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Thermal Food Engineering
Operations
Scrivener Publishing
100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J
Beverly, MA 01915-6106
Bioprocessing in Food Science
Series Editor: Anil Panghal, PhD
Scope: Bioprocessing in Food Science will comprise a series of volumes covering the entirety of
food science, unit operations in food processing, nutrition, food chemistry, microbiology, biotech-
nology, physics and engineering during harvesting, processing, packaging, food safety, and storage
and supply chain of food. The main objectives of this series are to disseminate knowledge pertaining
to recent technologies developed in the field of food science and food process engineering to students,
researchers and industry people. This will enable them to make crucial decisions regarding adoption,
implementation, economics and constraints of the different technologies.
As the demand of healthy food is increasing in the current global scenario, so manufacturers are
searching for new possibilities for occupying a major share in a rapidly changing food market.
Compiled reports and knowledge on bioprocessing and food products is a must for industry people.
In the current scenario, academia, researchers and food industries are working in a scattered manner
and different technologies developed at each level are not implemented for the benefits of different
stake holders. However, the advancements in bioprocesses are required at all levels for betterment
of food industries and consumers.
The volumes in this series will be comprehensive compilations of all the research that has been
carried out so far, their practical applications and the future scope of research and development in
the food bioprocessing industry. The novel technologies employed for processing different types of
foods, encompassing the background, principles, classification, applications, equipment, effect on
foods, legislative issue, technology implementation, constraints, and food and human safety
concerns will be covered in this series in an orderly fashion. These volumes will comprehensively
meet the knowledge requirements for the curriculum of undergraduate, postgraduate and research
students for learning the concepts of bioprocessing in food engineering. Undergraduate, post
graduate students and academicians, researchers in academics and in the industry, large- and small-
scale manufacturers, national research laboratories, all working in the field of food science, agri-
processing and food biotechnology will benefit.
Publishers at Scrivener
Martin Scrivener (martin@scrivenerpublishing.com)
Phillip Carmical (pcarmical@scrivenerpublishing.com)
Thermal Food Engineering
Operations
Edited by
Nitin Kumar
Anil Panghal
and
M. K. Garg
This edition first published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA
© 2022 Scrivener Publishing LLC
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 9781119775591
Cover image: Wikimedia Commons and the editors

Cover design by Russell Richardson
Set in size of 11pt and Minion Pro by Manila Typesetting Company, Makati, Philippines
Printed in the USA
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Preface xvii
1 Novel Thermal Technologies: Trends and Prospects 1
Amrita Preetam, Vipasha, Sushree Titikshya, Vivek Kumar,
K.K. Pant and S. N. Naik
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Novel Thermal Technologies: Current Status and Trends 3
1.2.1 Environmental Impact of Novel Thermal Technologies 6
1.2.2 The Objective of Thermal Processing 8
1.2.3 Preservation Process 9
1.3 Types of Thermal Technologies 11
1.3.1 Infrared Heating 12
1.3.1.1 Principal and Mechanism 12
1.3.1.2 Advantages of IR Heating 13
1.3.1.3 Applications of IR Heating 14
1.3.2 Microwave Heating 14
1.3.2.2 Advantages of Microwave in Food Industry 17
1.3.2.3 Application of Microwave in Food Processing
Technologies 19
1.3.3 Radiofrequency (RF) Heating 24
1.3.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages 26
1.3.3.3 Applications 27
1.3.4 Ohmic Heating 28
1.3.4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages 31
1.3.4.3 Applications 33
1.4 Future Perspective of Novel Thermal Technologies 36
1.5 Conclusion 36
References 37
v
vi Contents
2 Microbial Inactivation with Heat Treatments 45

Sushree Titikshya, Monalisa Sahoo, Vivek Kumar and S.N. Naik
2.1 Introduction 45
2.2 Innovate Thermal Techniques for Food Reservation 47
2.3 Inactivation Mechanism of Targeted Microorganism 48
2.3.1 Action Approach and Inactivation Targets 49
2.4 Environmental Stress Adaption 50
2.4.1 Sublethal Injury 50
2.5 Resistance of Stress 51
2.5.1 Oxidative Stress 51
2.5.2 Osmotic Stress 52
2.5.3 Pressure 52
2.6 Various Techniques for Thermal Inactivation 52
2.6.1 Infrared Heating 52
2.6.1.1 Principle and Mechanism 52
2.6.1.2 Application for Inactivation in Food Sector 53
2.6.2 Microwave Heating 57
2.6.3 Radiofrequency Heating 59
2.6.4 Instant Controlled Pressure Drop Technology (DIC) 60
2.6.5 Ohmic Heating 62
2.7 Forthcoming Movements of Thermal Practices
in Food Industry 64
2.8 Conclusion 65
References 66
3 Blanching, Pasteurization and Sterilization: Principles
and Applications 75
Monalisa Sahoo, Sushree Titikshya, Pramod Aradwad,
Vivek Kumar and S. N. Naik
3.1 Introduction 76
3.2 Blanching: Principles & Mechanism 76
3.2.1 Types of Blanching 76
3.2.1.1 Hot Water Blanching 76
Contents vii
3.2.1.2 Steam Blanching 80

3.2.1.3 High Humidity Hot Air Impingement
Blanching (HHAIB) 81
3.2.1.4 Microwave Blanching 81
3.2.1.5 Ohmic Blanching 85
3.2.1.6 Infrared Blanching 86
3.2.2 Application of Blanching 89
3.2.2.1 Inactivation of Enzymes 89
3.2.2.2 Enhancement of Product Quality
and Dehydration 90
3.2.2.3 Toxic and Pesticides Residues Removal 90
3.2.2.4 Decreasing Microbial Load 90
3.2.2.5 Reducing Non-Enzymatic Browning
Reaction 91
3.2.2.6 Peeling 91
3.2.2.7 Entrapped Air Removal 91
3.2.2.8 Enhancing Bioactive Extraction
Efficiency 91
3.2.2.9 Other Applications 92
3.3 Pasteurization: Principles & Mechanism 92
3.3.1 Thermal Pasteurization 92
3.3.2 Traditional Thermal Pasteurization 93
3.3.3 Microwave and Radiofrequency Pasteurization 93
3.3.4 Ohmic Heating Pasteurization 94
3.3.5 Application of Pasteurization 98
3.4 Sterilization: Principles, Mechanism and Types
of Sterilization 98
3.4.1 Conventional Sterilization Methods 99
3.4.2 Advanced Retorting 100
3.4.3 Microwave-Assisted Thermal Sterilization 101
3.4.4 Pressure-Assisted Thermal Sterilization 103
3.5 Conclusions 104
References 104
4 Aseptic Processing 117
Malathi Nanjegowda, Bhaveshkumar Jani and Bansee Devani
4.1 Introduction 118
4.2 Aseptic Processing 118
4.3 Principle of Thermal Sterilization 121
4.3.1 Effect of Thermal Treatment on Enzymes 123
viii Contents
4.3.2 Effect of Thermal Treatments on Nutrients

and Quality 123
4.3.3 Effect of Thermal Treatments on the Cooking
Index (C0) 124
4.3.4 Effect of Heat Treatments on Chemical Reactions
in Food 124
4.4 Components of Aseptic Processing 124
4.4.1 Equipment Used in Aseptic/UHT Processing 124
4.4.1.1 Indirect Heat Exchanger 125
4.4.1.2 Direct Heat Exchanger 126
4.4.1.3 Ohmic Heating (OH) 126
4.5 Aseptic Packaging 127
4.5.1 Types of Packaging Materials Used in Aseptic
Processing 127
4.5.2 Methods and Requirements of Decontamination
of Packaging Materials 128
4.6 Applications of Aseptic Processing and Packaging 128
4.6.1 Milk Processing 133
4.6.2 Non-Milk Products Processing 135
4.7 Advantages of Aseptic Processing and Packaging 136
4.8 Challenges of Aseptic Processing and Packaging 137
4.9 Conclusion 137
References 138
5 Spray Drying: Principles and Applications 141
Sukirti Joshi, Asutosh Mohapatra, Lavika Singh
and Jatindra K Sahu
5.2 Concentration of Feed Solution 142
5.3 Atomization of Concentrated Feed 143
5.3.1 Principle of Atomization 143
5.3.2 Classification of Atomizers 143
5.3.2.1 Rotary Atomizers 144
5.3.2.2 Pressure Nozzle/Hydraulic Atomizer 144
5.3.2.3 Two‐Fluid Nozzle Atomizer 145
5.4 Droplet‐Hot Air Contact 145
5.5 Drying of Droplets 146
5.6 Particle Separation 148
5.7 Effect of Process Parameters on Product Quality 148
5.7.1 Process Parameters of Atomization 150
5.7.2 Parameters of Spray‐Air Contact and Evaporation 151
Contents ix
5.7.2.1 Spray Angle 151

5.7.2.2 Aspirator Flow Rate 151
5.7.2.3 Inlet Air Temperature 151
5.7.2.4 Outlet Air Temperature 152
5.7.2.5 Glass Transition Temperature 152
5.7.2.6 Residence Time 153
5.8 Classification of Spray Dryer 153
5.8.1 Open-Cycle Spray Dryer 153
5.8.2 Closed-Cycle Spray Dryer 154
5.8.3 Semi‐Closed Cycle Spray Dryer 154
5.8.4 Single‐Stage Spray Dryer 154
5.8.5 Two‐Stage Spray Dryer 154
5.8.6 Short‐Form Spray Dryer 154
5.8.7 Tall‐Form Spray Dryer 154
5.9 Morphological Characterization of Spray-Dried
Particles 155
5.10 Application of Spray Drying for Foods 156
5.11 Wall Materials 157
5.11.1 Carbohydrate-Based Wall Materials 158
5.11.1.1 Starch 158
5.11.1.2 Modified Starch 158
5.11.1.3 Maltodextrins 158
5.11.2 Cyclodextrins 159
5.11.3 Gum Arabic 159
5.11.4 Inulin 159
5.11.5 Pectin 160
5.11.6 Chitin and Chitosan 160
5.11.7 Protein-Based Wall Materials 160
5.11.7.1 Whey Protein Isolate 161
5.11.7.2 Skim Milk Powder 161
5.11.7.3 Soy Protein Isolate (SPI) 161
5.12 Encapsulation of Probiotics 162
5.12.1 Choice of Bacterial Strain 162
5.12.2 Response to Cellular Stresses 163
5.12.3 Growth Conditions 164
5.12.4 Effect of pH 164
5.12.5 Harvesting Technique 165
5.12.6 Total Solid Content of the Feed Concentrate 165
5.13 Encapsulation of Vitamins 165
5.14 Encapsulation of Flavours and Volatile Compounds 166
5.14.1 Selective Diffusion Theory 166
x Contents
5.15 Conclusion and Perspectives 170

References 170
6 Solar Drying: Principles and Applications 179
Baher M. A. Amer
6.2 Principle of Solar Drying 180
6.3 Construction of Solar Dryer 181
6.4 Historical Classification of Solar Energy Drying Systems 182
6.5 Storing Solar Energy for Drying 185
6.6 Hybrid/Mixed Solar Drying System 186
6.7 Solar Greenhouse Dryer 188
6.8 Solar Drying Economy 188
6.9 New Applications Related to Solar Drying 190
References 192
7 Fluidized Bed Drying: Recent Developments and Applications 197
Praveen Saini, Nitin Kumar, Sunil Kumar and Anil Panghal
7.2 Principle and Design Considerations of Fluidized
Bed Dryer 198
7.2.1 Spouted Bed Dryer 201
7.2.2 Spout Fluidized Bed Dryer 202
7.2.3 Hybrid Drying Techniques 205
7.2.3.1 Microwave-Assisted FBD 205
7.2.3.2 FIR-Assisted FBD 206
7.2.3.3 Heat Pump–Assisted FBD 207
7.2.3.4 Solar-Assisted FBD 207
7.3 Design Alterations for Improved Fluidization Capacity 208
7.3.1 Vibrated Fluidized Bed 208
7.3.2 Agitated Fluidized Bed 209
7.3.3 Centrifugal Fluidized Bed 210
7.4 Energy Consumption in Fluidized Bed Drying 211
7.5 Effect of Fluidized Bed Drying on the Quality 212
7.6 Applications of Fluidized Bed Drying 215
7.7 Concluding Remarks 215
References 215
8 Dehumidifier Assisted Drying: Recent Developments 221
Vaishali Wankhade, Vaishali Pande, Monalisa Sahoo
and Chirasmita Panigrahi
8.2 Absorbent Air Dryer 222
Contents xi
8.2.1 Working Principle of Adsorption Air Dryer 223

8.2.2 Design Considerations and Components
of the Absorbent Air Drier 223
8.2.2.1 Desiccant Drying System 223
8.2.3 Performance Indicators of Desiccant Air
Dryer System 226
8.2.3.1 Low Temperature Drying With No
Temperature Control and Air Circulation
System 227
8.2.3.2 Low Temperature Drying With Air
Circulation and Temperature Control 228
8.3 Heat Pump–Assisted Dehumidifier Dryer 228
8.3.1 Working Principles of a Heat Pump–Assisted
Dehumidifier Dryer 229
8.3.2 Performance Indicators of Heat Pump–Assisted
Dehumidifier Dryer 231
8.4 Applications of Dehumidifier-Assisted Dryers
in Agriculture and Food Processing 233
8.5 Concluding Remarks 234
References 234
9 Refractance Window Drying: Principles and Applications 237
Peter Waboi Mwaurah, Modiri Dirisca Setlhoka
and Tanu Malik
9.2 Refractance Window Drying System 239
9.2.1 History and Origin 239
9.2.2 Components and Working of the Dryer 240
9.2.3 Principle of Operation 242
9.3 Heat Transfer and Drying Kinetics 244
9.3.1 Drying Rate and Moisture Reduction Rate 245
9.4 Effect of Process Parameters on Drying 245
9.4.1 Effect of Temperature of the Hot Circulating Water 245
9.4.2 Effect of Product Inlet Temperature and Thickness 246
9.4.3 Effect of Residence Time 247
9.4.4 Effect of Ambient Air Temperature
(Air Convection) 247
9.5 Comparison of Refractance Window Dryer
with Other Types of Dryers 247
9.6 Effect of Refractance Window Drying on Quality
of Food Products 248
xii Contents
9.6.1 Effects on Food Color 249

9.6.2 Effects on Bioactive Compounds 250
9.6.2.1 Carotene Retention 251
9.6.2.2 Ascorbic Acid Retention 252
9.6.2.3 Anthocyanin Retention 252
9.7 Applications of Refractance Window Drying in Food
and Agriculture 253
9.7.1 Applications of Refractance Window Drying
in Preservation of Heat-Sensitive and Bioactive
Compounds 253
9.7.2 Applications of Refractance Window Drying
on Food Safety 254
9.8 Advantages and Limitations of Refractance Window Dryer 255
9.9 Recent Developments in Refractance Window Drying 255
9.10 Conclusion and Future Prospects 256
References 257
10 Ohmic Heating: Principles and Applications 261
Sourav Misra, Shubham Mandliya and Chirasmita Panigrahi
10.2 Basic Principles 263
10.3 Process Parameters 265
10.3.1 Electrical Conductivity 265
10.3.2 Electrical Field Strength 266
10.3.3 Frequency and Waveform 267
10.3.4 Product Size, Viscosity, and Heat Capacity 267
10.3.5 Particle Concentration 267
10.3.6 Ionic Concentration 267
10.3.7 Electrodes 268
10.4 Equipment Design 268
10.5 Application 270
10.5.1 Blanching 276
10.5.2 Pasteurisation/Sterilization 276
10.5.3 Extraction 277
10.5.4 Dehydration 278
10.5.5 Fermentation 279
10.5.6 Ohmic Thawing 280
10.6 Effect of Ohmic Heating on Quality Characteristics
of Food Products 280
10.6.1 Starch and Flours 280
Contents xiii
10.6.1.1 Water Absorption Index (WAI)

and Water Solubility Index (WSI) 280
10.6.1.2 Pasting Properties 280
10.6.1.3 Thermal Properties 281
10.6.2 Meat Products 282
10.6.3 Fruits and Vegetable Products 282
10.6.3.1 Electrical Properties 282
10.6.3.2 Soluble Solids Content and Acidity 282
10.6.3.3 Vitamins 283
10.6.3.4 Flavor Compounds 284
10.6.3.5 Phenolic Compounds 284
10.6.3.6 Colour Properties 284
10.6.3.7 Change in Chlorophyll Content 285
10.6.3.8 Textural Properties 285
10.6.3.9 Sensory Properties 286
10.6.4 Dairy Products 286
10.6.5 Seafoods 290
10.7 Advantages of Ohmic Heating 290
10.8 Disadvantages of Ohmic Heating 291
10.9 Conclusions 291
References 292
11 Microwave Food Processing: Principles and Applications 301
Jean-Claude Laguerre and Mohamad Mazen Hamoud-Agha
11.2 Principles of Microwave Heating 302
11.2.1 Nature of Microwaves 302
11.2.1.1 Propagation of EM Waves
in Free Space 302
11.2.1.2 Propagation of EM Waves in Matter 306
11.2.2 Mechanism of Microwave Heating 309
11.2.2.1 Dielectric Characteristic of a Material 309
11.2.2.2 Waves-Product Interactions 312
11.2.3 Transmission and Absorption of a Wave
in a Material 316
11.2.3.1 Expression of Transmitted Power 316
11.2.3.2 Penetration Depths 317
11.2.3.3 Power Dissipation 319
11.3 Applications 320
11.3.1 Microwave Baking 320
xiv Contents
11.3.2 Microwave Blanching 323

11.3.3 Microwave Tempering and Thawing 326
11.3.4 Microwave Drying 328
11.3.4.1 Microwave-Assisted Hot Air Drying 329
11.3.4.2 Microwave-Assisted Vacuum Drying 330
11.3.4.3 Microwave-Assisted Freeze-Drying 330
11.3.5 Microwave Pasteurization and Sterilization 331
References 334
12 Infrared Radiation: Principles and Applications
in Food Processing 349
Puneet Kumar, Subir Kumar Chakraborty and Lalita
12.2 Mechanism of Heat Transfer 351
12.2.1 Principles of IR Heating 351
12.2.1.1 Planck’s Law 352
12.2.1.2 Wien’s Displacement Law 352
12.2.1.3 Stefan–Boltzmann’s Law 352
12.2.2 Source of IR Radiations 353
12.2.2.1 Natural Source 354
12.2.2.2 Artificial Sources 354
12.3 Factors Affecting the Absorption of Energy 356
12.3.1 Characteristics of Food Materials 357
12.3.1.1 Composition 357
12.3.1.2 Layer Thickness 357
12.3.2 IR Parameters 357
12.3.2.1 Wavelength of IR Rays 358
12.3.2.2 IR Intensity 358
12.3.2.3 Depth of Penetration 358
12.3.3 Advantages of IR Heating Over
Conventional Heating Methods 359
12.4 Applications of IR in Food Processing 359
12.4.1 Drying 360
12.4.2 Peeling 361
12.4.4 Microbial Decontamination 364
12.5 IR-Assisted Hybrid Drying Technologies 366
12.5.1 IR-Freeze-Drying 366
12.5.2 Hot Air-Assisted IR Heating 367
Contents xv
12.5.3 Low-Pressure Superheated Steam Drying with IR 368

12.6 Conclusion 368
References 369
13 Radiofrequency Heating 375
Chirasmita Panigrahi, Monalisha Sahoo, Vaishali Wankhade
and Siddharth Vishwakarma
13.2 History of RF Heating 377
13.3 Principles and Equipment 378
13.3.1 Basic Mechanism of Dielectric Heating 378
13.3.1.1 Basic Mechanism and Working
of Radiofrequency Heating 379
13.3.1.2 Basic Mechanism and Working
of Microwave Heating 380
13.3.2 Factors of Food Affecting the Performance
of RF Processing 380
13.3.2.1 Permittivity and Loss Factor 380
13.3.2.2 Power Density and Penetration Depth 381
13.3.2.3 Wave Impedance and Power Reflection 382
13.3.3 Comparison of RF Heating With Other Methods 383
13.3.4 Lab Scale and Commercial Scale
of RF Equipment 385
13.3.4.1 Radiofrequency Processing of Food
at Lab Scale 386
13.3.4.2 Radiofrequency Processing of Food
at Industrial Scale 387
13.4 Applications in Food Processing 388
13.4.1 Drying 388
13.4.2 Thawing 393
13.4.3 Roasting 394
13.4.4 Baking 394
13.4.5 Disinfestation 395
13.4.7 Pasteurization/Sterilization 396
13.5 Technological Constraints, Health Hazards,
and Safety Aspects 399
13.6 Commercialization Aspects and Future Trends 402
13.7 Conclusions 404
References 404
xvi Contents
14 Quality, Food Safety and Role of Technology in Food Industry 415

Nartaj Singh and Prashant Bagade
14.1.1 Food Quality 417
14.1.1.1 Primary and Secondary Food
Processing 419
14.1.1.2 Historical Trends in Food Quality 421
14.1.1.3 Food Quality Standards
and its Requirements 423
14.1.1.4 Role of Technology in Building
Food Quality Within the Industry 440
14.1.1.5 Regulations and their Requirements 444
14.1.2 Food Safety 445
14.1.2.1 Primary and Secondary
Food Production 445
14.1.2.2 Historical Trends in Food Safety 446
14.1.2.3 Food Safety Standards
and its Requirements 447
14.1.2.4 Role of Technology in Building
Food Safety Within Industry 450
14.2 Future Trends in Quality and Food Safety 451
14.3 Conclusion 453
References 453
Index 455
Preface
Thermal processing is a significant component of the undergraduate and

postgraduate degrees in agriculture engineering, food engineering and
food science technology throughout the world. Thermal food engineering
operations are considered one of the core competencies for these programs
and in industries as well. Researchers will be able to use the informa-
tion as a guide in establishing the direction of future research on thermo-
physical properties and food processing. The audience for this volume will be
the student preparing for a career as a food engineer, practicing engineers in
the food and related industries, and scientists and technologists seeking infor-
mation about processes and the information needed in design and develop-
ment of thermal food engineering processes and operations. Simultaneously,
improving food quality and food safety are continue to be critical issues
during thermal processing. So, quality, food safety and role of technology in
food industry are discussed to cover these areas of food industry.
A great variety of topics is covered, with the emphasis on the most
recent development in thermal operations in food industry. The chapters
presented in this volume throw light on a number of research subjects that
have provided critical information on different thermal processes, their
impact on different food components, and their feasibility in food indus-
try. Each chapter also provides background information of the changes in
different thermal operations which changed drastically over the years. The
authors emphasis on newer thermal technologies which are making a great
impact on the industry and the resulting finished products. The adoption
of modern technology has increased efficiency and productivity within
the factory. Most importantly, utilizing the newer thermal operations has
greatly improved product quality. All chapters are supported with a wealth
of useful references that should prove to be an invaluable source for the
reader. Self-explanatory illustrations and tables have been incorporated in
each chapter complimentary to the main text.
Thanks are due to all authors for contributing their knowledgeable chap-
ters in this volume and helping us to complete the book. We also thank the
xvii
xviii Preface
authorities of Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University,

Hisar for their help and support. Finally, we also express indebtedness and
thankfulness to Scrivener Publishing and Wiley team for their unfailing
guidance and helpful assistance.
Nitin Kumar
Anil Panghal
M.K. Garg
1
Novel Thermal Technologies:
Trends and Prospects
Amrita Preetam1*, Vipasha1, Sushree Titikshya1, Vivek Kumar1, K.K. Pant2
and S. N. Naik1
1
Centre for Rural Development and Technology, IIT Delhi, Delhi, India
2
Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Delhi, Delhi, India
Abstract
Heating is possibly the most traditional way of processing foods. The technologies
involved in heating have been continuously developing for the past many years as
per consumer need, satisfaction and demand. Techniques such as dielectric heat-
ing, ohmic heating, and infrared heating are evolving and can substitute for the
conventional heating methods for improving quality and shelf life, and providing a
faster production rate. The conventional technologies are primarily based on con-
vective, conductive, and radiative heat transfer. But the new novel thermal meth-
ods are mainly relying on the electromagnetic field or electrical conductivity and
are having cleaner environmental impacts such as energy saving, water savings,
improved efficiencies, fewer emissions, and eventually decreasing dependency
on non-renewable resources. The chapter discusses novel thermal technologies.
Definitions, basic principles, environmental impacts, current trends, and future
perspectives are described along with the mechanism and advantages of the novel
thermal technologies. The novel thermal technologies are continuously emerging
and evolving as per consumer requirements and need.
Keywords: Novel thermal technologies, infrared heating, ohmic heating,
microwave heating, radiofrequency heating
1.1 Introduction
The primary goal for food processors is quality and safety assurance. To
ensure microbiological food safety, the use of heat by thermal operation
*Corresponding author: amritapreetam92@gmail.com
Nitin Kumar, Anil Panghal and M. K. Garg (eds.) Thermal Food Engineering Operations, (1–44)
© 2022 Scrivener Publishing LLC
1
2 Thermal Food Engineering Operations
involving drying, sterilization, evaporation, and other methods are com-

mon practices. The conventional heating methods rely on principles such
as convection, radiation, and conduction [36] that primarily rely on heat
generation exterior of the product to be warmed up. But there are limita-
tions attached to it. These conventional ways of processing, due to the
decrease in efficiency of heat transfer, by excessive heating because of time
reach the thermal center of foods for conducting sufficient heat or losses
because of the heat on the surface of equipment and installation. Some of
these problems can be resolved by technical solutions such as heat recy-
cling or advanced designing and installation methods but at high expense.
Therefore research has been made for raising the quality and safety and
economic aspects of food through technological development. The novel
thermal technologies in which the main processing factor is temperature
change as the main parameter responsible for food processing can be con-
sidered as the promising alternative in food processing as compared to the
traditional process. Unlike traditional technologies, novel thermal tech-
nologies are based on electromagnet field (EMI) or electric conductivity.
Novel thermal technologies are based on the heat generations directly
inside the food. The novel thermal technologies have successfully helped
in enhancing the effectiveness of heat processing along with ensuring food
safety and maintaining nutritional food properties. Infrared heating has
also evolved for the processing of food. The thermal technologies involve
the equipment plotted to heat the food to process it, whereas in non-
thermal techniques the food is virtually processed without the involvement
of food. The general definition of common technologies involved in novel
thermal techniques and their basic differences are discussed below.
Ohmic heating is also called Joule heating, electrical residence heating. It
is a method of heating the food by the passage of an electric current, so heat
is generated due to the electrical current. It is a direct method, as the heat
energy is directly dissipated into the food. It is primarily used to preserve
food. Electric energy is dissipated into heat, which results in quick and uni-
form heating followed by maintaining the nutritional value and color. The
key variable in electrical conductivity is designing of an effective ohmic
meter. Ohmic heating uses a normal electrical supply frequency which is
of 50-60Hz. Ohmic heating instantly penetrates directly into the food. The
applications of ohmic heating include UHT sterilization, pasteurization,
and others.
Dielectric heating is another novel process that provides volumetric
heating, for uniform sterilization or preserving of food. It is also a direct
method and is based on the process of heating the material by caus-
ing dielectric motion in its molecule using alternating electric fields,
Novel Thermal Technologies 3
microwave electromagnetic radiation, or radio wave. The intensity of the

electric field and the dielectric properties of the product regulate the volu-
metric power and absorption and the rate of heat generation. Both micro-
wave heating and radiofrequency belong to this category and follow the
principle of dielectric heating. The depth of penetration is directly related
to frequency in the case of dielectric heating. The thermal conductivity is
not so important in dielectric heating. The few application of microwave
and radiofrequency are in freeze-drying, baking, sterilization, rendering,
frying, and many others.
Infrared heating is mainly utilized to modify the eating characteristics
of food by varying its color, texture, flavor, and odor. Radiant heat is less
managed and has a broader range of frequencies. The thermal conduc-
tivity is a limiting factor in infrared heating. It acts as an indirect method
of heating. Infrared is simply absorbed and converted into heat. It has
limited penetration depth in food. It has several advantages over conven-
tional methods such as decreased heating time, reduce quality loss, and
uniform heating, versatility, easy to operate and compact equipment, and
many others. It also has a vast area of application includes drying, frying,
baking, cooking, freeze-drying, pasteurization, sterilization, blanching,
and many others.
The other technique is non-thermal heating technologies which are
based on pulsed light, pulsed electric fields, ultrasound, and gamma radi-
ation, and others, where the temperature may change also but is not the
prime parameter for food processing. The purpose of this chapter is to
deliver a general outlook of novel thermal technologies in the food pro-
cessing sector along with their environmental impact, current trends, and
future perspective.
1.2 Novel Thermal Technologies: Current Status

and Trends
The most common approach for food processing in the last 50 years is ther-
mal processing because a huge amount of microorganisms are removed at
elevated temperatures by killing them. Thermal processing protects food
by pasteurization, hot air drying, and others, induces variations to improve
food quality by baking, blanching, roasting, frying, and cooking. Time and
temperature used are the key variable depending on the application used.
In the case of thermal processing, sometimes the high temperature may
lead to loss of nutrients or bioactive compounds which results in low-
processed food and low-grade food.
So in such a situation, novel thermal techniques or with the combina-

tion of traditional technologies are used to modify the quality and shelf
life while decreasing the change in sensory properties. The food indus-
try is continuously developing in order to fulfill customer demand for
food nutrition, natural flavors, food quality, and taste. Innovation and
research are continuously growing all over the world to maintain and
improve standards. Currently, consumers demand food with the least or
no chemical additives and should be minimally processed [37]. These
developing technologies are called ‘novel’ technologies because they are
successfully fulfilling the needs of consumers and are an improvement
of conventional technologies. Depending upon the principle used, it can
be thermal or non-thermal. Techniques such as microwave, ultrasound,
and pulsed electric field can be an alternative proved by many research-
ers to develop nutritious and safe food [10, 15, 16]. Such techniques are
being used broadly by many innovative food companies [6]. As compared
to traditional technologies these new emerging technologies have many
benefits over traditional techniques such as more heat and mass trans-
fer, improved product quality, short process and residence time, better
functionality, enhanced preservation, and others. The processing of the
food is important for taste, nutritional content, texture, and appearance
[36]. The benefits of novel processing technologies over traditional tech-
niques are improved functional characteristics and retention of sensory
attributes by using the promising next-generation food [62]. The devel-
opment, research, and large-scale set-up of these novel technologies are
taking place internationally. It is evident from the number of publications
on the benefits of novel thermal technologies in food processing in vari-
ous food and agriculture processing research journals [51].
Microwave: The most popular and extensive technology studied world-

wide both domestically and industrially is microwave processing due to
its various advantages such as easy operation, lower maintenance require-
ment, and cleaner environment [77]. But despite all the advantages,
microwave is facing two main hurdles, i.e., irregular distribution of tem-
perature within the food product and high cost of energy regarding this
technique [6]. Furthermore, the set-up operated at 2450 MHz may give
rise to serious boundary and surface overheating of the food to outstretch
the desired elevated temperature in cold spots. For those cases, continuous
microwave systems have been used to provide uniform temperatures for
the heating of foods. Some authors have suggested fusion with water as the
heating medium, pulsed microwave [24, 51]. The most common technol-
ogy is microwave-assisted thermal sterilization system (MATS™) based on
915MHz single-mode cavities using a shallow bed with water food immer-
sion; it penetrates deeper in food and water offers to reduce the edge heat-
ing. It got approval in 2009 by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
[72].
Infrared heating: Proved by many researchers, Infrared heating (IRH)

is an efficient process for the purification of pathogenic microorgan-
isms in food. Many operational variables such as food temperature, size
and kind of food materials, IR power intensity, IR power intensity, and
others are necessary for microbial inactivation. At a commercial scale,
IRH had been found as the replacement or substitute to decrease non-
uniform temperature distribution which occurs in microwave heating
[6]. Internationally, IRH is used for blanching, drying, baking, roasting,
and peeling. At the industrial level IRH has considerable advantages such
as a large heat delivery rate, no medium required, high energy efficiency,
low environmental footprint, and others [39]. But because of less pene-
tration depth, this technology is not successful at the commercial level;
for example, it cannot be utilized in in-packaging food processing. The
major successful large-scale (commercial) applications of IRH is drying
of low-moisture foods (grains, pasta, tea, etc.), also the applications in
baking (e.g., pizzas, biscuits, and others) and in the oven for roasting of
cereals, coffee, etc.
Radiofrequency: Another thermal technology is Radiofrequency heating

(RFH), used from the 1940s. Earlier applications were to warm bread, dry
up and blanch vegetables and others. RFH has a greater industrial interest
because of its unique properties such as deeper penetration due to its lesser
frequencies, uniform electric field distribution, and longer wavelength.
Major applications are in the food-drying sectors for pasta, snacks, and
crackers and sterilization or pasteurization process, treatment of seeds and
disinfection of product [19]. As compared to microwave heating, RF has
the potential to reduce surface overheating and can also give better results
at a commercial scale [81]. On a commercial scale, such as for treating
bulk materials, sterilization of packaged foods is successful because they
are simple to construct, have a more uniform heating pattern, and have
greater penetration depth. Drawbacks of this technology include, at indus-
trial scale, the design equipment is complicated, there is a high investment
cost and technical issues such as dielectric failure and thermal runaway
heating that can damage package and product [1]. Another common ther-
mal technique is ohmic heating (OH) where internal heat generation takes
place by passing a current into the materials.
Ohmic heating (OH): Compared to other technologies, ohmic heating has

advantages such as larger temperature in particles than in liquid, decreased
fouling, energy-efficient, uniform heating (achieved by thermal, physical,
and rheological properties), and lower cost [64]. The drawbacks include
the requirement of aseptic packing after OH heating, the possibility of cor-
rosion, direct exposure of the electrode with food.
Major utilization of OH are blanching, sterilization, evaporation, dehy-
dration, extraction, and evaporation. The basic procedure involved in OH
of microbial inactivation is thermal harm and in some cases by electropo-
ration. In comparison to traditional heating, OH heating can attain lesser
heating times, can keep away from hot surfaces, and can decrease the tem-
perature gradients.
Since the 1990s, OH is now utilized in developing countries and all over
the world. Almost a hundred processing plants have been placed all over
the world. The market is in the developing stage and evolving constantly.
OH equipment is installed all over the world such as in Italy, France, Spain,
Greece, and Mexico [54]. The application of OH is not much commercial-
ized for solid food products. For liquids, viscous liquids, and pumpable
multiphase products, the installed set-ups perform the sterilization and
pasteurization of numerous food products with great characteristics with
main applications in vegetables and fruit areas.
Overall, the major issue involved in commercialization of electromagnetic
techniques for numerous food applications is the lack of heat uniformity,
which has a major impact on key variables of food processing and safety. To
avoid this downside, hybrid systems are proposed, i.e., the combination of
traditional and volumetric heating [54, 63]. The hybrid system offers advan-
tages such as safety, improved process efficiency, and product properties.
Successful hybrid techniques are IR-convective drying, a combination of
IRH, IR-heat pump drying, and microwave heating, and many others are
still in progress because of the magnified energy throughput.
1.2.1 Environmental Impact of Novel Thermal Technologies

The emergence of novel thermal technologies and non-thermal processes
in food processing industries is capable of producing high-quality and stan-
dardized products. Both of them are environmentally sound and efficient
in nature as compared to conventional technologies. Here we will consider
more on the environmental footprints of novel thermal technologies. The
primary objective in the food industry is food safety which requires high
energy consumption, but novel thermal technologies are successfully able
to balance energy saving and energy consumption.
The high value of hygiene and safety of food requires large use of water
in both hot and cold cycles in production which consequently increases the
environmental footprint. Processes such as cooking, sterilization, drying,
and pasteurization require various types of energy. Novel thermal technol-
ogies are promising, attractive, and efficient in nature. They are capable of
providing improved quality and reduced environmental effects which will
eventually reduce environmental footprints. Novel thermal technologies
can reduce processing costs followed by improving and maintaining the
value-added products. Overall the primary types of energy used based on
conventional thermal processing techniques are fossil fuel and electricity,
majorly utilized in refrigeration and mechanical power in pumps. A heat
exchanger is commonly used in the pasteurization of beverages where the
pathogens are killed when heated to a particular residence time. During
thermal treatment, convection and conduction play a major role to trans-
fer heat to the products. For viscous fluids, directing heating process is
applied, e.g., steam injection and steam infusion are utilized for thermal
treatments. In the food and beverages industry, regarding the distribution
of energy in 2002, Denmark suggests that total consumption of energy
(TJ/Year) is 135,200 including the amount of heating and power. Adapted
from [58].
This concludes that major heat is used in frying, evaporation, drying,
and heating for thermal processes. Until the present moment, this trend
is still functioning. Novel thermal technologies such as radio frequency,
ohmic heating, microwave, etc., for food processing being continuously
evolving. These novel thermal technologies have reduced emissions, reli-
ability, improved productivity, high product quality, energy saving, water
saving and consequently have less impact on the environment; [45] inves-
tigated that for Orange juice and cookies manufacturing, radio frequency
drying (RF) can range up to 0 to 73.8 TJ per year in terms of primary
energy saving. The major kinds of gas emissions from food industries are
linked to power and heat production particulate matter and gases such as
SO2, CO2, NO, from combustion processes. The particulate matter and vol-
atile organic compounds (VOCs) and other chemical emissions are from
methods such as size reduction, heating, refrigeration system, and cooking
methods.
Conventionally 33% of the overall energy consumed in food processing
corresponds to the production of steam. The steam is commonly used in
drying, concentrating liquids, cooking, sterilizing, etc., in the processing of
food processes. The generation of steam used in food industries involves
the utilization of boilers. To remove the dissolved solid from the boiler
system a large quantity of water is periodically drained from the bottom,
which is called a blow-down. Inadequate blow-down may lead to the gath-

ering of dirt which reduces the heat transfer rates and increases the loss
of energy. Irregular boiler maintenance can decrease the efficiency of the
boiler up to 20-30%. The efficiency of a boiler is affected by losses of heat by
convection and radiation [58]. Improper boiler maintenance can also emit
large emissions of CO2 and loss of energy. [58] also mentions the losses that
occurred of a boiler or steam generation system composed of: gases from
the combustion of air, or incomplete combustion, radiation losses, boiler
blow-down water, heat convection, and fouling of heat transfer surfaces
from hot boiler surface. Many attempts have been made to evolve a sus-
tainable sector for lowering the emission of gases, e.g., CO2 and enhance
the energy efficiency of devices and methods using renewable energy is
now the main concern for every method. Therefore, using electricity in
food powering systems may show an environmental benefit as compared
to conventional techniques used. Overall novel technologies are consid-
ered sustainable, once they reduce the consumption of boilers or steam
generation systems and eventually decrease the waste-water, heat loss and
increase energy-saving and water-saving as well. Furthermore, the electricity
is produced by an eco-friendly source of renewable energy; after that these
methods will efficiently contribute to decreasing the pollution, assisting
them to protect the environment. [82] shows the balancing by ohmic heat-
ing decreased the extent of solid leaching irrespective of the dimensions of
the product. It is concluded by [65], OH blanching offers benefit in aspects
such as water-saving by maintaining the quality of the processed products.
Novel thermal can efficiently accelerate the drying processes when related
to traditionally heat pre-treated samples allowing exact control of the pro-
cess temperature and eventually it can decrease costs of energy, reduce the
gas consumption and lower combustion-related emissions [53].
So we can conclude that novel thermal technologies are one of the most
novel techniques in food preservation processes. Novel thermal tech-
nologies are quite efficient in all aspects such as the efficiency of energy,
saving of water, and reduced emissions. Most of the processes involved
in novel thermal technologies are green and hence more environmentally
friendly, having the least environmental impact as compared to conven-
tional technologies.
1.2.2 The Objective of Thermal Processing

The major purpose of thermal processing is to maintain certain quality
standards, to reduce enzymatic activities, reduce microbial activities to
enhance its shelf life, increase digestibility, and maintain certain physical
and chemical variations to ensure its characteristic and safety of food. The
objective also includes adding values such as maintaining its texture, flavor,
color, etc., and make varieties of new products; it should also be needed
by the specific section of the population. Over the past several years, con-
sumer demands have improved standard, convenient and varied food
which required the modification and development in existing traditional
process for the new food preservation technologies. For that, the new novel
thermal technologies evolved. Novel thermal technologies are better not
only in terms of their quality improvements of food and heating efficiency
but also in other important aspects such as water-saving, energy-saving,
and reduced emissions. Most of these technologies are green and have less
environmental impact and improve the added value of foods.
1.2.3 Preservation Process

The basic definition of food indicates that food is the materials, formulated
or processed which are consumed orally by living organisms for develop-
ment, pleasure, needs, and fulfillment. The chemical composition of food
includes majorly water, fats, lipids, and carbohydrates with less amount
of minerals and compounds containing organics. The different catego-
ries of food are perishable, synthetic, non-perishable, fresh, medical food,
harvested, manufactured, preserved, and others. The preservation of food
majorly depends on the type of food required to be produced and formu-
lated. Preservation of food is defined as maintaining its properties at the
desired level for long as possible. Safety with sustainability and innova-
tion are the major aspects and priorities to ensure the preservation of food.
In the modern era, the preservation of and processing of food not only
includes the safety of the foods but also maintains sustainable innovation,
economic feasibility, customer satisfaction, nutritional aspects, absence of
chemical preservative, and should be environmental sound [62].
Food preservation is necessary for ensuring desired quality level, con-
sumer satisfaction, to maintain preservation length and also to focus on
the group for whom the products are to be preserved [10]. The reason
for preservation also includes to form the value-added products, provide
modifications in diet, and most importantly to overcome the improper
planning in agricultural sectors. Preservation loss not only results in minor
deterioration of food but also results in the transformation of the food to
a severely toxic state.
After a certain period of time, the quality and characteristics of
food may get deteriorated and become undesirable for consumption
so it becomes the prime factor to study the rate of variations of quality
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five years old, nevertheless she was of the greatest assistance to
her mother in nursing women. Both showed the utmost kindness to
the new-born children, washed and brushed them up, said pretty
things to them, and strengthened the mothers with cordials and tonic
draughts. To their care the Israelites were indebted for the graceful
and vigorous forms of their children; and the two women were such
favourites with the people, that they called the one Shiphrah (the
soother or beautifier) and the other Puah (the helper).
When they appeared before the king, and heard what he designed,
Miriam’s young face flushed scarlet, and she said, in anger, “Woe to
the man! God will punish him for his evil deed.”
The executioner would have hurried her out, and killed her for her
audacity, but the mother implored pardon, saying, “O king! forgive
her speech; she is only a little foolish child.”
Pharaoh consented, and assuming a gentler tone, explained that the
female children were to be saved alive, and that the male children
were to be quietly put to death, without the knowledge of the
mothers. And he threatened them, if they did not obey his wishes,
that he would cast them into a furnace of fire. Then he dismissed
them. But the two midwives would not fulfil his desire.
And when Pharaoh found that the men-children were saved alive, he
shut up the two midwives, that the Hebrew women might be without
their succour. But this availed not. And God rewarded the midwives;
for of the elder Moses was born.
Five years passed, and Pharaoh dreamed that, as he sat upon his
throne, an old man stood before him holding a balance. And the old
man put the princes, and nobles, and elders of Egypt, and all its
inhabitants into one scale, and he put into the other a sucking child,
and the babe outweighed all that was in the first scale.[457]
When Pharaoh awoke, he rehearsed his dream in the ears of his
wise men and magicians and soothsayers, and asked them the
interpretation thereof.
Then answered Balaam, who, with his sons Jannes and Jambres,
was at the court, and said, “O king, live for ever! The dream thou
didst see has this signification. A child shall be born among the
Hebrews who shall bring them with a strong hand out of Egypt, and
before whom all thy nations shall be as naught. A great danger
threatens thee and all Egypt.”
Then said Pharaoh in dismay, “What shall we do? All that we have
devised against this people has failed.”
“Let the king suffer me to give my advice,” said Jethro, one of his
councillors. And when Pharaoh consented, he said, “May the king’s
days be multiplied! This is my advice; the people that thou
oppressest is a great people, and God is their shield. All who resist
them are brought to destruction; all who favour them prosper.
Therefore, O king, do thou withdraw thy hand, which is heavy upon
them; lighten their tasks, and extend to them thy favour.”
But this advice pleased not Pharaoh nor his councillors; and his
anger was kindled against Jethro, and he drove him from his court
and from the country. Then Jethro went with his wife and daughter,
and dwelt in the land of Midian.
Then said the king, “Job of Uz, give thy opinion.”
But Job opened not his lips.
Then rose Balaam, son of Beor, and he said, “O my king, all thy
attempts to hurt Israel have failed, and the people increase upon
you. Think not to try fire against them, for that was tried against
Abraham their father, and he was saved unhurt from the midst of the
flames. Try not sword against them, for the knife was raised against
Isaac their father, and he was delivered by the angel of God. Nor will
hard labour injure them, as thou hast proved. Yet there remains
water, that hath not yet been enlisted against them; prove them with
water. Therefore my advice is—cast all their new-born sons into the
river.”[458]
The king hesitated not; he appointed Egyptian women to be nurses
to the Hebrews, and instructed them to drown all the male children
that were born; and he threatened with death those who withstood
his decree. And that he might know what women were expecting to
be delivered, he sent little Egyptian children to the baths, to observe
the Hebrew women, and report on their appearance.
But God looked upon the mothers, and they were delivered in sleep
under the shadow of fruit-trees, and angels attended on them,
washed and dressed the babes, and smeared their little hands with
butter and honey, that they might lick them, and, delighting in the
flavour, abstain from crying, and thus escape discovery. Then the
mothers on waking exclaimed:—“O most Merciful One, into Thy
hands we commit our children!” But the emissaries of Pharaoh
followed the traces of the women, and would have slain the infants,
had not the earth gaped, and received the little babes into a hollow
place within, where they were fed by angel hands with butter and
honey.
The Egyptians brought up oxen and ploughed over the spot, in
hopes of destroying thereby the vanished infants; but, when their
backs were turned, the children sprouted from the soil, like little
flowers, and walked home unperceived. Some say that 10,000
children were cast into the Nile. They were not deserted by the Most
High. The river rejected them upon its banks, and the rocks melted
into butter and honey around them and thus fed them,[459] and oil
distilled to anoint them.
This persecution had continued for three years and four months,
when, on the seventh day of the twelfth month, Adar, the astrologers
and seers stood before the king and said, “This day a child is born
who will free the people of Israel! This, and one thing more, have we
learnt from the stars, Water will be the cause of his death;[460] but
whether he be an Egyptian or an Hebrew child, that we know not.”
“Very well,” said Pharaoh; “then in future all male children, Egyptians
as well as Hebrews, shall be cast indiscriminately into the river.”
And so was it done.[461]
2. THE BIRTH AND CHILDHOOD OF MOSES.
Kohath, son of Levi, had a son named Amram, whose life was so
saintly, that death could not have touched him, had not the decree
gone forth, that every child of Adam was to die.
He married Jochebed, the daughter of Levi, his aunt, and by her he
had a daughter Miriam; and after four years she bore him a son, and
he called his name Aaron.
Now when it was noised abroad that Pharaoh would slay all the sons
of the Hebrews that were born to them, Amram thrust away his wife,
and many others did the same, not that they hated their wives, but
that they would spare them the grief of seeing their children put to
death.[462] After three years, the spirit of prophecy came on Miriam,
as she sat in the house, and she cried, “My parents shall have
another son, who shall deliver Israel out of the hands of the
Egyptians!” Then she said to her father, “What hast thou done? Thou
hast sent thy wife away, out of thine house, because thou couldst not
trust the Lord God, that He would protect the child that might be born
to thee.”
Amram, reproved by these words, sought his banished wife; the
angel Gabriel guided him on his way, and a voice from heaven
encouraged him to proceed. And when he found Jochebed, he led
her to her home again.[463]
One hundred and thirty years old was Jochebed, but she was as
fresh and beauteous as on the day she left her father’s house.[464]
She was with child, and Amram feared lest it should be a boy, and
be slain by Pharaoh.
Then appeared the Eternal One to him in a dream, and bade him be
of good cheer, for He would protect the child, and make him great,
so that all nations should hold him in honour.
When Amram awoke, he told his dream to Jochebed, and they were
filled with fear and great amazement.
After six months she bore a son, without pain. The child entered this
world in the third hour of the morning, of the seventh day of the
month Adar, in the year 2368 after the Creation, and the 130th year
of the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt. And when he was born, the
house was filled with light, as of the brightest sunshine.
The tender mother’s anxiety for her son was increased when she
noted his beauty,—he was like an angel of God,—and his great
height and noble appearance. The parents called him Tobias (God is
good) to express their thankfulness, but others say he was called
Jokutiel (Hope in God). Amram kissed his daughter, Miriam, on the
brow, and said, “Now I know that thy prophecy is come true.”[465]
Jochebed hid the child three months in her chamber where she
slept. But Pharaoh, filled with anxiety, lest a child should have
escaped him, sent Egyptian women with their nurslings to the
houses of the Hebrews. Now it is the custom of children, when one
cries, another cries also. Therefore the Egyptian women pricked their
babes, when they went into a house, and if the child were concealed
therein, it cried when it heard the Egyptian baby scream. Then it was
brought out and despatched.
Jochebed knew that these women were coming to her house, and
that, if the child were discovered, her husband and herself would be
slain by the executioner of Pharaoh.
Moreover they feared the astrologers and soothsayers, that they
would read in the heavens that a male child was concealed there.
“Better can we deceive them,” said Amram, “if we cast the child into
the water.”
Jochebed took the paper flags and wove a basket, and pitched it
with pitch without, and clay within, that the smell of the pitch might
not offend her dear little one; and then she placed the basket
amongst the rushes, where the Red Sea at that time joined the river
Nile.
Then, weeping and wailing, she went away, and seeing Miriam come
to meet her, she smote her on the head, and said, “Now, daughter,
where is thy prophesying?”
Miriam followed the little ark, as it floated on the wash of the river,
and swam in and out among the reeds; for Miriam was wondering
whether the prophecy would come true, or whether it would fail. This
was on the twenty-first of the month Nisan, on the day, chosen from
the beginning, on which in after times Moses should teach his people
the Song of Praise for their delivery at the Red Sea.[466]
Then the angels surrounded the throne of God and cried, “O Lord of
the whole earth, shall this mortal child fore-ordained to chant, at the
head of Thy chosen people, the great song of delivery from water,
perish this day by water?”
The Almighty answered, “Ye know well that I behold all things. They
that seek their salvation in their own craftiness and evil ways shall
find destruction, but they who trust in Me shall never be confounded.
The history of that child shall be a witness to My almighty power.”
Melol, king of Egypt, had then only one daughter, whom he greatly
loved; Bithia (Thermutis or Therbutis)[467] was her name. She had
been married for some time to Chenephras, prince of a territory near
Memphis, but was childless. This troubled her greatly, for she
desired a son who might succeed her father upon the throne of
Egypt.
At this time God had sent upon Egypt an intolerable heat, and the
people were affected with grievous boils.[468] To cure themselves,
they bathed in the Nile. Bithia also suffered, and bathed, not in the
river, but in baths in the palace; but on this day she went forth by the
Nile bank, though otherwise she never left her father’s palace. On
reaching the bathing-place she observed the ark lodged among the
bulrushes, and sent one of her maids to swim out and bring it to her;
but the other servants said, “O princess, this is one of the Hebrew
children, who are cast out according to the command of thy royal
father. It beseems thee not to oppose his commands and frustrate
his will.”
Scarcely had the maidens uttered these words than they vanished
from the surface of the earth. The angel Gabriel had sunk them all,
with the exception of the one who swam for the ark, into the bosom
of the earth.
But the eagerness of the princess was so great, that she could not
wait till the damsel brought her the basket, and she stretched forth
her arm towards it, and her arm was lengthened sixty ells, so that
she was able to take hold of the ark and draw it to land, and lift the
child out of the water.
No sooner had she touched the babe, than she was healed of the
boils which afflicted her, and the splendour of the face of the child
was like that of the sun.[469] She looked at it with wonder, and
admired its beauty. But her father’s stern law made her fear, and she
thought to return the child to the water, when he began to cry, for the
angel Gabriel had boxed his ears to make him weep, and thus excite
the compassion of the princess. Then Miriam, hid away among the
rushes, and little Aaron, aged three, hearing him cry, wept also.
The heart of the princess was stirred; and compassion, like that of a
mother for her babe, filled her heart. She felt for the infant yearning
love as though it were her own. “Truly,” said Bithia, “the Hebrews are
to be pitied, for it is no easy matter to part with a child, and to deliver
it over to death.”
Then, fearing that there would be no safety for the babe, if it were
brought into the palace, she called to an Egyptian woman who was
walking by the water, and bade her suckle the child. But the infant
would not take the breast from this woman, nor from any other
Egyptian woman that she summoned; and this the Almighty wrought
that the child might be restored to its own mother again.
Then Miriam, the sister, mingled with those who came up, and said
to Bithia, with sobs, “Noble lady! vain are all thine attempts to give
the child the breast from one of a different race. If thou wouldst have
a Hebrew woman, then let me fetch one, and the child will suck at
once.”[470]
This advice pleased Bithia, and she bade Miriam seek her out a
Hebrew mother.
With winged steps Miriam hastened home, and brought her mother,
Jochebed, to the princess. Then the babe readily took nourishment
from her, and ceased crying.
Astonished at this wonder, the king’s daughter said, but unawares,
the truth, for she spake to Jochebed, “Here is thy child; take and
nurse the child for me, and the wage shall be two pieces of silver a
day.”
Jochebed did what she was bidden, but better reward than all the
silver in Pharaoh’s house was the joy of having her son restored to
his mother’s breast.
The self-same day the soothsayers and star-gazers said to Pharaoh,
“The child of whom we spake to thee, that he should free Israel, hath
met his fate in the water.”
Therefore the cruel decree ordering the destruction of all male
infants was withdrawn, and the miraculous deliverance of Moses
became by this means the salvation of the whole generation. In
allusion to this, Moses said afterwards to the people when he would
restrain them (Numbers xi.): “Verily ye number six hundred thousand
men, and ye would all have perished in the river Nile, but I was
delivered from the water, and therefore ye are all alive as at this
day.”
After two years Jochebed weaned him, and brought him to the king’s
daughter. Bithia, charmed with the beauty and intelligence of the
child, took him into the palace, and named him Moses (he who is
drawn out of the water). Lo! a voice from heaven fell, “Daughter of
Pharaoh! because thou hast had compassion on this little child and
hast called him thy son, therefore do I call thee My daughter (Bithia).
The foundling that thou cherishest shall be called by the name thou
gavest him—Moses; and by none other name shall he be known,
wheresoever the fame of him spreads under the whole heaven.”
Now, in order that Moses might really pass for the child of Bithia, the
princess had feigned herself to be pregnant, and then to be confined;
and now Pharaoh regarded him as his true grandchild.
On account of his exceeding beauty, every one that saw him was
filled with admiration, and said, “Truly, this is a king’s son.” And when
he was taken abroad, the people forsook their work, and deserted
their shops, that they might see him. One day, when Moses was
three years old, Bithia led him by the hand into the presence of
Pharaoh, and the queen sat by the king, and all the princes of the
realm stood about him. Then Bithia presented the child to the king,
and said, “Oh, sire! this child of noble mien is not really my son; he
was given to me in wondrous fashion by the divine river Nile;
therefore have I brought him up as my own son, and destined him to
succeed thee on thy throne, since no child of my body has been
granted to me.”
With these words Bithia laid the boy in the king’s arms, and he
pressed him to his heart, and kissed him. Then, to gratify his
daughter, he took from his head the crown royal, and placed it upon
the temples of Moses. But the child eagerly caught at the crown, and
threw it on the ground, and then alighting from Pharaoh’s knee, he in
childish fashion danced round it, and finally trampled it under his
feet.[471]
The king and his nobles were dismayed. They thought that this
action augured evil to the king through the child that was before
them. Then Balaam, the son of Beor, lifted up his voice and said, “My
lord and king! dost thou not remember the interpretation of thy
dream, as thy servant interpreted it to thee? This child is of Hebrew
extraction, and is wiser and more cunning than befits his age. When
he is old he will take thy crown from off thy head, and will tread the
power of Egypt under his feet. Thus have his ancestors ever done.
Abraham defied Nimrod, and rent from him Canaan, a portion of his
kingdom. Isaac prevailed over the king of the Philistines. Jacob took
from his brother his birthright and blessing, and smote the Hivites
and their king Hamor. Joseph, the slave, became chief in this realm,
and gave the best of this land to his father and his brethren. And now
this child will take from thee the kingdom, and will enslave or destroy
thy people. There is no expedient for thee but to slay him, that Egypt
become not his prey.”
But Pharaoh said, “We will take other counsel, Balaam, before we
decide what shall be done with this child.”
Then some advised that he should be burnt with fire, and others that
he should be slain with the sword. But the angel Gabriel, in the form
of an old man, mingled with the councillors, and said, “Let not
innocent blood be shed. The child is too young to know what he is
doing. Prove whether he has any understanding and design, before
you sentence him. O king! let a bowl of live coals and a bowl of
precious stones be brought to the little one. If he takes the stones,
then he has understanding, and discerns between good and evil; but
if he thrusts his hands towards the burning coals, then he is innocent
of purpose and devoid of reason.”[472]
This advice pleased the king, and he gave orders that it should be as
the angel had recommended.
Now when the basins were brought in and offered to Moses, he
thrust out his hand towards the jewels. But Gabriel, who had made
himself invisible, caught his hand and directed it towards the red-hot
coals; and Moses burnt his fingers, and he put them into his mouth,
and burnt his lips and tongue; and therefore it is that Moses said, in
after days, “I am slow of lips and slow of tongue.”[473]
Pharaoh and his council were now convinced of the simplicity of
Moses, and no harm was done him. Then Bithia removed him, and
brought him up in her own part of the palace.
God was with him, and he increased in stature and beauty, and
Pharaoh’s heart was softened towards him. He went arrayed in
purple through the streets, as the son of Bithia, and a chaplet of
diamonds surrounded his brows, and he consorted only with princes.
When he was five years old, he was in size and knowledge as
advanced as a boy of twelve.
Masters were brought for him from all quarters, and he was
instructed in all the wisdom and learning of the Egyptians; and the
people looked upon him with hope as their future sovereign.[474]
3. THE YOUTH AND MARRIAGE OF MOSES.
Moses, as he grew older, distinguished himself from all other young

men of Egypt by the conquest which he acquired over himself and
his youthful passions and impetuous will. Although the life of a court
offered him every kind of gratification, yet he did not allow himself to
be attracted by its pleasures, or to regard as permanent what he
knew to be fleeting. Thus it fell out, that all his friends and
acquaintances wondered at him, and doubted whether he were not a
god appeared on earth. And, in truth, Moses did not live and act as
did others. What he thought, that he said, and what he promised,
that he fulfilled.
Moses had reached the summit of earthly greatness; acknowledged
as grandson to Pharaoh, and heir to the crown. But he trusted not in
the future which was thus offered to him, for he knew from
Jochebed, whom he frequently visited, what was his true people, and
who were his real parents. And the bond which attached him to his
own house and people was in his heart, and could not be broken.
Moses went daily to Goshen to see his relations; and he observed
how the Hebrews were oppressed, and groaned under their burdens.
And he asked wherefore the yoke was pressed so heavily on the
neck of these slaves. He was told of the advice of Balaam against
the people, and of the way in which Pharaoh had sought the
destruction of himself in his infancy. This information filled Moses
with indignation, and alienated his affections from Pharaoh, and filled
him with animosity towards Balaam.[475] But, as he was not in a
position to rescue his brethren, or to punish Balaam, he cried, “Alas!
I had rather die than continue to behold the affliction of my brethren.”
Then he took the necklace from off him, which indicated his princely
position, and sought to ease the burden of the Israelites. He took the
excessive loads from the women and old men, and laid them on the
young and strong; and thus he seemed to be fulfilling Pharaoh’s
intentions in getting the work of building sooner executed, whereas,
by making each labour according to his strength, their sufferings
were lightened. And he said to the Hebrews, “Be of good cheer, relief
is not so far off as you suppose—calm follows storm, blue sky
succeeds black clouds, sunshine comes after rain. The whole world
is full of change, and all is for an object.”
Nevertheless Moses himself desponded; he looked with hatred upon
Balaam, and lost all pleasure in the society of the Egyptians. Balaam
seeing that the young man was against him, and dreading his power,
escaped with his sons Jannes and Jambres to the court of Ethiopia.
The young Moses, however, grew in favour with the king, who laid
upon him the great office of introducing illustrious foreigners to the
royal presence.
But Moses kept ever before his eyes the aim of his life, to relieve his
people from their intolerable burdens. One day he presented himself
before the king and said, “Sire! I have a petition to make of thee.”
Pharaoh answered, “Say on, my son.”
Then said Moses, “O king! every labourer is given one day in seven
for rest, otherwise his work becomes languid and unprofitable. But
the children of Israel are given no day of rest, but they work from the
first day of the week to the last day, without cessation; therefore is
their work inferior, and it is not executed with that heartiness which
might be found, were they given one day in which to recruit their
strength.”
Pharaoh said, “Which day shall be given to them?”
Moses said, “Suffer them to rest on the seventh day.”
The king consented, and the people were given the Sabbath, on
which they ceased from their labours; therefore they rejoiced greatly,
and for a thousand years the last day of the week was called “The
gift of Moses.”[476]
As the command to destroy all the male children had been
withdrawn the day that Moses was cast into the Nile, the people had
multiplied greatly, and again the fears of the Egyptians were
aroused. Therefore the king published a new decree, with the object
of impeding the increase of the bondsmen.
He required the Egyptian task-masters to impose a tale of bricks on
every man, and if at evening the tale of bricks was not made up,
then, in place of the deficient bricks, even though only one brick was
short, they were to take the children of those who had not made up
their tale, and to build them into the wall in place of bricks.[477] Thus
upon one misery another was piled.
In order that this decree might be executed with greater certainty, ten
labourers were placed under one Hebrew overseer, and one
Egyptian task-master controlled the ten overseers. The duty of the
Hebrew overseers was to wake the ten men they were set over,
every morning before dawn, and bring them to their work. If the
Egyptian task-masters observed that one of the labourers was not at
his post, he went to the overseer, and bade him produce the man
immediately.
Now one of these overseers had a wife of the tribe of Dan, whose
name was Salome, daughter of Dibri. She was beautiful and faultless
in her body. The Egyptian task-master had observed her frequently,
and he loved her. Then, one day, he went early to the house of her
husband, and bade him arise, and go and call the ten labourers. So
the overseer rose, nothing doubting, and went forth, and then the
Egyptian entered and concealed himself in the house. But the
overseer, returning, found him, and drew him forth, and asked him
with what intent he had hidden himself there; and Moses drew nigh.
Now Moses was known to the Hebrews as merciful, and ready to
judge righteously their causes; so the man ran to Moses, and told
him that he had found the Egyptian task-master concealed in his
house.
And Moses knew for what intent the man had done thus, and his
anger was kindled, and he raised a spade to smite the man on the
head and kill him.
But whilst the spade was yet in his hand, before it fell, Moses said
within himself, “I am about to take a man’s life; how know I that he
will not repent? How know I that if I suffer him to live, he may beget
children who will do righteously and serve the Lord? Is it well that I
should slay this man?”
Then Moses’s eyes were opened, and he saw the throne of God,
and the angels that surrounded it, and God said to him, “It is well that
thou shouldst slay this Egyptian, and therefore have I called thee
hither. Know that he would never repent, nor would his children do
other than work evil, wert thou to give him his life.”
So Moses called on the name of the Most High and smote; but
before the spade touched the man, as the sound of the name of God
reached his ears, he fell and died.[478]
Then Moses looked on the Hebrews who had crowded round, and
he said to them, “God has declared that ye shall be as the sand of
the sea-shore. Now the sand falls and it is noiseless, and the foot of
man presses it, and it sounds not. Therefore understand that ye are
to be silent as is the sand of the sea-shore, and tell not of what I
have this day done.”
Now when the man of the Hebrews returned home, he drove out his
wife Salome, because he had found the Egyptian concealed in his
house, and he gave her a writing of divorcement, and sent her away.
Then the Hebrews talked among themselves at their work, and some
said he had done well, and others that he had done ill. There were at
their task two young men, brothers, Dathan and Abiram, the sons of
Eliab, of the tribe of Reuben, and they strove together on this
subject, and Dathan in anger lifted his hand, and would have smitten
Abiram. Then Moses came up and stayed him, and cried, “What
wickedness art thou doing, striking thy comrade? It beseems you not
to lay hands on each other.”
Boldly did Dathan answer: “Who made thee, beardless youth, a lord
and ruler over us? We know well that thou art not the son of the
king’s daughter, but of Jochebed. Wilt thou slay me as thou didst the
Egyptian yesterday?”
“Alas!” said Moses, “now I see that the evil words, and evil acts, and
evil thoughts of this people will fight against them, and frustrate the
loving-kindness of the Lord towards them.”
Then Dathan and Abiram went before Pharaoh, and told him that
Moses had slain an Egyptian task-master; and Pharaoh’s anger was
kindled against Moses, and he cried, “Enough of evil hath been
prophesied against thee, and I have not heeded it, and now thou
liftest thy hand against my servants!”
For he had, for long, been slowly turning against Moses, when he
saw that he walked not in the ways of the Egyptians, and that he
loved the king’s enemies, and hated the king’s friends. Then he
consulted his soothsayers and his councillors, and they gave him
advice that he should put Moses to death with the sword. Therefore
the young man, Moses, was brought forth, and he ascended the
scaffold, and the executioner stood over him with his sword, the like
of which was not in the whole world. And when the king gave the
word, the headsman smote. But the Lord turned the neck of Moses
into marble, and the sword bit not into it.
Instantly, before the second blow was dealt, the angel Michael took
from the executioner his sword and his outward semblance, and
gave to the headsman the semblance of Moses, and he smote at the
executioner, and took his head from off his shoulders. But Moses
fled away, and none observed him. And he went to the king of
Ethiopia.[479]
Now the king of Ethiopia, Kikannos (Candacus) by name, was
warring against his enemies; and when he left his capital city, Meroe,
at the head of a mighty army, he left Balaam and his two sons
regents during his absence.
Whilst the king was engaged in war, Balaam and his sons conspired
against the king, and they bewitched the people with their
enchantments, and led them from their allegiance, and persuaded
them to submit to Balaam as their king. And Balaam strengthened
the city on all sides. Sheba, or Meroe, was almost impregnable, as it
was surrounded by the Nile and the Astopus. On two sides Balaam
built walls, and on the third side, between the Nile and the city, he
dug countless canals, into which he let the water run. And on the
fourth side he assembled innumerable serpents. Thus he made the
city wholly impregnable.
When King Kikannos returned from the war, he saw that his capital
was fortified, and he wondered; but when he was refused admission,
he knew that there was treason.
One day he endeavoured to surmount the walls, but was repulsed
with great slaughter; and the next day he threw thirty pontoons
across the river, but when his soldiers reached the other side, they
were engulfed in the canals, of which the water was impelled with
foaming fury by great mill-wheels. On the third day he assaulted the
town on the fourth side, but his men were bitten by the serpents and
died. Then King Kikannos saw that the only hope of reducing the city
was by famine; so he invested it, that no provisions might be brought
into it.
Whilst he sat down before the capital, Moses took refuge in his
camp, and was treated by him with great honour and distinction.
As the siege protracted itself through nine years, Kikannos fell ill and
died.
Then the chief captains of his army assembled, and determined to
elect a king, who might carry on the siege with energy, and reduce
the city with speed, for they were weary of the long investment. So
they elected Moses to be their king, and they threw off their
garments and folded them, and made thereof a throne, and set
Moses thereon, and blew their trumpets, and cried “God save King
Moses!”[480]
And they gave him the widow of Kikannos to wife, and costly gifts of
gold and silver and precious stones were brought to him, but all
these he laid aside in the treasury. This took place 157 years after
Jacob and his sons came down into Egypt, when Moses was aged
twenty-seven years.
On the seventh day after his coronation came the captains and
officers before him, and besought of him counsel, how the city might
be taken. Then said Moses, “Nine years have ye invested it, and it is
not yet in your power. Follow my advice, and in nine days it shall be
yours.”
They said, “Speak, and we will obey.”
Then Moses gave this advice, “Make it known in the camp that all
the soldiers go into the woods, and bring me storks’ nests as many
as they can find.”
So they obeyed, and young storks innumerable were brought to him.
Then he said, “Keep them fasting till I give you word, and he who
gives to a stork food, though it were but a crumb of bread, or a grain
of corn, he shall be slain, and all that he hath shall become the king’s
property, and his house shall be made a dung-heap.”
So the storks were kept fasting. And on the third day the king said,
“Let the birds go.”
Then the storks flew into the air, and they spied the serpents on the
fourth side of the city, and they fell upon them, and the serpents fled,
and they were killed and eaten by the storks or ever they reached
their holes, and not a serpent remained. Then said Moses, “March
into the city and take it.”
And the army entered the city, and not one man fell of the king’s
army, but they slew all that opposed them.
Thus Moses had brought the Ethiopian army into possession of the
capital. The grateful people placed the crown upon his head, and the
queen of Kikannos gave him her hand with readiness. But Balaam
and his sons escaped, riding upon a cloud.
Moses reigned in wisdom and righteousness for forty years, and the
land prospered under his government, and all loved and honoured
him. Nevertheless, some thought that the son of their late king ought
to ascend the throne of his ancestors;—he was an infant when
Moses was crowned, but now that he was a man, a party of the
nobles desired to proclaim his right.
They prevailed upon the queen to speak; and when all the princes
and great men of the kingdom were assembled, she declared the
matter before all. “Men of Ethiopia,” said she, “it is known to you that
for forty years my husband has reigned in Sheba. Well do you know
that he has ruled in equity, and administered righteous judgment. But
know also, that his God is not our God, and that his faith is not our
faith. My son, Mena-Cham (Minakros) is of fitting age to succeed his
father; therefore it is my opinion that Moses should surrender to him
the throne.”
An assembly of the people was called, and as this advice of the
queen pleased them, they besought Moses to resign the crown to
the rightful heir. He consented, without hesitation, and, laden with
gifts and good wishes, he left the country and went into Midian.[481]
Moses was sixty-seven years old when he entered Midian. Reuel or
Jethro,[482] who had been a councillor of Pharaoh, had, as has been
already related, taken up his residence in Midian, where the people
had raised him to be High Priest and Prince over the whole tribe. But
Jethro after a while withdrew from the priesthood, for he believed in
the one True God, and abhorred the idols which the Midianites
worshipped. And when the people found that Jethro despised their
gods, and that he preached against their idolatry, they placed him
under the ban, that none might give him meat or drink, or serve him.
This troubled Jethro greatly, for all his shepherds forsook him, as he
was under the ban. Therefore it was, that his seven daughters were
constrained to lead and water the flocks.[483]
Moses arrived near a well and sat down to rest. Then he saw the
seven daughters of Jethro approach.
The maidens had gone early to the well, for they feared lest the
shepherds, taking advantage of their being placed under ban, should
molest them, and refuse to give their sheep water. They let down
their pitchers in turn, and with much trouble filled the trough. Then
the shepherds came up and drove them away, and led their sheep to
the trough the maidens had filled, and in rude jest they would have
thrown the damsels into the water, but Moses stood up and delivered
them, and rebuked the shepherds, and they were ashamed.
Then Moses let down his pitcher, and the water leaped up and
overflowed, and he filled the trough and gave the flocks of the seven
maidens to drink, and then he watered also the flocks of the
shepherds, lest there should be evil blood between them.
Now when the maidens came home, they related to their father all
that had taken place; and he said, “Where is the man that hath
shown kindness to you?—bring him to me.”
So Zipporah ran—she ran like a bird—and came to the well, and
bade Moses enter under their roof and eat of their table.
When Moses came to Raguel (Jethro), the old man asked him
whence he came, and Moses told him all the truth.
Then thought Jethro, “I am fallen under the displeasure of Midian,
and this man has been driven out of Egypt and out of Ethiopia; he
must be a dangerous man; he will embroil me with the men of this
land, and, if the king of Ethiopia or Pharaoh of Egypt hears that I
have harboured him, it will go ill with me.”
Therefore Raguel took Moses and bound him with chains, and threw
him into a dungeon, where he was given only scanty food; and soon
Jethro, whose thoughts were turned to reconciliation with the
Midianites, forgot him, and sent him no food. But Zipporah loved him,
and was grateful to him for the kindness he had showed her, in
saving her from the hands of the shepherds who would have dipped
her in the watering-trough, and every day she took him food and
drink, and in return was instructed by the prisoner in the law of the
Most High.[484]
Thus passed seven, or, as others say, ten years;[485] and all the while
the gentle and loving Zipporah ministered to his necessities.
The Midianites were reconciled again with Jethro, and restored him
to his former position; and his scruples about the worship of idols
abated, when he found that opposition to the established religion
interfered with his temporal interests.
Then, when all was again prosperous, many great men and princes
came to ask the hand of Zipporah his daughter, who was beautiful as
the morning star, and as the dove in the hole of the rock, and as the
narcissus by the water’s side. But Zipporah loved Moses alone; and
Jethro, unwilling to offend those who solicited her by refusing them,
as he could give his daughter to one only, took his staff, whereon
was written the name of God, the staff which was cut from the Tree
of Life, and which had belonged to Joseph, but which he had taken
with him from the palace of Pharaoh, and he planted it in his garden,
and said, “He who can pluck up this staff, he shall take my daughter
Zipporah.”
Then the strong chiefs of Edom and of Midian came and tried, but
they could not move the staff.
One day Zipporah went before her father, and reminded him of the
man whom he had cast into a dungeon so many years before. Jethro
was amazed, and he said, “I had forgotten him these seven years;
he must be dead; he has had no food.”
But Zipporah said meekly, “With God all things are possible.”
So Jethro went to the prison door and opened it, and Moses was
alive. Then he brought him forth, and cut his hair, and pared his
nails, and gave him a change of raiment, and set him in his garden,
and placed meat before him.
Now Moses, being once more in the fresh air, and under the blue
sky, and with the light of heaven shining upon him, prayed and gave
thanks to God; and seeing the staff, whereon was written the name
of the Most High, he went to it and took it away, and it followed his
hand.
When Jethro returned into the garden, lo! Moses had the staff of the
Tree of Life in his hand; then Jethro cried out, “This is a man called
of God to be a prince and a great man among the Hebrews, and to
be famous throughout the world.” And he gave him Zipporah, his
daughter, to be his wife.[486]
One day, as Moses was tending his flock in a barren place, he saw
that one of the lambs had left the flock and was escaping. The good
shepherd pursued it, but the lamb ran so much the faster, fled
through valley and over hill, till it reached a mountain stream; then it
halted and drank.
Moses now came up to it, and looked at it with troubled
countenance, and said,—
“My dear little friend! Then it was thirst which made thee run so far
and seem to fly from me; and I knew it not! Poor little creature, how
tired thou must be! How canst thou return so far to the flock?”

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Thermal Food Engineering Operations

1st Edition Nitin Kumar

Bioprocessing in Food Science

Series Editor: Anil Panghal, PhD

Wiley Global Headquarters

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Cover image: Wikimedia Commons and the editors

Printed in the USA

2 Microbial Inactivation with Heat Treatments 45

3.2.1.2 Steam Blanching 80

4.3.2 Effect of Thermal Treatments on Nutrients

5.7.2.1 Spray Angle 151

5.15 Conclusion and Perspectives 170

8.2.1 Working Principle of Adsorption Air Dryer 223

9.6.1 Effects on Food Color 249

10.6.1.1 Water Absorption Index (WAI)

11.3.2 Microwave Blanching 323

12.5.3 Low-Pressure Superheated Steam Drying with IR 368

14 Quality, Food Safety and Role of Technology in Food Industry 415

Thermal processing is a significant component of the undergraduate and

authorities of Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University,

*Corresponding author: amritapreetam92@gmail.com

involving drying, sterilization, evaporation, and other methods are com-

microwave electromagnetic radiation, or radio wave. The intensity of the

1.2 Novel Thermal Technologies: Current Status

So in such a situation, novel thermal techniques or with the combina-

Microwave: The most popular and extensive technology studied world-

Infrared heating: Proved by many researchers, Infrared heating (IRH)

Radiofrequency: Another thermal technology is Radiofrequency heating

Ohmic heating (OH): Compared to other technologies, ohmic heating has

1.2.1 Environmental Impact of Novel Thermal Technologies

which is called a blow-down. Inadequate blow-down may lead to the gath-

1.2.2 The Objective of Thermal Processing

1.2.3 Preservation Process

Moses, as he grew older, distinguished himself from all other young

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