3 and SiO2-Al2O3 nanoparticles as colloidal
substance with different concentrations (0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 wt%). Max-
imum percentage increase in specific heat capacity was observed to be
14.9%, 19.9%, and 57.7% for SiO2-base salt, Al2O3-base salt and SiO2-
Al2O3-base salt respectively at 1.0 wt% in solid phase. Whereas in liquid
phase, at 1.0 wt% the enhancement was observed to be 0.8%, 5.9%, and
22.5% for SiO2, Al2O3, and SiO2-Al2O3 based nanofluids respectively.
However, TiO2 based nanofluid exhibited reduction in specific heat
capacity as compared to base salt. The mentioned anomalous elevation
in heat capacity could be attributed to the structural improvements and
formation of nanolayers around the surface of nanoparticles. This layer
is perceived to be semi-solid layer which eventually leads to ordered
structure formation. Percolation formation is the reason behind
anomalous augmentation in thermal properties (Shin and Banerjee,
2010).
Similarly, Lasfargues et al. (2015) dispersed CuO and TiO2 nano-
particles in NaNO3-KNO3 solar salt (with 60–40 wt% concentration)
basefluid. Based on experimental evidences they narrated the heat ca-
pacity enhancement of about 10.48% and 4.95% for CuO (at 440 °C and
0.1 wt%) and TiO2 (at 440 °C and 0.5 wt%) respectively. The two tested
nanofluids reacted differently against concentration escalation. Energy
storage capacity of CuO decreased with increasing concerning, there-
fore best performance of CuO based nanofluid was observed at
minimum concentration i.e. 0.1 wt%. On the other hand, TiO2 showed
no significant alteration in heat storage capacity in a response to con-
centration change. Along preparatory operation parameters and con-
centration of het nanoparticles, size of nanoparticles is also an im-
portant factor that influences the heat capacity of the thermal energy
storing fluid. To evaluate the effect of nanoparticle size, Dudda and
Shin (2013) conducted an experimental investigation and they ob-
served an increase in specific heat capacity of 8%, 12%, 19%, and 27%
for 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 60 nm sized nanoparticles (SiO2, 1.0 wt%)
dispersed in NaNO3-KNO3 solar salt (with 60–40 wt% concentration)
basefluid respectively. Considering the narrated trend, increasing par-
ticle size leads to increased heat storage capacity. Shin and Banerjee
(2010) reported the enhancement of specific heat of silica nanoparticles
based nanofluid up to 24% and 42% for agglomerated and refined
samples respectively in liquid phase. Whereas, in solid phase the aug-
mentation was observed to be up to 75% and 101% for agglomerated
and refined samples respectively. Hu et al. (2017) evaluated heat ca-
pacity enhancement of Al2O3 nanofluid by inserting the same molten
salt. They reported 8.3% maximum elevation in specific heat capacity
at 2.0 wt% concentration of nanoparticles. They reported the heat ca-
pacity to increase with nanoparticle concentration i.e. enhancement
was observed to be 1.9% to 8.3% when the concentration increased
from 0.5 wt% to 2.0 wt%. In contrast, binary molten-salt based nano-
fluid containing CuO nanoparticles exhibited heat capacity impediment
against concentration enhancement as reported by Luo et al. (2017).
They observed maximum enhancement in heat capacity to be about
11.48% in liquid phase and 7.96% in solid phase as compared to molten
salt at 0.5 wt% of nanoparticles. They reported the maximum thermal
energy storage enhancement as 4.71% at 0.5 wt%. The tested range of
concentration was 0.1–3.0 wt%. They regarded the heat storage en-
hancement to the formation needle shaped intermediate layer around
the nanoparticles. Both thermal energy storage and heat capacity of the
tested fluid were found to increase with increasing temperature. Some
other factors like mixing time and stirring rate have also been appraised
by some researchers and they have reported significant influence of
aforementioned factors on heat capacity enhancement of salt based
nanofluids. Song et al. (2018) appraised the heat capacity enhancement
of 1.0 wt% SiO2 nanofluid containing nitrate salt (Ca(NO3)2·4H2O-
KNO3-NaNO3-LiNO3) against different mixing periods (15, 45, 90, 120,
 Table 4
Summary of the applications of hybrid nanofluids in solar energy systems.
Reference Nanofluid Concentration Particle size Solar system Results

Al-Waeli et al. (2017b) SiC-PCM-H2O SiC: 0.1% mass fraction 45–65 nm PV/T 39.52%, 73.27% and 92.68% increment in electric efficiency for water,
PCM and PCM + SiC nanofluid based PV/T system respectively. Thermal
T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali

efficiency elevation was 10.41% and 45.1% for PCM-based and PCM + SiC
nanofluid-based system as compared to water-based system
Younis et al. (2018) Al2O3-ZnO/H2O Al2O3: 0.5 wt% Al2 O3 : 5 nm PV/T Thermal, electrical and overall energy efficiency increased by 4.054%,
ZnO: 0.5 wt% ZnO: 10–30 nm 0.038% and 4.092% whereas exergy efficiency increased by 4.588%,
0.044% and 4.632% respectively as compared to the water-cooled PV/T
system
Sathieshkumar (2018) Cu-TiO2/H2O 0.2 wt% 250 nm PV/T 9.87% and 13.83% augmentation in electrical efficiency for water and
nanofluid based systems respectively. Thermal efficiency of the nanofluid
based system increased by 5.84% as compared to water-based system
Hjerrild et al. (2016) Ag-SiO2-CNT/H2O Ag-SiO2: 0.006 wt% Ag-SiO2 nanodiscs: 17.5 nm PV/T Hybrid nanofluid showed 51% optical efficiency whereas highly
CNT: 0.067 wt% CNT: 6–13 nm diameter and 1 μ m concentrated core and shell Ag-SiO2/H2O nanofluid at 0.0126 wt% resulted
length 58% optical efficiency. This nanofluid absorbed all the radiations in visible
region (415–585 nm) CNT containing nanofluid filter based system’s
electrical efficiency dropped, nevertheless, combined (electrical + thermal)
efficiency increased by 30% at 0.026 wt% of Ag and SiO2 nanoparticles
Crisostomo et al. (2017) Ag-SiO2/H2O 0.025 wt% N/A PV/T 12% increment in weighted energy output obtained for nanofluid based
spectrally splitting PV/T system compared to stand alone system
Fang and Xuan (2017) CuO-ZnO/H2 O 0.01 vol fraction and 0.7:0.3 CuO-ZnO: 30 nm N/A 97.35% photothermal conversion efficiency and 1.5% as compared to
stochiometric ratio CuO: 50 nm mono-nanofluid of CuO in water. Solar weighted absorption of hybrid
nanofluid containing two components in equal ratio was reported 98.67%.
In case of mono nanofluid of CuO, it was 99.47%
Du and Tang (2016) Nanosheet, nanorod and nano- 0.0003% 20 nm average size DASC Solar absorption increased by 104% as compared to spherical shape gold-
ellipsoid shape gold nanoparticles based mono-nanofluid. Blended nanofluid was reported to absorb 82.3%

192
dispersed in water incident light
Farajzadeh et al. (2018) Al2O3-TiO2/water 0.1 wt% Al2 O3 : 20 nm Flat plate For TiO2/water and Al2O3/water thermal efficiency increased by 19% and
TiO2 : 15 nm 21% compared to water-based system respectively. Binary nanofluid
yielded 26% efficiency
Bellos and Tzivanidis Al2O3-TiO2/Oil 3 vol%: 1.5%Al2O3-1.5%TiO2 N/A PTC Efficiency improved by 0.7% for mono-nanofluids and 1.8% for hybrid
(2018) nanofluid as compared to water-based system at 2300 Re, and turbulent
flow
Mehrali et al. (2018) Ag-rGO/H2O 40 ppm Spherical Ag nanoparticles: 25–40 nm DASC Efficiency of collector reached up to 77% owing to the optimized optical
properties of hybrid fluid. Efficiency enhanced by 2.7 times compared to
basefluid
Shende and Sundara rGO-MWCNT/DI-water N/A N/A DASC Values of solar absorption coefficient, channel’s length and depth,
(2015) temperature difference, and corresponding efficiency were discussed. They
predicted a maximum of 75.5% solar efficiency at optimum condition
Zeng and Xuan (2018) SiO2/Ag-MWCNT/DI-water 0.001–0.1 vol% SiO2:150 nm DASC Collector efficiency reached up to 97.6% at 0.1 vol% of binary fluid.
MWCNT: 3–15 nm inner diameter, Whereas, solar weighted absorption fractions up to 74.5% for binary fluid
8–15 nm outer diameter, and 3–12 μm and SiO2/Ag and MWCNTs mono- nanofluid yielded 73.2% and 69.1%
length respectively at 1 cm penetration depth and 0.005 vol%
Lee et al. (2012) SiO2-Au/Water blended nanofluid 0.05 vol% Average diameter of gold-nanoshell: DASC 70% collector efficiency mark was achieved by using hybrid nanofluid even
with four different core and shell sizes. GNS 1–60 nm (20%) at low concentration. Temperature increase of fluid across 1 m length of
GNS 2–70 nm (15%) collector is only 45 K
GNS 3–100 nm (25%)
GNS 4–116 nm (40%)
Chen et al. (2017) Au-Ag/water (Bimetallic) 0.00025 vol% Bimetallic: 29 ± 7 average size N/A Photothermal efficiency of the system was found 41.37 ± 0.71%, and
Au-Ag/water (Blended) Au/Ag: 4/6 molar ratio Blended, 31.41 ± 0.93% for bimetallic and blended binary-nanofluids respectively
Au: 10 ± 2 nm
Ag: 38 ± 7 nm
Carrillo-Torres et al. Ag-Au/DI-water N./A N./A N./A Observed 74.68% photothermal efficiency at optimum conditions. Soon
(2016) after 15 min, fluid’s temperature increased by 20 °C
(continued on next page)
Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203
 Table 4 (continued)

Reference Nanofluid Concentration Particle size Solar system Results

Wang et al. (2018) Ag-ZnO/Silicone Oil 1.0 mg/ml Au nanoparticles: 13.3 nm mean DASC Proposed system using hybrid nanofluid yielded 58% photothermal
diameter conversion efficiency, Efficiency enhanced by 240% compared to basefluid
ZnO nanorods: 0.75 μm, length and
T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali

0.05 μm and diameter

Chen et al. (2016) Au-Ag/H2 O 1.75 ppm Au – 0.15 ppm Ag Au: ∼10 mm DASC Photothermal conversion efficiency was found to be 30.97%
Ag: ∼30 mm
Xuan et al. (2014) TiO2-Ag/DI-water 0.005–0.015 vol% Radius, N./A Peak absorption occurred at 0.015 vol%. Collector efficiency approached
TiO2:20 nm 20.9% for 0.005 vol% of binary nanofluid which is 16.13% higher than
Ag: 30 nm basefluid. However, peak absorption occurred at 0.015 vol%
Lenert and Wang (2012) Co-C/therminol N/A 28 nm VASC Efficiency of the collector has been predicted to surge past 35% at optimum
conditions
Menbari and Alemrajabi CuO-γ Al2O3/water, EG, water-EG Variable Diameter, DASC Extinction coefficient increased with concentration. Binary nanofluid of
(2016) CuO: 100 nm water performed best. Extinction performance of all the tested samples
γ Al2O3: 40 nm converged at high solar wavelength. Maximum extinction coefficient
(16 cm−1) was reported at 200 nm wavelength in case of binary nanofluid
Menbari et al. (2016) CuO-γ Al2O3/water, EG, water Variable Diameter, DASC Binary nanofluid was depicted to have more than 1.55 absorption at
CuO: 100 nm optimum sonication period (120 min). Extinction was maximum at low
γ Al2O3: 40 nm wavelength i.e. 200 nm and it disappeared at 800 nm
Jeon et al. (2014) AuNR/CTAB 0.0001 vol% Average AR of NRs, VASC Blended plasmonic nanofluid depicted 63.2% extinction i.e. 1.77 cm−1
Short: 1.77 extinction coefficient. Small NRs result no scattering, but mid and long
Mid: 2.73 length NRs showed 10% and 15% scattering respectively
Long: 4.17
Jeon et al. (2016) Au nanoparticles of 3 aspect ratios < 0.0001 vol% Au nanorods: 16 nm average diameter Flat Plate Energy Conversion Efficiency reached up to ∼81%
dispersed in CTAB
Won and Lee (2018) SiO2-Au/H2O 0.01% vol% 20 nm and 80 nm radius of SiO2 core DASC Collector efficiency reached ∼58% when absorption and scattering
and 10 nm thickness of Au shell coefficient were 0.6 cm−1 and 1.0 cm−1 respectively and 22.9 Re and

193
laminar flow of fluid
Menbari et al. (2016) CuO-γ Al2O3/water, EG, water-EG Variable Diameter, DASC Absorption and extinction coefficient of binary nanofluid containing
CuO: 100 nm 0.08 vol% Al2O3 and 0.003 vol% CuO dispersed in EG-water were reported
γ Al2O3: 400 nm to be equal to the sum of two value of individual components. Extinction by
binary fluid disappeared at 800 nm wavelength
Menbari et al. (2017) CuO-γ Al2O3/water, EG, water-EG Al2O3: 0.05–0.2 vol% Diameter, DASPTC Collector’s efficiency approached 48.03% at 0.2 vol% of Al2O3 and
CuO:0.002–0.008 vol% CuO: 100 nm 0.008 vol% of CuO dispersed in water. CuO showed high absorption and
Al2O3: 40 nm Al2O3 showed high scattering properties
Bhalla et al. (2018) Al2O3-Co3O4/water 40 mg/L of each Al2O3: 13 nm DASC Binary nanofluid absorbed 80% of incident radiation for 20 mm penetration
Co3O4: 10–30 nm depth and 5.4 °C greater temperature increase compared to SAS. Solar
weighted absorptivity of binary nanofluid was reported to surge past 0.6
Chen et al. (2017) CuO-ATO/Water 0.1% vol.% and 4:6 CuO/ATO CuO: 10 nm N/A Efficiency reached up to 92.5%. Solar weighted absorption reached up to
ATO: 15 nm 92.5% for binary nanofluid and 81.3%, 80.7% for mono-nanofluid of CuO,
ATO respectively
Khashan et al. (2017) Fe3O4-SiO2/H2O 1 mg/ml 475 nm average size of core and shell DASC Efficiency of core and shell nanoparticle-based system reached 98.5%.
Enhancement was observed to be 32.9% compared to base fluid
Zeng et al. (2016) Sn-SiO2-Ag/water 0.01–0.05 vol% 68–105 nm VASC Addition of Ag increased the absorption extensively. Hybrid fluid yielded
augmented solar energy storage capacity at high volume fraction of
nanoparticles. Approximately 1.85 absorption was observed at 450 nm
wavelength. Thermal energy storage capacity enhancement was almost
12% at 0.05 vol% of binary nanofluid compared to base fluid
Harikrishnan et al. CuO-TiO2/Paraffin 1.0 m.% 21 nm average size N/A Presence of hybrid nanocomposites reduced the melting and freezing time
(2014) by 29.8% and 27.7% respectively compared to base material
Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203
T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali
and 150 min) and stirring rates (600, 750, and 1000 rpm). They ob-
tained optimum results at 750 rpm stirring rate and 15 min mixing
period – 17.0% heat capacity enhancement. Thermophysical properties
of molten salt (NaNO3-KNO3) based nanofluids of TiO2, CuO, and Fe2O3
have been briefly reported by Awad et al. (2018). Similar was con-
ducted by Schuller et al. (2015). They reported 30.6% maximum en-
hancement for Al2O3-NaNO3-KNO3 nanofluid. Jo and Banerjee (2015)
reported 6.0–29.3% enhancement in heat capacity in liquid form and
3.1–25.6% in solid form of Li2CO3-K2CO3 molten salt based nanofluid of
MWCNT at 400 °C. Madathil et al. (2016) evaluate the thermal prop-
erties of molten salt based nanofluids of MoS2 and CuO. Qiao et al.
(2017) lodged simulation based probation of heat capacity of SiO2
based nanofluid containing molten salts. Several review studies have
been conducted on solar heat storage feasibility analysis via molten salt
based nanofluids as well such as by Pfleger et al. (2015).
Besides NaNO3-KNO3, other salts like Li2O3-K2CO3 have also been
tested for energy storage applications. Tiznobaik and Shin (2013) used
Li2O3-K2CO3 (62–38 molar ratio) molten salt for improved heat capa-
city of nanofluids. Effect of nanoparticle size on heat capacity en-
hancement was evaluated experimentally. They used SiO2 based na-
nofluid having base eutectic molten salt (Li2O3-K2CO3). Heat capacity
of the molten salt based nanofluid reached up to a maximum of 2.03 J/
g-K, 2.10 J/g-K, 2.03 J/g-K, and 2.02 J/g-K, for 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm,
and 60 nm nanoparticle sized samples respectively. On average, almost
25% enhancement in heat capacity of nanofluid was observed due to
the inclusion of molten salt. They reported 19.4% elevation in heat
capacity on average. Zhang et al. (2016) also tested heat capacity im-
provement of molten salt (quaternary nitrate: Ca(NO3)2-KNO3-NaNO3-
LiNO3) by dispersing silica nanoparticles (1.0 wt%) for solar energy
storage applications. Few research studies have explored the rheolo-
gical characteristics of molten salt based nanofluids as well since these
features have significant importance. Muñoz-Sánchez et al. (2018) ex-
perimentally evaluated the effect of shear rate (1–1000 s−1) and tem-
perature (250–400 °C) on viscosity of silicon and alumina nanoparticle
based nanofluid containing 60% NaNO3 - 40% KNO3 solar salt. They
analyzed the effects of temperature, shear rate, particle concentration,
rheometer geometry/configuration. They reported the viscosity of the
molten salt based nanofluid to increase with particle concentration
while the viscosity was observed to decline with temperature expedi-
tion. Increase in shear rate has also been reported to lower the viscosity
of solar salt based nanofluid.
Use of hybrid nanofluids that contain incompatible constituents
leads to maloperation of solar collectors. Tullius and Bayazitoglu
(2016) presented the ways of determining optimal particle combina-
tions to use in order to prepare hybrid nanofluids for best performance
at a given nanoparticle size, concentration, temperature, and height
Incompatible composition results in rather poor characteristics com-
pared to nanofluids of individual components. Such nanofluids often
undergo agglomeration of nanoparticles (Che Sidik et al., 2017).
Ahammed et al. (2016) inspected the heat removal performance of
hybrid nanofluid and mono nanofluids of its constituent nanoparticles.
They observed heat transfer coefficient enhancement of graphene-H2O:
88.62%, Al2O3-H2O: 31.89%, and graphene-Al2O3/H2O: 61.13% com-
pared to water. Prevailed clogging between alumina and graphene
nanoparticles reduced the heat transfer coefficient. Thereby, the heat
removal performance of hybrid nanofluid was found to be 31.78%
greater than water whereas graphene nanofluid depicted 72% en-
hancement.
Use of hybrid nanofluids in solar energy area is advantageous in
different aspects. Anomalous improvement in performance of solar
energy systems is observed owing to optimum optical and thermal
transportation characteristics of hybrid nanofluids. Absorption coeffi-
cient is the most vital parameter for the performance optimization of
solar energy systems such as collectors. Water offers good absorptivity
in infrared region whereas the unitary nanofluids show good absorption
either in visible region or ultraviolet region. Use of hybrid nanofluids
194
Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203
offers strong absorption in all the regions i.e. ultraviolet, visible, and
infrared. Campos et al. (2019) carried out brief experimentation to
evaluate the effect of using different unitary as well as binary nano-
fluids on the efficiency of solar system. They tested the nanofluids both
in simulated space as well as real conditions. They tested spherical
shape nanoparticles of silver, gold, and copper. Besides that, they also
evaluated the performance of nonspherical nanoparticles of silver,
layered graphene-oxide (GO), and GO-Ag hybrid nanoparticles. After
the performance inspections they found that nonspherical silver based
nanofluid and hybrid nanofluid of GO and Ag performed best and de-
picted almost 20% greater system efficiency as compared to spherical
Ag nanoparticle based nanofluid in simulated conditions. Furthermore,
the tests of using hybrid nanofluid in DASC concentrated at 60 CR
implied 100% efficiency escalation compared to water-based system.
Results of spectral analysis exhibited that the hybrid nanofluid had high
absorption in all the spectral regions that helped the fluid absorb more
heat and increased the temperature about 50 K than pure water. Similar
evaluation has been conducted by Qu et al. (2019). They analyzed the
performance of CuO, MWCNT, and CuO-MWCN based nanofluids in
DASC. Experimental results showed that hybrid nanofluid exhibited
optimum performance as compared to unitary nanofluids. Hybrid na-
nofluid at optimum concentration manifested 100% solar weighted
absorption and 14.1 °C greater temperature than water. Transmittance
of hybrid nanofluid has been reported to be much lesser than the uni-
tary nanofluids and absorption (ranging from 200 nm to 1350 nm) to be
equal to the sum of unitary nanofluids. More importantly, hybrid na-
nofluid required only 1 cm fluid layer to absorb extensive segment of
irradiating sunlight thus reducing the cost and size of the system. To
appraise the impact of combining two different nanomaterials to form
hybrid nanofluid on optical and photothermal characteristics, Verma
et al. (2018) conducted brief comparison analysis. Verma et al. (2018)
concluded that use of hybrid nanofluids improve the performance of
solar systems more significantly than the unitary nanofluids as com-
pared to conventional working fluid i.e. water. Considering the mi-
croscopic analysis, smaller nanoparticles were observed to high ab-
sorption in short wavelength region whereas large size particles depict
high absorption in high wavelength region. Furthermore, nanoparticles
of rod and ellipsoidal shape were reported to have high absorption in
high wavelength region. Thus, all the discussion explicitly demonstrates
the benefits of using hybrid nanofluids in solar energy.
Critical analysis of studies reviewed above reveal that application of
hybrid nanofluids is likely to maximize the solar energy conversion
performance of solar systems. Brief summary of applications of hybrid
nanofluids in solar energy has been presented in Table 4. Performance
of these systems is subject to optical parameters of hybrid nanofluids
such as extinction coefficient, absorption coefficient, solar weighted
absorption, transmittivity, scattering, etc. All of the mentioned para-
meters can be manipulated by concentration of nanoparticles, particle
size, type of basefluid, and extent of nanofluid being used i.e. pene-
tration depth. Increase in absorption and relative decrease in trans-
mittivity of hybrid nanofluids is experienced to have improved the
temperature gain. Enhancement in temperature improves the thermal
performance of PV/T systems and DASC whereas the performance of
VSC is attenuated because of increased thermal losses in the form of
convection and radiative loss. Radiation or convective losses could be
repealed by enhancing scattering coefficient of nanoparticles. Scat-
tering can be improved by increasing the particle size. Large size of
particle can result in sedimentation therefore it is required to ade-
quately manipulate the scattering and absorption coefficient in order to
obtain optimum results. Absorption coefficient of hybrid nanofluids
increases with an increase in concentration but excessive elevation in
concentration results in higher agglomeration and nanolayering which
depletes the performance. Increase in temperature and concentration of
nanofluids also improves the thermal conductivity and heat capacity
which is suitable for better energy transportation. There exists an op-
timum value for concentration and flowrate of fluid up to which the
T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali
performance improves. Past the optimum value of concentration and
flowrate the performance is attenuated. Factors that influence the
performance of solar systems based on hybrid nanofluids have been
concisely illustrated in Fig. 20.
4. Limitations and challenges
Several issues pertaining to hybrid nanofluid include instability,
frictional factor escalation, and viscosity variation in a response to
temperature or nanoparticle concentration variation.
4.1. Instability
Instability of hybrid nanofluids is still the main concern and a cause
of demotion of nanofluids. Destabilization of nanoparticles conse-
quently results in abatement in heat transfer rate which ultimately
makes the nanofluid flimsy (Dhinesh Kumar and Valan, 2018). None of
the researchers has yet reported encouraging stability time span of
hybrid nanofluids. Kim et al. (2010) coded 120 h longed stability
duration of nanofluid only. Jha and Ramaprabhu (2008) reported
20 days stability time span of Cu-MWCNT/DI-water nanofluid without
adding any surfactant. Maximum stability of any hybrid nanofluid is
reported to be 60 days of CNTs-Fe3O4/water (Ali et al., 2017). How-
ever, Farbod et al. (2015) prepared a mono-nanofluid containing
functionalized MWCNTs dispersed in water and observed a stability
Fig. 20. Concise illustration of the solar energy conversion system’s performance influencing factors.
195
Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203
time span of 80 days.
Vigilant measures have already been taken by the scientists to al-
leviate the issues related with stability of hybrid nanofluids. Some of
the prevention methods of sedimentation/agglomeration/clogging of
hybrid nanoparticles include, pH control via some acid addition in
nanofluids, dispersion of some sort of anti-sedimentation agents, use of
surfactants, and optimum ultrasonication (Chattopadhyay and Gupta,
2001; Wen et al., 2009). Most widely used techniques for the evaluation
of stability of hybrid nanofluids are; zeta-potential, centrifugation,
spectroscopy, and sedimentation analysis (Sajid and Ali, 2018). Das
(2017) vigilantly summarized the probation methods and obtained
stability period of a number of hybrid nanofluids reported by different
researchers.
Studies addressing the stability of hybrid nanofluids in practical
application systems of solar energy are almost nonexistent. There is an
astronomical need to employ and explore the performance of hybrid
nanofluids in loft scale solar energy application systems.
4.2. Pressure drop and friction factor escalation
Inevitable augmentation in friction factor is a major concern asso-
ciated with hybrid nanofluids. Mounted friction factor costs high
pumping power which in turns dilutes the benefits of enhanced heat
transfer characteristics of hybrid nanofluids. However, mounted fric-
tion factor is only tolerable if substantial raise in heat transfer extent
T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203

occurs (Sundar et al., 2017). Madhesh et al. (2014) experimentally
appraised the friction factor analysis of Cu-TiO2/DI-H2O hybrid nano-
fluid. They forecasted 1.7% elevation in friction factor and 14.9% in
pressure drop. Nabil et al. (2017) extrapolated 7–8% increase in friction
factor of TiO2-SiO2/EG-H2O at a Reynold number 2000–10,000. Sundar
et al. (2014) observed 1.18 times enhancement in friction factor of
MWCNT-Fe3O4- H2O hybrid nanofluid at 22,000 Reynold number.
Friction factor of different hybrid nanofluids as computed by the re-
searchers is presented in the Table 5. Enhancement in friction factor
occurs due to pressure drop as a result of abrasiveness between the
suspended particles and the channel walls (Nine et al., 2012). Abrasion
can detriment the pipes of solar energy systems. Colloids can stick on
the surface of pipes and cause fouling or scaling as well. Increasing the
flowrate of the nanofluid can somewhat reduce the friction coefficient
as shown in the following equation presented by Blasius (1913).
0.3164
fB =
Re 0.25
Here, “ fB ” is the Blasius friction factor (a unitless quantity). This
equation is an empirical expression and it is also termed as Blasius
resistance formula. This equation makes use of Reynold number (Re) to
predict the resistance between flow and the pipe’s wall.
Friction factor on the basis of pressure drop could be calculated by
the following formula (Sundar et al., 2014).
∆P
f=
( )( )
L
D
ρv 2
2 (12)
In the above equation, “ f ” represents friction factor (it has no
units), “ΔP ” shows the pressure drop (kg/m-s2), “L” tube length (m),
“D” tube’s inner diameter (m), “ ρ ” is the density of fluid (kg/m3), and
“v ” is the representation of velocity of the fluid (m/s).
Type of nanoparticle is the utmost factor that decides the magnitude
of friction factor’s escalation. TiO2 has been reported to have least
frictional effects (Ali et al., 2017). TiO2 based hybrid nanofluid depicted
only 7–8% escalation in friction factor (Nabil et al., 2017). Maximum
frictional effects have been shown by Fe3O4: almost 10–18% escalation
(Sundar et al., 2014). To attenuate the adhesion of nanofluids on the
channel surface, it is complementary to use anti-adhesion materials
(Haubennestel et al., 2006). Using the pipes made up of super hydro-
phobic materials in solar energy systems can considerably alleviate the
effects of escalated friction factor (Tanaka et al., 2012).
4.3. Rheological challenges
As discussed in Section 2.2.2, viscosity of the hybrid nanofluids
varies with varying temperature. In a solar energy application system,
variation in the viscosity will require the circulation system to vary its
pumping power accordingly. Consequently, fluctuation in the flowrate,
and pumping power will disserve the system entirely. This menace is
hindering the commercialization of hybrid nanofluid (Nabil et al.,
2017). These issues need to be resolved for the effective exploitation of
solar energy.
Employing nanofluids in solar collectors is clearly advantageous in
terms of thermal conductivity and optical characteristics. However, use
of nanofluid could sometimes result in severe damaging for collector’s
surface because of corrosion and erosion effects. Corrosion by nano-
fluids in different systems has been reported by several researchers.
Fotowat et al. (2017) conducted 8 months long experimental research
to evaluate the corrosion effects of Al2O3/water nanofluid on Al, Cu,
and stainless steel surfaces and observed significant corrosion on Al and
Cu surface. High thermal conductivity of the nanofluids is their main
advantage and the thermal conductivity increases with increasing
temperature as shown in Fig. 6. However, Prajitno and Syarief (2014)
recorded an increase in corrosion of carbon steel with increasing tem-
perature of nanofluid (ZrO2/water). Rashidi et al. (2014) studied the
(11)
synergistic effect of corrosion and erosion on the surface of carbon steel
using Al2O3/seawater nanofluid. They added 1 g/dm3 Al2O3 nano-
particles in seawater basefluid. Synergistic effects of corrosion and
erosion by the nanofluid on the surface of carbon steel at 298 K under
turbulent flow were observed to be 237% higher than the seawater.
Nanofluid showed 11% higher erosion rate than the basefluid. Thus, use
of nanofluid in solar collectors could prove to be very disserving.
However, these damages could be averted by dispersing anti-corrosion
additives in nanofluids (Moorthy and Srinivas, 2016).
Instability of nanofluids is the chief barrier since hybrid nanofluids
tend to settle down soon after they are prepared due to cohesion of
particles and formation of clusters/agglomerates. Settled nanoparticles
not only fade the improved thermal characteristics but they also da-
mage the surface of container. Viscosity elevation of hybrid nanofluid
as reported by a number of researchers is a very challenging issue since
high viscosity of working fluid drastically increases the frictional losses
and consequently high pumping power is required. High pumping
power eventually reduces the collector’s efficiency.
Industrialization of solar collectors employing hybrid nanofluid for
high energy production is subject to development of sustainable hybrid
nanofluids that could withhold carrion damages, nanoparticle cohesion,
viscosity elevation, frictional losses, and pressure drop. Early settling
down of nanoparticles could be prevented by the use of surfactants or
anti-sedimentation agents and small sized nanoparticles. In order to
eschew the menace of corrosion and erosion due to nanofluids, the use
of anticorrosion agents could be adopted by the industries. Effect of
hiking pressure drop and frictional losses on the performance efficiency
of the system could be renounced by using the flow channels made up
of hydrophobic or superhydrophobic surfaces (Daniello et al., 2009;
Choi et al., 2006). For the scale-up of the solar systems based on na-
nofluids, basic need is to design and develop the manufacturing

Table 5
Effect of binary nanofluids on friction factor.
Reference Nanofluid Particle Size Concentration Findings

Madhesh et al. (2014) Cu-TiO2/DI-H2O 55 nm average size 0.1–2.0 vol% At 2.0 vol%, 1.7% enhancement in friction factor and 14.9% drop in pressure
was reported compared to base fluid
Nabil et al. (2017) TiO2-SiO2/EG- H2O TiO2: 50 nm 3.0 vol% 7–8% increment in friction factor was observed compared to base fluid
SiO2: 22 nm
Sundar et al. (2014) MWCNT-Fe3O4- H2O MWCNTs: 10–30 nm 0.3 vol% 1.11 and 1.18 times increment in friction factor occurred at 3000 and 22,000
Fe3O4: 13 nm Re as compared to basefluid
Suresh et al. (2012) Al2O3-Cu/H2O 15 nm average size of 0.1 vol% 16.97% increase in friction factor compared to water
particles
Suresh et al. (2014) Al2O3-Cu/H2O 17 nm average size 0.1 vol% 10.48% increment in frictional factor was reported compared to basefluid
Sundar et al. (2018) Nanodiamond-Ni/H2O ND: 5 nm 0.1–0.3 vol% At 22,000 Re, increment in friction factor was calculated to be 1.07 times
Ni: 9 nm and 1.12 times greater than water at 0.1 and 0.3 vol% concentration
respectively
Takabi and Shokouhmand Al2O3-Cu/H2O 17 nm average 1.0 vol% 13.76% increase in friction factor was observed compared to host fluid
(2015) diameter

196
T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali
equipment that could prepare nanofluids in bulk magnitude. Mass
production of nanofluids could be acquired via mechanical mixing
methodologies (Chieruzzi et al., 2018). Method of shear mixing could
be adopted to repeal the cohesion of nanoparticles for industrial solar
systems. Cost of nanofluid based solar collectors at micro level is
slightly high but as projected by the experts – scaled up solar systems
would be economical (Otanicar and Golden, 2009). Nanofluids based
solar system could be realized by employing such systems for space
heating power generation, domestic hot water supply, etc. Extensive
potential of such systems has been comprehensively reviewed by
Chamsa-ard et al. (2017). Brief summarization of how to realize the
industrialization of solar collectors employing nanofluids as photo-
thermal conversion and thermal transportation media is presented in
Fig. 21.
All in all, it is the chemistry of nanofluids that requires to be ma-
nipulated for realizing the commercial use of solar collectors that would
employ nanofluids in order to exploit the predicted advantages of such
systems.
Although the stability of hybrid nanofluid could be attained via
chemical treatment but there will arise another issue of surface de-
gradation of the channels and the container because of acidic/basic
nature of surfactant - thus limiting the advantages hybrid nanofluids.
Addition of surfactant develops a layer around nanoparticles that re-
duces the heat transfer performance of nanoparticles. Incompatibility of
individual nanoparticles (having high thermal characteristics) to form
hybrid nanofluids or to be dispersed in a particular basefluid has also
limited the feasibility of forming highly stable nanofluids with high
thermal characteristics (Yu et al., 2017).
Limitation of hybrid nanofluids in solar thermal systems is sig-
nificant in particular. In a solar system, alternative heating and cooling
of nanofluid would cause interparticle interaction to expedite which
would cause cohesion between the particles and the system perfor-
mance will be faded.
5. Economic and ecologic gains
Vast economic and ecologic gains of commercializing nanofluid are
projected by some researchers. Broad use of nanofluids can play mo-
mentous role in seizing eco-detrimental emissions and high ex-
penditures of solar energy conversion systems. Hybrid nanofluids are
more cost effect than the mono-nanofluids since the blended nanofluid
offers high value of thermal conductivity elevation (TCE) percentage at
low price as shown in the Fig. 22. It is evident in the figure that ZnO-
MWCBT/EG-water hybrid nanofluid displayed highest thermal con-
ductivity with low cost than the mono nanofluids of ZnO and MWCNT
dispersed in EG-water (50–50%) basefluid (Hemmat Esfe et al., 2017).
Esfe et al. (2016) showed that hybrid nanofluids can offer cost effec-
tiveness with 30% less cost of hybrid nanofluids (MgO-SWCNT/EG) as
compared to mono nanofluid of SWCNT. Hemmat Esfe et al. (2017) in
an analytical study presented the cost analysis of ZnO-MWCNT/EG-H2O
hybrid nanofluid in terms of TCE and concentration of nanoparticles.
They varied the concentration from 0.05% to 1.6% and extrapolated
that between 0.9 and 1.07% concentration hybrid nanofluids were
more effective in terms of cost and TCE percentage than the mono
nanofluids. In a separate study, Hemmat Esfe et al. (2017) graphically
depicted that almost $80 per liter could be saved by using hybrid na-
nofluid of SiO2-MWCT nanoparticles with obtaining same maximum
thermal conductivity as of mono nanofluid of MWCNTs. Hemmat Esfe
et al. (2018) appraised thermal and economic performance of hybrid
nanofluid containing double walled carbon nanotubes (DWCNT) and
SiO2 nanoparticle dispersed in ethylene glycol. They observed high
thermal performance of DWCNT/EG nanofluid with much better
thermal conductivity ratio in comparison with hybrid nanofluid.
Whereas, economic performance (TCR/price) of hybrid nanofluid was
reported to be very high. Nevertheless, cost performance efficiency
(TCR/price) of both hybrid and mono nanofluid reduced with increased
197
Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203
concentration.
Hemmat et al. (2017) presented a regression correlation for pre-
dicting the cost of nanofluids (Eq. (13)).
Cost = 395.368 + 646.477φ − 1699.024φ2 + 2029.536φ3 (13)
Lari and Sahin (2017) estimated elimination of 16,674.57 tons of
CO2 emission along with 82% electricity cost reduction by using na-
nofluid based PV systems in place of coal based power generating
plants. Hassani et al. (2016) extrapolated a time span of 2 years to
achieve break-even point for a nanofluid based PV/T system. They also
evaluated that release of 448 kg/m2-year of carbon dioxide could be
averted by utilizing such systems. Using hybrid nanofluids for heat
absorbing purpose can also help to reduce the overall size of the system
since small penetration depth is required. Size reduction will ultimately
result in reduced manufacturing cost of the system (Sundar et al.,
2014).
However, it is noticeable that cost effectiveness of only such hybrid
nanofluids that contain CNTs as one of the two constituents has been
evaluated. Effectiveness of these nanofluids is attributed to high
thermal conductivity of CNTs. But the issue is that, the CNTs manifest
hydrophobic behavior which consequently leads to early sedimenta-
tion. Owing to particular tube shape CNTs have extended surface area
which makes them thermal efficient, but this also causes greater in-
termolecular interaction and subsequent interparticle attraction. In
order to produce sustainable hybrid nanofluids, dispersants or surfac-
tants are added in the fluid which will increase the overall cost of the
fluid, thus limiting the cost effectiveness of hybrid nanofluids.
Therefore, there is still a vast room for further research on the cost
evaluation of hybrid nanofluids that are supposed to sustain for long
period of time.
6. Conclusions and future recommendations
Hybrid nanofluids based solar systems have shown great perfor-
mance expedition (above 200%) as a result of optimal characteristic
(optical and thermal) of hybrid nanofluids. Performance determination
factors of solar energy systems such as solar weighted absorption, ex-
tinction coefficient, and photothermal conversion efficiency are ob-
served to evolve when hybrid nanofluids were employed. Optical per-
formance of hybrid nanofluids is observed to improve with increasing
concentration of nanoparticles up to certain limit. This paper has briefly
summarized the findings of all the available studies in the best
Mass
production of
nanoflujids by
Mechanical
Mixing
Production
Method
Use of channels
made up of
hydrophobic or Addition of anti-
super- cohession agents
hydrophobic Industrial
material
realizaton of
nanofluid based
solar collectors
Inclusion of
mechanical
Addition of
mixer or
anti-corrosion
magnetic
agents
stirrer in the
work loop
Fig. 21. Steps for industrial realization of nanofluid based solar collectors.
T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali
Fig. 22. Depiction of cost effectiveness of hybrid nanofluids (Hemmat Esfe
et al., 2017).
knowledge of authors that have addressed solar systems employing
hybrid nanofluids along with the description of influential factors.
Based on research gap identified in current study, several re-
commendations are presented as listed below.
– Despite of considerable electrical efficiency escalation of hybrid
nanofluid based PV/T systems, very few research items are available
that tested hybrid nanofluids in PV/T systems. There is a vast room
for further research in this regard.
– Enhancement in friction factor/pumping power of hybrid nanofluid
based solar systems is one of the major concerns. Elevation in fric-
tion factor or pumping power of TiO2 based hybrid nanofluids has
been observed to be very small but their stability time span is short.
Whereas, Fe3O4 based hybrid nanofluids however show remarkable
stability but large enhancement in friction factor occurs. Therefore,
it is recommended to conduct research to develop hybrid nanofluids
having good stability and small pumping power escalation.
– Hydrophobic material-based channels are recommended for solar
energy systems in order to allay the adversities of escalated friction
factor of hybrid nanofluids.
– As of now, scope of hybrid nanofluids in practical systems is limited
because of stability issues. Surface deterioration of channels is an-
ticipated to occur owing to corrosion and erosion effects of surfac-
tants. Alternative heating and cooling of hybrid nanofluids in a solar
thermal system is projected to cause interparticle cohesion owing to
increased interaction between the particles. Capability of thermally
effective individual nanoparticles to form a hybrid nanofluid or be
dispersed in a particular basefluid is also a complicated limitation.
Extensive research needs to be carried out in order to explore
compatible nanoparticle combinations and basefluids.
– Use of hybrid nanofluids as working fluid in solar collectors (flat
plate or DASC) has merely been exercised. Only the laboratory work
addressing the parametric evaluation of the properties of hybrid
nanofluids (supportive for performance optimization of solar col-
lectors) is reported. It is the prime need to conduct practical per-
formance tests of solar collectors by employing hybrid nanofluids as
working fluid in order to evaluate the feasibility of hybrid nanofluid
based solar systems on commercial scale.
References
Abbasi, S.M., Rashidi, A., Nemati, A., Arzani, K., 2013. The effect of functionalisation
method on the stability and the thermal conductivity of nanofluid hybrids of carbon
nanotubes/gamma alumina. Ceram. Int. 39, 3885–3891. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
198
Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203
ceramint.2012.10.232.
Abd-Allah, S.R., Abdellatif, O.E., Yousef El-Kady, E.-S., 2016. Performance of cooling
photovoltaic cells using nanofluids. Eng. Sci. Res. J. 1–15.
Aberoumand, S., Jafarimoghaddam, A., 2018. Tungsten (III) oxide (WO 3) – Silver/
transformer oil hybrid nanofluid: preparation, stability, thermal conductivity and
dielectric strength. Alexand. Eng. J. 57, 169–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.
2016.11.003.
Adriana, M.A., 2017. Hybrid nanofluids based on Al2O3, TiO2 and SiO2: numerical
evaluation of different approaches. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 104, 852–860. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2016.09.012.
Afrand, M., 2017. Experimental study on thermal conductivity of ethylene glycol con-
taining hybrid nano-additives and development of a new correlation. Appl. Therm.
Eng. 110, 1111–1119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.09.024.
Afrand, M., Nazari Najafabadi, K., Sina, N., Safaei, M.R., Kherbeet, A.S., Wongwises, S.,
et al., 2016. Prediction of dynamic viscosity of a hybrid nano-lubricant by an optimal
artificial neural network. Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf. 76, 209–214. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2016.05.023.
Afrand, M., Toghraie, D., Ruhani, B., 2016. Effects of temperature and nanoparticles
concentration on rheological behavior of Fe3O4–Ag/EG hybrid nanofluid: an ex-
perimental study. Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 77, 38–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
expthermflusci.2016.04.007.
Ahammed, N., Asirvatham, L.G., Wongwises, S., 2016. Entropy generation analysis of
graphene–alumina hybrid nanofluid in multiport minichannel heat exchanger cou-
pled with thermoelectric cooler. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 103, 1084–1097. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2016.07.070.
Akhgar, A., Toghraie, D., 2018. An experimental study on the stability and thermal
conductivity of water-ethylene glycol/TiO2-MWCNTs hybrid nanofluid: developing a
new correlation. Powder Technol. 338, 806–818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.
2018.07.086.
Akilu, S., Baheta, A.T., Sharma, K.V., 2017. Experimental measurements of thermal
conductivity and viscosity of ethylene glycol-based hybrid nanofluid with TiO2-CuO/
C inclusions. J. Mol. Liq. 246, 396–405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2017.09.
017.
Akilu, S., Baheta, A.T., Said, M.A.M., Minea, A.A., Sharma, K.V., 2018. Properties of
glycerol and ethylene glycol mixture based SiO2-CuO/C hybrid nanofluid for en-
hanced solar energy transport. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 179, 118–128. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2017.10.027.
Akoh, H., Tsukasaki, Y., Yatsuya, S., Tasaki, A., 1978. Magnetic properties of ferromag-
netic ultrafine particles prepared by vacuum evaporation on running oil substrate. J.
Cryst. Growth 45, 495–500. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0248(78)90482-7.
Ali, H.M., Sajid, M.U., Arshad, A., 2017. Heat transfer applications of TiO2 nanofluids.
InTech. Appl. Titan. Diox. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.68602.
Ali, H.M., Id, H.B., Shah, T.R., Sajid, M.U., 2018. Preparation Techniques of TiO2 na-
nofluids and challenges: a review. Appl. Sci. 8, 587. https://doi.org/10.3390/
app8040587.
Ali, H.M., Shah, T.R., Babar, H., Khan, Z.A., 2018. Application of nanofluids for thermal
management of photovoltaic modules: a review. Microfluid Nanofluidics. https://doi.
org/10.5772/intechopen.74967.
Alirezaie, A., Saedodin, S., Esfe, M.H., Rostamian, S.H., 2017. Investigation of rheological
behavior of MWCNT (COOH-functionalized)/MgO - engine oil hybrid nanofluids and
modelling the results with artificial neural networks. J. Mol. Liq. 241, 173–181.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2017.05.121.
Allahyar, H.R., Hormozi, F., ZareNezhad, B., 2016. Experimental investigation on the
thermal performance of a coiled heat exchanger using a new hybrid nanofluid. Exp.
Therm. Fluid Sci. 76, 324–329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2016.03.
027.
Al-Waeli, A.H.A., Chaichan, M.T., Kazem, H.A., Sopian, K., 2017a. Comparative study to
use nano-(Al2O3, CuO, and SiC) with water to enhance photovoltaic thermal PV/T
collectors. Energy Convers. Manage. 148, 963–973. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
enconman.2017.06.072.
Al-Waeli, A.H.A., Sopian, K., Chaichan, M.T., Kazem, H.A., Ibrahim, A., Mat, S., et al.,
2017b. Evaluation of the nanofluid and nano-PCM based photovoltaic thermal (PVT)
system: an experimental study. Energy Convers. Manage. 151, 693–708. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.enconman.2017.09.032.
Al-Waeli, A.H.A., Sopian, K., Chaichan, M.T., Kazem, H.A., Hasan, H.A., Al-Shamani,
A.N., 2017c. An experimental investigation of SiC nanofluid as a base-fluid for a
photovoltaic thermal PV/T system. Energy Convers. Manage. 142, 547–558. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2017.03.076.
Amrollahi, A., Rashidi, A.M., Emami Meibodi, M., Kashefi, K., 2009. Conduction heat
transfer characteristics and dispersion behaviour of carbon nanofluids as a function of
different parameters. J. Exp. Nanosci. 4, 347–363. https://doi.org/10.1080/
17458080902929929.
Anand, B., Kaniyoor, A., Sai, S.S.S., Philip, R., Ramaprabhu, S., 2013. Enhanced optical
limiting in functionalized hydrogen exfoliated graphene and its metal hybrids. J.
Mater. Chem. C 1, 2773. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3tc00927k.
Aparna, Z., Michael, M., Pabi, S.K., Ghosh, S., 2019. Thermal conductivity of aqueous
Al2O3/Ag hybrid nanofluid at different temperatures and volume concentrations: an
experimental investigation and development of new correlation function. Powder
Technol. 343, 714–722. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2018.11.096.
Asadi, M., Asadi, A., 2016. Dynamic viscosity of MWCNT / ZnO – engine oil hybrid nano
fluid: an experimental investigation and new correlation in different temperatures
and solid concentrations. Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf. 76, 41–45. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2016.05.019.
Asadi, A., Asadi, M., Rezaei, M., Siahmargoi, M., Asadi, F., 2016. The effect of tem-
perature and solid concentration on dynamic viscosity of MWCNT/MgO
(20–80)–SAE50 hybrid nano-lubricant and proposing a new correlation: an
T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali
experimental study. Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf. 78, 48–53. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2016.08.021.
Asadi, A., Asadi, M., Rezaniakolaei, A., Rosendahl, L.A., Afrand, M., Wongwises, S., 2018.
Heat transfer efficiency of Al2O3-MWCNT/thermal oil hybrid nanofluid as a cooling
fluid in thermal and energy management applications: an experimental and theore-
tical investigation. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 117, 474–486. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.ijheatmasstransfer.2017.10.036.
Asif, M., 2009. Sustainable energy options for Pakistan. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 13,
903–909. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2008.04.001.
Awad, A., Navarro, H., Ding, Y., Wen, D., 2018. Thermal-physical properties of nano-
particle-seeded nitrate molten salts. Renew. Energy 120, 275–288. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.renene.2017.12.026.
Babar, H., Sajid, M., Ali, H., 2019. Viscosity of hybrid nanofluids: a critical review.
15–15. Therm. Sci. https://doi.org/10.2298/TSCI181128015B.
Bahng, J.H., Yeom, B., Wang, Y., Tung, S.O., Hoff, J.D., Kotov, N., 2015. Anomalous
dispersions of ‘hedgehog’ particles. Nature 517, 596–599. https://doi.org/10.1038/
nature14092.
Bahrami, M., Akbari, M., Karimipour, A., Afrand, M., 2016. An experimental study on
rheological behavior of hybrid nanofluids made of iron and copper oxide in a binary
mixture of water and ethylene glycol: non-Newtonian behavior. Exp. Therm. Fluid
Sci. 79, 231–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2016.07.015.
Balzani, V., Credi, A., Venturi, M., 2008. Photochemical conversion of solar energy.
ChemSusChem 1, 26–58. https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.200700087.
Baru, P.A., Azwadi, C.S.N., Adamu, I.M., Jamil, M.M., 2016. Preparation methods and
thermal performance of hybrid nanofluids. J. Adv. Rev. Sci. Res. ISSN 24, 2289–7887.
Bashir, M., Ali, H., Amber, K., Bashir, M., Ali, H., Imran, S., et al., 2018. Performance
investigation of photovoltaic modules by back surface water cooling. Therm. Sci. 22,
2401–2411. https://doi.org/10.2298/TSCI160215290B.
Bellos, E., Tzivanidis, C., 2018. Thermal analysis of parabolic trough collector operating
with mono and hybrid nanofluids. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess. 26, 105–115.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2017.10.005.
Bhalla, V., Khullar, V., Tyagi, H., 2018. Experimental investigation of photo-thermal
analysis of blended nanoparticles (Al 2 O 3 /Co 3 O 4) for direct absorption solar
thermal collector. Renew. Energy 123, 616–626. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.
2018.01.042.
Blasius, H., 1913. Das Aehnlichkeitsgesetz bei Reibungsvorgangen in Flüssigkeiten.
Forschungsheft 131, 1–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-02239-9.
BP Energy Outlook, 2018.
Budihardjo, I., Morrison, G.L., Behnia, M., 2007. Natural circulation flow through water-
in-glass evacuated tube solar collectors. Sol. Energy 81, 1460–1472. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.solener.2007.03.002.
Campos, C., Vasco, D., Angulo, C., Burdiles, P.A., Cardemil, J., Palza, H., 2019. About the
relevance of particle shape and graphene oxide on the behavior of direct absorption
solar collectors using metal based nanofluids under different radiation intensities.
Energy Convers. Manage. 181, 247–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2018.
12.007.
Carrillo-Torres, R.C., García-Soto, M.J., Morales-Chávez, S.D., Garibay-Escobar, A.,
Hernández-Paredes, J., Guzmán, R., et al., 2016. Hollow Au–Ag bimetallic nano-
particles with high photothermal stability. RSC Adv. 6, 41304–41312. https://doi.
org/10.1039/C5RA25821A.
Chamsa-ard, W., Brundavanam, S., Fung, C., Fawcett, D., Poinern, G., 2017. Nanofluid
types, their synthesis, properties and incorporation in direct solar thermal collectors:
a review. Nanomaterials 7, 131. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano7060131.
Chandran, M.N., Manikandan, S., Suganthi, K.S., Rajan, K.S., 2017. Novel hybrid nano-
fluid with tunable specific heat and thermal conductivity: characterization and per-
formance assessment for energy related applications. Energy 140, 27–39. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.energy.2017.08.056.
Chattopadhyay, P., Gupta, R.B., 2001. Production of griseofulvin nanoparticles using
supercritical CO2 antisolvent with enhanced mass transfer. Int. J. Pharm. 228, 19–31.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-5173(01)00803-1.
Che Sidik, N.A., Mahmud Jamil, M., Aziz Japar, W.M.A., Muhammad, Adamu I., 2017. A
review on preparation methods, stability and applications of hybrid nanofluids.
Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 80, 1112–1122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.
05.221.
Chen, M., He, Y., Zhu, J., Shuai, Y., Jiang, B., Huang, Y., 2015. An experimental in-
vestigation on sunlight absorption characteristics of silver nanofluids. Sol. Energy
115, 85–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2015.01.031.
Chen, M., He, Y., Huang, J., Zhu, J., 2016. Synthesis and solar photo-thermal conversion
of Au, Ag, and Au-Ag blended plasmonic nanoparticles. Energy Convers. Manage.
127, 293–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.09.015.
Chen, M., He, Y., Zhu, J., Wen, D., 2016. Investigating the collector efficiency of silver
nanofluids based direct absorption solar collectors. Appl. Energy 181, 65–74. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.08.054.
Chen, M., He, Y., Zhu, J., Kim, D.R., 2016. Enhancement of photo-thermal conversion
using gold nanofluids with different particle sizes. Energy Convers. Manage. 112,
21–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.01.009.
Chen, M., He, Y., Huang, J., Zhu, J., 2017. Investigation into Au nanofluids for solar
photothermal conversion. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 108, 1894–1900. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2017.01.005.
Chen, M., He, Y., Zhu, J., 2017. Preparation of Au–Ag bimetallic nanoparticles for en-
hanced solar photothermal conversion. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 114, 1098–1104.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2017.07.005.
Chen, N., Ma, H., Li, Y., Cheng, J., Zhang, C., Wu, D., et al., 2017. Complementary optical
absorption and enhanced solar thermal conversion of CuO-ATO nanofluids. Sol.
Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 162, 83–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2016.12.049.
Chieruzzi, M., Cerritelli, G.F., Miliozzi, A., Kenny, J.M., 2013. Effect of nanoparticles on
199
Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203
heat capacity of nanofluids based on molten salts as PCM for thermal energy storage.
Nanoscale Res. Lett. 8, 448. https://doi.org/10.1186/1556-276X-8-448.
Chieruzzi, M., Cerritelli, G.F., Miliozzi, A., Kenny, J.M., Torre, L., 2017. Heat capacity of
nanofluids for solar energy storage produced by dispersing oxide nanoparticles in
nitrate salt mixture directly at high temperature. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 167,
60–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2017.04.011.
Chieruzzi, M., Miliozzi, A., Crescenzi, T., Kenny, J.M., Torre, L., 2018. Synthesis and
characterization of nanofluids useful in concentrated solar power plants produced by
new mixing methodologies for large-scale production. J. Heat Transfer 140, 042401.
https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4038415.
Choi, C.-H., Ulmanella, U., Kim, J., Ho, C.-M., Kim, C.-J., 2006. Effective slip and friction
reduction in nanograted superhydrophobic microchannels. Phys. Fluids 18, 087105.
https://doi.org/10.1063/1.2337669.
Coventry, J.S., 2005. Performance of a concentrating photovoltaic/thermal solar col-
lector. Sol. Energy 78, 211–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2004.03.014.
Crisostomo, F., Taylor, R.A., Surjadi, D., Mojiri, A., Rosengarten, G., Hawkes, E.R., 2015.
Spectral splitting strategy and optical model for the development of a concentrating
hybrid PV/T collector. Appl. Energy 141, 238–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
apenergy.2014.12.044.
Crisostomo, F., Hjerrild, N., Mesgari, S., Li, Q., Taylor, R.A., 2017. A hybrid PV/T col-
lector using spectrally selective absorbing nanofluids. Appl. Energy 193, 1–14.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.02.028.
Dalkılıç, A.S., Yalçın, G., Küçükyıldırım, B.O., Öztuna, S., Akdoğan Eker, A., Jumpholkul,
C., et al., 2018. Experimental study on the thermal conductivity of water-based CNT-
SiO2 hybrid nanofluids. Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf 99, 18–25. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2018.10.002.
Daniello, R.J., Waterhouse, N.E., Rothstein, J.P., 2009. Drag reduction in turbulent flows
over superhydrophobic surfaces. Phys. Fluids 21, 85103.
Das, P.K., 2017. A review based on the effect and mechanism of thermal conductivity of
normal nanofluids and hybrid nanofluids. J. Mol. Liq. 240, 420–446. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.molliq.2017.05.071.
Delfani, S., Karami, M., Akhavan-Behabadi, M.A., 2016. Performance characteristics of a
residential-type direct absorption solar collector using MWCNT nanofluid. Renew.
Energy 87, 754–764. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2015.11.004.
Devarajan, M., Parasumanna Krishnamurthy, N., Balasubramanian, M., Ramani, B.,
Wongwises, S., Abd El-Naby, K., et al., 2018. Thermophysical properties of CNT and
CNT/Al2O3 hybrid nanofluid. Micro Nano Lett. 13, 617–621. https://doi.org/10.
1049/mnl.2017.0029.
Dhinesh Kumar, D., Valan Arasu, A., 2018. A comprehensive review of preparation,
characterization, properties and stability of hybrid nanofluids. Renew. Sustain.
Energy Rev. 81, 1669–1689. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.257.
Du, M., Tang, G.H., 2016. Plasmonic nanofluids based on gold nanorods/nanoellipsoids/
nanosheets for solar energy harvesting. Sol. Energy 137, 393–400. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.solener.2016.08.029.
Dudda, B., Shin, D., 2013. Effect of nanoparticle dispersion on specific heat capacity of a
binary nitrate salt eutectic for concentrated solar power applications. Int. J. Therm.
Sci. 69, 37–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2013.02.003.
Ebaid, M.S.Y., Ghrair, A.M., Al-Busoul, M., 2018. Experimental investigation of cooling
photovoltaic (PV) panels using (TiO2) nanofluid in water -polyethylene glycol mix-
ture and (Al2O3) nanofluid in water- cetyltrimethylammonium bromide mixture.
Energy Convers. Manage. 155, 324–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2017.
10.074.
Esfahani, N.N., Toghraie, D., Afrand, M., 2018. A new correlation for predicting the
thermal conductivity of ZnO–Ag (50%–50%)/water hybrid nanofluid: an experi-
mental study. Powder Technol. 323, 367–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.
2017.10.025.
Esfe, M.H., Rostamian, S.H., Alirezaie, A., 2016. An applicable study on the thermal
conductivity of SWCNT-MgO hybrid nanofluid and price-performance analysis for
energy management. Appl. Therm. Eng. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.
2016.09.091.
Esfe, M.H., Rejvani, M., Karimpour, R., Abbasian Arani, A.A., 2017. Estimation of thermal
conductivity of ethylene glycol-based nanofluid with hybrid suspensions of
SWCNT–Al2O3 nanoparticles by correlation and ANN methods using experimental
data. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 128, 1359–1371. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-
016-6002-9.
Eshgarf, H., Afrand, M., 2016. An experimental study on rheological behavior of non-
Newtonian hybrid nano-coolant for application in cooling and heating systems. Exp.
Therm. Fluid Sci. 76, 221–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2016.03.
015.
Faizal, M., Saidur, R., Mekhilef, S., Hepbasli, A., Mahbubul, I.M., 2015. Energy, economic,
and environmental analysis of a flat-plate solar collector operated with
SiO2nanofluid. Clean Technol. Environ. Policy 17, 1457–1473. https://doi.org/10.
1007/s10098-014-0870-0.
Fang, J., Xuan, Y., 2017. Investigation of optical absorption and photothermal conversion
characteristics of binary CuO/ZnO nanofluids. RSC Adv. 7, 56023–56033. https://
doi.org/10.1039/C7RA12022B.
Farajzadeh, E., Movahed, S., Hosseini, R., 2018. Experimental and numerical investiga-
tions on the effect of Al2O3/ TiO2eH2O nanofluids on thermal efficiency of the flat
plate solar collector. Renew. Energy 118, 122–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
renene.2017.10.102.
Farbod, M., Ahangarpour, A., Etemad, S.G., 2015. Stability and thermal conductivity of
water-based carbon nanotube nanofluids. Particuology 22, 59–65. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.partic.2014.07.005.
Fendler, J.H., 1985. Photochemical solar energy conversion. An assessment of scientific
accomplishments. J. Phys. Chem. 89, 2730–2740. https://doi.org/10.1021/
j100259a006.
T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali
Fotowat, S., Askar, S., Ismail, M., Fartaj, A., 2017. A study on corrosion effects of a water
based nanofluid for enhanced thermal energy applications. Sustain. Energy Technol.
Assess. 24, 39–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2017.02.001.
Ginley, D., Green, M.A., Collins, R., 2008. Solar energy conversion toward 1 terawatt.
MRS Bull. 33, 355–364. https://doi.org/10.1557/mrs2008.71.
Goetzberger, A., Luther, J., Willeke, G., 2002. Solar cells: past, present, future. Sol. Energy
Mater. Sol. Cells 74, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0927-0248(02)00042-9.
Gorji, T.B., Ranjbar, A.A., 2017. A review on optical properties and application of na-
nofluids in direct absorption solar collectors (DASCs). Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.
72, 10–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.01.015.
Gupta, H.K., Das, Agrawal G., Mathur, J., 2015. Investigations for effect of Al2O3–H2O
nanofluid flow rate on the efficiency of direct absorption solar collector. Case Stud.
Therm. Eng. 5, 70–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2015.01.002.
Hamid, K.A., Azmi, W.H., Nabil, M.F., Mamat, R., 2017. Improved thermal conductivity
of TiO2 –SiO2 hybrid nanofluid in ethylene glycol and water mixture. IOP Conf. Ser.
Mater. Sci. Eng. 257, 012067. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/257/1/012067.
Hamzah, M.H., Sidik, N.A.C., Ken, T.L., Mamat, R., Najafi, G., 2017. Factors affecting the
performance of hybrid nanofluids: a comprehensive review. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf.
115, 630–646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2017.07.021.
Han, X., Chen, X., Wang, Q., Alelyani, S.M., Qu, J., 2019. Investigation of CoSO4-based
Ag nanofluids as spectral beam splitters for hybrid PV/T applications. Sol. Energy
177, 387–394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2018.11.037.
Harikrishnan, S., Deepak, K., Kalaiselvam, S., 2014. Thermal energy storage behavior of
composite using hybrid nanomaterials as PCM for solar heating systems. J. Therm.
Anal. Calorim. 115, 1563–1571. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-013-3472-x.
Hasan, A., McCormack, S.J., Huang, M.J., Norton, B., 2010. Evaluation of phase change
materials for thermal regulation enhancement of building integrated photovoltaics.
Sol. Energy 84, 1601–1612. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2010.06.010.
Hasanuzzaman, M., Malek, A.B.M.A., Islam, M.M., Pandey, A.K., Rahim, N.A., 2016.
Global advancement of cooling technologies for PV systems: a review. Sol. Energy
137, 25–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2016.07.010.
Hassani, S., Saidur, R., Mekhilef, S., Taylor, R.A., 2016. Environmental and exergy benefit
of nanofluid-based hybrid PV / T systems. Energy Convers. Manage. 123, 431–444.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.06.061.
Haubennestel, K., Bubat, A., Frank, A., Woocker, A., Krappe, U., 2006. Coating
Compositions and Polymeric Moulding Compounds Having Anti-Adhesion and Dirt
Repellency Properties. US 7,122,599 B2.
He, Q., Wang, S., Zeng, S., Zheng, Z., 2013. Experimental investigation on photothermal
properties of nanofluids for direct absorption solar thermal energy systems. Energy
Convers. Manage. 73, 150–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2013.04.019.
Hemmat Esfe, M., Wongwises, S., Naderi, A., Asadi, A., Safaei, M.R., Rostamian, H., et al.,
2015. Thermal conductivity of Cu/TiO2–water/EG hybrid nanofluid: experimental
data and modeling using artificial neural network and correlation. Int. Commun. Heat
Mass Transf. 66, 100–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2015.05.
014.
Hemmat Esfe, M., Esfandeh, S., Rejvani, M., 2017. Modeling of thermal conductivity of
MWCNT-SiO2 (30:70%)/EG hybrid nanofluid, sensitivity analyzing and cost perfor-
mance for industrial applications. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 2. https://doi.org/10.
1007/s10973-017-6680-y.
Hemmat Esfe, M., Abbasian Arani, A.A., Firouzi, M., 2017. Empirical study and model
development of thermal conductivity improvement and assessment of cost and sen-
sitivity of EG-water based SWCNT-ZnO (30%:70%) hybrid nanofluid. J. Mol. Liq.
244, 252–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2017.08.087.
Hemmat Esfe, M., Esfandeh, S., Saedodin, S., Rostamian, H., 2017. Experimental eva-
luation, sensitivity analyzation and ANN modeling of thermal conductivity of ZnO-
MWCNT/EG-water hybrid nanofluid for engineering applications. Appl. Therm. Eng.
125, 673–685. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2017.06.077.
Hemmat Esfe, M., Behbahani, P.M., Arani, A.A.A., Sarlak, M.R., 2017. Thermal con-
ductivity enhancement of SiO2–MWCNT (85:15 %)–EG hybrid nanofluids. J. Therm.
Anal. Calorim. 128, 249–258. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-016-5893-9.
Hemmat Esfe, M., Abbasian Arani, A.A., Shafiei Badi, R., Rejvani, M., 2018. ANN mod-
eling, cost performance and sensitivity analyzing of thermal conductivity of
DWCNT–SiO2/EG hybrid nanofluid for higher heat transfer. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim.
131, 2381–2393. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-017-6744-z.
Hemmat Esfe, M., Rostamian, H., Reza, Sarlak M., 2018. A novel study on rheological
behavior of ZnO-MWCNT/10w40 nanofluid for automotive engines. J. Mol. Liq. 254,
406–413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2017.11.135.
Hemmat, M., Hajmohammad, H., Moradi, R., Akbar, A., Arani, A., 2017. Multi-objective
optimization of cost and thermal performance of double walled carbon nanotubes/
water nanofluids by NSGA-II using response surface method. Appl. Therm. Eng. 112,
1648–1657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.10.129.
Hepbasli, A., Alsuhaibani, Z., 2011. A key review on present status and future directions
of solar energy studies and applications in Saudi Arabia. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.
15, 5021–5050. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.052.
Hernandez, R.R., Easter, S.B., Murphy-Mariscal, M.L., Maestre, F.T., Tavassoli, M., Allen,
E.B., et al., 2014. Environmental impacts of utility-scale solar energy. Renew. Sustain.
Energy Rev. 29, 766–779. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.08.041.
Hjerrild, N.E., Mesgari, S., Crisostomo, F., Scott, J.A., Amal, R., Taylor, R.A., 2016. Hybrid
PV/T enhancement using selectively absorbing Ag–SiO2/carbon nanofluids. Sol.
Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 147, 281–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2015.12.
010.
Hu, Y., He, Y., Zhang, Z., Wen, D., 2017. Effect of Al2O3 nanoparticle dispersion on the
specific heat capacity of a eutectic binary nitrate salt for solar power applications.
Energy Convers. Manage. 142, 366–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2017.
03.062.
Huang, J., He, Y., Wang, L., Huang, Y., Jiang, B., 2017. Bifunctional Au@TiO2 core–shell
200
Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203
nanoparticle films for clean water generation by photocatalysis and solar evapora-
tion. Energy Convers. Manage. 132, 452–459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.
2016.11.053.
Hung, Y.-H., Wang, W.-P., Hsu, Y.-C., Teng, T.-P., 2017. Performance evaluation of an air-
cooled heat exchange system for hybrid nanofluids. Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 81, 43–55.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2016.10.006.
Hussein, A.K., 2016. Applications of nanotechnology to improve the performance of solar
collectors – recent advances and overview. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 62, 767–792.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.04.050.
Jeon, J., Park, S., Lee, B.J., 2014. Optical property of blended plasmonic nanofluid based
on gold nanorods. Opt. Exp. 22, A1101. https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.22.0A1101.
Jeon, J., Park, S., Lee, B.J., 2016. Analysis on the performance of a flat-plate volumetric
solar collector using blended plasmonic nanofluid. Sol. Energy 132, 247–256.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2016.03.022.
Jha, N., Ramaprabhu, S., 2008. Synthesis and thermal conductivity of copper nano-
particle decorated multiwalled carbon nanotubes based nanofluids. J. Phys. Chem. C
112, 9315–9319. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp8017309.
Jia, Y., Alva, G., Fang, G., 2019. Development and applications of photovoltaic–thermal
systems: a review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 102, 249–265. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.rser.2018.12.030.
Jo, B., Banerjee, D., 2015. Effect of solvent on specific heat capacity enhancement of
binary molten salt-based carbon nanotube nanomaterials for thermal energy storage.
Int. J. Therm. Sci. 98, 219–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2015.07.020.
Kakavandi, A., Akbari, M., 2018. Experimental investigation of thermal conductivity of
nanofluids containing of hybrid nanoparticles suspended in binary base fluids and
propose a new correlation. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 124, 742–751. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2018.03.103.
Kalogirou, S.A., 2004. Environmental benefits of domestic solar energy systems. Energy
Convers. Manage. 45, 3075–3092. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2003.12.
019.
Kannaiyan, S., Boobalan, C., Umasankaran, A., Ravirajan, A., Sathyan, S., Thomas, T.,
2017. Comparison of experimental and calculated thermophysical properties of alu-
mina/cupric oxide hybrid nanofluids. J. Mol. Liq. 244, 469–477. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.molliq.2017.09.035.
Karami, M., Akhavan-Behabadi, M.A., Raisee Dehkordi, M., Delfani, S., 2016. Thermo-
optical properties of copper oxide nanofluids for direct absorption of solar radiation.
Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 144, 136–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2015.
08.018.
Karami, N., Rahimi, M., 2014. Heat transfer enhancement in a PV cell using Boehmite
nanofluid. Energy Convers. Manage. 86, 275–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
enconman.2014.05.037.
Karami, N., Rahimi, M., 2014. Heat transfer enhancement in a hybrid microchannel-
photovoltaic cell using Boehmite nanofluid. Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2014.04.009.
Kasaeipoor, A., Malekshah, E.H., Kolsi, L., 2017. Free convection heat transfer and en-
tropy generation analysis of MWCNT-MgO (15% − 85%)/Water nanofluid using
Lattice Boltzmann method in cavity with refrigerant solid body-experimental thermo-
physical properties. Powder Technol. 322, 9–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.
2017.08.061.
Khanjari, Y., Pourfayaz, F., Kasaeian, A.B., 2016. Numerical investigation on using of
nanofluid in a water-cooled photovoltaic thermal system. Energy Convers. Manage.
122, 263–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.05.083.
Khashan, S., Dagher, S., Al Omari, S., Tit, N., Elnajjar, E., Mathew, B., et al., 2017. Photo-
thermal characteristics of water-based Fe3O4@SiO2 nanofluid for solar-thermal ap-
plications. Mater. Res. Exp. 4, 055701. https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/aa6c15.
Khodadadi, H., Aghakhani, S., Majd, H., Kalbasi, R., Wongwises, S., Afrand, M., 2018. A
comprehensive review on rheological behavior of mono and hybrid nanofluids: ef-
fective parameters and predictive correlations. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 127,
997–1012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2018.07.103.
Kim, Y.J., Ma, H., Yu, Q., 2010. Plasma nanocoated carbon nanotubes for heat transfer
nanofluids. Nanotechnology 21, 295703. https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-4484/21/
29/295703.
Lari, M.O., Sahin, A.Z., 2017. Design, performance and economic analysis of a nanofluid-
based photovoltaic/thermal system for residential applications. Energy Convers.
Manage. 149, 467–484. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2017.07.045.
Lasfargues, M., Geng, Q., Cao, H., Ding, Y., 2015. Mechanical dispersion of nanoparticles
and its effect on the specific heat capacity of impure binary nitrate salt mixtures.
Nanomaterials 5, 1136–1146. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano5031136.
Lee, B.J., Park, K., Walsh, T., Xu, L., 2012. Radiative heat transfer analysis in plasmonic
nanofluids for direct solar thermal absorption. J. Sol. Energy Eng. 134, 021009.
https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4005756.
Lee, Y.H., Polavarapu, L., Gao, N., Yuan, P., Xu, Q.H., 2012. Enhanced optical properties
of graphene oxide-Au nanocrystal composites. Langmuir 28, 321–326. https://doi.
org/10.1021/la204047a.
Lenert, A., Wang, E.N., 2012. Optimization of nanofluid volumetric receivers for solar
thermal energy conversion. Sol. Energy 86, 253–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
solener.2011.09.029.
Leong, K.Y., Ku Ahmad, K.Z., Ong, H.C., Ghazali, M.J., Baharum, A., 2017. Synthesis and
thermal conductivity characteristic of hybrid nanofluids – a review. Renew. Sustain.
Energy Rev. 75, 868–878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.068.
Leong, K.Y., Razali, I., Ku Ahmad, K.Z., Ong, H.C., Ghazali, M.J., Abdul Rahman, M.R.,
2018. Thermal conductivity of an ethylene glycol/water-based nanofluid with
copper-titanium dioxide nanoparticles: an experimental approach. Int. Commun.
Heat Mass Transf. 90, 23–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2017.10.
005.
Li, H., He, Y., Liu, Z., Jiang, B., Huang, Y., 2017. Rapid synthesis of broadband Ag@TiO2
T.R. Shah and H.M. Ali
core–shell nanoparticles for solar energy conversion. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells
166, 52–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2017.03.005.
Liu, Z., Hu, R., Lu, L., Zhao, F., Xiao, H., 2013. Thermal performance of an open ther-
mosyphon using nanofluid for evacuated tubular high temperature air solar collector.
Energy Convers. Manage. 73, 135–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2013.
04.010.
Liu, B.-J., Lin, K.-Q., Hu, S., Wang, X., Lei, Z.-C., Lin, H.-X., et al., 2015. Extraction of
absorption and scattering contribution of metallic nanoparticles toward rational
synthesis and application. Anal. Chem. 87, 1058–1065. https://doi.org/10.1021/
ac503612b.
Liu, X., Wang, X., Huang, J., Cheng, G., He, Y., 2018. Volumetric solar steam generation
enhanced by reduced graphene oxide nanofluid. Appl. Energy 220, 302–312. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.03.097.
Liu, J., Ye, Z., Zhang, L., Fang, X., Zhang, Z., 2015. A combined numerical and experi-
mental study on graphene/ionic liquid nanofluid based direct absorption solar col-
lector. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 136, 177–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.
2015.01.013.
Luo, Y., Du, X., Awad, A., Wen, D., 2017. Thermal energy storage enhancement of a
binary molten salt via in-situ produced nanoparticles. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 104,
658–664. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2016.09.004.
Madathil, P.K., Balagi, N., Saha, P., Bharali, J., Rao, P.V.C., Choudary, N.V., et al., 2016.
Preparation and characterization of molten salt based nanothermic fluids with en-
hanced thermal properties for solar thermal applications. Appl. Therm. Eng. 109,
901–905. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.04.102.
Madhesh, D., Kalaiselvam, S., 2014. Experimental Analysis of Hybrid Nanofluid as a
Coolant. Proc. Eng. 97, 1667–1675. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2014.12.317.
Madhesh, D., Parameshwaran, R., Kalaiselvam, S., 2014. Experimental investigation on
convective heat transfer and rheological characteristics of Cu–TiO2 hybrid nano-
fluids. Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 52, 104–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
expthermflusci.2013.08.026.
Mahian, O., Kianifar, A., Kalogirou, S.A., Pop, I., Wongwises, S., 2013. A review of the
applications of nanofluids in solar energy. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 57, 582–594.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2012.10.037.
Makarieva, A.M., Gorshkov, V.G., Li, B.-L., 2008. Energy budget of the biosphere and
civilization: rethinking environmental security of global renewable and non-renew-
able resources. Ecol. Comp. 5, 281–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecocom.2008.05.
005.
Mechiri, S.K., Vasu, V., Venu Gopal, A., 2017. Investigation of thermal conductivity and
rheological properties of vegetable oil based hybrid nanofluids containing Cu–Zn
hybrid nanoparticles. Exp. Heat Transf. 30, 205–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/
08916152.2016.1233147.
Mehrali, M., Ghatkesar, M.K., Pecnik, R., 2018. Full-spectrum volumetric solar thermal
conversion via graphene/silver hybrid plasmonic nanofluids. Appl. Energy 224,
103–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.04.065.
Mekhilef, S., Saidur, R., Safari, A., 2011. A review on solar energy use in industries.
Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 15, 1777–1790. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2010.
12.018.
Menbari, A., Alemrajabi, A.A., Ghayeb, Y., 2016. Investigation on the stability, viscosity
and extinction coefficient of CuO–Al2O3/Water binary mixture nanofluid. Exp.
Therm. Fluid Sci. 74, 122–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2015.11.
025.
Menbari, A., Alemrajabi, A.A., Rezaei, A., 2016. Heat transfer analysis and the effect of
CuO/Water nanofluid on direct absorption concentrating solar collector. Appl.
Therm. Eng. 104, 176–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.05.064.
Menbari, A., Alemrajabi, A.A., 2016. Analytical modeling and experimental investigation
on optical properties of new class of nanofluids (Al2O3–CuO binary nanofluids) for
direct absorption solar thermal energy. Opt. Mater. (Amst.) 52, 116–125. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.optmat.2015.12.023.
Menbari, A., Alemrajabi, A.A., Ghayeb, Y., 2016. Experimental investigation of stability
and extinction coefficient of Al 2 O 3 –CuO binary nanoparticles dispersed in ethylene
glycol–water mixture for low-temperature direct absorption solar collectors. Energy
Convers. Manage. 108, 501–510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.11.034.
Menbari, A., Alemrajabi, A.A., Rezaei, A., 2017. Experimental investigation of thermal
performance for direct absorption solar parabolic trough collector (DASPTC) based
on binary nanofluids. Exp. Therm Fluid Sci. 80, 218–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
expthermflusci.2016.08.023.
Michael, J.J., Iniyan, S., 2015. Performance analysis of a copper sheet laminated pho-
tovoltaic thermal collector using copper oxide – water nanofluid. Sol. Energy 119,
439–451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2015.06.028.
Michael, J.J., Iniyan, S., 2015. Performance of copper oxide/water nanofluid in a flat
plate solar water heater under natural and forced circulations. Energy Convers.
Manage. 95, 160–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.02.017.
Minardi, J.E., Chuang, H.N., 1975. Performance of a “black” liquid flat-plate solar col-
lector. Sol. Energy 17, 179–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-092X(75)90057-2.
Minea, A.A., El-Maghlany, W.M., 2018. Influence of hybrid nanofluids on the perfor-
mance of parabolic trough collectors in solar thermal systems: recent findings and
numerical comparison. Renew. Energy 120, 350–364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
renene.2017.12.093.
Moghadam, A.J., Farzane-Gord, M., Sajadi, M., Hoseyn-Zadeh, M., 2014. Effects of CuO/
water nanofluid on the efficiency of a flat-plate solar collector. Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci.
58, 9–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2014.06.014.
Moghadassi, A., Ghomi, E., Parvizian, F., 2015. A numerical study of water based Al2O3
and Al2O3–Cu hybrid nanofluid effect on forced convective heat transfer. Int. J.
Therm. Sci. 92, 50–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2015.01.025.
Moldoveanu, G.M., Huminic, G., Minea, A.A., Huminic, A., 2018. Experimental study on
thermal conductivity of stabilized Al2O3 and SiO2 nanofluids and their hybrid. Int. J.
201
Solar Energy 183 (2019) 173–203
Heat Mass Transf. 127, 450–457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2018.
07.024.
Moldoveanu, G.M., Ibanescu, C., Danu, M., Minea, A.A., 2018. Viscosity estimation of
Al2O3, SiO2 nanofluids and their hybrid: an experimental study. J. Mol. Liq. 253,
188–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2018.01.061.
Moorthy, C.V.K.N.S.N., Srinivas, V., 2016. Corrosion and heat transfer characteristics of
water dispersed with carboxylate additives and multi walled carbon nano tubes. J
Inst Eng Ser C 97, 569–577. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40032-016-0223-3.
Motahari, K., Moghaddam, M.A., Moradian, M., 2017.. Experimental investigation and
development of new correlation for influences of temperature and concentration on
dynamic viscosity of MWCNT-SiO2 (20–80)/20W50 hybrid nano-lubricant. Chin. J.
Chem. Eng. 2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cjche.2017.06.011.
Munkhbayar, B., Tanshen, M.R., Jeoun, J., Chung, H., Jeong, H., 2013. Surfactant-free
dispersion of silver nanoparticles into MWCNT-aqueous nanofluids prepared by one-
step technique and their thermal characteristics. Ceram. Int. 39, 6415–6425. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2013.01.069.
Muñoz-sánchez, B., Nieto-maestre, J., Iparraguirre-torres, I., García-romero, A., Sala-li-
zarraga, J.M., 2018. Molten salt-based nano fl uids as e ffi cient heat transfer and
storage materials at high temperatures. An overview of the literature. Renew. Sustain.
Energy Rev. 82, 3924–3945. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.10.080.
Muñoz-Sánchez, B., Nieto-Maestre, J., Veca, E., Liberatore, R., Sau, S., Navarro, H., et al.,
2018. Rheology of Solar-Salt based nanofluids for concentrated solar power.
Influence of the salt purity, nanoparticle concentration, temperature and rheometer
geometry. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 176, 357–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
solmat.2017.10.022.
Murshed, S.M.S., Leong, K.C., Yang, C., 2005. Enhanced thermal conductivity of
TiO2—water based nanofluids. Int. J. Therm. Sci. 44, 367–373. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.ijthermalsci.2004.12.005.
Nabil, M.F., Azmi, W.H., Abdul Hamid, K., Mamat, R., Hagos, F.Y., 2017. An experimental
study on the thermal conductivity and dynamic viscosity of TiO2-SiO2 nanofluids in
water: ethylene glycol mixture. Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf. 86, 181–189.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2017.05.024.
Nabil, M.F., Azmi, W.H., Hamid, K.A., Zawawi, N.N.M., Priyandoko, G., Mamat, R., 2017.
Thermo-physical properties of hybrid nanofluids and hybrid nanolubricants: a com-
prehensive review on performance. Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf. 83, 30–39.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2017.03.008.
Nabil, M.F., Azmi, W.H., Hamid, K.A., Mamat, R., 2017. Heat transfer and friction factor
of composite TiO 2 –SiO 2 nanofluids in water-ethylene glycol (60:40) mixture. IOP
Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 257, 012066. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/257/
1/012066.
Nagarajan, P.K., Subramani, J., Suyambazhahan, S., Sathyamurthy, R., 2014. Nanofluids
for solar collector applications: a review. Energy Proc. 61, 2416–2434. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.egypro.2014.12.017.
Nimmagadda, R., Venkatasubbaiah, K., 2015. Conjugate heat transfer analysis of micro-
channel using novel hybrid nanofluids (Al2O3+Ag/Water). Eur. J. Mech. B/Fluids
52, 19–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euromechflu.2015.01.007.
Nine, J., Batmunkh, M., Kim, J., Chung, H., Jeong, H., 2012. Investigation of Al 2 O 3
-MWCNTs hybrid dispersion in water and their thermal characterization delivered. J.
Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 12, 4553–4559. https://doi.org/10.1166/jnn.2012.6193.
Novinger, H.E., 1979. Evacuated-Tube Solar Collector. US 4177794.
Nuim Labib, M., Nine, M.J., Afrianto, H., Chung, H., Jeong, H., 2013. Numerical in-
vestigation on effect of base fluids and hybrid nanofluid in forced convective heat
transfer. Int. J. Therm. Sci. 71, 163–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.
2013.04.003.
Oruc, M.E., Desai, A.V., Kenis, P.J.A., Nuzzo, R.G., 2016. Comprehensive energy analysis
of a photovoltaic thermal water electrolyzer. Appl. Energy 164, 294–302. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.11.078.
Otanicar, T.P., Golden, J.S., 2009. Comparative environmental and economic analysis of
conventional and nanofluid solar hot water technologies. Environ. Sci. Technol. 43,
6082–6087. https://doi.org/10.1021/es900031j.
Park, E.J., Park, H.W., Korea, S., Ag, C., 2011. Synthesis and optimization of metallic
nanofluids using electrical explosion of wires in liquids. Adv. Mater. 2, 535–538
School of Mechanical and Advanced Materials Engineering, Ulsan National Institute
of Science and Technology, s of the met.
Parvin, S., Nasrin, R., Alim, M.A., 2014. Heat transfer and entropy generation through
nanofluid filled direct absorption solar collector. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 71,
386–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2013.12.043.
Pfleger, N., Bauer, T., Martin, C., Eck, M., Wörner, A., 2015. Thermal energy storage –
overview and specific insight into nitrate salts for sensible and latent heat storage.
Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 6, 1487–1497. https://doi.org/10.3762/bjnano.6.154.
Prajitno, D.H., Syarief, D.G., 2014. Corrosion of carbon steel in nanofluid containing ZrO2
nanoparticle at different temperature. Adv. Mater. Res. 896, 168–172. https://doi.
org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.896.168.
Qiao, G., Lasfargues, M., Alexiadis, A., Ding, Y., 2017. Simulation and experimental study
of the specific heat capacity of molten salt based nanofluids. Appl. Therm. Eng. 111,
1517–1522. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.07.159.
Qin, C., Kang, K., Lee, I., Lee, B.J., 2017. Optimization of a direct absorption solar col-
lector with blended plasmonic nanofluids. Sol. Energy 150, 512–520. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.solener.2017.05.007.
Qu, J., Zhang, R., Wang, Z., Wang, Q., 2019. Photo-thermal conversion properties of
hybrid CuO-MWCNT/H2O nanofluids for direct solar thermal energy harvest. Appl.
Therm. Eng. 147, 390–398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2018.10.094.
Qureshi, Z.A., Ali, H.M., Khushnood, S., 2018. Recent advances on thermal conductivity
enhancement of phase change materials for energy storage system: a review. Int. J.
Heat Mass Transf. 127, 838–856. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2018.
08.049.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
metsäsuolta kurkien voimakkaita huutoja. Sinä aamuna Juones istui
katoksessa kauan reen nenällä ja ihmetteli vastapäisen
metsäseinämän hentoja kevätkuvioita.
IV.

Samana keväänä kuolema raappasi kuitenkin metsäpälvekkeiltä

kyydittävän rattaillensa.

Ristianilla oli heiveröinen poika, joka sairasti talven ja kuoli eräänä

kevätkirkkaana päivänä akkunasta lattialle lankeavaan valoneliöön,
johon hän oli ryöminyt rajussa, oudossa huumeessa.

Vainaja kannettiin tuvan ahtaudesta havukotaan. Ristian ja

Lovissa itkivät poikaansa päivän ja pitivät pientä neuvoa
maahanpaniaisista.

Ristianille alkoi kuitenkin itkupäivän mittaan selvitä merkillinen

ajatus, joka suurenmoisuudellaan oli salvata hengen,
putkahdettuaan viimein päätöksen varmuuteen. Hän kierteli
kääpiötupaansa salaperäisenä ja arvioi päätöksensä
mahdollisuuksia. Lovissa ja lapsikatras ihmettelivät äänettöminä
hänen puuhiansa. Kunnes illalla, lusikkojen vielä vaistomaisesti
kalistessa tyhjän kivipotin laidoilla, Ristian jähmetytti perheensä
hetkeksi yllättävällä uutisella:

— Nyt sille meidänkin köyhyydellemme pannaan silmukka kaulaan

ja talutetaan vähäksi aikaa metsään!
 Ristian ei sinä iltana sanonut sen enempää, mutta siinäkin riitti jo
tietä lasten moneen ihmeelliseen kuvitelmaan.

Aamulla Ristian lähti varhain Ruoska-Juoneksen tuvalle, lainasi

Juonekselta kolme ruplaa rahaa ja istui kyläkaupan portailla pitkän,
odotustäyteisen hetken. Vielä itsekin uninen puotilainen herätteli
kaupan alkavaan päivään kolistelemalla luukut akkunoista ja
laskemalla ovesta tulvahtamaan keväisen aamun tuoksua
ummehtuneeseen huoneeseen. Ristian notkisti pian kuitenkin
puotilaisen virkeäksi ostamalla kolmella ruplalla rusinoita ja
mykistämällä ennen niin haasteliasta suutansa melkein
sanattomaksi, vaikka saikin vastattavakseen moneen ihmettelevään
kysymykseen. Iso rusinapussi kainalossa Ristian katosi
metsäpälvekkeille.

Ja sinä aamuna Ristian selvitti Lovissalle päätöksensä: hän aikoi

kutsua koko kylän hautajaisiin. Lovissa sätti kuitenkin miehensä
päätöksen räpäleiksi ja ratkesi voivottelemaan tämän hulluutta.
Ristian antoi ämmänsä kiukutella ja kierteli uudestaan tärkeän
näköisenä pihaseutunsa. Lapset keräytyivät piiriin ison rusinapussin
ympärille ja jatkoivat menneeniltaisia kuvitelmiansa alkavasta
rikkaudesta.

Tarkastuskierrokselta palattuaan Ristian alkoi selitellä äkäiselle

vaimollensa tarkemmin lavean päätöksensä ponnekkuutta,
mairitellen tätä ensin säveämmäksi:

— Tule sinä nyt vaan pois Törömäeltä mansikasta, niin saat kuulla
tarkkaan miten teemme!

— Enkä tule! Mokoman ukon tähden tässä pitää jo mennä kohta

Törömäen taakse!
 — Kuulehan nyt, miten olen asian tuuminut! Minä kutsun koko
kylän hautajaisiin, ja se on selvä, että kaikki tulevat ikivanhan tavan
mukaan ja tuovat tullessaan muonaa, kuten aina tuodaan
hautajaishyvittäjäisiksi: vehnäsiä, voita, maitoja, jamakoita,
sianviipaleita, rinkeleitä ja piirakoita. Me ahdamme suojat täyteen
tavaraa, keitämme näistä rusinoista vieraille mesimarjarokan,
nostamme vainajan kartanolle ja pidämme sen ympärillä
hautajaismenoja virsien voimalla. Ja mikäs on sitten viikkokaupalla
syödessä ihmisten laittamia herkkuja. Anna vaan minä järjestän
asiat, niin hyvä tulee!

Ja Lovissa palasi kuin palasikin Törömäeltä entiseen

nöyryyteensä. Hän pesi tuvan, tyhjensi aittapahasen, siivosi
kartanoinaan ja herkistyi lopulta ihan itkuun Ristianin oveluudesta.
Ristian itse valmisti arkun, tarkasti Lovissan ja lastensa työt, neuvoi
ja ohjaili.

Kylänlaidan kääpiötorpalla nähtiin unia ruokavuorista ja

kylläisyyden onnesta.

Hyvissä ajoin ennen hautajaispyhää Ristian alkoi kiertää kylää.

Hän ilmestyi tupiin, manasi niistä väet hautajaisiin ja vastasi
kuolemansyynkyselyihin huoahtaen:

— Varpaasta se vain alkoi — miten lie syksyllä tallannut naulaan.

Ohhoijaa, kuinka vei kuolema minulta napakan pojan, niin oli varma
eläjä vielä kesällä!

Ristian sai eloa Järvituittuun. Kun hän oli seisonut jokaisella kylän
kynnysvierellä, sanonut sanottavansa, kumarrellut kutsunsa
tehokkaiksi ja hävinnyt metsätöllilleen, alkoi Järvituitun taloissa
naisten vieraissa-pistäytyminen, ylimääräinen kahvinjuontiraivo ja
päivittelevä nauru.

Pyhää pohjustavalla loppuviikolla ei Järvituitussa puhuttu enää

muusta kuin Ristianille menosta ja varpaasta kuolemansa
aloittaneen pojan hautajaisista. Ja jokaisessa tuvassa törötti
hautajaisten aattoiltana lauantaipaistoksista erotettuja piirakkakekoja
Ristianin surujuhlaan vietäväksi.

*****

Hautajaissunnuntai valkeni kirkkaana ja tyynenä. Kiurujen

lentoviivat nousivat melkein näkymättömiin, ja metsän avarat
holvistot vyöryttelivät suolta kurkien aamuhuutoja.

Ristianin pihalla liikuttiin jo. Kylmänvalkoinen kirstu oli nostettu

havukodasta ulos. Ristian kanteli tuvasta penkkejä ja jakkaroita
seinävierille. Lapset istuivat totisina kirstun lähellä ja kiersivät aroin
sormin pieniä katajaseppeleitä, kirkastaen niiden köyhyyttä punaisin
tilkkuruusuin. Aamu tuntui avartuneen juhlalliseksi ja ihmeelliseksi.
Lasten äänet olivat hiljaisia ja lyhyitä.

Järvituitussa varustauduttiin hautajaisiin. Viileistä aitoista

kannettiin tylynmustia hautajaisvaatteita lämpenemään. Viemiset
ladottiin puhdasliinaisiin nyytteihin, aamumaitoja valutettiin
kannuihin, ja jokaisessa talossa syötiin vahvasti ennen lähtöä.

Ja vähitellen alkoi ilmestyä mustiin puettuja ihmisiä kevättä

uhkuville teille. Naiset kantoivat tuomisiansa hillityin elein. Miehet
panostelivat piippujansa ja tähtäilivät kuulean aamun merkkejä:
liikahtamatonta, nuorta lehteä työntävää oksaa ja sinisen taivaan
väljyyttä. Mutta hiljalleen tihenevän ihmisjonon kulussa tuntui
epäröivä eteneminen. Järvituitun yksissä liikkumaan tottunut väki ei
oikein saanut nyt rohkaisevan läheisyyden tuntoa: jokainen kulki
omien epäilevien ajatustensa varassa.

Ristianin valpas katse tapasi jo etäältä mustan ihmisvirran.

Omituinen, lämmin laine löi hänen ylitsensä: koko kylä tulee
vieraisille minun, hevosettoman miehen luokse! Lapset nousivat
aidalle ja katselivat ihmettelevin silmin hitaasti lähenevää onneansa.
Onneansa? — niin: isähän sanoi köyhyyden tänä aamuna nousevan
näkymättömiin kuin kiurun taivaan sineen.

Ristian nyhti veräjän auki, juoksi kutsumaan Lovissaa, joka

hätäisesti hämmenteli sakeaa mesimarjarokkaa hautajaisruuaksi, ja
vangitsi pihaseudun vielä kerran tarkastavaan silmäykseensä. Kaikki
näytti olevan kunnossa.

Ristian tunsi polviensa notkahtavan, kun hän kätteli veräjällä

ensimmäistä hautajaisvierasta ja neuvoi tätä jatkamaan matkaansa
pihalle. Ja niinkuin ihanassa unessa Ristian näki ohitsensa
vilahtelevan raskaita tuliaisnyyttejä ja maitokannuja. Hän ei
huomannut, ketä hän kätteli ja ketä toivotteli tervetulleeksi; hän näki
vain silmissänsä nyyttien turpeita vartaloita ja kannujen leveitä
olkapäitä. Ristianin lapsikatras tuijotti tuvannurkalla jäykkänä juuri
toteutuvaa untansa. Lovissa lyykisteli pihalla luonnottoman syvään
tervehtiessään eikä voinut estää kyynelkierähtämiä havaitessaan,
kuinka kylän emännät tulivat hänen luoksensa mairein kasvoin ja
ojentelivat tuomisiansa.

Ja tupa täyttyi maitokannuista kuin meijerin eteinen. Piirakkanyytit

ladottiin havukotaan, voit, sianviipaleet ja muut herkut aittaan.
Ristian ja Lovissa olivat kuin humalassa. He pyörtelivät pihalla
seisovasta vierasryhmästä toiseen, neuvoivat katsomaan vainajaa,
kumartelivat ja olivat pakahtua selittämättömään onnentuntoon, joka
johtui sekä vieraitten runsaudesta että tuomisvuorien jyrkänteistä.

Musta ihmismassa alkoi piirittää pientä, valkeata kirstua, jonka

karuuden punapilkkuiset katajaseppeleet häivyttivät
huomaamattomiin. Epäröivistä, hiljaisista äänistä kehittyi vähitellen
alakuloinen virsi, jota metsänreuna vastaili kuuluvasti avaraan
aamuun. Tapauksen merkillisyys häipyi hetkeksi kaikkien mielestä.
Valkea arkku ja sininen taivas valloittivat nyt Ristianin pihalla
seisovien ihmisten ajatukset. Virsi toisensa perästä alkoi ja loppui.
Hautajaisväen valtasi hartauden rauha, joka oli osa kevätaamua.

Kun sitten virrenlaulanta ratkaisevasti loppui ja kylä-äijien otsille

ilmestyivät taas lakinreunojen varjot, asteli Ristian itkettynein silmin
väen keskeen ja lausahteli syvään kumarrellen:

— Ellei kenelle muu kelpaa, niin tulkoon ottamaan vaikka

mesimarjarokkaa, ennenkuin tästä lähdetään vainajaa viemään; niin,
ellei tosiaan kuka muuta jaksaisi, niin totta nyt mesimarjarokkaa!

Lovissa seisoi rapuilla jännittyneenä ja seurasi Ristianin

saapastelua ryhmästä ryhmään.

Mutta syömäjäykät talolliset kiittelivät vain ja kertailivat Ristianille

aamuruokiensa nimiä; kiittelivät ja estelivät. Ja sitä mukaa kuin
estetyt enenivät ja kutsuttavat vähenivät, tulvaili Ristianiin
päihdyttävää hyvänmielen painetta, ja viimeisen vierasparven
kohdalla hän jo huikkasi ihan riemuntäyteisellä äänellä:

— No tottahan nyt mesimarjarokkaa!

 Samassa alkoi metsänlaidasta kuulua tuttua lähenemisääntä:
kärrinpyörien töyttäyksiä tienpintaan kuluneiden juurien esteisiin.
Ruoska-Juones ajoi sieltä työrattaita, joiden kulmissa vihersivät
pienet kuuset. Juoneksen mielessä läikähti somasti, kun hän näki
taas pitkästä aikaa Järvituitun väkeä. Hän ajoi ruumisrattaat veräjän
eteen, tasoitteli rattailla olevan olkitukun pehmeäksi matoksi ja
häilähdytti pohjalta nuoravyyhdin notkeana, oikenevana siimana
maahan.

Arkku kannettiin rattaille, ja Juones viritti sen ylitse kireät

nuorajänteet. Juones, Ristian, Lovissa ja lapset sovittautuivat
istumaan rattaiden laidoille, ja saatto alkoi edetä peräkylän kuopista
aaltoilevalle tielle. Kylän kohdalla miehet erkanivat ruumisrattaiden
jäljessä kulkevasta jonosta, kävelivät kukin kotiinsa, ajoivat
katoksista valmiiksi valjastetut hevosensa kulkueeseen ja istuttivat
naiset vierellensä. Ja taas Järvituitun väki oli matkasaatossansa.
Edellä kulkivat mustalaiskuormaa muistuttavat kirsturattaat, ja niiden
vanassa tien tavallisin ilmiö: valjastettu hevosjono.

Ruoska-Juones oli laskiaisyön jälkeen ensimmäistä kertaa

ohjasperissä kiinni, ja hänestä tuntui, niinkuin hän olisi parhaillaan
ajamassa entisyyttänsä hautaan ja takana tulisi saattona koko se
ympäristö, jonka keskestä hänen täytyi nyt jättäytyä syrjään. Juones
tuskin huomasi vieressänsä levottomasti siirrättelevää, hyvissä
mielissänsä ähkivää Ristiania ja tuon tuosta huokauksella itkuansa
aloittavaa Lovissaa. Yksitoikkoinen kangasmaisema ahdisti
Juoneksen ajatuksen yhä syvemmälle tuonoisen päätöksen
murheeseen, joka oli taas alkanut jäytää mustissansa liikkuvien
ihmisten näkemisestä.
 Pitkäksi venynyt ruumissaatto tiivistyi jälleen kirkonmäellä arkun
ympärille ja työntyi pian arasti vihertävälle hautausmaalle. Juones ja
moni muu saaton ukko jäi hevospuomille tarinoimaan juuri enteilevän
ajokauden mahdollisuuksista vierailta kyliltä kirkolle ajaneiden
miesten keralla. Mutta Juones ei sietänyt kuitenkaan pitkälti seurata
hänelle aran puheuoman aukomista, ja hän käveli kankein jaloin
kiviaidan tukevaan nojaan ja alkoi katsella kirkosta purkautuvien
ihmishyökyjen pirstaantumista kyläkujasten mutkiin.

Kirkonkello vavahdutti pian kuulasta kevätilmaa kumakoin,

toistuvin lyönnein. Puomilta pyörrettiin raisuiksi ikävystyneitä hevosia
isolle rautaportille. Naisista täyttynyt kirkkotarhan aukeama tyhjeni
nopeasti.

Puomilla seisoskellut Tuutija-Mikko asteli Juoneksen luo.

— No — mitä katselet?

— Katselenpahan vain taivaan toilauksia!

— Kuinkas vojot ovat?

— Ei tässä oikein kehumista ole eikä tule! Taitaa tämä jalkojen

ylenaikainen jomotus jättää minut tupaukoksi ihan kerrassaan.

— Ohhoh!

— Voi veikkonen, kun tässä onkin ollut tuumimista, miten tämän

elämänlatvan lautsimisen saisi kunnolleen suoritetuksi.

— A eihän hiirikään ruiskekoon kuole: onhan sinulla rahapeitto ja

pellonselkä, lautsit niiden turvissa.
 — Niinhän sitä äkkinäinen luulisi, mutta kun on ikänsä tottunut
istumaan kuskipukin räystäällä ja katsomaan tienpielien vilinää, niin
tuntuu tupaukoksi jääminen samanlaiselta kuin se silloinen kiven
sisässä oleminen, uskotko?

— Katsohan, miks’en uskoisi! Mutta kerranhan on kuitenkin joka

ukon vyyhdettävä ohjakset ratkaisevasti valjasnaulan hyviksi.
Käännänpä tässä erään mieleeni juolahtaneen ajatuksen sinulle
ehdotukseksi. Viime viikolla minä vasta älysin, että Ristian on heksa
mies, liian heksa elääkseen köyhänä. Mutta hänen kirouksenaanhan
on se, että hän vain kesällä pystyy kiristämään saamisistaan
hevosenostorahoja, ja kun kesää aina seuraa viraton syksy, tulevat
ne väkisinkin syödyiksi, vaikk’ei olisikaan erikoisen avokoura. Niin.
Kun sinä nyt aiot jäädä tupaukoksi, niin anna Ristianin ajella
hevosellasi ja pankaa te sitten rahat puolekkain. Siinä elätte silloin
molemmat. Ja niin heksa mies kuin Ristian todella on, sietää häntä
kyllä auttaa. Tässä tapauksessa kävisi teille molemmille vaikka
kuinka sujakasti. Vai mitä?

Juones haristeli ällistyneenä silmiään ja tokaisi hetken kuluttua:

— Voisihan tuo olla niinkin! Kunhan tässä nyt tuumitaan.

— Tuuma ei tunnu missään, mutta teko tuntuu!

— Kuka tiesi, kuka tiesi.

Väki palasi haudalta. Hevospuomilla käteltiin ja hyvästeltiin

Ristiania ja Lovissaa. Ristian kiitteli ja esitteli vielä
mesimarjarokkaansa, mutta kaikki valittelivat kotikiireitänsä ja ajoivat
tiehensä. Ja niin jäi Ristian perheineen kaljulle kirkonmäelle
Juoneksen keralla. Mutta jokaisen lähtevän hevosen jälkeen hän
sinkosi vielä kestien tutun toistokutsun:

— Tulkaahan huomenna pohmeloimaan!

Hevosta kääntävää Juonesta pyrki naurattamaan, ja hän letkautti

Ristiania:

— Tuskin niille kenellekään näistä hautajaisista pohmeloa kihoaa!

Juones tuumi kotimatkalla Tuutija-Mikon ehdotusta ja oli jo ilmaista

sen Ristianillekin. Mutta kun hän tarkasteli vieressänsä istuvan
Ristianin kasvojen kiihkeätä ilmettä, päätti hän jättää uutisen toiseen
kertaan ja antaa Ristianin olla jo nykyisenkin hyvänmielen
pyörrytyksessä.

Tuskin oli päästy kunnolla veräjälle, kun Ristian jo loikkasi maahan

ja lapsillensa huudellen juoksi tupaan. Lovissa kielteli Juonesta
lähtemästä, mutta tämä vetosi hevoseensa, ja niin jäi kääpiötorpan
väki yksin unensa riemuihin.

Heti ensiksi näki mesimarjarokka kyytinsä; sitä apettiin melkein

käsillä ahnaasti hotkiviin suihin eikä lopetettu, ennenkuin koko perhe
oli syönyt itsensä pavuksi.

Sitten Ristian johdatti jäykkyydestä ähkivät lapsensa metsään,

pienelle lammikolle, joka oli talven lumien muistoa, ja keräytti
mukana tuotuun kannelliseen vasuun isoja sammakoita. Lapset
kahlasivat iloisesti mekastaen lammikossa, suikkasivat tuon tuosta
kätensä nuolena veteen ja nostivat sieltä keltavatsaisia konnikaisia,
joita kirkuen juoksuttivat isällensä. Monta keväistä hetkeä oli jo
luikahtanut iltaa kohden, kun Ristian palasi lammikolta täyteläisin
korein, perässänsä lapsien ihmettelevä katras.

Ristian asteli kantamuksinensa suoraan tupaan, aukoi

maitokannujen kannet ja sujahdutti koristansa jokaiseen kannuun
kiihkeästi lipikoivan sammakon. Lapset seisoivat suut auki ja
hämmästyneinä.

— Kuulkaa nyt, kun isä neuvoo teitä! Jos milloin on maitoa paljon
eikä ole kellaria, niin täytyy kannuun laskea konnikainen, se pitää
maidon kylmänä eikä laske piimiintymään.

Ja lapsille riitti pitkäksi aikaa riemua heidän nykiessään kannujen

kansia auki ja katsellessaan maidossa notkeasti vellovia
hoikkakinttuisia sammakoita.

Sitä todeksi muuttunutta kylläisyyden unta kesti ratapölkkytuvalla

ummelleen kolme viikkoa.

Ensiksi syötiin kota tyhjäksi, ja siihen meni monta päivää. Sitten

nosteltiin aitan herkut näkyville ja hävitettiin ne, ja siihen meni taas
monta päivää. Illoin lähti tuvalta loikkimaan pari maidossa
pöhöttynyttä sammakkoa kohti metsälammikon vapautta.

Joka päivä kääpiötorppalaiset söivät itsensä käämeiksi, ja kun

sitten eräänä päivänä uni repesi ja sen takaa näkyi tyhjiä paikkoja,
lähtivät lapset Ristianin käskystä viemään tyhjiä kannuja ja
nyyttiriepuja Järvituittuun.

Ristian pujotti kannut kahteen pitkään vartaaseen ja solmi rievut

näiden ympärille jäniksenkorville. Kylläisyyttä uhkuvat lapset
kiersivät nyt Järvituittua, kuten heidän isänsä oli tehnyt viikkoja
aikaisemmin, riuvut olalla ja kasvoilla neuvoton ilme. Yksi lapsista
piipahti aina tupaan ja toi mukanansa ulos ihmettelevän emännän
valitsemaan omaansa. Ja tämä saatto herätti taas Järvituitussa yhtä
paljon riemua kuin aikanaan Ristianin kutsukiertely. Melkein
tuntemattomiksi lihonneet, kannuja kantavat lapset kulkivat naurun
siemeninä pitkin ja poikin Järvituitun kylää, jossa kertautuivat kaikki
ratapölkkytupalaisten äskettäin aiheuttamat puheet, sutkaukset ja
naurut.

Mutta metsäpälvekkeellä alkoi taas köyhyys ärtyä.

V.

Järvituitun aitovierillä oli tuomien keltaantuvaa kukkasadantaa.

Tupien aurinkoseinustoilta oli jo kärrinpyörien tervaiset kehät
nostettu kuivanruskeina akselirautojen neniin. Odoteltiin
helluntaipyhiä, jolloin pietarilaiset saapuisivat laumoittain
kannakselaisiin kyliin vuokraamaan kesähuviloita, mielissänsä
toivomus järven ja tattimetsän läheisyydestä.

Ja kesä alkoi taas ajuriparven rynnäköllä asemalle.

Kapakkapihalle syöksyi kirein ohjaksin holhottuja hevosia, ja ukkojen
äänissä kertautui maisemien kirkkaus. Auringon herätyshuuto oli
saanut kiihkeän vastauksen.

Metsäpälvekkeiltä ravasi hevonen valtatielle raisuna ja elävissään.

Ristian istui kuskin räystäällä ja sivalsi tuon tuosta ohjaskaaren
ajokkinsa lautasille. Ja lyömiseen tottumaton hevonen lennätti
rattaita kuin säikky varsa.

Ristianin mielessä velloi taas läkähdyttävä hyvänmielen pyörrytys.

Hän, housurikko mies, ohjasperissä kiinni ja viilettämässä puomille,
uuteen unien valtakuntaan, tuhannesti toivottuun ja menetettyyn.
Yhtenä aamuna, varsin köyhänä aamuna, Ristian oli saapastellut
Juoneksen tuvalle puhumaan niistä kolmesta rusinaruplasta. Mutta
Juones yllättikin hänet, ja sikäli olivat onnen portit auki: hänelle
hevonen ja Juonekselle ajorahoista puolet. Ja sitä päätöstä, joka oli
hukkunut kääpiötorpalla monenpäiväiseen, ruoattomaan iloon,
Ristian ajoi nyt alkamaan. Ensimmäistä kertaa hän nyt vasta näki,
miten iloisesti maiseman ranta juoksi hevosmiehen rinnalla ja miten
rattaiden hurma soitti korvan täyteen matkariemua.

— Hei!

Ja taas loisahtivat ohjasperät herkille lautasille.

Mutta kapakalla Ristian vasta oikein sai tuntea uuden elämänsä

ihmeen. Hän ehti sisälle juuri parhaaseen hälinään, kun Tuutija-
Mikko huudettiin ajurivanhimmaksi. Ristianista tuntui, niinkuin
näkymätön käsi olisi painanut hänet ovipieltä vastaan seisomaan ja
estänyt hänet työntymästä ukkojen sakeaan ryhmään, joka
parhaillaan piiritti Tuutija-Mikkoa ja heitti tämän äkkiä ilmaan,
kahdesti, kerran kolmattakin, vaikka heikommin. Piiskaryypyt
viskattiin suihin, ja Tuutija-Mikko oli nyt ajurikaartin arvoukko. Pian
huomattiin Ristianin epäröivä ovipielessä seisoskelu, ja hiljainen
kuiskaus alkoi kiitää pöydästä pöytään.

*****

Vasta puomille ajettaessa Ristian alkoi selvitä ja kerätä juuri

sattuneita tapahtumia yhteen. Äkkiä oli kapakassa ukkolauma
puuroutunut hänen ympärillensä ja huonetta oli vapisuttanut
moniääninen huuto:

— Ja nyt nostetaankin Ristian vossikaksi!

 Hän oli lennähtänyt ilmaan, monestiko — sitä nyt oli aika lukea.
Hän oli nähnyt vain tuttujen, kirkastuneiden kasvojen olevan välisti
silmien, välisti varpaiden tasalla. Ja näistä etääntyvistä ja
lähenevistä kasvoista oli noussut huuto, joka oli tehnyt hänet muiden
vertaiseksi. Se olikin sekoittanut ihan tarkkaan Ristianin
huomiokyvyn. Hänelle oli ojennettu piiskaryyppyjä, jotka läpäisivät
rinnan kuin tuliset siimat. Ja Ristian oli itkenyt hyvästä mielestä,
läkähdyttävästä, äärettömästä onnesta. Hän oli muitten mukana
joutunut kartanolle mieskehään, seurannut ymmällään arpomisen
vaiheita ja saanut kaiken kukkuraksi mieleensä arvannipistyksestä
huumaavan jännityksen, joka oli purkauduttuaan jättänyt kädet
vapiseviksi kuin nurkka-ukolla. Ja kun lähtömelu oli selvittänyt ajurit
pitkäksi, eteneväksi jonoksi, havahtui Ristian vasta tajuamaan, mitä
oikein oli tapahtunut: hänen kaukaisin unensa, sahapukilta
siirtyminen kuskipukille, oli nyt huudettu todeksi kaikilla Järvituitun
ajuriäänillä.

Puomilla ukot neuvoivat Ristianille tarkasti ajuritapoja ja hevosen

ohjailemista sakeassa liikkeenvilinässä. Ristian ahmi uutterasti kaikki
neuvot muistiinsa ja kertaili niitä itseksensä päästä päähän, aina
välillä vielä kysäisten varmuuden vuoksi lähellä seisovilta jotakin
ongelmalliselta tuntuvaa seikkaa.

Ukoilla oli tiedossa hyvä ajopäivä, sillä vuokraamaan tulleet

herrasväet antoivat heidän ajella seutuja pitkin ja poikin etsiessään
sopivia kesähuviloita itsellensä. Ja ukot tekivät mahdollisimmin loivia
kaarratteluja ja venyttivät matkoja soveliailla poikkiteitten pätkillä ja
edestakaisinajeluilla.

Ja juna saapui: kesän ensimmäinen vierastäyteinen juna.

Vaunuista purkautui ihmisten kirjava paljous, joka tasoittui pian
ajuripuomin rattaille ja hajosi siitä teitten käänteisiin ja sitä mukaa
kohti puhtaiksi pestyjä huviloita ja kuloharmaasta kirkkaiksi
haravoituja puistonurmikoita.

Peltoaukioitten kohdilla koristivat ojanräystäitä rentukoiden

keltaiset pälvet, ja niistä katkottiin ohitse ajettaessa suuria sylitäytisiä
rattaille. Ilakoitiin ja osoiteltiin hämmästyksestä huudahdellen
maisemien puhtaita muotoja.

Ristianin kärreille osui tanakka, haarapartainen herra, joka istui

sateenvarjo somasti polvien välissä ja pyöritteli sen hopeakirjailtua
koukkua. Ristian oli aluksi ihan ymmällä. Hänestä tuntui, niinkuin hän
olisi kuljettanut rattaillansa kallista, särkyvää aarretta, jota vaani tuho
pienimmänkin raitiouppoaman aiheuttamassa tärskähdyksessä.
Henki kurkussa hän ohjaili hevosta, tähystellen kaula pitkänä allansa
vilistävän tien pintaa ja sen kuoppia. Mutta pian alkoi herra ahdistaa
Ristiania kaikennäköisillä maalle tulleen kaupunkilaisen kyselyillä.
Kun Ristian kuuli takanansa istuvan herran tuttavallisen äänen, ei
hän tahtonut saada yht'aikaisen hyvänmielen puuskan lannistamana
sanaa suustansa, vaan sieppasi hatun päästänsä ja kumarrellen
nyökytteli vain päätänsä vastaukseksi. Vasta uudistettu kysymys sai
sanoja vastaansa. Ja siitä Ristian äityi haastelemaan herran keralla
pitkän tuokion ja osoittelemaan tien mutkien takaa sukeltavia
maisemanäkyjä, kunnes rattaat äkkiä törmäsivät suureen
tienpainumaan ja hätkähdyttivät Ristianin taas tähyilemään tien
juoksentaa.

Päiväkuntaisen ajon mittaan Ristianille selvisi, että herra oli

nimeltään Rasutovi, että hänellä oli Mustallamerellä laiva ja
Pietarissa pankki ja makasiini ja että hän halusi vuokrata tattimetsän
rajasta jonkin ison huvilan. Ja sitä ajeltiin etsimässä jokaisesta
Järvituitun puutarhasta.

Kylän laitamassa, vastapäätä töykeää kuusikkometsää, oli korkea,

sileänurkkainen huvila, keltaiseksi maalattu ja puiden varjojen
risteyksessä. Ristian ja Rasutovi ajoivat jo kerran sen ohitsekin,
mutta palasivat pian takaisin, kiertelivät sen nurkitse moneen
otteeseen ja kurkistelivat akkunoista hämäriin huoneisiin. Rasutovia
miellytti metsän läheisyys ja liikahtamaton hiljaisuus, ja hän käski
ajamaan huvilan vuokraajalle.

Ristian lasketteli rattaita töyttäileviä kujasia pitkin Hiopin tuvalle ja

juoksi hevosensa seisatettuaan sisälle.

— Missä Hioppi on? Arvatkaa nyt pitää tämä Rasutovi! Tällä on

laiva ja makasiina ja pankillinen rahoja! Missä Hioppi on?

Ällistynyt vaimoväki sai viimein selvitetyksi, että Hioppi oli itse

äsken ajanut huvilalla erään herran keralla, mutta se ei ollut
varmaankaan kelvannut, koska Hioppi oli ajanut vielä rantahuviloille
päin eikä asemalle. Mutta yhdet avaimet olivat vielä tuvassa, ja ne
annettiin Ristianille sekä käskettiin kaikin mokomin suostutella herra
vuokraamaan huvila. Ristiania kutsuttiin sitten ajon loputtua
iltakahville.

Ristian ja Rasutovi pyörsivät uudelleen huvilalle ja kävelivät sen

kosteissa, ummehtuneissa huoneissa. Ristian kiitteli parhaan
kielitaitonsa mukaan huvilan hyvyyttä ja maiseman kauneutta ja tunsi
jo nenässänsä iltakahvin hajua.

Ja Rasutovi päätti kuin päättikin vuokrata Hiopin huvilan. Hän

jakeli Hiopin naisväelle sarjan pesemis- ja tuulettamiskäskyjä, osoitti
sormellansa almanakasta perheensä saapumispäivän ja nykäisi
lompakostansa käsirahaksi sadanruplan keltapintaisen setelin.

Ristian kyyditsi Rasutovia asemalle niinkuin vanhaa, hyvää tuttua.

Hän puhua solkkasi oman elämänkertansa ruodon Rasutoville
katkonaisin tokaisuin ja kuvailevin kädenvetäisyin. Kuopista ei ollut
enää väliä, Ristian huomasi jo, että kuskiukko on herra linnallansa,
jonka ohjasotteeseen on suuren ja sorjankin alistuminen.

Iltapäiväjunille kerääntyi suuri joukko poislähteviä pietarilaisia.

Tuon tuosta hyömähti asema-aukealle rattaita, joilta purkautui
lompakoitansa availevia herroja. Ajurit nostelivat kiiltävälippaisia
lakkejansa ja toivottelivat matkaonnea kyydittävillensä sekä ajoivat
kapakalle.

Kun Rasutovi laskeutui rattailta maahan ja avasi lompakkonsa,

takertui Ristianille henki taas kurkkuun, ja käsi repäisi lakin
näkymättömiin selän taakse. Ristian huomasi Rasutovin lompakosta
nousevan kaksi jäykkää seteliä ja työntyvän häntä kohden. Ristian
ihmetteli sanattomana sormiensa nipistykseen joutuneita rahoja,
joista toinen oli kahdenkymmenenviiden ja toinen kolmenruplan
seteli. Edellisen osoitti Rasutovin turpea sormi tulevan ajorahaksi ja
jälkimmäisen sajurahaksi. Ristian tunsi notkistuvansa kuin voidetta
saanut aisaremeli ja hän kumarteli Rasutovia hyvästijäämään. Kun
Rasutovi vielä tarjosi kättä Ristianille, kertautuivat hänen mielessään
yhtenä silmänräpäyksenä kaikki päivän riemut, ja hän kompuroi
kuskipukille niinkuin humala olisi niittänyt häneltä jalat alta pois. Ja
ohjasperää selkäänsä saanut hevonen syöksyi suoraan
kapakkakatokseen ja töksähdytti vauhtinsa äkisti vasta pilttuun
edessä. Kiivas seisahdus taittoi Ristianin kuskisermin ylitse ja vauhti
jatkui vielä Ristianin nenän uppoamisessa hevosen hännänjuureen.
Katoksessa naurettiin ja kyseltiin Ristianilta mukavia.

Hartain mielin Ristian oikoi taskunsa sokkeloista Rasutovin

antamat rahat ja käänteli niitä kankein sormin, silmiensä edessä
kuva kääpiötorppansa elämästä ja sen alituisesta köyhyyden
masennuksesta. Ympärillä ukot kaskuilivat uljaankeltaisten
teelasiensa takaa päivän vuokrailuajojen vaiheita ja hahmoittelivat
kesän ensimmäisestä päivästä jo suoraa tapausviivaa päin syksyn
harmautta; kaskuilivat ja nauroivat.

Ennenkuin kapakkavaimo ehti kysyä Ristianilta tämän

pöytäaikeita, pujahti Ristian ulos, irroitti hevosensa ja pakeni
nopeasti kotia kohti. Ristianin mielessä läikehti halu viedä heti osa
omasta onnestansa Lovissalle ja lapsille, eikä hän raatsinut jäädä
kapakalle särkemään rahojansa.

Hiopilla Ristian joi iltakahvit ja alkoi kehua Rasutovia:

— Kyllä sen näki jo kokkapäisestä sontikasta, jotta hopialla ukko

on sen maksanut. Ja vaikka on hänellä Pietarissa makasiina ja
rahapankki ja laiva merellä, niin eikös vaan tupannut kättä asemalla,
jotta prossait Kristian Petrovits! Eikä sitä näin köyhälle vaan joka
herra kättä sökötä, se on selvä. Rahaa sillä on jotta rutajaa. Kysyi
minulta: Kristian Petrovits, a kuin elät, a kuin tulet toimeen? Minä
vastasin, että sellaistahan se on köyhän asia — kun nukkui, niin jäi
iltasetta. Silloinkos Rasutovi taputti olalle ja sanoi, jotta haroossi
puitit, patastii vaan. Ja kun asemalla rahan antoi, niin antoi, ettei
kahdesti katsonut lompakkoonsa. Itsestään sieltä ruplat nousi, niin
oli niitä sakiassa. Hyvä on mies ylen, Rasutovi, ylen on hyvä ja rikas!